The Institute for Domestic and International Affairs
United Nations Development Programme Poverty and Human Development in the Middle East Rutgers Model United Nations 16-19 November 2006
Director: Asami Kondo
Š 2006 Institute for Domestic & International Affairs, Inc. (IDIA) This document is solely for use in preparation for Rutgers Model United Nations 2006. Use for other purposes is not permitted without the express written consent of IDIA. For more information, please write us at idiainfo@idia.net
Introduction _________________________________________________________________ 1 Background _________________________________________________________________ 3 Foreign Influence in the 20th Century_________________________________________________ 4 Increase of Poverty Due to Occupation _______________________________________________ 6 Israeli Occupation of Palestine ______________________________________________________________6 United States Occupation of Iraq ____________________________________________________________8
Single Sector Economies ___________________________________________________________ 8
Current Status ______________________________________________________________ 11 Literacy and Education ___________________________________________________________ 11 Censorship and Government Control Over Information ________________________________ 13 Health Issues ____________________________________________________________________ 14 Inequalities _______________________________________________ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Key Positions _______________________________________________________________ 16 Developed Countries______________________________________________________________ 16 United States ____________________________________________________________________ 16 European Countries ______________________________________________________________ 17 Japan __________________________________________________________________________ 17 Middle East _____________________________________________________________________ 18 NGOs ____________________________________________________ Error! Bookmark not defined. Business Interests ________________________________________________________________ 19 Media __________________________________________________________________________ 19 Media Coverage ___________________________________________ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Summary___________________________________________________________________ 21 Discussion Questions _________________________________________________________ 22 Works Cited ________________________________________________________________ 23 Works Referenced ___________________________________________________________ 25
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Introduction The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) was created in order to help countries develop economically through effective use of knowledge, resources, and aid. Since its inception, the UNDP has developed new ways to implement new tactics to improve world development issues, such as poverty.
Currently, the
UNDP and Member States of the United Nations have agreed to the Millennium Development
Goals
(MDG),
which
Millennium Development Goals All 191 United Nations Members States made a commitment to the MDGs in 2000, with an aim to achieve them by 2015. They are: • • • • • •
Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Achieve universal primary education Promote gender equality and empower women Reduce child mortality Improve maternal health Combat HIV and AIDS, malaria and other diseases Ensure environmental sustainability Develop a global partnership for development
includes the goal of cutting poverty in half
• •
by 2015. Although this goal is important,
Source: www.eu2005.gov.uk/servlet/Front
reducing poverty is a daunting task for regions like the Middle East, where it is a widespread problem. While abundant in valuable resources, the Middle East has a variety of problems that prevents the area from developing to the point of being economically stable. While foreign interest and investment in a state is important, uncontrolled involvement can become a detriment instead of an opportunity. Developed nations, which have better economies and strong interest in obtaining oil, have arguably taken advantage of the oil-rich Middle East, encouraging investment in this industry, but not in a more broad-based economic strategy. Developed countries supply Middle Eastern governments with weapons and military support in exchange for oil. In many cases, industrialized states have supported states in the violation of human rights due to their need for access to petroleum. As a result, oil revenue is used for military power and not for development.
Interference from developed states is not limited to economic
intervention. Throughout history, the Middle East has been occupied by a host of world
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powers, having been occupied by military units from the United States, United Kingdom, France, Turkey, and many others. Another problem plaguing the Middle East comes from corruption, which is a concern that affects the daily life of civilians. This practice keeps the revenue generated from the sale of oil in the hands of the government and of a very small proportion of the Corruption: Dishonest or partial behavior on the part of a government official or employee, such as a customs or procurement officer. Also actions by others intended to induce such behavior, such as bribery or blackmail. Source: www-personal.umich.edu/~alandear/glossary/c.html
general population, resulting in a tremendous disparity in wealth. Arab leaders and businessmen have grown quite rich, while their citizens have struggled to survive. People suffer
from serious diseases, and lack the necessary income to support their families. Corruption also leads to inequality between gender and social groups, as it also affects the education of the civilians within that region. Many civilians, especially women, are denied or cannot afford education, and classrooms are so crowded that students are not receiving the attention necessary for success. The result of this segregation of wealth is a legacy of an elite group that maintains power, while the typical citizen has no ability to seek or demand meaningful social change. Another contributor to poverty and lack of development in the Middle East is its dependence on oil. Since oil has become the only revenue generator for so many states in this region, the development of new oil fields has taken priority over the needs of social development. Moreover, due to the tremendous revenue generated by the oil industry, illicit deals take place, enriching those who already have money, while bypassing those who have nothing.
