1NuclearTechnologyforSD by IDIA

The Institute for Domestic and International Affairs

International Atomic Energy Agency Use of Nuclear Technology for Sustainable Development Rutgers Model United Nations 16-19 November 2006

Director: Twisha Mehta

ÂŠ 2006 Institute for Domestic & International Affairs, Inc. (IDIA) This document is solely for use in preparation for Rutgers Model United Nations 2006. Use for other purposes is not permitted without the express written consent of IDIA. For more information, please write us at idiainfo@idia.net

Introduction _________________________________________________________________ 1 Background _________________________________________________________________ 3 Nuclear Energy __________________________________________________________________________4 Chernobyl: Disaster as an International Learning Process _________________________________________5

Nuclear Energy Safety _____________________________________________________________ 7 Human Health____________________________________________________________________ 9 Agriculture _____________________________________________________________________ 10 Clean Water ____________________________________________________________________ 11 Energy _________________________________________________________________________ 11

Current Status ______________________________________________________________ 13 Milestones in Nuclear Technology __________________________________________________ 14 Costs___________________________________________________________________________ 15 International Cooperation _________________________________________________________ 16 International Laboratories ________________________________________________________ 18

Key Positions _______________________________________________________________ 19 Western Developed Countries ______________________________________________________ 19 Western Developing Countries _____________________________________________________ 21 Africa __________________________________________________________________________ 22 Asia____________________________________________________________________________ 23 Non-Government Organization Positions ____________________________________________ 24

Summary___________________________________________________________________ 27 Discussion Questions _________________________________________________________ 29 Works Cited ________________________________________________________________ 30 Works Referenced ___________________________________________________________ 33 Glossary of Terms ___________________________________________________________ 35 Appendix A: OECD NEA Membership___________________________________________ 36 Appendix B: Steps in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle _____________________________________ 36 Appendix C : Map of Nuclear Power Reactors_____________________________________ 37

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Introduction Nuclear technology offers a powerful tool to assist the development of Least Developed Countries (LDCs) by providing access to cost-effective and environmentally friendly technology and energy. One of the three focuses of the International Atomic Energy Agency includes promotion of nuclear science for member states to use in peaceful applications. Nuclear science has traditionally been used for peaceful purposes as an energy source mainly for the use of producing electricity. Through international cooperation and technological advancement, nuclear science has gone beyond the scope of being used strictly for energy and now influences a wide array of fields, including human health, agriculture, and environmental pollution reduction. While the initial costs of investing in nuclear energy and technology are substantial due to the nature of the materials required, states need to weigh the returns of nuclear science against the hazards in order to address the challenge of sustainable development, including “analyzing its characteristics in terms of economic, environmental and social impacts, both positive and negative, in order to assess to what extent and under which conditions nuclear [science] may contribute to meeting the goals.”1 Mohamed ElBaradei, the director general of the International Atomic Energy Agency attested, “human knowledge and human progress go hand in hand. knowledge expands, the potential for development grows.”2

Mohamed ElBaradei

Progress is not attainable without the assistance of new knowledge and technology. Development of a state is essential not only for the present, but also for the support of future generations. The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) released a report entitled Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report, which defines sustainable development as

OECD NEA, Nuclear Energy in a Sustainable Development Perspective (France: OECD Publications, 2000) 27. IAEA Department of Research and Isotopes and IAEA Division of Public Information, Building a Better Future: Contributions of Nuclear Science and Technology, ( Vienna: IAEA, 1998) Forward by Dr. Mohamed ElBaradei.

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“development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”3 Sustainable development requires a multidimensional approach to address the needs of the present as well as the future through economic, social, and environmental issues. The continual growth of both developed states and the third world “is not a fixed state of harmony, but rather a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development, and institutional change are made consistent with future as well as present needs.”4 Nuclear science consists of two primary sectors: energy and technology. Nuclear energy provides an alternative source of electricity to traditional fossil fuel energy processes.

Nuclear technology is a broad spectrum of applications of radioactive

materials, and is applied to a variety of applications from development of agrarian crop breeding techniques to human health. Both areas of nuclear science pose hazards despite potential benefits.

Nuclear technology used to aid in human health, environmental

protection, and water resource management can potentially release large amounts of radioactive material and subject ecosystems to radioactive overexposure. While nuclear technology is used to treat human illnesses such as cancer, exposure poses danger and in some cases, death.

Despite benefits of nuclear science, risks must be considered.

Nuclear materials required even for peaceful applications of nuclear energy are highly volatile and dangerous. Lack of proper precautions taken at nuclear power plants can induce horrific catastrophes as in the case of the 1986 Chernobyl accident in the Ukraine. Nuclear energy can potentially be used as a guise for states developing illegitimate nuclear weapons programs. A suspected example of such an effort can be seen in present day Iran, which has nuclear power plants that are under close scrutiny for deviating from their original intent by utilizing the plant to enrich uranium for weapon grade materials. Similarly, following the 1991 Gulf War, IAEA inspectors discovered a precursor for an 3

World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987) 8. 4 Ibid, 9.

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The misuse of nuclear power plants for military

purposes poses a threat to both international security and the ability to provide continual developmental support to states.

Background After the development of the atomic bomb during the Second World War, the United States refocused its nuclear research facilities in 1946 as an attempt to utilize this powerful nuclear technology for civilian purposes. After considerable research, scientists harnessed nuclear power through fission to produce nuclear energy that emitted significantly less carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The utility of nuclear energy plants proved to be a success, and the need for electricity in the United States increased through the decades.

Nuclear Fission: a nuclear reaction in which a massive nucleus splits into smaller nuclei with the simultaneous release of energy Nuclear Fusion: a nuclear reaction in which nuclei combine to form more massive nuclei with the simultaneous release of energy Source: wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn

In addition to energy derived from nuclear power, nuclear

technology also proved to have benefits that affected the environment, and human health. To ensure the proper utilization of nuclear energy on a global level, the International Atomic Energy Agency was established in 1957 by the United Nations as an â&#x20AC;&#x153;Atoms for Peaceâ&#x20AC;? organization. Its three main focuses regarding nuclear activities include safety and security, science and technology, and safeguards and verification. This multi-dimensional approach encompasses both the military and civilian aspects of nuclear activity. Article IV of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) discusses one of the most beneficial aspects of being a part of the international nuclear nonproliferation regime: use of nuclear science for peaceful purposes. Both non-nuclear weapon states (NNWS) and nuclear weapon states (NWS) are permitted to research and use nuclear science for peaceful applications. Equipment, materials and information relating to these applications may be shared with other member states, including NNWS, to promote scientific advancement, but not for military application. Article IV provides an incentive for NNWS to maintain IAEA membership because it offers clear advantages

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to states that are in developing areas of the world, as they can implement nuclear power technology without having to undergo much of the research and development typically necessary before these programs can be implemented.5 Collaboration among IAEA member states extends the scope of nuclear science for peaceful purposes, and promotes further cooperative research among them. Nuclear science expands horizons beyond applications as an energy source into all aspects of social and economic development.

Nuclear Energy Nuclear

energy

alternative to the traditional fossil fuel energy production methods used to generate electricity. Energy

dangerous

Nuclear

complicated

process,

but

and with

meticulous care, provides an efficient source of electricity.

The IAEA

collaborates with individual countries

Source: http://www.iaea.org/Publications/ Factsheets/English/sustaindev-e.pdf

to develop programs and initiatives to maximize the efficiency and benefits of nuclear energy. While energy comes in a variety of forms, it is essential for reliable energy sources to be safe, cost-efficient and environmentally friendly. In 1958, The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) established the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA), a specialized agency within its parent organization. Goals of the OECD involve achieving and sustaining a higher standard of living amongst member states, and improving the world economy. The OECD also strives to attain further economic development of both member and non-member states in addition to expanding world trade. Functioning within the context of this mission, the 5

International Atomic Energy Agency, Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, (IAEA: Vienna, 22 April, 1970, <http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Infcircs/Others/infcirc140.pdf > (accessed 1 February 2006).

