1PeacefulUsesofOuterSpace by IDIA

The Institute for Domestic and International Affairs

Special Political and Decolonization Committee Peaceful Uses of Outer Space Rutgers Model United Nations 16-19 November 2006

Director: Sean Hemmings

ÂŠ 2006 Institute for Domestic & International Affairs, Inc. (IDIA) This document is solely for use in preparation for Rutgers Model United Nations 2006. Use for other purposes is not permitted without the express written consent of IDIA. For more information, please write us at idiainfo@idia.net

Introduction _________________________________________________________________ 1 Background _________________________________________________________________ 2 Definition of Outer Space and Airspace _______________________________________________ 3 Uses of Space _____________________________________________________________________ 5 Developments from Space Research __________________________________________________ 7 International Precedents on Peaceful Use of Outer Space ________________________________ 7

Current Status ______________________________________________________________ 11 Currently Used Space Technology __________________________________________________ 11 Abandoned Space-Based Weapons Systems __________________________________________ 14 MIRVs, MOBs, and FOBs _________________________________________________________ 15 Anti-Satellite Weapons____________________________________________________________ 16 Commercial Applications of Satellites _______________________________________________ 17 Space Technology and Development_________________________________________________ 18 The International Space Station (ISS) _______________________________________________ 19 States Developing Space Programs __________________________________________________ 20 General Perception of Space Exploration ____________________________________________ 21

Key Positions _______________________________________________________________ 22 North America __________________________________________________________________ 22 Central America, South America and the Caribbean ___________________________________ 23 Africa __________________________________________________________________________ 23 Asia____________________________________________________________________________ 24 Europe _________________________________________________________________________ 25 Middle East _____________________________________________________________________ 25 South Asia ______________________________________________________________________ 25 Businesses ______________________________________________________________________ 26

Summary___________________________________________________________________ 27 Discussion Questions _________________________________________________________ 29 Works Cited ________________________________________________________________ 30 Works Referenced ___________________________________________________________ 33

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

Introduction On 4 October 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, the first artificial satellite, into space.1 The United States, locked in a Cold War with the Russians declared its intention to best the Soviet Union, when on 12 September 1962, President John F. Kennedy

Sputnik

declared that the American space program sought to reach the moon “for the progress of all people.”2

Kennedy realized that the

unknowns of space posed potential future threats, questioning “whether it [the exploration of space] will become a force for good or ill depends on man … a sea of peace or a new terrifying theater of war.”3 While Kennedy strongly advocated the exploration of space for peaceful purposes, he recognized that the exploration of space could lead to unintended consequences – but that the potential benefits of such scientific discovery would far outweigh any costs. During this age of space development, both the United States and the Soviet Union realized the potential for weaponry in space, leading the United Nations to draft the Outer Space Treaty. At one point an effective solution to a worldwide problem; however, the United Nations may need to consider revising the treaty to cover advances made in military weaponry and in space technology. In addition to outlawing military uses of outer space, the United Nations is beginning to explore opportunities to broaden the collection of states that have undertaken space exploration, allowing developing states to participate in space research without having to develop independent space programs. With support from the international community, the United Nations can update the Outer Space Treaty and lead the world into the future ensuring the peaceful use of outer space. 1

Windows to the Universe, “Sputnik”, http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/space_missions/sputnik.html, accessed 28 March 2006. 2 “John F. Kennedy Moon Speech - Rice Stadium”, http://www1.jsc.nasa.gov/er/seh/ricetalk.htm, accessed 21 August 2006. 3 Ibid.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

The Outer Space Treaty is the seminal document governing the use of weapons in space. While it does outlaw the use of nuclear warheads, “weapons of mass destruction” and the establishment of military facilities in space, it does not address the use of conventional weapons in space. With the constant advancement in weapons technology, the United Nations needs to address changing military realities and consider updating the Outer Space Treaty to guarantee the peaceful use of outer space in the future. It should be noted that as of this report, only 98 countries had ratified the agreement and an additional 27 had signed it. The current technology being deployed in space is not in violation of the Outer Space Treaty, even though some of this technology is used for military purposes. As the treaty was adopted before the development of advanced technology, states have been able to launch a series of military guidance and other potentially offensive satellites into space while not specifically violating the provisions of the agreement. Given the potential to abuse the spirit, if not the letter of the treaty, along with the relatively small number of signatories of the agreement, it is necessary to reassess the status of space-based military activity, and to determine how to modify and modernize the governing agreements. With increased participation in the Outer Space Treaty as well as updates to the treaty, the United Nations has the potential to preserve peace in space as well as increase international participation in space research and development.

Background Space exploration has been intense, but has only seen a few significant developments. While marginal developments have been important, discovery is often highlighted by major events, such as the launch of Sputnik in 1957, the successful launch of Russian Yuri Gagarin into space in 1961, American John Glenn orbiting earth in 1962, and the lunar landing of Americans Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on 20 July 1969.4 While the Soviet Union was the only real competitor to the United States in the Space 4

The Apollo Program, “Apollo 11”, http://www.nasm.si.edu/collections/imagery/Apollo/AS11/a11.htm, accessed 27 March 2006.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

Race, it never succeeded in putting a man on the moon. The Soviet Union did succeed in manned orbits of Earth and unmanned missions to the moon, but only twenty missions were successful between 1959 and 1976.5 After the United States development of the Space Shuttle, a reusable spacecraft incapable of a lunar landing, space development progressed towards the use of space stations as opposed to lunar landings. Both the United States and the former Soviet Union have explored the possibility of using space for military advancement.

Proposed technologies included satellites

containing nuclear warheads, antiballistic missile satellite defense systems, weaponry capable of being launched from a space vehicle, and nuclear weapons sites on the moon. These technologies, although researched, have never been officially documented. Of these proposed weapons technologies, the only ones that are capable of being utilized today are the satellite containing a nuclear warhead and the space vehicle capable of launching a nuclear weapon. Neither the United States nor the Russian Federation has acknowledged developing this technology.

Definition of Outer Space and Airspace The difficulty in differentiating between ‘outer space’ and ‘airspace’ is that the international community has been unable to reach agreement on the line that effectively divides the two regions into distinct areas. Citing the growth in importance to civil aviation, the United Nations established the Convention on International Civil Aviation (Chicago Convention), along with the International Civil Aviation Organization. The Chicago Convention, which entered into force in 1944, defined airspace in terms of sovereignty and territory: Article 1: Sovereignty The contracting States recognize that every State has complete and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace above its territory.