This dependence upon one industry leaves states vulnerable to
economic downturns brought about by a decline in the price of oil, or the expiration of available oil reserves. International cooperation is necessary in order to establish sustainable development in the Middle East. While this problem is most directly economic in nature,
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its consequences are much more social in practice. By denying average citizens access to critical government services, these states are denying them human rights, and are creating a situation where the poor cannot bring themselves out from poverty.
Background The term “human development” is often used to describe humanitarian issues around the world, and leaders often find it difficult to define this term because it encompasses very different types of development issues. “Development” is concentrated on problems dealing with economy, education, health, gender, and security. As such, for the purposes of this discussion, ‘human development’ will be defined as the development of the “human person [as] the central subject of [economic] development.”1 Put simply, human development addresses the manner in which the standard of living of citizens can improve their standard of living, thereby enhancing overall economic development. Human development goals have become more focused as the international community has established ways to monitor and intervene in cases where human rights have been violated. Currently, the UNDP is focusing on issues of development through the UN Millennium Project, which outlines strategies that “will allow even the poorest countries to achieve the Millennium Development Goals by 2015.”2 The Millennium Development Goals have focused aims, such as “halv[ing] the proportion of people who suffer from hunger [and ensuring] that children everywhere, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling” all by the year 2015.3 These goals are challenging and will require truly international cooperation.
1
International Association of Universities, “Sustainable Development,” International Association of Universities, http://www.unesco.org/iau/sd/sd_definitions.html 2 One United Nations Plaza, “Millennium Project,” One United Nations Plaza, http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/goals/index.htm (accessed February 28) 3 Ibid.
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Foreign Influence in the 20th Century Although the United Nations is continually trying to help states to stop corruption, skepticism of foreign influence has made it difficult for the UN to have any real impact. Much of the Middle East has been affected by past conflicts that have made it hard for these states to trust outside forces, especially those of the West. Throughout modern history, the Middle East has been under foreign influence. European countries, like Great Britain and France, were the first to develop outposts in the Middle East. These states, already well-developed in their own right, recognized the Arabian Peninsula as important due to its strategic location and control of value oil supplies. States in this region were colonies of the Imperial Powers, and while they exported tremendous volumes of oil to their masters, little was done to develop their economic and physical infrastructures.4 Tension between the Middle East and Europe intensified after World War II as colonial empires collapsed.5 When it was clear that the so-called Age of Imperialism was coming to an end, European states began to divide up their holding from around the world. As a result of the two World Wars, European powers were without the money or military strength to control their former empires. As they began withdrawing from former possessions, they established arbitrary state borders, delineated not by religion or social similarities, but by the need for quick departure. The result was an entire region of the world dominated by illegitimate governments, and suffering from internal strife. Frustration with Europe was exacerbated by the withdrawal of British troops from Palestine, and the establishment of Israel, a Jewish enclave with possession of major religious establishments, in the middle of the Arab World. Arab states regarded Britain’s act as betrayal and considered this the beginning of a political war between the European
4
On Power.org, “Middle East,” The Independent Institute, http://www.onpower.org/foreign_regional_Mideast.html#02 (accessed February 10, 2005) 5 Ibid.