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NEA aims to develop nuclear energy as a reliable, environmentally safe, and costeffective energy source. Since nuclear energy requires the use of nuclear materials, the NEA functions in collaboration with the IAEA’s international standards for nuclear activity and verification6.

Chernobyl: Disaster as an International Learning Process Despite environmental advantages of nuclear energy, safety concerns remain prevalent. Incidents such as the accident in Chernobyl, Ukraine, and the near accident at Three Mile Island in the United States demonstrate the horrific causalities resulting from the use of nuclear energy. Nuclear power plants pose safety hazards to surrounding Chernobyl Unit 4

communities and the environment. Twenty years after the nuclear plant melt down at Chernobyl, the environment and the populations in surrounding areas of Ukraine and Eastern Europe continue to feel the devastating after-effects of the accident.

Chernobyl

remains the most catastrophic event in the annals of nuclear history, and demonstrates the large scale, often interminable after shocks of a nuclear accident.

‘international nuclear safety regime’ became a direct result of the accident, drawing upon the development of internationally binding conventions, higher international safety standards, and a system of peer reviews.7 In the late hours of 25 April 1986, the Chernobyl nuclear power plant was performing maintenance of Unit 4 through a routine shut down. The plant managers sought to perform tests to determine whether the system could provide sufficient energy to operate the reactor cooling system and emergency equipment during the interim between the loss of electrical supply and the back up emergency power supply. While 6

OECD Nuclear Energy Agency, Nuclear Energy Programmes in OECD/NEA Countries, (France : OECD, 1995). IAEA, “How Safe is Nuclear Energy,” http://www.iaea.org/blog/Infolog/?page_id=23#a1 (accessed 25 April, 2006). 7

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the test did not intend to involve the nuclear part of the plant, a lack of communication and proper precautions with nuclear reactor personnel resulted in safety hazards. As a result of such uncoordinated actions, operators of the nuclear plant deviated from safety protocols and lost control of the reactor

Radioactive Decay: Radioactive decay is the set of various processes by which unstable atomic nuclei (nuclides) emit subatomic particles. Decay is said to occur in the parent nucleus and produce a daughter nucleus.

through operational errors. A sudden surge in power in the early morning hours of 26 April

Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decay

1986 provoked two explosions in the reactor, leading to a series of fires. The explosions

destroyed the core of Unit 4 and blew off the roof of the reactor, releasing radioactive materials.8 An uncontrollable graphite fire exacerbated the disaster by releasing an irreversible amount of radioactive particles in the form of gases, aerosols and fine particles.9 The meltdown of the nuclear plant in Chernobyl raised questions about the safety and precautions taken at nuclear power plants. The detriments resulting from the Chernobyl accident extended beyond the initial radioactive fallout around the explosion site.

High

radioactive

levels

registered across Europe as well as in the United States, Canada, and Japan.10

Incidents of Thyroid Cancer in Children and Adolescents Following Exposure to Radioactive Iodine as a Result of the Chernobyl Accident

Scientists confirmed that

the effects of this accident would remain for 300 years following the accident due to the radioactive decay of the contaminated areas.11 The scope of the accident extended

beyond

the

initial

Source: http://www.iaea.org/Publications/ Booklets/Chernobyl/chernobyl.pdf

catastrophe. Communities in close radius of the Chernobyl plant, despite evacuation, 8

Dr. Henri MĂŠtivier, Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impacts (France: OECD Publications, 2002) http://www.nea.fr/html/rp/reports/2003/nea3508-chernobyl.pdf , 10 (accessed 31 March, 2006). 9 Ibid, 11. 10 NEA, Press Kit: Chernobyl (France, NEA Press Room, 6 January, 2006), http://www.nea.fr/html/general/press/press-kits/chernobyl.html (accessed 31 March, 2006). 11 Dr. Henri MĂŠtivier, 11.

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faced many adverse health effects from the radiation. Extensive radiation exposure, such as that from the accident, is known to disrupt genetic processes of the human body, damaging and discontinuing natural cell functions, and it can lower white blood cell counts, human blood cells that are essential for basic autoimmune functions. Other adverse effects include increased cases of leukemia, thyroid cancer, and birth defects in newborns even generations after the accident. In addition to detrimental health concerns, the Chernobyl accident demonstrated the extent to which nuclear fall out can affect problems beyond health, as the radioactivity affected the environment as well. Surrounding soil displayed retention of radioactive materials from the fallout. Plants and in such soil contaminates food Radionuclides man-made or natural element that emits radiation and that may cause cancer after many years of exposure through drinking water. Source: www.cdphe.state.co.us/lr/Water/WaterDefinitions.htm

supplies

through

unacceptable

amounts of radionuclides, which are retained in digestive systems, and thus pose problems for entire

food chains. Contaminated products are transferred from crops and animal products, such as milk, to humans. Other environmental concerns involve the effects on forest ecosystems, which were easily disrupted by radioactive fallout. While this specific accident took place in the Ukraine, states throughout the world recognized that similar catastrophes could happen in any nuclear facilities. States came to recognize that reform was needed in nuclear power plant safety in order to utilize this science as a future energy source.12

Nuclear Energy Safety The OECD Nuclear Energy Agency recognizes that, “if nuclear energy is to play a role in sustainable development policies, the health and environmental impacts of nuclear facilities and transport of nuclear materials should remain below socially acceptable limits even in accidental cases.”13

12 13

Health and environmental risks persist despite

IAEA, “How Safe is Nuclear Energy?” OECD NEA, Nuclear Energy in a Sustainable Development Perspective, 39.

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progress in nuclear technology. After Chernobyl and the near accident at Three Mile Island in the United States, strict codes of operating conditions are intended to prevent exposure to high levels of radiation for nuclear power plant personnel and the surrounding community. In 1975, the IAEA developed the Nuclear Safety Standards (NUSS) code to “reduce the safety differences among member states.”14 Despite the Half-life: The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time required for half of a sample to undergo radioactive decay. Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-life

development of the NUSS, an agreement that enforces these safety standards on non-compliant states is not in effect.

Unlike the Nuclear

Proliferation Treaty, enforced by the IAEA through

inspections and safeguards, the NUSS does not have an international system of enforcement since it is a set codes for states to use as guidance. In the post-Chernobyl era, the IAEA, with support of a new ‘international nuclear safety regime,’ called for new and updated safety standards. Like the NUSS, these new standards are adopted on a voluntary basis rather than through internationally binding contracts.15 Nuclear energy programs, and other nuclear technology used for environmental and human health, generate high levels of nuclear waste. Such wastes produced from nuclear technologies can cause a problem since radioactive materials have very long halflives before the radioactive risk dissipates.

If nuclear technology is to assist in

sustainable development, feasible solutions require assurances that such wastes are not disposed of in oceans or LDCs, so that the future growth of both developing and developed states is not unnecessarily stunted.

Recent History Sustainable development is one of the most important of the UN Millennium Development Goals, which addresses social, political, and economic development. As a UN agency, the IAEA is actively involved in assisting in implementation of these programs by promoting the use of nuclear technology in areas of “nutrition, agriculture,

14 15

World Commission on Environment and Development, 185. IAEA, “How Safe is Nuclear Energy?”.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006 landmine detection, food safety, erosion and climate tracking, water resources (radioisotope hydrology and desalination), pollution control (e.g., nuclear techniques to reduce industrial stack emissions), and various industrial applications (such as weld

inspection).”16

These

nuclear

Millennium Development Goals All 191 United Nations Members States made a commitment to the MDGs in 2000, with an aim to achieve them by 2015. They are: • • • • • •

Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Achieve universal primary education Promote gender equality and empower women Reduce child mortality Improve maternal health Combat HIV and AIDS, malaria and other diseases Ensure environmental sustainability Develop a global partnership for development

technologies are being developed with

• •

increasing international cooperation and

Source: www.eu2005.gov.uk/servlet/Front

understanding of nuclear science, as researchers are ensuring that unintended consequences are minimized.