The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology Astronomy and Spaceflight, “Russian Manned Lunar Program”, http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/R/Russian_manned_Moon.html, accessed 28 March 2006.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

Article 2: Territory For the purposes of this Convention the territory of a State shall be deemed to be the land areas and territorial waters adjacent thereto under the sovereignty, suzerainty, protection or mandate of such State.6

While this treaty was effective in defining airspace in order to facilitate international commercial aviation, it did little to establish a distinction of where airspace “ends” and where outer space “begins.” In 1976, a group of eight equatorial states adopted the Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial Countries which was perhaps the first time that states announced their intention to assume sovereignty over what had at that point been referred to as outer space. These states7 declared that geostationary orbits are “gravitational phenomena generated by the earth,” and that due to their terrestrial nature, should fall under their sovereign control. Geostationary orbits, also known as geosynchronous orbits, are points along the equator where satellites can be launched into space so that they appear to be stationary relative to the rotation of the earth. These states affirmed their belief that: Segments of geostationary synchronous orbit are part of the territory over which Equatorial states exercise their national sovereignty. The geostationary orbit is a scarce natural resource, whose importance and value increase rapidly together with the development of space technology and with the growing need for communication…8

Citing Resolution 2692 if the United Nations General Assembly, these states proclaimed their rights to these orbits, “Every state has and shall freely exercise full permanent sovereignty, including possession, use and disposal, over all its wealth, natural resources and economic activities.”9 While these eight states asserted their sovereignty over the equatorial orbits, there was not a universal acceptance of their claim, and it remains in dispute to this day. The Legal Subcommittee of the Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) has continued to research this claim, and includes an item in its 6

Convention on International Civil Aviation (Chicago Convention), http://www.luftrechtonline.de/regelwerke/pdf/ICAO-E.pdf#search=%22Convention%20on%20International%20Civil%20Aviation%22, accessed 20 August 2006. 7 The states that adopted the declaration were: Brazil, Colombia, Congo, Ecuador, Indonesia, Kenya, Uganda, Zaire. 8 Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial Countries,” Adopted December 3, 1976. http://www.jaxa.jp/jda/library/space-law/chapter_2/2-2-1-2_2.html 9 Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/738/83/IMG/NR073883.pdf?OpenElement, accessed 20 August 2006.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

agenda every session regarding the distinction between airspace and outer space. At its 2006 meeting, the subcommittee, debate continued over whether geostationary orbits should be considered a “limited natural resource,” or if all states should have access to these orbital flight paths. While not reaching a conclusion, the subcommittee suggested its concern that “an attempt to define or delimit outer space would be a theoretical exercise, [and] could lead to complicating existing activities and might not be able to anticipate continuing technological developments.”10 Were a line between air and outer space to be formulated, there would be difficulty in determining where this boundary should exist considering that earth’s atmosphere does not end suddenly, but gradually transitions into outer space. Space objects orbiting earth often do so within the confines of

Layers of the Atmosphere

the atmosphere, however, they are still considered outer space technology. Moreover, the atmosphere is divided into

layers

called

the

troposphere,

stratosphere,

mesosphere, and thermosphere. The ionosphere, which is part of the thermosphere, has many qualities associated more with outer space than with air as it is sparsely dotted with gas particles and is less dense than any vacuum found on earth. The characteristics of the atmosphere, additionally, are not uniform at any specific altitude making classification difficult.11

Uses of Space After the end of the Apollo program, the United States proceeded with the development of its Space Shuttle program. The space shuttle is a reusable spacecraft, capable of making multiple flights and making controlled landings on runways. The space shuttle is launched into space via three booster rockets, the largest of the three 10

“Report of the Legal Subcommittee on its forty-fifth session, held in Vienna from 3 to 13 April 2006.” http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/reports/ac105/AC105_871E.pdf, 13-15. Accessed 20 August 2006. 11 Ibid.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006 Project Apollo: An American space project that landed 12 astronauts on the Moon between 1966 and 1972. Source: inkido.indiana.edu/a100/glossary2.html

rockets is responsible for getting the shuttle out of Earth’s atmosphere and is also reusable. The other two booster rockets are used to propel the shuttle through the

atmosphere and for a short time in space. These rockets, unlike the shuttle and main booster rocket, are incapable of being reused. The Russian space shuttle operates on similar principles, with a reusable rocket and booster setup. Technology has progressed from just the basic space shuttle into the use of space stations for docking and resupplying ships in space as well as providing a better environment for astronauts to conduct research. The International Space Station (ISS) program began in 1982 with the establishment of NASA’s Space Station Task Force, which sought to achieve international

cooperation

the

design

and

Russian Space Station Mir

development of an orbiting laboratory.12 The ISS was originally intended as a docking station for states exploring space and as a rest stop between the Earth and the Moon. In 1993 after the end of the Cold War, the Russian Federation joined the ISS effort, by providing their MIR space station as the main component of the ISS and has become a significant contributor to the program.13 The ISS is now fully operational and is under continual development. The ISS is manned by at least one person at all times and is the base for space research and international space development. The ISS is significantly behind schedule due in part to budgetary constraints and the loss of two the American space shuttle Columbia.

Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency, “History of the ISS project”, http://iss.sfo.jaxa.jp/iss/history/index_e.html, accessed 28 March 2006. 13 Ibid.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

While these developments in peaceful uses of outer space have occurred, states have been designing weapons systems capable of being used in outer space. The United States and the Russian Federation both currently use satellites in space to aid their militaries. Satellites have been used in the past for reconnaissance, weapons guidance, and the transfer of military information.

Developments from Space Research Research in space has led scientists and doctors to develop ways to prevent the effects of zero gravity on the human body. Research focuses on preventing muscle atrophy, bone loss, radiation damage and developing better life support systems for astronauts.14 These developments are critical towards improving space environments for astronauts and may someday lead to possible permanent inhabitation of space or other planets. While this idea seems farfetched, overpopulation on the Earth is a growing problem and if space colonization were possible it would provide a feasible solution. For the time being, however, research in space continues to address the safety and health of the astronauts maintaining the ISS and satellites in space. Perhaps more compelling are efforts be space agencies to develop the technology to bring man to Mars. In order for such a mission to work, improvements in life support and health developments for astronauts are necessary. Research in space is the only way for mankind to achieve its goals of exploring space.