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nations and Israel against the Arabs. The British, recognizing that the situation in the Middle East was about to become untenable sought to leave Palestine as quickly as possible, and handed control of the region to the United Nations, establishing Palestine as a mandate under UN control.6 In the years immediately following the Second World War, the United Nations agreed to the establishment of Israel as an independent, Jewish state. Perhaps in sympathy for the plight of Jews during the war, or the desire to support Zionist ideals, much of the world community supported Israel and the survival of the Jewish faith. The United States, which had a growing Jewish population became a leading supporter of Israel, and was joined in this position by the United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union. The United States also became involved in Iran and Iraq, at times supporting each side in opposition of the other. During the between Iraq and Iran in the 1980s, the United States supplied Iraq with chemical and biological weapons which were used first against Iran, and then later against Iraq’s own population. When Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1991, the United States led a multinational coalition force to end Iraqi occupation of this oilrich emirate.7 Western involvement in the Middle East has brought about continued tension between Arab states and the developed world. States in the region see this intervention as counter to their wishes, and accuse these states of meddling in their internal and external political affairs. While Arab states accept foreign investment into their oil industries, they are reluctant to involve the West in their politics, as they feel that the West has not effectively served their interests over countless decades.
6 7
Ibid. Ibid.
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Increase of Poverty Due to Occupation Occupation, whether military or economic, often results to dire consequences on affected states.
When one state controls the government operations of another, they
often do not do so with truly altruistic motives, and even if they do, the transition from occupation to independence is often fraught with difficulty. Throughout history, only when occupation occurred in the immediate aftermath of a war, has the result been favorable for the occupied state. After the Second World War, when Germany was occupied by Allied forces, and Japan was occupied by the United States, specific efforts were made to ensure the economic development of these formerly belligerent states. Unlike these examples, European occupation of the Middle East was exploitative in nature, with France and England seeking economic opportunity for themselves, over the needs of the local populations.
Israeli Occupation of Palestine Palestinian territory has been occupied by Israel since the War of 1967. Although the international community identifies this situation as an occupation, Israel only recognizes the land as “disputed territories”, and does not refer nor acknowledge it as an occupation, since these lands were gained as a result of wars started by Israel’s neighbors.8 The tension between Israelis and Palestinians has made it difficult for them to come to an agreement, and to promote the general welfare of the affected populations. Due to the lack of cooperation, Palestinians argue that they are denied basic human rights and security that they deserve. The situation also further delays human and economic development in Palestine.9 Palestinians have long argued that they are denied basic human rights, due to Israel’s longstanding involvement in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. In response to what 8
9
Aljazeera.net, “The semantics of Israeli occupation,” sec. 3, August 25, 2004. Bennanni, F., Elsadda, H., et all, Arab Human Development Report 2003 (New York: UNDP, RBAS, 2003), 23
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it deems security threats, Israel periodically closes the borders between these two areas and Israel as a means of keeping those that wish Israel harm confined to Palestinian areas. Long a target of Arab-sponsored terrorism, Israel has consistently been proactive in the preservation of its national security, making use of its military to intervene in the occupied territories, and participating in raids against suspected terror leaders. As a result, Israel often restricts the destination and manner in which Palestinians can leave these areas. While Israel has been able to develop a flourishing economy, the situation in Gaza and the West Bank are quite different. The gross domestic product per capita in Israel is approximately USD $24,000 per year, whereas it is just USD $1,100 in the West Bank, and a mere USD $600 in the Gaza Strip. Limited by their borders, these two areas are cut off from the global marketplace, and are forced to rely largely upon humanitarian assistance for survival. Over the course of the last fifty years, Israel has transferred government control of these areas to the Palestinian Authority, however this administration has been unable to establish real economic or social development in these areas. Moreover, due to continued Israeli military incursions into these areas, capital infrastructure has destroyed on multiple occasions, forcing the Palestinians to repeatedly rebuild factories and other facilities instead of using resources for productive economic growth. Israel agreed to withdraw settlements from the West Bank in 2003 and began that process in 2005, however renewed violence has resulted in Israel’s continued military control over the region, keeping the territories isolated from much of the world. The result of the occupation of Palestinian areas results in the impeding of economic growth for both Israel and the slowly forming Palestinian state. Both states spend considerable sums on their militaries, meaning that less money is available for social and economic development. Moreover, continued violence in the region makes foreign investors reluctant to contribute to development, further limiting economic prosperity.