Human Health The World Health Organization (WHO) is concerned with “infectious diseases with global focus on reducing mortality rates from easily curable diseases.”17 The WHO recognizes the usefulness of research and development endorsed by the IAEA aimed at procuring cost-effective technology that can utilize radionuclide tracers to detect and identify diseases and drug-resistant pathogens.18

Initiatives concentrated on such

methods of disease reduction have benefited health care systems of participant countries by creating regional projects, including such countries as Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, all of which received assistance to develop national health care centers to treat cases using low-cost techniques in order to curb rampant malaria and tuberculosis infections.19 In addition to fighting infections, the IAEA contributes to investment in cancer therapy for LDCs, utilizing nuclear technology as a primary approach to treating malignant cancers. States including Angola, Haiti, Yemen and 16

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “IAEA Activities in Assisting Developing Countries to Implement Agenda 21: A Review (1993-2001),” <http://www.johannesburgsummit.org/html/documents/backgrounddocs/iaea%20report.pdf> (accessed 8 March, 2006). 17 IAEA, “Building Alliances,” http://www-naweb.iaea.org/pact/news/news-feb06.html (accessed 25 April, 2006). 18 Ibid. 19 Ibid, 3.

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Zambia are due to receive new nuclear technologies from the IAEA to address these diseases.20

Agriculture Sustainable development faces considerable obstacles in developing countries in the agricultural sector. Low crop yields cause insecurity and hinder development in other sectors, ranging from economic growth to political stability.

With appropriate

corrections in water resource distribution, effective and safe pest control, decrease in natural resource depletion, and improved crop breeding, states are able to provide economic stability and food security. The IAEA extends its reach to the land and agriculture sector by offering nuclear techniques to improve and develop new technologies. These innovations can efficiently and safely produce higher yields, protect the environment, and refine agricultural processes. To develop hearty crops, the IAEA assists in the breeding of new crop varieties by using mutation techniques with nuclear markers. These nuclear markers highlight certain genetic sequences that are desired to sustain crop production.21 Between 1993 and 2001, the IAEA invested USD $83 million towards 294 projects in association with over 500 institutions.22 In land and agriculture, the IAEA developed techniques to promote pest control, irrigation, crop production, use of altered water for farming, efforts at reducing land desertification, and to improve fertilization methods. In 2004, the IAEA provided agricultural assistance for ten countries in semiarid and arid regions to yield a crop that reduced the use of nitrogen fertilizer by 50 per cent through the application of isotopes and neutron moisture probes. This process also reduced the amount of water necessary to harvest the crops by 50 per cent while maintaining the quality and quantity of the crop yield.23 20

IAEA, A Silent Crisis: Cancer Treatment in Developing Countries, 12. IAEA, “Plant Breeding and Genetics” http://www-naweb.iaea.org/nafa/pbg/index.html (accessed 26 April, 2006). 22 United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “IAEA Activities in Assisting Developing Countries to Implement Agenda 21”, A Review. 23 International Atomic Energy Agency, “Annual Report 2004,” July 2004, < http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Reports/Anrep2004/index.html> (accessed 22 March, 2006) Food and Agriculture. 21

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The IAEA facilitates economic development by providing a forum for information exchange between countries utilizing nuclear technology for agricultural advances. Biological mutations resulting from irradiation provide alternative crops that are more resistant to drought conditions. The IAEA stated in its 2004 annual report that, “genetic variability was induced in sorghum by gamma irradiation, and ten mutant lines showing promise for drought tolerance were identified as a result of cooperation between India and Indonesia.” 24

Clean Water Beyond agricultural concerns, the IAEA is also involved with management of water resources, and the availability of fresh water is essential for sustainable development. Fresh water yields productive communities by decreasing mortality rates from water-borne diseases, and by providing easy access for the most essential and basic human necessity. With healthier communities, states are able to focus on productive efficiency as they participate in the global marketplace. In 1992, the UN Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro recognized water as an extremely vulnerable resource. Mismanagement and damage of water supplies can stunt the development and progress of future generations. Using isotope hydrology technology, the IAEA has invested more than USD $30 million to develop the peaceful applications of nuclear techniques to manage and provide fresh water. Isotopic hydrology uses data of isotopes naturally found in water to monitor the water cycle, providing states with valuable data in finding correlation between climate and environmental changes.25

Maintaining data obtained through

isotopic hydrology is an effective tool to address the human impact upon water resources and to effectively manage and potentially rehabilitate depleting water resources.

Energy Oil, coal, and gas account for two thirds of all energy consumed in the global economy. While these fuels are more popular than nuclear energy, they emit significant 24

Ibid, Food and Agriculture. IAEA, “Water Resources Program” http://www-naweb.iaea.org/na/water-resources.html (accessed, 25 April, 2006). 25

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amounts of green house gasses linked to global warming. With the expectation of the world energy demand to rise at an exponential rate in the next fifty years, there is a significant need for clean and efficient energy that nurtures social and economic development.26

Nuclear energy proves to be more environmentally friendly than

traditional fossil fuel energy chains due to a significantly smaller proportion of waste byproducts. The 1997 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) called for a reduction in greenhouse gasses (GHG) by 2012; yet CO2 emissions levels have risen considerably since 1990.

Analyses of

energy generating chains determined nuclear energy to be the lowest carbon intensive

Global Warming: the hypothesis that Earth's atmosphere is warming because of the release of "greenhouse gases," such as carbon dioxide. These gases are released into the air from burning gas, oil, coal, wood and other resources which then holds heat in an action similar to the walls of a greenhouse. Source: www.pbs.org/strangedays/glossary/G.html

generation technology, and therefore, of the energy production options, the least harmful to the environment. In comparison to the 105-366 grams of GHG per kilowatt-hour (kWH) produced by traditional fossil fuel energy chains, nuclear energy produces only 2.5-2.7 grams of this pollutant. According to a 2002 report, the Nuclear Energy Agency reported, “assuming that the nuclear units in operation have substituted for modern fossilfuelled power plants, nuclear energy today is reducing CO2 emissions from the energy sector by more than eight per cent world-wide (for the electricity sector, the reduction is about seventeen per cent).”27 Despite the environmental benefits of nuclear energy, operations of nuclear power plants need to be in compliance with the IAEA safeguards and inspections to ensure the proper use of nuclear materials for peaceful purposes. According to the Brundtland report, “Cooperation is needed also among suppliers and buyers of civilian nuclear facilities and materials and the IAEA in order to provide credible safeguards against the

OECD, Policy Brief: Nuclear Energy Today (Paris, France: OECD Publications, March 2005), http://www.nea.fr/html/pub/policybrief-mars2005.pdf , 1-2 (accessed 31 March, 2006). 27 OECD, Nuclear Energy and the Kyoto Protocol (Paris, France: OECD Publications, 2002), http://www.nea.fr/html/add/reports/2002/nea3808-kyoto.pdf , 7 (accessed 31 March, 2006).