International Precedents on Peaceful Use of Outer Space The United Nations body that most thoroughly deals with issues regarding outer space is the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS). The General Assembly established the body as an ad hoc committee in Resolution 1348 in 1958, shortly after the first artificial satellite was launched. The eighteen member committee was tasked with addressing several issues, including the resources and activities of the United Nations in terms of the uses of space, international programs that could be 14

Space Daily, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Florida Tech, FSRI Receive $1.3 Million Federal Grant for Space Researchâ&#x20AC;?, 11 January 2006, Lexis-Nexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

spearheaded by the United Nations, international cooperation that could be guided by the United Nations, and legal issues that might result from the exploration of outer space.15 In 1959 the committee was named a permanent body by Resolution 1472, and in the following years, was responsible for maintaining contact with governments, governmental agencies, and nongovernmental organizations with regard to space related matters. COPUOS also facilitates the sharing and exchange of information about outer space among governments who voluntarily supply such knowledge.

Since its

establishment, the body has been influential in aiding the development of international agreements pertaining to space, and has grown to 67 members making it one of the largest UN committees.

Additionally, both intergovernmental and nongovernmental

organizations have observer status within COPUOS.16 The UN Outer Space Treaty is the basis for international cooperation and arms control in outer space. The treaty calls for the preservation of freedom to explore space, the outlaw of weapons of mass destruction in space, the prevention of sovereignty claims on celestial bodies, the restriction of military bases on the moon and other bodies in space, and the registration and acceptance of responsibility for objects launched into space.17 This treaty is the most comprehensive institution in covering the peaceful uses of outer space, and is widely accepted by member states of the United Nations. In all, 124 states have signed the treaty. The United Nations has also passed twenty resolutions specifically on the peaceful use of outer space, with the most recent being passed on 17 December 2004, covering the importance of preventing an arms race in outer space and reaffirming the guidelines set by the Outer Space Treaty.18

Even though it is still

applicable to the states of the United Nations, the Outer Space Treaty may need to be revised in order to cover future military technologies and continue to promote 15

“United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space: History and Overview of Activities” United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs. United Nations. Accessed 18 August 2006. http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/COPUOS/cop_overview.html 16 Ibid. 17 Thomas Graham Jr. and Damien J. LaVera, Cornerstones of Security – Arms Control Treaties in the Nuclear Era, (University of Washington Press), 35-40. 18 Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly, 59th Session, Agenda Item 64, Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space, 17 December 2004, Access UN, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

international cooperation in space exploration. Such revision would allow the United Nations to continue supporting space travel and exploration without the fear of military activity in space. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) is the other significant treaty addressing the use of weapons in outer space. Even though the treaty does not directly address weapons in space, it outlaws the proliferation of nuclear weapons, most Intercontinental Ballistic Missile: a land-based or mobile rocket-propelled missile capable of delivering a nuclear warhead to a range greater than 5,500 kilometers. Source: www.nrdc.org/reference/glossary/i.asp

importantly intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). While ICBMs are not covered under the current Outer Space Treaty, the treaty could be amended to prevent their use entirely. Since

intercontinental ballistic missiles travel in space, albeit for a short period of time, the United Nations is within its rights to label them as space weaponry thus making the weapons capable of inclusion in an amendment to the Outer Space Treaty. While the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty has not been signed by India, Pakistan, and Israel, their use of ICBMs would be covered under the Outer Space Treaty, to which they are party, if that weaponry were addressed within it. The Limited Test-Ban Treaty (LTBT) of 1963 is significant to this matter as it prohibits nuclear explosions in outer space. Also, in 1968, the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts, and the Return of Objects Launched in Outer Space was brokered to ensure international assistance in case of emergency.19 The Agreement Relating to the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization “Intelsat” was concluded in 1971 and is a critical document regarding the development of outer space for nonmilitary purposes. The following year witnessed the Convention on the International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects also known as the Liability Convention, making states responsible for cases in which terminated space

Barrett, Raymond J. “Outer Space and Air Space: The Difficulties in Definition.” Air and Space Power Journal. 29 December 2003. Accessed 18 August 2006. http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1973/may-jun/barrett.html.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

vehicles cause terrestrial damage.20 The Convention on the Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space was concluded in 1975. Article II of this Convention states that, “When a space object is launched into earth orbit or beyond, the launching State shall register the space object by means of an entry in an appropriate registry which it shall maintain.”21 The agreement stipulates that states that launch objects into space inform the secretary-general of the United Nations when a registry is established so that the United Nations, in turn, can also keep such records. The Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies was adopted by the General Assembly in 1979 under Resolution 34/68. In June 1984, Austria became the fifth country to ratify the agreement, allowing the treaty to enter force in July 1984.22 The treaty serves to reaffirm and elaborate on many of the stipulations made by the Outer Space Treaty as they apply to the moon and other celestial bodies. The treaty specifies that the moon and other celestial bodies be used only for peaceful purposes. Moreover, the agreement states that the United Nations should be notified as to the location and purpose of all stations constructed on those bodies. Additionally, the Moon and its resources are cited as the “common heritage” of mankind and it is recommended that an international regime be established to oversee the use of any resources when the means to do so is available.23 The negotiations for a Treaty for Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space (PAROS) are primarily conducted within the Conference on Disarmament, and such an agreement was first introduced as an issue in 1982. Little was done until 2005 when this issue was placed on the agenda of the Committee on Disarmament and International Security, in an effort to reenergize debate and to develop an agreement to curb militarization of outer space. Two draft resolutions were presented and have become 20

“Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space (PAROS) at the United Nations.” Reaching Critical Will: Reaching For a Critical Mass of Political Will for Nuclear Disarmament. Accessed 18 August 2006. http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/legal/paros/parosindex.html 21 Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (1975). Accessed 18 August 2006. http://www.islandone.org/Treaties/BH653.html 22 Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs. Accessed 18 August 2006. http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/SpaceLaw/moon.html 23 Ibid.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

tantamount to customary law considering the nearly universal support they possess. Israel and the United States, however, have both habitually abstained during voting on these draft proposals. As of 2005, the United States began voting “no” rather than abstaining, maintaining that there is no need to address a non-existent threat.24

Current Status The United States and the Soviet Union were the two leading developers of weapons systems for outer space.