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United States Occupation of Iraq In 2003, the United States invaded Iraq as a result of the administration of U.S. President George W. Bush determining that Iraq was a threat to global security due to its stockpile of weapons of mass destruction. Based upon information collected from a host of international intelligence agencies, the United States and the “Coalition of the Willing” sought to remove Iraqi president Saddam Hussein from power. Led by American forces, the military expected a rapid resumption of peace in Iraq once the government had been toppled. The situation that troops have faced on the ground has been considerably different than initial expectations. Instead of being greeted with flowers and cheers of support, Iraq has essentially divided into three regions, each controlled by a different party. The central government of Iraq in Baghdad has been unable to effectively assert itself as a federal power, relying upon the continued presence of coalition soldiers to maintain order. The seemingly interminable insurgency has declared that they are unwilling to suspend their attacks while Coalition, especially American troops remain in Iraq, but the Iraqi government has asked for these troops to remain until order has been restored, establishing a cycle of violence with no apparent end in site. Regardless the outcome, there appears to be growing resentment of Western involvement in the affairs of Arab states.10
Single Sector Economies Single sector state economies happen when a state depends on a single commodity that is the primary or singular export from which revenue is generated.
Singular
economies pose great danger to developing nations around the world because it makes the country more vulnerable to market fluctuations. While states in the Middle East have 10
Philippe Le Billon, “Corruption, Reconstruction, and Oil Governance in Iraq,” Third World Quarterly Vol. 26 Issue 4/5 (2005). Academic Search Premier, via Taylor & Francis, http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/link.asp?id=g8j6615163161185
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a fairly consistent market in oil, it is not without price fluctuations. The price of a barrel of oil increased by some 40% since 2000, however new estimates predict that increased drilling capacity could result in a reduction of this cost in the coming years. While Middle Eastern states have generated outsized revenues as a result, there is growing concern that if the market recenters on a lower price, that some of these economies, which have become accustomed to significant wealth, may face significant economic hardship. Abundance of a specific resource, such as oil, is usually regarded as a blessing but in the case of the Middle East, the blessing has become more of a curse. Nations that are dependent on one resource are more likely to get involved in armed conflicts, as they need to defend their control over the resource at virtually any cost.
As a result,
governments, which own most of the oil reserves in this region, spend incoming revenues on military hardware instead of investing it into local communities. As the government controls the primary source of income for the nation, the regime gains power over all aspects of politics.11 Iraq has experienced both the blessing and curse of their abundance in oil. The state, which owns approximately 10.8 per cent of the world’s resources, is one of the most impoverished countries in the world.12 In the 1970s, Iraq found its abundance in oil a blessing as generated significant wealth for the government as a result of the oil shocks of the 1970s. By the end of the decade, Iraq had average annual economic growth of fourteen per cent and was recognized as the second largest exporter in the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).13 The revenue from oil helped fund Iraq’s military expenses and supported the growth of Iraq’s formerly ruling Ba’ath Party. The economic boom also improved the living conditions of the people and increased job
11
Ibid. Thomas I. Palley, “Lifting the Natural Resource Curse,” Foreign Service Journal, (2003). Academic Search Premier, via Global Policy Forum, http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/natres/generaldebate/2003/12curse.htm. 13 Le Billon. 12
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But
in
1980,
resource dependent-Iraq ran into economic turmoil.