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diversion of civilian reactor programs to military purposes, especially in countries that do not open all their nuclear programs to IAEA inspection.”28

Current Status According to 2005 data, the IAEA reports that nuclear energy accounts for 16 per cent of the world’s energy supply.29 Forecasting the need for increasing energy demands of future generations, production of nuclear energy is expected to grow in the coming decades. With rising prices and limited reserves of fossil fuel, nuclear energy provides an alternative source of energy with “an ample resource base.”30

OECD-NEA figures

estimate current reserves of nuclear materials are large enough to support nuclear fuel production for decades. Additionally, an extended resource base of nuclear energy due to the ability to reprocess and recycle nuclear waste materials offers a

Estimated Uses of Nuclear Energy in Developing, Reforming, and Industrialized States

compelling opportunity to preserve natural resources of the earth.31 Still, civilian nuclear energy initiatives have the capability of being transformed into military nuclear weapons programs. instances

occurred

with

Such the

discovery of the clandestine Iraqi nuclear weapons program after the

Source : http://www.nea.fr/html/pub/newsletter/ 2001/sustainable-energy19-1.pdf

1991 Gulf War, and more recently, both North Korea and Iran have been suspected of not using civilian nuclear facilities to enrich uranium for the development of military purposes.

World Commission on Environment and Development, 183. IAEA, “How Safe is Nuclear Energy?”. 30 OECD NEA, Nuclear Energy in a Sustainable Development Perspective, 8. 31 Ibid, 8. 29

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Milestones in Nuclear Technology Cocoa trees are just below gold in Ghana since it is the most profitable agricultural product, and these trees provide a livelihood for 3.2 million Ghanaians. Cultivation of cocoa beans and the production of chocolate is the means of livelihood for many Ghanaians, but the crippling Cocoa Swollen Shoot Virus (CSSV) has destroyed two hundred million cocoa trees since 1950. With the combined efforts of the IAEA and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Ghana adopted methods to breed virus-resistant crops, to help maintain the national economy. These methods utilize mutation breeding techniques that use gamma radiation to develop new crop varieties and nuclear isotopic markers to identify certain desired traits in the genomic sequence. After gamma radiation is employed to produce mutant varieties of a particular cocoa crop, traits displaying resistance to the CSSV are highlighted. The IAEA provides technology to bombard Cocoa buds with gamma radiation under controlled conditions at the Ghana Atomic Energy Agency, resulting in new disease-resistant plant mutations. This process, given to the Ghana Atomic Energy Agency through programs sponsored by the IAEA, allowed it to bypass ten years of conventional breeding processes susceptible to infections of CSSV. Since cocoa farming is Ghana’s second largest export after gold, this industry is essential to economic development.32

Despite its post-colonial status, Ghana has become a

prosperous developing economy through the assistance of agencies such as the IAEA, which provides modern scientific technologies to support its agricultural and environmental sectors. Nuclear technologies also benefited the African coastal regions of South Africa, Namibia, and Angola, after a 2002 algae bloom devastated the marine ecosystem near Elands Bay in South Africa and deposited a thousand tons of lobsters onto the shore. The economic costs of such biological algae population explosions result in layoffs, destruction to the seafood industry, and public health emergencies. The costs have been estimated to be between USD $5 and $10 million US Dollars per outbreak. The IAEA 32

IAEA, “Saving the Source of Chocolate: Ghana Targets Killer Virus,” http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Features/2006/Ghana/cocoa.html (accessed 1 April, 2006).

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has introduced the use of nuclear science costing USD $366,000 in equipment, training, and materials to address this issue. Utilizing nuclear technology to detect toxicity in marine ecosystems provides a warning system to thwart explosions in deadly algae populations. These nuclear techniques are more helpful than traditional methods of testing for algae toxicity, such as injecting mice with suspected toxin, which are more inaccurate.33 The use of nuclear science to detect algae blooms protects coastal towns that rely heavily on marine ecosystems for livelihoods, and provides a means for sustainable development for current and future generations of costal areas.

Costs The International Atomic Energy Agency is actively involved in disseminating nuclear technology for socio-economic development.

Within the Agency itself, the

Department for Technical Cooperation is solely responsible for promoting and sharing nuclear technology for peaceful purposes with the global community, and the IAEA contributes USD $70 million worth of equipment, services and training to states each year.34 As development is critical to the survival of states throughout the world, the Department of Technical Cooperation aids in establishing sustainable technology by providing necessary materials and skills to address and resolve concerns of IAEA member states, and uses nuclear science to contribute to energy production, land and agriculture maintenance, water resources, and human health. According to the 2004 report of the Department for Technical Cooperation, programs of the IAEA benefited one hundred fourteen countries, with a budget of USD $73.3, funded by contributions of member states.

States that benefit from nuclear

projects do not receive them for free, and instead provide proportional contributions to the costs of undertaking them. In Europe, the Czech Republic contributed USD $1.5 million to the purchase of a linear accelerator used for nuclear research. In addition to

IAEA, “IAEA Teams Up with African Countries in Fight Against Algal Blooms,” http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Features/IaeaWssd/algal_bloom.shtml (accessed 1 April, 2006). 34 IAEA, “About Technical Cooperation,” http://www-tc.iaea.org/tcweb/abouttc/default.asp (accessed 25 April, 2006).

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contributions, the IAEA balances budgets with government cost sharing programs.35 States such as Latvia and Croatia consistently contributed to individual state projects through government cost sharing.

Governments have also contributed to safety

precautions by taking up costs of extra-budgetary contributions to purchase safety equipment, as in the case of Pakistan, which purchased USD $400,000 worth of equipment. Iran also contributed USD $1.5 million in government cost sharing projects three Technical Cooperation projects within its borders.36

Perhaps the most important

cost sharing associated with the implementation of nuclear technological is intangible, resulting from the knowledge gained from the consistent development and troubleshooting of new system.

International Cooperation The research and development of nuclear technology addresses a variety of scientific issues.

While nuclear technology is not a likely solution for biological

concerns, it contributes to addressing global dilemmas such as the avian flu virus, water management, and environmental protection.

The outbreak of the avian flu virus

threatened livestock supplies and farmers faced significant economic losses from the biological disaster.

The IAEA, in collaboration with the Food and Agriculture

Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, sought to address the health and economic impacts caused by this influenza pathogen, and in 2006 held consultative meetings on developing technologies that could rapidly detect emerging diseases in their earliest stages. These meetings were developed in concert with the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), and resulted in a joint IAEA/FAO training course to detect emerging diseases. Current detection methods are effective, but can also be prohibitively time-consuming, and in the event of rapidly spreading diseases would be useless. The IAEA developed detection technologies that utilize an â&#x20AC;&#x153;alternative way to detect and characterize the influenza virus in pathological 35

IAEA, Technical Cooperation Report for 2004, ( Vienna, Austria: IAEA, July 2005), http://www.iaea.org/About/Policy/GC/GC49/Documents/gc49inf-2.pdf , 8-9 (accessed 1 April, 2006). 36 Ibid, 8-9.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006 Ribonucleic Acid (RNA): a long linear polymer of nucleotides found in the nucleus but mainly in the cytoplasm of a cell where it is associated with microsomes; it transmits genetic information from DNA to the cytoplasm and controls certain chemical processes in the cell Source: wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn

samples through the detection of specific RNA by nucleic acid amplification techniques.”37 In these techniques scientists use fluorescent or isotopic markers to determine the RNA sequences of the suspect

virus

strains.

This

method

takes

approximately between one to two days, an excellent warning system in supplement to

traditional detection methods for pathogenic outbreaks. The World Health Organization reports that there are eleven million people diagnosed with cancer each year, and in 2003, the organization predicted that this rate would increase to nearly 16 million each year. The adverse effects of cancer cause 12.5 per cent of deaths worldwide.38 The increase in the number of cancer cases in the developing world has made clear necessity for cost-effective treatment methods to prevent and care for cancer sufferers. Cancer therapy utilizes radiation and nuclear medicine in various treatment methods, thus involving the IAEA.