After the fall of the Soviet Union, the Russian

Federation has continued with what was left of the Soviet space program, but not at the same scale as it had under Soviet rule. These two states have devised eight distinct technologies capable of utilizing outer space for military purposes. Of these eight, four are currently used. The four functioning technologies are communication and navigation satellites, bomb satellites, reconnaissance satellites and the space shuttle.25

Currently Used Space Technology Navigation satellites, the most popular of which is the U.S. Global Positioning System (GPS), use a system of triangulation to pinpoint the location of a GPS transmitter. In other words, in order for a satellite navigation system to work, the GPS transmitter must establish a connection to a minimum of three satellites orbiting the

Global Positioning System: Global Positioning System: A worldwide radionavigation system that was developed by the US. Department of Defense. In addition to military purposes it is widely used in marine, terrestrial navigation and location based services.

earth, and the distance to each satellite is

Source: www.nitronex.com/education/glossary.html

used to calculate the latitude and longitude

Triangulation: a trigonometric method of determining the position of a fixed point from the angles to it from two fixed points a known distance apart; useful in navigation

of the transmitter.

Cell phones and car

navigation systems are the most common uses

GPS,

and

hand-held

Source: wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn

GPS

transmitters can also be used as an alternative to the conventional compass. GPS has 24

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

paved the way for precise mapping systems, and several states besides the United States have been developing their own satellite navigation systems.

The Russian satellite

navigation system, GLONASS, is set to be operational for civilian use in 2007.26 Japan has also developed a satellite navigation system, an addition to their current satellite operations, which is intended to control air traffic over Japan, doubling as a meteorological satellite.27 Furthermore, India has proposed its own satellite navigation system limited to the Indian region, and will not have worldwide navigational capabilities.28 By limiting their satellite program to the region, the Indian government only needs to launch eight satellites, as opposed to the twenty-four required for global coverage.29 India has proposed joining the European Galileo satellite navigation system as long as the technology coming from India can be used in the Galileo project. India has also agreed to help the Russian Federation with development of its GLONASS project.30 The final major player in satellite navigation is the European Union with its Galileo project, which began in December 2005 with the launch of its first satellite into space.31 The European Union developed this multinational satellite system to match the American GPS system. Launched by the Russian space agency Roskosmos, the Galileo project is the first satellite navigation system to be a cooperative effort of several states and allows smaller states incapable of developing their own space programs to participate in a satellite navigation project and to utilize its technology for commercial gains.32 While GPS is a valuable tool for commercial purposes, the same basic principles for navigation satellites are used in bomb satellites. Bomb satellites are used to guide smart bombs to their designated target. Bomb satellite systems must cover the intended 26

“GLONASS system to open for Russian consumers in 2007 – minister”, RIA Novosti, 21 March 2006, LexisNexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu. 27 “Japan Successfully Launches Navigation Satellite”, Jiji Press Ticker Service, 18 February 2006, Lexis-Nexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu. 28 “India proposes to build constellation of navigation satellites”, The Press Trust of India, 24 January 2006, LexisNexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu. 29 Ibid. 30 Ibid. 31 “EU navigation satellite”, Bahrain News Agency, 29 December 2005, Lexis-Nexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu. 32 Ibid.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

target area, technology only currently available to the United States and Russian Federation. These satellite systems can guide bombs to within twenty feet of their designated target, and are identical to civilian navigation satellites but access is limited to military sources.33 The same triangulation as used in civilian satellites is used for targeting munitions, and proponents of these bomb technologies argue that the use of this technology has led to safer warfare with less collateral damage. With such accuracy, the United States and the Russian Federation can bomb military targets with greatly

Smart Bomb: a bomb that can be guided (by a laser beam or radio) to its target; "smart bombs have revolutionized aerial bombardment" Collateral Damage: inadvertent casualties and destruction inflicted on civilians in the course of military operations Source: wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn

reduced the radius around a bomb target that is damaged by an explosion. The other form of the bomb satellite is a satellite that contains bombs or missiles that can be launched from low altitudes. The United States explored using low altitude bomb satellites in the 1960s, but there was widespread disagreement on their effectiveness.34 It was believed that firing thermonuclear warheads from satellites at altitudes from one-hundred-fifty to five-hundred miles was possible.35 This idea was later rejected by the U.S. government on the grounds that it was more efficient to use the conventional means of bomb delivery. This technology could still be easily developed, but it is currently outlawed by the Outer Space Treaty, which prohibits signatories of the treaty from using satellites carrying nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction.36 Reconnaissance and surveillance satellites are also used to obtain information about the landscape of enemy territory.

These satellites take pictures of enemy

installations and provide important reconnaissance and surveillance capabilities. The U.S. Missile Defense Alarm Satellite (Midas) is used to observe enemy ICBM sites and 33

Strategy Page, “No More Unguided MLRS Rockets”, 16 January 2006, http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htart/articles/20060116.aspx, accessed 27 March 2006. 34 P.K. Menon, 17-18. 35 Ibid. 36 “Review Ban on Defense Assets in Space”, 22 January 2006, The Daily Yomiuri, Lexis-Nexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

provide an early warning to the U.S. military in the case of a launch, and the Samos satellite is used by the U.S. military to photograph military bases.37 The Outer Space Treaty does not prevent the use of satellites for reconnaissance or surveillance.

The United States and the Russian Federation both use satellites for

surveillance in order to gather intelligence on nuclear states and to provide themselves with a valuable line of defense against nuclear attacks. While the necessity of these satellites may be questioned, the United Nations has treaded lightly when considering the restriction of the use of said satellites because of the political ramifications such action would have and due to the veto power of the space states within the Security Council. The final military technology currently in use in outer space is the space shuttle, which is a reusable spacecraft that is capable of replenishing supplies and servicing orbital systems. While the days of actual film being used during reconnaissance are long gone, satellites in space still need to be maintained and supplied by the supporting nations. The United States explored using space shuttles to destroy and recover enemy satellites, but after the fall of the Soviet Union, this technology was deemed unnecessary.38 While space shuttles are still used for transporting supplies and astronauts to the ISS, equipping them with conventional weaponry would not be a difficult task.

Abandoned Space-Based Weapons Systems The idea of using weapons in space has led to the development of weapons systems, however no such systems are currently believed to be operational.

These

weapons consist of ballistic missiles, anti-satellite weapons, directed-energy weapons, and the strategic defense initiative. Of these technologies, militaries are only using ballistic missiles, but these are not classified under space weapons because they travel at high altitudes for only a short period of times. The United States is pursuing the other three strategies, but none are known to be in operation.