Due to an
increase in exports of oil from all over the region, oil prices began to decrease significantly. In addition, the Iran-Iraq War which lasted for
10
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC): A group of thirteen countries which are major producers and exporters of crude petroleum. The organization, set up in 1960, acts as a forum for discussion of and agreement on the level at which the member countries should fix the price of their crude petroleum exports by production quotas. The 13 member countries are: Algeria, Ecuador, Gabon, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Venezuela. Source: poli.haifa.ac.il/~levi/res/dicpe.html
most of the 1980s caused significant damage to Iraq’s already fragile economy. Annual economic growth of about fourteen per cent had turned into a negative growth of about six per cent. By the time the United States invaded Iraq in 2003, the state owed some USD $382 billion in public debt, and was in need of social and economic reform that was estimated to require about USD $52 billion.14 In response to Iraq’s unwillingness to allow weapons inspectors examine the state’s weapons caches as part of the agreement that ended the 1991 Persian Gulf War, the United Nations enacted a host of sanctions designed to encourage the Iraqi government into compliance.
These sanctions stopped all exports of Iraqi oil for
unrestricted profits. The UN mandated that Iraq could only sell oil if the revenue generated from such a sale would be used for the purchase of medical and humanitarian aid supplies. The sanctions, while noble in purpose, were widely violated, and Iraq was known to be selling oil on the open market – the profits went to the leading Ba’athists, and very little of this money made its way to counteract the poverty found throughout the state. While the regime was profiting wildly from this illicit oil trade, it was showcasing the poverty and lack of medical care available to its people, suggesting that the world was, in effect, contributing to the deaths of thousands of Iraqi civilians. Iraq is just one example of how an economy dependent entirely upon one commodity can cause havoc to a population. The largely stable price of oil in the 1980s 14
Ibid.
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and 1990ss resulted in an inability for the Iraqi government to generate the necessary income to support increased expenses. Unable to generate increased revenues, Iraq turned to armed conflict to help its cause. The Iran-Iraq War that lasted for most of the 1980s was as a result of a disputed oilfield on the border of these two states. The war, which was essentially a decade long stalemate was funded in large part by the United States, and resulted in the destruction of much of southern Iraq and Iran. The agreement that ended the war offered Iraq no advantage. Further hindered by a weak economy and a debt burden that hobbled the economy, Iraq invaded neighboring Kuwait in 1991 in an effort to capture the oilfields of this oil-rich state.
Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait was
condemned by the international community, and a broad coalition of forces expelled Iraqi troops from Kuwait, and inflicted damaging sanctions on the floundering regime.
Current Status Literacy and Education Middle East States have made improvements in the provision of education, however they have been unable to bring their citizens in line with the rest of the developed world. Illiteracy rates remain high, most children are still not receiving basic elementary-level education, and enrollment rates for colleges and universities are continually dropping. Companies lack the necessary resources to invest in research and development, and much of the economic activity in the region is due to transnational corporations who do not invest considerable sums into the regional economies. A reason for the lack of education in some Arab nations may be because authoritarian rulers control educational reforms and do not provide funding necessary for adequate educational growth. It has been suggested that by keeping their populations undereducated, that these individuals are less likely to rise up against the state, or to effectively demand reform.
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The lack of government support of educational reform is evident from the beginning of an Arab person’s education. Pre-school and kindergarten in many areas of the Middle East do not fulfill the necessary skills needed to develop vital abilities essential to a child’s future. These children are taught basic reading and writing skills but are not taught social skills, which are crucial for success. Children in Arab states are often not given academic freedom that will allow them to develop free thought and expression, resulting in a dearth of academically viable individuals in the region. The result of this situation is that these populations have been unable to develop an academic elite outside of the government, thereby stunting their ability to develop new technologies, or undergo meaningful social reform.15 In addition to limited access to education, students in authoritarian regimes are not always taught from an impartial perspective.