Out of all international

organizations, the IAEA remains the only organization to have a ‘specific mandate’ to improve human health with nuclear science, and thus established the Programme of Action for Cancer Therapy (PACT) designed to address the

Radiotherapy: Radiation therapy (or radiotherapy) is the medical use of ionizing radiation as part of cancer treatment to control malignant cells (not to be confused with radiology, the use of radiation in medical imaging and diagnosis). Although radiotherapy is often used as part of curative therapy, it is occasionally used as a palliative treatment, where cure is not possible and the aim is for symptomatic relief. Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiotherapy

issues of radiotherapy treatment to treat tumors formed in the skin, tongue, larynx, brain, breast, or uterine cervix.39

The uses of

radiotherapy applications are both internal and external. Internal applications attack cancer cells through implantations of radioactive material into the cancer site, and are common for treating tongue, prostate, and cervical cancers. The external application of 37

IAEA, “IAEA Plans Expert Meeting and Training Course on Rapid Detection of the Bird Flu Virus”, IAEA, http://www-naweb.iaea.org/nafa/aph/bird-flu-meeting.html (accessed 1 April, 2006). 38 World Health Organization, “Cancer,” http://www.who.int/cancer/en/ (accessed 1 April, 2006). 39 IAEA, A Silent Crisis: Cancer Treatment in Developing Countries ( Austria: IAEA, 2003) 10.

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radiotherapy utilizes machines to beam photons or electrons to the cancer site.40 Partnering with the World Health Organization and the International Agency for Research in Cancer (IARC), PACT is a comprehensive effort to address all aspects of cancer health and treatment, and assists in treating cancer by providing a variety of programs ranging from transforming investments into radiotherapy programs, training professionals, creating individual cooperation agreements with state governments, and implementing radiotherapy protection, therapy, and safety.

International Laboratories Three laboratories contribute to the IAEA by conducting research and furthering applications of nuclear science, including the Seibersdorf Laboratories in Austria, the Marine Environment Laboratory in Monaco, and the Isotope Hydrology Laboratory at the IAEA headquarters in Vienna. The Seibersdorf Laboratories were established to assist the IAEAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Department of Nuclear Science and Applications by researching and developing technologies for its projects. The Isotope Hydrology Laboratories at the IAEA headquarters focus on the use of nuclear technology to measure CFCs in air and water samples. These laboratories focus on providing high quality data for member states for research and other environmental purposes. The Marine Environment Laboratory in Monaco (IAEA-MEL) remains unique because it is the only marine laboratory in the entire UN system, and focuses on research in marine radioactivity and efforts to promote nuclear and isotopic techniques to marine science. Due to the unique nature of the laboratory, the IAEA-MEL cooperates with other UN agencies, and seeks to transfer information from industrial developed countries to developing countries to raise awareness on environmental consequences of human activities in the marine environment. Monaco, host and partner to the laboratory, is committed to the mission of maintaining environmental responsibility while utilizing nuclear energy, as is the IAEA-MEL. The laboratory focuses on the environmental aspects and consequences of nuclear energy, and seeks to understand the proper 40

Ibid, 10.

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precautions to take to prevent environmental damage. The scientists that work in the laboratory develop techniques for analytical quality control services for both radioactive and non-radioactive pollutants in the oceans.41 In addition, the IAEA-MEL cooperates with other UN agencies to develop programs on the sustainable development of the ocean. By monitoring and creating radio-ecological databases, the IAEA-MEL is able to predict and model radio nucleotide pathways in marine and human food chains.

Key Positions Western Developed Countries The United States possesses the largest number of nuclear energy production facilities of all IAEA member states, with 103 operating thirty-one states, and nuclear energy accounts for 20 per cent of electricity within the United States.42 Since 1979, the United States has not commissioned the development of new nuclear energy facility due to safety concerns after the near catastrophe at Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania. A near meltdown at the nuclear energy plant spurred concerns regarding the costs and benefits of maintaining such plants given the dangerous implications of disasters with improper precautions and maintenance. In light of rising oil and natural gas prices, President George W. Bush proposed in his 2006 State of the Union address that the United States needs to find an alternative source of energy due to dependency on imported oil and natural gas resources. According to Bush, “By applying the talent and technology of America, this country can dramatically improve our environment, move beyond a petroleum-based economy and make our dependence on Middle East oil a thing of the past.”43 This assertion implies the expenses necessary to procure expensive nuclear power equipment, to ensure the safety of nuclear power plants from terrorism, and to

IAEA, “International Atomic Energy Agency Marine Environment Laboratory Monaco,” http://wwwnaweb.iaea.org/naml/ (accessed 1 April, 2006). 42 Jennifer Weeks, (2006, March 9), Nuclear energy, The CQ researcher, 16, 217-240, retrieved April 5, 2006, from http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/cqresrre2006031000. Document ID: cqresrre2006031000 43 Ibid.

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transition American power production to environmentally friendly energy to meet increasing demands within the United States. In its foreign policy towards Least Developed Countries, the United States has expressed concern regarding the behavior and actions of states such as Iraq and Iran, which have not been in compliance with the terms of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. In 2006, the United States condemned Iran for removing IAEA inspection seals placed on nuclear energy plants and voiced consternation over the use of the Iranian nuclear energy program for weapons development. In March 2006, President Bush encouraged the development of nuclear energy programs within the state in India, despite the fact that India is not a signatory of the NPT, and is therefore not subject to IAEA inspections or regulations. Moreover, India is widely considered to be in pursuit of nuclear weapons technology, and has threatened their use against neighboring Pakistan. European states have mixed attitudes regarding nuclear energy. Over the years, reliance on nuclear power plants has decreased or has been eliminated in certain European states due to public concerns over safety. A survey taken in February 1997 by the European Commission compiled public political views on nuclear energy. From 1993 until 1997, Finland, United Kingdom, and Sweden displayed belief in the necessity of nuclear energy to sustain state electricity requirements and provide for future needs.44 In Italy and Belgium, surveys of citizens displayed decreasing support for nuclear energy as an alternative electricity source. Conversely, survey results of citizens of Austria, Greece, Denmark and Ireland stated that risks posed by nuclear power plants were unacceptable.45 Despite differences in public opinions in regards to nuclear science, Europe has a significant concentration of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s nuclear power plants. Many European states are also a part of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, an organization that in its membership accounts for 80 per cent of international nuclear 44

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Future of Nuclear Energy (Massachusetts: MIT, 2003) 167, http://web.mit.edu/nuclearpower/ (accessed 24, April 2006). 45 Ibid, 167.

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capacity.46 Member states of the OECD-NEA consist of developed countries, of which the United States out-produces even the second largest nuclear energy producer, France, by two times. In France and Belgium, nuclear energy accounts for 50 per cent or more of electric capacity, while in Sweden and Ukraine it accounts for 40 per cent.47 Out of the world’s top ten nuclear energy producers, six states are members of the OECD-NEA. Despite not being a member of OECD-NEA, Ukraine continues to utilize nuclear energy as a primary source of electricity despite being home to the failed Chernobyl reactor.

Western Developing Countries The coastal seafood industry of Chile has been susceptible to devastation from a naturally occurring explosion in algae populations, which release toxins that contaminate seafood, rendering it useless for sale. Even after a bloom, the repercussions remain for many years.

To detect and monitor algae populations effectively, the IAEA has

developed an accurate detection method of algal toxicity in suspected seafood through a process called a Receptor Binding Assay (RBA). Instead of using live mice injected with suspected toxins found in seafood, the RBA technique is a cost-effective alternative, and was developed at the IAEA’s Seibersdorf Laboratories in Vienna. The Agency, through the Department of Technical Cooperation, has collaborated with Chile, the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, China, Malaysia, Thailand, Pakistan, South Africa, Namibia, Angola, the United Kingdom, and the United States to develop a global standard in verifying toxicity levels through the RBA technique in seafood to prevent contaminated food sources from being distributed to human populations.48 Countries in Latin America and South America have greatly benefited from the IAEA’s nuclear technologies. In Latin America, Chile, Mexico, Brazil, and Cuba all took advantage of nuclear technology to develop domestic nutrition programs.