37 38

P.K. Menon, 16-17. P.K. Menon.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

Ballistic missiles travel at high altitudes to reduce fuel consumption and increase velocity. In 1958, U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower stated in a letter to Soviet Prime Minister Nikolai Bulganin “both the Soviet Union and the United States are using outer space for the testing of missiles designed for military purposes.”39 Eisenhower spoke of how ICBMs travel in space for short periods of time, and therefore could be considered space weaponry.40 The numbers of ICBM’s are being reduced through a variety of bilateral agreements between the United States and the Russian Federation, but no nuclear power will forfeit their ICBM technology.

MIRVs, MOBs, and FOBs The development of ICBMs has led to the development of multiple overhead missile carriers like the multiple independently-guided reentry vehicle (MIRV), fractional orbital bombardment system (FOBs), and multiple orbital bombardment system (MOBs).41 MIRV is the term the U.S. Department of Defense uses for singular warheads that are capable of separating into multiple guided warheads in midair.42 These missiles can be launched either from the ground or underwater from submarines.43 The Russian Federation has also developed MIRV technology and Colonel-General Nikolay Solovstov has stated that the Russian Topol-M could be equipped with MIRVs in the future.44 MIRVs, while just an addition to conventional ICBMs, could be restricted in accordance with anti-ICBM treaties and in order to promote peace throughout the world. FOB is the American term for the “…Soviet-developed system of launching a weapons-carrying vehicle into a low orbit, from which it drops off the payload before completing a single orbit.”45 FOBs are a form of bomb satellite and are hard to designate as space weapons, since they spend just a short time in space before deploying, similar to 39

Department of State Bulletin, 27 January 1958, 122, Access UN, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu. Thomas Graham Jr, 98. 41 P.K. Menon, 24-25. 42 Ibid. 43 Ibid. 44 “Topol-M ICBM may be equipped with MIRVs in future”, BBC Worldwide Monitoring, 16 December 2005, Lexis-Nexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu. 45 P.K. Menon, 24-25. 40

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

an ICBM. MOBs are similar to FOBs, but complete multiple orbits before dropping a payload.46 MOBs are believed to be more accurate since they have time to adjust once in orbit, and then time deployment based on velocity and altitude. The low-altitude of these weapons and the short time spent in space makes these weapons difficult to define as space-based weapons.

Anti-Satellite Weapons Anti-Satellite Weapons (ASAT) are satellites that the United States and Soviet Union researched toward the end of the Cold War.47 China is currently researching ASAT technology and the United States is rumored to be developing the technology as well. China is researching ground-based laser weapons to destroy satellites as well as satellites capable of destroying enemy reconnaissance satellites.48 While the Russian Federation has abandoned ASAT weaponry, the United States has not officially endorsed or abandoned the program, leaving its development classified. The directed energy weapon (DEW) is a ground based weapon intended to disable or destroy enemy satellites. These weapons utilize either high energy laser beams or a beam of electrons, protons and neutrons.49 This type of weaponry is what China is pursuing as anti-satellite weaponry. The United States researched the use of laser DEWs while the Soviet Union opted to develop the destructive atomic particles.50 While lasers deliver damage through pulses of high energy, the travel of atomic particles at the speed of light delivers similar damage to targets. While the Russian Federation claims it had fully developed the atomic particle weapons and opted to dismantle them, the United States continues to keep its DEW program classified and is rumored to be continuing research.

Ibid. P.K. Menon, 18. 48 Bill Gertz and Rowan Scargorough, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Nation, Inside the Ringâ&#x20AC;?, 20 January 2006, Lexis-Nexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu . 49 P.K. Menon, 18. 50 Ibid. 47

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

The strategic defense initiative was the American plan to use a network of satellites to intercept and destroy ICBMs during their travel in outer space. It is based on the use of DEWs and satellites carrying ASAT and anti-ballistic missile weaponry.51 While the United States Department of Defense abandoned the Star Wars program in 1993, it has developed and largely deployed a ballistic missile defense (BMD) weapons shield, and is in the process of deploying it throughout the United States and also to protect Japan. The system is made up of a network of satellites, naval vessels, and ground-based facilities, and is designed to intercept incoming missile threats.

Commercial Applications of Satellites The commercial applications of satellites are unlimited in the telecommunication field. Satellites are currently used for television broadcast, internet service, long distance telephone connection, remote sensing, navigation systems, cellular phone service and radio broadcasts. Satellite television, once deemed unreliable and too expensive, is competing with cable companies and offers both the digital television service as well as broadband internet connection to consumers.

Companies like Direct-TV and Dish

Network have popularized satellite television and internet service, but are not available to all consumers. Satellite technology used for navigation systems and cell phones rely on GPS or similar foreign technologies. These satellite systems allow for in-car navigation and precise location of emergency cell phone calls.

Satellite radio is threatening

traditional radio broadcast with its clear and consistent signal. While satellite radio is currently operating on a subscription level, it could one day replace AM and FM radio. This modernization of radio technology would allow radio stations to appeal to much larger audiences around the world and provide a better service for low or no cost to the consumer. These commercial uses of space technology can help developing states boost their economy while at the same time provide experience in space programs. Moreover, commercial uses of outer space are peaceful and should be protected under the Outer 51

P.K. Menon, 20.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

Space Treaty. While not currently outlawed by the treaty, these commercial uses of space should be specifically protected in order to prevent their demise in the future. They are vital to the media and are the lifeline of international communication, and are therefore in need of protection through the United Nations

Space Technology and Development Space technology offers an innovative approach toward achieving the Millennium Development

Goals

formulated

September 2000 that focus on alleviating poverty

and

supporting

developing

states.

sustainable

development

growth

Effective

in and

requires

comprehensive information system in order to allow for thorough planning and proper formulation of decisions.

Space

technology equips states with the ability to

Millennium Development Goals All 191 United Nations Members States made a commitment to the MDGs in 2000, with an aim to achieve them by 2015. They are: • • • • • • • •

Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Achieve universal primary education Promote gender equality and empower women Reduce child mortality Improve maternal health Combat HIV and AIDS, malaria and other diseases Ensure environmental sustainability Develop a global partnership for development

Source: www.eu2005.gov.uk/servlet/Front

gather timely data that will contribute to the information systems necessary for development. Space technology is especially useful in providing spatial data about a specific area, including satellite images that show land cover and use, forests, deserts, and swamps, areas experiencing rapid environmental change, the aftermath of natural disasters, the effects of pollution, or the extent of devastation within war-torn regions.52 This information is helpful in developing a plan regarding which areas are most suitable for development. The internet and satellite communications enable the information acquired through space based technology to be shared quickly and efficiently with those collaborating on a sustainable development project. Such comprehensive information sharing can also allow for several projects to

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

be conducted simultaneously, while ensuring that the different efforts will be complimentary rather than contradictory to the overall development plan. Space-based technology can also contribute to disaster reduction and preparedness as well as emergency response.