Authoritarian regimes often incorporate nationalistic or xenophobic
messages of “loyalty, obedience and support for the regime in power [by putting] a picture of the ruler on the front page” of their textbooks, creating a cult of personality around the ruler, but very little in the sense of potential in the lives of children. Education in Arab states also encourages memorization and recitation study, rather than critical thinking. By continually enforcing these study techniques, students eventually lose their own creativity and individual thoughts and are more willing to submit to the demands of the regime. Authoritarian regimes are often able to control their populations through the provision, or the refusal to provide important goods and services.
By
denying them access to education, but providing them with food, they are in effect developing a population entirely dependent upon the government for survival.16 Since education throughout much of the Middle East is not provided by the government, it is available only to the wealthy, further reinforcing the vicious cycle. People who are uneducated are unable to afford even basic education for their children,
15 16
Bennanni, F., Elsadda, H., et all. 52. Ibid 26.
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who as a result are unable to provide for the basic education of their own children. Studies in Egypt have shown that only thirty to forty per cent of the population has basic reading, writing, and mathematics skills. In Bahrain, basic math skills are dramatically below the global average. 17 Both these studies prove that previous efforts to reform education have been unsuccessful, and that more need to be done in order to provide for these children. The lack of educational direction may also be a major reason why there has been such slow growth in education. As stated earlier, government officials are much more focused on military advancements and do not pay close attention to educational reform. Due to this type of neglect, countries do not have a specific goal for education and takes them longer to realize the reform that is necessary for their individual state. For example, nations, such as Egypt, Syria, Libya, and Yemen, have finally begun incorporating foreign language classes into their primary education in 2003. 18 In comparison to Europe, which incorporated language into their primary education since the 1960s, Middle Eastern states are well behind their global counterparts. Because development in education is slow, Arab students continue to fall behind the rest of the world.
Censorship and Government Control Over Information The lack of educational resources and information may only be a small part of the problem. As authoritarian states, Middle Eastern countries generally have strict controls over what information is made public or even published. Many of the most popular books cannot be found in the region, and governments in this area have also denied access to many of the classical works which have defined culture throughout the world. Lack of access to seminal philosophy results in a society ill-prepared to assess its own position, and to call for social reforms. The number of books printed in the Middle East
17 18
Ibid. 55 Ibid. 54
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remains below 1.1 per cent of the world’s production, despite representing more than 3 per cent. In comparison, from 1980-1985, Middle Eastern states translated 4.4 books per 1 million people; in Hungary the number was 519 and in Spain it was 920.19 These numbers are still prevalent in most of the Arab countries today. The lack of resources that are necessary to increase knowledge and understanding has slowed down the growth of education.20
Health Issues Despite considerable international involvement to improve the health condition of people throughout the Middle East, little measurable progress has been achieved. The Middle East has come a long way since the 1980s, when most nations did not have modern health clinics with necessary equipment or specialists to aid patients, let alone access to safe water and food. Many Arab states have tried to fund health reforms and have began to build sanitary institutions and health care centers, yet, they the services they are able to provide are quite low, and most of the water remains undrinkable. In Palestine, safe water supply is a very serious problem, and statistics show that 13 per cent of the Palestinian people do no have running water. As for the people who do have water, only 7 per cent of it meets World Health Organization standards and is safe enough to use for household activities. In other Arab states, while constructing the infrastructure necessary to ensure a safe water supply, governments must also find a way to pay for funding of health centers. The Yemeni “health delivery system coverage has increased from 10% in 1970 to almost 50% in 2000�, and total spending on health increased from 4.4 per cent to 5.1 per cent from 1996 to 2000.21 Assessed alone, these numbers suggest tremendous development in the healthcare network, but when looked at in the broader context of the needs of the 19
Ibid. Ibid. 67 21 MPIG. 20
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Yemeni people, this progress is almost meaningless. Hospitals do not have access to the drugs they need to treat patients, and vaccines are in short supply. Some 80 per cent of all funding for new health centers is used in major cities, meaning that health remains inaccessible for the rural population, which also represents to poorest part of Yemeni society.22 Unable to receive medical care, Yemen suffers from an unnecessarily high mortality rate from treatable diseases like diarrhea, diphtheria, and malaria.23