The

Department of Technical Cooperation, in conjunction with state governments in Latin

OECD NEA, Nuclear Energy in a Sustainable Development Perspective, 27. IAEA, “How Safe is Nuclear Energy?”. 48 IAEA, “Chile Casts Off Toxic Tides,” http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Features/AlgalBloom/toxictides.html (accessed 1 April, 2006). 47

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America, utilized nuclear isotopes and nuclear analytic techniques to determine food nutrition and subsequently established nutrition programs for schools and communities, allowing these states to monitor and implement campaigns to fight malnutrition in respective populations.49

Africa Presently, South Africa is the only African state with a nuclear power plant. With a majority of nuclear power plants distributed across North America, Europe, and few scattered in Asia, African states desperately need access to nuclear energy to meet their development needs.

An IAEA bulletin provided a correlation between energy and

poverty, which suggested that four out of five people living in rural areas are without electricity.

The need for energy will likely change in the next thirty years due to

increasing populations and an increase in development.50 The IAEA also cited the lack of electricity as a cause of poverty since industrialization can only occur with sufficient energy resources. In most developing states, reliance on traditional fossil fuels prevents progress and transformation into functional industrial economies. The IAEA provides support to African states by addressing environmental, human health, and water management concerns.

The IAEA department of Technical

Cooperation has a set of regional projects that apply nuclear technology in addressing the needs of African states in the process of climbing out of poverty, under an intergovernmental agreement developed by the IAEA called The African Regional Cooperative Agreement for Research Development and Training related to Nuclear Science and Technology (AFRA). While not all IAEA member states in Africa are members of AFRA, this regional agreement of twenty-nine states promotes the application and development of nuclear technology in Africa.51 IAEA involvement with 49

L. Wedekind, “Healthier Lives in Latin America: Nutrition Programmes Gain Edge Through IAEA Support,” IAEA, http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/News/2001/08312001_news01.shtml (accessed 1 April, 2006). 50 IAEA, “Energy and Poverty,” http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Magazines/Bulletin/Bull442/article5.pdf, 29, 2003 (accessed 24 April, 2006). 51 The African Regional Cooperative Agreement for Research Development and Training related to Nuclear Science and Technology, “About AFRA,” http://www.afra-iaea.org/ (accessed 25 April, 2006).

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assistance

nuclear

23 AFRA Member States

related projects and technologies, and AFRA membership addresses socio-economic issues of member states, including poverty, human health issues, radiation safety, and crop production.52 Botswana joined the IAEA in 2002, and since joining has benefited under the articles of the NPT that allow states to share and use nuclear science for peaceful purposes.

Source: http://www.afra-iaea.org/

With the assistance of the IAEA, Botswana integrated the Sterile Insect

Technique into a national program to eliminate trypanosomosis, a deadly disease affecting both humans and livestock.53 Botswana enjoys benefits of IAEA knowledge in treating exposure to radioactive materials. The state utilizes nuclear gauges to assist in its diamond mining process. Mineral, construction, and processing industries in Botswana expose workers to radioactivity, however with IAEA assistance, Botswana has effectively established systems to monitor and treat those who work in dangerous conditions.54

Asia A 2004 press release from the IAEA informed that twenty-two of the last thirtyone nuclear power plants have been built in Asia.55 With the world’s largest, and fastest growing population, and with economic expansion with limited natural resources, nuclear 52

Ibid. IAEA, “On the Frontier: Botswana,” http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Magazines/Bulletin/Bull472/htmls/rad_pro/botswana.html (accessed 24, April 2006). 54 Ibid. 55 IAEA, “Nuclear Power’s Changing Future,” http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/PressReleases/2004/prn200405.html (accessed 1 April, 2006). 53

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science is essential to aid in sustainable development throughout the continent. Nuclear energy has become increasingly important in Asia. As one of the fastest developing states in the world, China utilizes nuclear technology to address the needs of its increasing population, and has resulted in the construction of five nuclear power plants by the end of 2002. Despite this growth in nuclear power, however, China also bring a new coal power plant on line each week, and this trend is expected to continue at least for the foreseeable future. With regard to the potential hazards of nuclear accidents from power plants, Chinese plants have not breached safety precautions or reported accidents in terms of radiation and environmental pollution since 2002, however China is notorious for not adequately reporting accidents, as can be seen through their history regarding coal mine explosions. Traditional energy byproducts release large amounts of green house gasses that can be dangerous to the environment making nuclear energy in China a successful alternative for providing a clean supplemental energy source. The Asian economy is generally an export economy, as demonstrated by China, India, Japan, and Vietnam, and nuclear technologies currently assist with agricultural development. Using radiation mutation, crops are genetically altered to acquire stronger traits, and resulting harvests have produced grains, rice, and cotton that are heartier and disease resistant. In China alone, 12 per cent of land grows crops that are mutated with radiation to produce larger quantities of wheat, cotton, rice, and corn.56 With heavy reliance on agricultural exports, Asian states face a 40 per cent loss on harvests due to mold, rodents, insects, and bacteria, and with irradiation technology, agricultural products can be better preserved.57

Non-Government Organization Positions Non-governmental organizations are essential in the nuclear science sector. The World Nuclear Association (WNA) endorses nuclear energy as a sustainable energy source for future generations. Due to a rapidly increasing global human population from 56

IAEA-RCA, â&#x20AC;&#x153;How Nuclear Technologies Contribute to Solving Problems and RCA Achievements,â&#x20AC;? http://www.rcaro.org/board/view.php?board=rca_success (accessed 25 April, 2006). 57 Ibid.

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six to nine billion in the next fifty years, the WNA believes that in order “to reconcile global human need and environmental preservation, our world needs nuclear power.”58 In light of the growing needs of developing countries, the World Nuclear Association is concerned with the nuclear energy fuel cycle process. The organization also endeavors to provide accurate information to governments, media, and the public about the use of nuclear energy and technology as a safe, environmentally friendly, and economically efficient source of energy.59 To supplement international cooperation, the World Nuclear Association developed the World Nuclear University (WNU) in 2003, an international forum of scientific institutions to promote nuclear ethics in all aspects of nuclear technology and energy. Institutions participating in the WNU are supported by the IAEA and the NEA, and cooperation at an international level regarding the development of standards related to processes in the nuclear fuel cycle provides reassuring information that nuclear technology will be valuable for future generations.60 The International Rivers Network (IRN), a U.S.-based non-government organization, focuses primarily on researching, educating, and advocating for environmental issues including developing energy solutions for a “just and sustainable world.”61 The IRN suggests that, “combating climate change is primarily the responsibility of the industrialized nations, which have a much larger environmental footprint. The per capita use of energy by poor countries is only about five per cent of the modern energy services consumed by the world's wealthiest countries.”62 The Nuclear Age Peace Foundation (NAPF), a well known NGO in the nuclear realm, closely aligns its goals with those of the IAEA and other actors in the nuclear nonproliferation arena. The organization does not, however, advocate nuclear energy as a 58

World Nuclear Association, Homepage, http://www.world-nuclear.org/ (accessed 24, April, 2006). World Nuclear Association, “About the World Nuclear Association,” Objectives, http://www.worldnuclear.org/aboutwna/index.htm (accessed 21 April, 2006). 60 World Nuclear Association, “WNU Prospectus,” http://www.world-nuclearuniversity.org/html/wnu_prospectus/index.htm (accessed 21 April, 2006). 61 International Rivers Network, “About International Rivers Network,” http://www.irn.org/basics/ard/index.php?id=/basics/about.html, (accessed 24, April 2006) Mission. 62 Emad Mekay, “World Bank Climate Plan Looks to South,” http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=32872 (accessed 21 April, 2006). 59

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reliable alternative energy source. Nuclear fission produces plutonium as a man-made byproduct, which can then be used for either of the two purposes: to fuel nuclear weapons or nuclear power plants.