Technology can help calculate risk to assist in

preparations for disasters so as to mitigate negative aftereffects. Space technology is also useful after the immediate danger of a disaster has passed as it can show the areas most in need of relief and help determine the best means through which to access that region.53 For the states most in need of developmental assistance and disaster preparedness to have access to such technology, international cooperation must be heightened drastically.

The International Space Station (ISS) The ISS is the leading international effort in space, with participating countries contributing towards the overall construction of the jointly owned space station. The ISS is still under construction and

International Space Station

the goal of a three man crew is expected to be achieved in the near future.54 The ISS Heads of Agency attribute the success of the ISS to “the uninterrupted flow of Russian vehicles, the outstanding Canadarm2,

performance the

successful

shuttle logistics flight, and the resourcefulness of all of the partners' ground-based engineers, researchers and operations personnel…”55 The Canadarm2 is a robotic arm designed by the Canadian Space Agency to assist in the assembly and maintenance of the ISS, and utilizes a dual hand system, 53

Ibid. PR Newswire U.S., “Joint Statement by International Space Station Heads of Agency”, 2 March 2006, Lexis Nexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu . 55 Ibid. 54

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

which allows the robotic arm to anchor itself to several points all over the ISS and move around the outside of the space station freely.56 In addition to the Canadarm2, the ISS is going to add three additional power trusses: the European Space Agency Automated Transfer Vehicle, the Japanese H-2 transfer vehicle, and the Japanese experiment module Kibo.57 Once the ISS becomes fully operational, it will continue to host a three man team to perform experiments and maintain the space station. Shuttle missions will continue to the ISS in order to replenish supplies as well as to transit astronauts to and from the station. The most recent crew to operate the space station boarded on 1 April 2006 and consisted of Russian Pavel Vinogradov, American Jeffrey Williams and Brazilian Marcos Pontes.58 This marked the first trip to space by a Brazilian astronaut and takes the Brazilian space program a significant step toward independently-manned missions to space. The use of Russian Soyuz spaceships has been critical to the operation of the ISS since the space shuttle Columbia was destroyed on re-entry into the earth’s atmosphere, resulting in a moratorium on American manned space flight. The United States sent space shuttle Discovery to the ISS in July 2006 to deliver German astronaut Thomas Reiter for an extended stay and says to have completed updating their space shuttles to handle ISS missions.59

States Developing Space Programs States like Brazil, Canada, Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Japan and India, which are all in the process of developing their own space programs, participate in the ISS program and look to enhance their own space programs with experience from more established programs.

These states, however, have not yet been able to

independently succeed at manned space flight. 56

The best asset available to states

Science @ NASA, “The Amazing Canadarm2”, 18 April 2006, http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast18apr_1.htm, accessed 27 March 2006. 57 PR Newswire U.S., “Joint Statement”, Lexis Nexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu. 58 Bill Gasperini, “Russian Spacecraft Docks at International Space Station”, http://voanews.com/english/2006-0401-voa16.cfm, accessed 4 April 2006. 59 Ibid.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

developing space programs is participation in the ISS project, as their astronauts can be trained to survive in space, effectively conduct research, and operate machinery in space necessary to further space exploration. Some states may even pursue the commercial route to promoting space flight, a strategy which Russia undertook by allowing companies to sponsor ships and bring paying customers into orbit. Participation in the ISS project also exposes states to the technologies provided by other member states, like the use of the Canadarm2.60 This information is crucial to saving money in developing a space program because it cuts down on funds needed for research and development. The final option for states looking to develop space programs is funding from other states. If these states are willing to pay off long term loans to other states, they may be able to borrow the money needed to pay for a space program. The majority of developing space states, however, chooses participation in the ISS project as the best way to gain experience in space exploration and to develop their own space programs.

General Perception of Space Exploration The novelty of space exploration has gradually worn off over the years, but the recent Columbia disaster has brought attention back to space exploration. While the United States continues to cut NASA funding, other states are increasing funding in order to develop their own space programs. Determining an efficient way to spend money instead of cutting funding may be the best way to fix overspending by space agencies. Maintenance of a space shuttle is not only cheaper than replacing the space shuttle with new technologies, but saves lives as well. Mistakes remind people that manned space flight is dangerous, and causes people to question the nature of the risks necessary to continue space research. As far as expanding the scope of space exploration, garnering public interest in missions to Mars and furthering intelligence in space is necessary for the success of these programs. States need to work towards garnering support from their 60

PR Newswire U.S., â&#x20AC;&#x153;Joint Statement by International Space Station Heads of Agency.â&#x20AC;?

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

citizens in order to be able to justify the funding necessary for space exploration and the ISS project. There are vast benefits associated with the scientific use of outer space. Already, the world has gained substantially from space exploration and research. At its core, space exploration improves the manner in which humans can understand earth, specifically in context of the universe. The research and discovery derived from exploration affects myriad other areas of science, such as physics, technological innovation, and medicine among others.61

Key Positions It is a widely accepted view among states that support of the ISS program and the peaceful use of outer space are beneficial to international relations and to the preservation of peace between these states. The 124 states that agreed to the terms of the Outer Space Treaty represent all regions of the world.

North America The United States and Canada are both significant participants in the ISS program and in development of space technologies. The Canadian Space Agency’s development of the Canadarm2 has provided the crew of the ISS with an invaluable way to maintain the space station as well as to continue its construction. NASA’s contribution of space shuttles and experienced astronauts provides leadership for the changing ISS crews and a way to transport scientists and supplies to the ISS. Mexico, in addition to Canada and the United States, is also a signatory on the Outer Space Treaty.62 However, the U.S. also continues to be one of the biggest threats to disrupting peace in space by often advocating the development of space-related technology.

Whether or not that technology is

necessary is a debate the U.S. has had both internally and externally and the United Nations is integral in establishing a balance between the wishes of a great economic 61

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

power to stay ahead of other states and the wishes of the international community to maintain peace and stability in space.

Central America, South America and the Caribbean Argentina and Brazil are the leading powers in Central and South America, with Brazil being the first to send a man to space. These two states are advocates of the Outer Space Treaty, in addition to the Bahamas, Barbados, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Grenada, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Panama, Uruguay, and Venezuela.63 These states all advocate peace in space even though they do not have space programs or the technology to use weapons in space. This type of widespread acceptance of the Outer Space Treaty exemplifies the determination by countries to preserve peace in space and to commit to the ban of arms in space even though their own space programs are under development or non-existent.