Gender Inequality In many Middle Eastern countries, economic growth is further hindered by systematic discrimination against women and racial minorities. Studies have shown that equal opportunities for women and for people of different social positions will increase productivity, in turn having a significant effect on the health of the economy. As a largely Islamic society, women are not permitted to participate in many sectors of the economy, and are restricted from working at all, in many cases. Studies in Turkish elementary schools have shown that girls, if offered the necessary opportunities and resources, have the potential to provide more for society than their male counterparts. In November 2005, the Turkish government enacted a ban against headscarves in schools, announced as a means of controlling the impact of religious tensions within educational facilities. The result of this ban has been a drop in the proportion of females enrolled in schools. These women are now faced with deciding between being faithful to their religious beliefs, or pursuing their education. Either decision ends in a loss for women.24
22
Bennanni, F., Elsadda, H., et all, 75 MPIC, “Major Development Challenges,” MPIC, http://www.mpicyemen.org/new1/strategies.asp?contantmain=6&key=18 (accessed February 4, 2006) 24 Human Rights News, “Turkey: Headscarf Ruling Denies Women Education and Career,” Human Rights Watch, http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/11/16/turkey12038.htm (accessed February 1, 2006) 23
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Key Positions Developed Countries Developed countries tend to have interest in participation and promotion of human development in the Middle East. Their interests are based on security threats and what they perceive to be economic opportunities with the establishment of democratic regimes in the region. First, under-developed nations are known to be vulnerable to corruption and tend to result to “terrorism” against developed nations because they feel controlled by foreign influence. 25 This situation creates great security concern and will affect growth in the Middle Eastern region and the growth of the rest of the world. Second, the Middle East has abundant natural resources, such as oil.26 Developed countries regard the problems in the Middle East as an opportunity to befriend them in terms of future business success.
United States The United States has been involved with Middle Eastern politics since its ascent to be a global military and economic power. 27 Similar to other developed nations, American intervention in the region was generated by the need for oil, causing tension with many Middle Eastern governments who felt they were being exploited for the economic gain of a Western power.28 In addition to self-interested motives, their tactics of enforcement and encouragement of democracy have lacked the commitment and technique necessary to bring about such social change. Although the U.S. intended to promote peace and freedom to the Iraqi people, the 2003 invasion has fallen subject to
25
Rachel Bronson, “Reconstructing the Middle East?” Brown Journal of World Affairs, Summer/Fall, Vol. 10 Issue 1(2003). Academic Search Premier, via epnet, http://search.epnet.com.proxy.libraries.rutgers.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&an=10032652 26 Ibid. 27 Onpower.org. 28 Ibid.
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claims of Western imperialism. Western forces on Islamic soil, trying to implement a governmental structure not wildly popular in the region has caused significant stress in what were already strained relations among these states.29
European Powers European states have been involved in the affairs of the Middle East since colonial times. While early intervention was forceful, recent efforts have been more supportive in nature. Europe’s approach to efforts to convince Iran to give up its nuclear program is evidence of a strategy of diplomacy and integration, as opposed to older paradigms.30 Although the Europe has strong interests in oil, they appear to be supporting a multilateral strategy at first promoting increased production of oil, and second, establishing peace in the region. The European Union recognizes the importance of establishing good relations with the Middle East. 31 While in some ways unpopular with their American counterparts, Europe has announced a commitment to provide ongoing humanitarian and political aid to the region, despite disagreements over Palestine. While the United States suspended foreign aid as a result of the election of Hamas to lead the Palestinians, Europe recommitted to its earlier aid pledges, and seemed to suggest that more would be available if needed. Rather than treat Hamas as an opponent in this case, Europe has sought to engage the group in meaningful reform efforts.32
Japan Japanese foreign policy towards the Middle East has become more prevalent today than in the past. Since Japan’s industry heavily relies upon oil, it has become dependent on the Middle East for its petroleum reserves, as the six Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) 29
Ibid. Onpower.org. 31 Europa, “The Middle East Peace Process,” Europa, http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/mepp/index.htm 32 Ibid. 30
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states supply up to seventy per cent of Japanese oil imports.33 Even though Japan greatly depends on the Arab states for their natural resources, the Arab world also depends on Japan for its aid and support.