The NAPF provides that in 2000, civilian nuclear plants

produced 620,000 pounds of weapons grade plutonium, and further points out that a nuclear bomb only requires eighteen pounds of weapons grade plutonium.63 With the ability of states to mask the true purposes of nuclear power plants to reprocess plutonium from spent fuel, broad-scale encouragement of developing states to develop nuclear power could be dangerous. The NAPF recognizes the difficult task of the IAEA to monitor activities of all member states and their nuclear energy programs, but is weary of states such as Iraq that used nuclear power plants as a guise to conceal nuclear weapons programs. In addition to the initial dangers of nuclear energy, the Nuclear Age Peace Foundation warns against the detrimental affects of nuclear energy on the environment. Mining uranium produces radioactive isotopes that pose an environmental threat to ecosystems in surrounding areas. Additionally, nuclear waste from the nuclear fuel cycle requires waste deposits which pose a health hazard to humans and the environment. Since nuclear waste is radioactive, it remains dangerous for long periods of time due to its half-life.64

Leslie Lai and Kristin Morrison, “Nuclear Energy Fact Sheet,” http://www.wagingpeace.org/menu/issues/nuclearenergy-&-waste/start/fact-sheet_ne&w.htm, (accessed 24 April, 2006). 64 Ibid, How it doesn’t work- Risks and Dangers of Nuclear Energy.

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Summary Nuclear science has numerous benefits for member states of the IAEA. While benefits have proven to be crucial in cases of human health, environmental protection, hydrology, and agriculture, peaceful applications of nuclear science also have drawbacks, including potential safety hazards for personnel as well as surrounding communities. Nuclear energy provides an excellent tool once harnessed, but can be a deadly weapon if mismanaged. Sustainable development with the aid of nuclear science still requires considerable research and development. To make nuclear science a central aspect of sustainable development in the future, both the IAEA and member states need to maintain high levels of safety, security, and maintenance on current nuclear facilities and technologies. Increasing

economic

and

environmental

interdependence

concerns

developed,

developing, and underdeveloped states due to human contribution to ecological stress. Ensuring sustainable development requires careful consideration of the environment around which economies revolve. With the dependence of LDCs on natural resources derived from forests, soil, and water, the international community must ensure that the use of these resources does not impede the growth of future generations.

Nuclear

technology provides a sensible solution for both the present and future with careful and regulated care of nuclear materials and facilities. Through proper precaution, new safe and efficient facilities can replace out of date ones. According to the Nuclear Energy Association, nuclear technology can increasingly meet the needs of lesser developed countries as well as developed states. However, this is only possible if governments “allow the public to put social, ethical and political issues related to nuclear energy into perspective with the issues raised by alternatives, in order to create the conditions for decision-making processes consistent with the goals of sustainable development.”65

OECD, “Sustainable Development”.

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Sustainable development to meet basic needs of societies is an international goal as defined by United Nations.

To raise standards of living for present and future

generations, nuclear science provides an opportunity to promote global sustainable development, but not without costs. In contributing to the development of states, nuclear science, “like a number of other advanced technologies, is characterized by a net contribution to human and social capital and a challenge in terms of public acceptability and widely varying perceptions of the risks and benefits.”66 However, “painful choices have to be made. Thus in the final analysis, sustainable development must rest on political will.”67

66 67

OECD NEA, Nuclear Energy in a Sustainable Development Perspective, 43. World Commission on Environment and Development, 9.

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Discussion Questions • How can the IAEA ensure the proper use of nuclear energy and prevent the use of civilian nuclear facilities being put to military use? • Should member states of the IAEA be required to pay for the initial investment necessary to provide nuclear technology to lesser developed states? Should receiving states be required to repay investment costs? • How have the lessons learned from the nuclear disaster at Chernobyl in the Ukraine developed precautions? What can be done to insure safety in implementing the use of nuclear energy? • How can developing states utilizing new nuclear technology in the areas of human health prevent risk of overexposure to radioactive materials? • What role should organizations such as the Nuclear Energy Association play in helping sustainable development of LDCs that are not member states? • Should the IAEA grant access to nuclear science and technology to international and domestic corporations in addition to states? • The implementation of nuclear science in the aid of sustainable development has been a supplement to other efforts until present. What is the future role of nuclear science in sustainable development? • What incentives do developed states have to share information with LDCs? Should the IAEA incur the costs of research of member states that share nuclear technology? • What are some feasible solutions to storing nuclear waste from nuclear energy? Are the hazards of radioactive leakages worth the benefits?

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Works Cited The African Regional Cooperative Agreement for Research Development and Training related to Nuclear Science and Technology, “About AFRA,” http://www.afraiaea.org/. IAEA, “About Technical Cooperation,” http://www-tc.iaea.org/tcweb/abouttc/default.asp. IAEA. A Silent Crisis: Cancer Treatment in Developing Countries. Austria: IAEA, 2003. IAEA, “Building Alliances,” http://www-naweb.iaea.org/pact/news/news-feb06.html. IAEA, “Chile Casts Off Toxic Tides,” http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Features/AlgalBloom/toxictides.html IAEA, “How Safe is Nuclear Energy,” http://www.iaea.org/blog/Infolog/?page_id=23#a1. IAEA, “IAEA Teams Up with African Countries in Fight Against Algal Blooms,” http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Features/IaeaWssd/algal_bloom.shtml IAEA, “International Atomic Energy Agency Marine Environment Laboratory Monaco,” http://www-naweb.iaea.org/naml/ IAEA, “Nuclear Power’s Changing Future,” http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/PressReleases/2004/prn200405.html. IAEA, “On the Frontier: Botswana,” http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Magazines/Bulletin/Bull472/htmls/rad_pro/bots wana.html. IAEA, “Plant Breeding and Genetics” http://www-naweb.iaea.org/nafa/pbg/index.html. IAEA, “Saving the Source of Chocolate: Ghana Targets Killer Virus,” http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Features/2006/Ghana/cocoa.html. IAEA. Technical Cooperation Report for 2004. Vienna, Austria: IAEA, July 2005. http://www.iaea.org/About/Policy/GC/GC49/Documents/gc49inf-2.pdf. IAEA, “Water Resources Program” http://www-naweb.iaea.org/na/water-resources.html.

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IAEA Department of Research and Isotopes and IAEA Division of Public Information. Building a Better Future: Contributions of Nuclear Science and Technology. Vienna: IAEA, 1998. IAEA-RCA, “How Nuclear Technologies Contribute to Solving Problems and RCA Achievements,” http://www.rcaro.org/board/view.php?board=rca_success. International Atomic Energy Agency. Annual Report 2004. Vienna: IAEA, July 2004, http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Reports/Anrep2004/index.html. International Atomic Energy Agency. Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. Vienna: IAEA, 22 April 1970, http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Infcircs/Others/infcirc140.pdf. International Rivers Network, “About International Rivers Network,” http://www.irn.org/basics/ard/index.php?id=/basics/about.html. Lai, Leslie and Morrison, Kristin. “Nuclear Energy Fact Sheet,” http://www.wagingpeace.org/menu/issues/nuclear-energy-&-waste/start/factsheet_ne&w.htm. Mekay, Emad. “World Bank Climate Plan Looks to South,” http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=32872. Métivier, Henri. Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impacts. France: OECD Publications, 2002. http://www.nea.fr/html/rp/reports/2003/nea3508chernobyl.pdf. NEA. Press Kit: Chernobyl. France, NEA Press Room, 6 January, 2006, http://www.nea.fr/html/general/press/press-kits/chernobyl.html. OECD Nuclear Energy Agency. Nuclear Energy in a Sustainable Development Perspective. France: OECD Publications, 2000. OECD Nuclear Energy Agency. Nuclear Energy Programmes in OECD/NEA Countries. France : OECD, 1995. OECD. Nuclear Energy and the Kyoto Protocol. Paris, France: OECD Publications, March 2002. http://www.nea.fr/html/ndd/reports/2002/nea3808-kyoto.pdf. OECD. Policy Brief: Nuclear Energy Today. Paris, France: OECD Publications, 2005. http://www.nea.fr/html/pub/policybrief-mars2005.pdf.