Africa No African states currently have self-sufficient space programs and interest in space in this region is limited. Most African states have neither the technology nor the desire to reach space, let alone the capability to spend millions of dollars on space stations, satellites and spaceships. African states do, however, support the Outer Space Treaty, as Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Morocco, Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Zambia are all proponents of the Outer Space Treaty.64 While African states provide support towards peace in space, they are all more focused on internal development and establishing stable governments than they are on exploring space. While not capable of utilizing space for military purposes, these states are still in danger of being attacked by ICBMs, just like any other state in the world. Therefore, these states should be taking steps to ensure the safety of their people and concern themselves with peace in outer space.

63 64

Ibid. Ibid.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

The major concern of African states is the gap in communications that has put many African regions well behind the rest of the world economically and technologically. With greater access to space technology such as communications satellites, this gap can begin to close. In addition to enhanced communications being fundamental to fostering growth in Africa, there are additional methods through which space technology can aid in development. Satellite imagery helps provide information about land usage and climate. Space technology is also remarkably useful in disaster preparedness by making it possible to foresee such problems so that negative effects can be mitigated. Although not in the immediate future, Africa still holds the potential to benefit from commercial uses of space. Although most African economies are still unable to sustain such this practice, eventually the area will develop substantially enough to utilize this technology.

Asia Japan and China are the leading states in Asia with regard to space exploration, but the Republic of Korea is working towards its own space program, saying 2007 will be the year for its first space station and satellite launch vehicle.65 If they are successful in developing a satellite launch vehicle, it will be only the ninth state to do so.66 China currently has full space capabilities and is part of the exclusive group of states to successfully perform an independent manned mission to space. China is scheduling its first spacewalk for 2007 and has recently completed its second manned mission to space.67 Japan actively provides technology to the ISS and is expected to contribute a transfer vehicle and experiment module to the program. Smaller states in Asia are also participants in the peaceful use of outer space through their acceptance of the terms of the Outer Space Treaty.

These states include Laos, Malaysia, Mongolia, Philippines,

Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.68 65

Hwang Si-young, “Korea Pushes for Self-Reliant Space Program”, The Korea Herald, Lexis-Nexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu. 66 Ibid. 67 Jonathan Watts, “China Plans First Space Walk for 2007”, The Guardian(London), 18 October 2005, final edition, Lexis-Nexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu. 68 Thomas Graham Jr. and Damien J. LaVera.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

Europe Europe’s participation in the peaceful uses of outer space rivals that of the North American states. The European Union currently supports the ISS project and in July 2006 sent a German astronaut to the station for an extended stay.69 The European Union is also developing its Galileo satellite system to compete with the United States’ GPS program.

Russia is also a significant player in space, providing technology, space

transportation and cosmonauts to the ISS program. Russia is also preparing to declassify its GLONASS system for civilian use and will continue to use military satellites for reconnaissance.70 The rest of Europe generally agrees with the stance taken by the European Union and Russia, following their strong lead towards peaceful cooperation in space developments and the upkeep of the ISS.

Middle East The Middle East has little to do with space exploration at this point. Even though several Middle Eastern countries accepted the terms of the Outer Space Treaty, these states are far from developing space programs, and are more concerned with conventional military development. Several Middle Eastern states, including Israel, Iran, Iraq and Jordan support the Outer Space Treaty, but their signatures were procured at a time when the governments in the Middle East were much friendlier towards Western states.71 While this region could reap the benefits of space technology for communications purposes and uses pertaining to development, it is questionable as to whether or not these governments would choose to take advantage of this opportunity.

South Asia While India is currently developing its own space program, Pakistan has not taken any initiative towards developing space technology. These two states are also bound by the Outer Space Treaty, and this could prove to be very beneficial to the region should 69

BBC News, “German Astronaut Books Long Stay”, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4492937.stm, accessed June 6th, 2006. 70 “GLONASS system to open for Russian consumers in 2007 – minister.” 71 P.K. Menon.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

India acquire the technology to deploy weapons in space.72 However, both India and Pakistan are not parties of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, allowing them to freely develop and stockpile nuclear weapons.73 Since both states are parties in the Outer Space Treaty, an amendment to the treaty banning the use of ICBMs will give the international community grounds to oppose Indian and Pakistani development of ICBMs. These states are not yet fully developed and could utilize space technology for peaceful purposes such as communication, commercial uses, development strategies, and disaster preparedness.

Businesses Businesses prove to make substantial gains in the field of space exploration and peaceful uses of outer space. Governmental spending on space programs has reached USD $55 billion, and most states subcontract space development to companies.74 The United States alone is expected to sign subcontracts reaching approximately USD $400 million when it pursues its mission to Mars.75 Aeronautical businesses have strong interests in space exploration and stand to profit from such subcontracts. The idea of suborbital tourism, space hotels and solar satellites all attract attention from international corporations, but these ideas are far from becoming reality.76 If these ideas were to come to fruition, then businesses would stand to make even greater profits on space travel and on the development of further space technologies.

Ibid. Ibid. 74 Chris Taylor, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Profits Set to Soar in Spaceâ&#x20AC;?, Business 2.0 Magazine, 27 February 2006, http://money.cnn.com/2006/02/27/technology/business2_guidetospaceintro/, accessed 28 March 2006. 75 Ibid. 76 Ibid. 73

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

Summary Preventing the use of arms in space is critical for the development of truly international space efforts and for the further development of space programs. While weapons in space are not currently a threat to the national security of states, there is potential for future developments of space weaponry. As long as the Outer Space Treaty is updated and enforced, the security of participating states from space-related threats will be guaranteed. If the United Nations can garner international support for peaceful uses of space, the possibilities for developing space technology are limitless. Developments in technology will allow for long distance travel in space, extended missions with fewer side effects, and the possibility of civilian travel and tourism. Further research and development in space is necessary for such advancements to be made. In order for long term stays in space to be possible, scientists must devise a way to impede bone loss and muscle atrophy while at the same time developing life support systems that can sustain life for years without being re-supplied. International cooperation on the use of the ISS is a step towards these developments, and research conducted on the ISS provides invaluable information for space developments. The control of an arms race in space is the biggest concern for the United Nations and is vital to the success of international cooperation in outer space. While the Outer Space Treaty covers weapons of mass destruction, the United Nations must consider addressing the possibility of conventional weapons and ICBM defense systems being used in space. These advancements in weaponry pose a distinct threat to peace between states and, if uncontrolled, could lead to war.