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OECD, “Sustainable Development,” http://www.nea.fr/html/sd/welcome.html. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “IAEA Activities in Assisting Developing Countries to Implement Agenda 21: A Review (19932001),” http://www.johannesburgsummit.org/html/documents/backgrounddocs/iaea%20re port.pdf. Wedekind, L., “Healthier Lives in Latin America: Nutrition Programmes Gain Edge Through IAEA Support,” IAEA, http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/News/2001/08312001_news01.shtml. Weeks, Jennifer. "Nuclear Energy." The CQ Researcher 16, no. 10 (March 9, 2006): 217-240. http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/cqresrre2006031000 (accessed April 5, 2006). World Commission on Environment and Development. Our Common Future. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987. World Health Organization, “Cancer,” http://www.who.int/cancer/en/. World Nuclear Association, Homepage, http://www.world-nuclear.org/. World Nuclear Association, “About the World Nuclear Association,” http://www.worldnuclear.org/aboutwna/index.htm. World Nuclear Association. “WNU Prospectus,” http://www.world-nuclearuniversity.org/html/wnu_prospectus/index.htm.

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Works Referenced Caldicott, Helen. “Nuclear Power is the Problem, Not a Solution,” 13 April, 2005. http://www.wagingpeace.org/articles/2005/04/13_caldicott_nuclear-powerproblem.htm. Campbell, John L. Collapse of an Industry: Nuclear Power and the Contradictions of US Policy. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988. Groth, Stefan. Combating Infection in Developing Countries. Vienna, Austria: IAEA, 2000. IAEA. Applying Radiation Safety Standards in Nuclear Medicine. Vienna, Austria: IAEA, 2005. IAEA. Chernobyl: The True Scale of the Accident. Vienna, Austria: IAEA, 2005. http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Focus/Chernobyl/pdfs/pr.pdf. IAEA, “IAEA Plans Expert Meeting and Training Course on Rapid Detection of the Bird Flu Virus”, IAEA, http://www-naweb.iaea.org/nafa/aph/bird-flu-meeting.html Kinley, David H. III. Science Serving People. Vienna, Austria, International Atomic Energy Agency, 2002. http://wwwtc.iaea.org/tcweb/publications/scienceservingpeople/Science_Serving_People_wit h_pictures.pdf. Meserve Richard A. “Nuclear Safety: Impressive and Worrisome Trends.” http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Magazines/Bulletin/Bull472/htmls/nuclear_safet y.html. Nuclear Energy Agency. Beneficial Uses and Production of Isotope: 2004 Update. France: OECD-NEA, 2005. Nuclear Energy Agency. Government and Nuclear Policy. France: OECD-NEA, 2004. Nuclear Energy Agency. Nuclear Energy in a Sustainable Development Perspective. France: OECD-NEA, 2000. UN Chernobyl Forum Expert Group ‘Environment’. Environmental Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident and Their Remediation: Twenty Years of Experience. Vienna, Austria, IAEA, August 2005. http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Focus/Chernobyl/pdfs/ege_report.pdf.

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Worsnop, R. L. (1992, June 11). Food Irradiation. The CQ researcher, 2. Retrieved April 5, 2006, from http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/cqresrre1992061200. Document ID: cqresrre1992061200.

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Glossary of Terms Enrichment- a separation process that increases the concentration of particular isotopes, such as that of U-235 in natural uranium.68 Fission- the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two, accompanied by the release of a relatively large amount of energy and usually one or more neutrons. It may be spontaneous, but usually is due to a nucleus absorbing a neutron and thus becoming unstable.69 Fusion- the formation of a heavier nucleus from two lighter ones (usually hydrogen isotopes) with the attendant release of a large amount of energy.70 Ability to harness power from fusion would be tremendous and far more than that produced by fission. Nuclear Science- for the purposes of committee discussion, nuclear science includes applications of nuclear energy and nuclear technology. Nuclear Energy- a peaceful application of nuclear materials to produce electricity Nuclear Fuel Cycle- a process involving the following steps: 1. Uranium mining and milling, 2. conversion, 3. enrichment, 4. uranium dioxide fuel fabrication, 5. light water power reactors, 6. reprocessing. Waste repository is a seventh but exogenous step in the process.71 Nuclear Technology- encompasses the use of nuclear materials for a broad spectrum of utilities including human health, environmental protection, water resource management, agriculture, and pollution. Nuclear Waste- radioactive substances generated at different stages of the nuclear fuel cycle, which are considered to have no further potential use. There are also radioactive wastes created by medicinal use of isotopes. Several types of waste are categorized according to their respective levels of radioactivity and content.72 Nuclear Weapons States (NWS) - China (1964), France (1960), Russia (1949), United Kingdom (1952), and United States (1945) declared their nuclear weapons programs prior to 1967 and are thereby recognized under the NPT as nuclear weapons states.73 Plutonium- plutonium is a manmade element created in nuclear reactors. If separated from the spent fuel of nuclear power plants by means of reprocessing, plutonium can be made into atomic bombs.74 Uranium - The heaviest naturally occurring element (atomic number 92). It is metallic and slightly radioactive. Ranging in atomic mass from 227 to 240, uranium has 14 isotopes of which only three occur naturally, uranium-238, uranium-235 and uranium-234. The remaining isotopes are created synthetically. The only substantial use today is as a raw material for generating electricity via nuclear fission.75 68

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Future of Nuclear Energy (Massachusetts: MIT, 2003) 95, http://web.mit.edu/nuclearpower/ (accessed 24, April 2006). 69 World Nuclear Association, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Nuclear Fuel Terms,â&#x20AC;? http://www.world-nuclear.org/nft/f-g.htm#fission (accessed 24, April 2006). 70 Ibid. 71 Jennifer Weeks, "Nuclear Energy." The CQ Researcher 16, no. 10 (March 9, 2006): 217-240. http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/cqresrre2006031000 (accessed April 25, 2006). 72 World Nuclear Association. 73 Nuclear Age Peace Foundation, Disarmament: the Missing Link to an Effective Non-Proliferation Regime (Santa Barbara: Nuclear Age Peace Foundation, 2004) http://www.wagingpeace.org/menu/resources/publications/2004_npt-briefing.pdf, 7 (accessed 24 April, 2006). 74 Nuclear Control Institute, http://www.nci.org/, (accessed 24 April, 2006). 75 World Nuclear Association.

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Appendix A: OECD NEA Membership Source: http://www.nea.fr/html/nea/flyeren.html The NEA's current membership consists of 28 countries, in Europe, North America and the Asia-Pacific region:

Australia

France

Japan

Slovak Republic

Austria

Germany

Korea

Spain

Belgium

Greece

Luxembourg

Sweden

Canada

Hungary

Mexico

Switzerland

Czech Republic

Iceland

Netherlands

Turkey

Denmark

Ireland

Norway

United Kingdom

Finland

Italy

Portugal

United States

Appendix B: Steps in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle Source : http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/ cqresrre2006031000

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006 Appendix C : Map of Nuclear Power Reactors Source : http://www.insc.anl.gov/pwrmaps/map/world_map.php