The current line of

defense against nuclear attack is the notion

mutually

assured

destruction (MAD), the concept that if a state were to launch a

Mutually Assured Destruction Mutually assured destruction (MAD) is the doctrine of military strategy in which a full scale use of nuclear weapons by one of two opposing sides would result in the destruction of both the attacker and the defender.It is based on the theory of deterrence according to which the deployment of strong weapons is essential to threaten the enemy in order to prevent the use of the very same weapons. Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutually_assured_destruction

nuclear attack on another state, that state would respond in turn with its own nuclear

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

attack. This concept was what kept the Soviet Union and the United States from using nuclear weapons during the Cold War. If one state were to initiate a nuclear attack, the other would do the same in order to seek revenge, resulting in the destruction of both states. Even though full scale nuclear war is no longer an imminent threat, it is still a possibility. With developing states attaining nuclear technology, the idea that defense systems in space could destroy these nuclear weapons during their travel is an interesting proposal. The United Nations needs to focus on upholding the Outer Space Treaty and expanding its reach to ban all weapons in space in order to preserve peace and further development of space technologies.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

Discussion Questions • What is the problem facing the United Nations and how can the member states address this problem without infringing on national sovereignty? • Does the United Nations need a new treaty addressing the peaceful use of outer space, or is an amendment to the Outer Space Treaty a practical solution? • How can the United Nations promote international cooperation in the exploration of space? • Why should developing states participate in the exploration and research of space and what benefits can these states reap from participation? • How does your state feel about the peaceful use of outer space? Does your state have the technology to reach or deploy weapons in space? • Does your state have the technology to develop nuclear weapons? Is your state a party of the Outer Space Treaty? The Non-Proliferation Treaty? • If the Outer Space Treaty were amended to ban the use of ICBMs, how would your state react? • How can outer space be used to lessen the gap between developed and underdeveloped states through the use and expansion of communications technology?

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

Works Cited The Apollo Program, “Apollo 11”, http://www.nasm.si.edu/collections/imagery/Apollo/AS11/a11.htm, accessed 27 March 2006. Bill Gasperini, “Russian Spacecraft Docks at International Space Station”, http://voanews.com/english/2006-04-01-voa16.cfm, accessed 4 April 2006 Bill Gertz and Rowan Scargorough, “Nation, Inside the Ring”, 20 January 2006, Lexis-Nexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu Chris Taylor, “Profits Set to Soar in Space”, Business 2.0 Magazine, 27 February 2006, http://money.cnn.com/2006/02/27/technology/business2_guidetospaceintro/, accessed 28 March 2006. Convention on International Civil Aviation (Chicago Convention), http://www.luftrecht-online.de/regelwerke/pdf/ICAOE.pdf#search=%22Convention%20on%20International%20Civil%20Aviation%22, accessed 20 August 2006. Department of State Bulletin, 27 January 1958, 122, Access UN, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology Astronomy and Spaceflight, “Russian Manned Lunar Program”, http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/R/Russian_manned_Moon.html, accessed 28 March 2006. “EU navigation satellite”, Bahrain News Agency, 29 December 2005, LexisNexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu Georgia Flight, “The 62,000 Mile Elevator Ride”, http://money.cnn.com/magazines/business2/business2_archive/2006/03/01/837058 8/index.htm , accessed 3 April 2006. “GLONASS system to open for Russian consumers in 2007 – minister”, RIA Novosti, 21 March 2006, Lexis-Nexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu. Hwang Si-young, “Korea Pushes for Self-Reliant Space Program”, The Korea Herald, Lexis-Nexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

“India proposes to build constellation of navigation satellites”, The Press Trust of India, 24 January 2006, Lexis-Nexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency, “History of the ISS project”, http://iss.sfo.jaxa.jp/iss/history/index_e.html, accessed 28 March 2006. “Japan Successfully Launches Navigation Satellite”, Jiji Press Ticker Service, 18 February 2006, Lexis-Nexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu Jonathan Watts, “China Plans First Space Walk for 2007”, The Guardian(London), 18 October 2005, final edition, Lexis-Nexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu NASA, “Biographical Data”, http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/glenn-j.html, accessed 28 March 2006. P.K. Menon, United Nations’ Effort to Outlaw the Arms Race in Outer Space, (The Edwin Mellen Press), 15-21. PR Newswire U.S., “Joint Statement by International Space Station Heads of Agency”, 2 March 2006, Lexis Nexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly, 59th Session, Agenda Item 64, Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space, 17 December 2004, Access UN. via IRIS. http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu. “Review Ban on Defense Assets in Space”, 22 January 2006, The Daily Yomiuri, Lexis-Nexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu. Science @ NASA, “The Amazing Canadarm2”, 18 April 2006, http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast18apr_1.htm, accessed 27 March 2006. Space Daily, “Florida Tech, FSRI Receive $1.3 Million Federal Grant for Space Research”, 11 January 2006, Lexis-Nexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu. Strategy Page, “No More Unguided MLRS Rockets”, 16 Janurary 2006, http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htart/articles/20060116.aspx, accessed 27 March 2006. Thomas Graham Jr. and Damien J. LaVera, Cornerstones of Security – Arms Control Treaties in the Nuclear Era, (University of Washington Press), 35-40.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006

“Topol-M ICBM may be equipped with MIRVs in future”, BBC Worldwide Monitoring, 16 December 2005, Lexis-Nexis, via IRIS, http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu TS Subramanian, “ISRO studying needs of manned space mission”, The Hindu, 20 November 2005, http://www.hinduonnet.com/2005/11/20/stories/2005112006890800.htm, accessed 28 March 2006. Windows to the Universe, “Sputnik”, http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/space_missions/sputnik.html, accessed 28 March 2006.

Rutgers Model United Nations 2006 Works Referenced Albert E. Utton and Ludwick A. Teclaff, International Environmental Law, (Praeger Publishers), 187-199. Colleen Driscoll, Outer Space for the Benefit of all Humanity: a Window of Opportunity for the United Nations, (Center for UN Reform Education), 12-67 Joseph M. Goldsen, Outer Space in World Politics, (Frederick A. Praeger), 43-70, 97-113. Kiran Karnick, Alternative Space Futures and the Human Condition, (Oxfordshire), 1-54 Space activities of the United Nations and international organization, (United Nations: New York),