Middle East Middle Eastern states often refuse help or aid of foreign influences, fearing the result of increased Western influence in the region. They have negative attitudes towards developed countries because previous experiences have not been especially fruitful. When developed countries get involved in Middle Eastern politics, Middle Eastern governments feel as though they lose freedom to manage their own conflicts, and fear the effects of continued Western occupation.
Non-Governmental Organizations International non-governmental organizations (NGOs), such as Human Rights Watch, have helped publicize poverty in the Middle East. Reports of unsafe living conditions have caused states throughout the world to offer financial and medical assistance to those in need.
NGOs have also encouraged donors to fund human
development, such as education reform and health reforms, in the Middle East. National NGOs, such as Programme and Assistance to the Palestinian People (PAPP), concentrate on specific needs of the Arab nation they represent. For example, the PAPP promotes building of health centers, supplying of better equipment and treatment, and increased training of medical personnel and specialists.34 National NGOs are important because they understand that needs are different in every Arab nation and are able to accommodate the needs of specific nations.
33
Passia, “Training and education in international affairs:Japan, Palestine and the Middle East (1999),” Passia, http://www.passia.org/seminars/99/japan/jpolicy.htm 34 Programme of Assistance to the Palestinian People, “Health Care,” United Nations Development Programme, http://www.papp.undp.org/en/10/index.htm (accessed February 4, 2006)
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Business Interests Business interests in the Middle East are growing increasingly important as states such as China and India become more dependent upon oil to support their rapid economic development. As the Arab nations continue to pursue development and growth, their consumption of products for building, necessary equipment, and reform will continue to increase. As Arab states continue to develop, equal business opportunities may worsen. In the Middle East, there already exists a problem of income distribution due to corruption in government. If this region is truly interested in human and economic development, they must focus attention on the needs of their populations, rather than just on their own interests. The more privilege the Arab governments continue to give private groups and business, the longer poverty will prevail in their country, further dragging on the muchneeded reform.
Media Information reported by the media in the Middle East has always been a problem. Two key reasons prevent people in the Arab world from receiving true information and creating limitation on the expansion of their knowledge. The reasons are slow flow of information and the use of censorship to limit what sort of news is widely available. Compared to the rest of the world, the Middle East has slower and more limited flow of information due to government restrictions. 35 The region does not have a significant number of newspapers due to the fact that such a significant proportion of the population is illiterate and therefore unable to read the news. They are therefore required to listen to the radio or watch television to receive their news, but the abject poverty of some areas in the region make even this impossible. Lebanon, which has the highest proportion of
35
Bennanni, F., Elsadda, H., et all. 59
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people that listen to the radio, ranks relatively low when compared to the rest of the world.36 Without multiple sources from which to receive information, people become easily convinced that what they are hearing is everything that they need to know. Censorship has also turned civilians away from seeking Middle Eastern media for news and information. Most current media agencies are owned by the state, making it hard for the media to be independent. The media becomes viewed as an illegitimate source of information because effectively become a tool of the government. Censorship also forces media to give one-sided view of news and also forces the media to cover stories like narratives.37 Since the media is not allowed to cover stories with information that interests their audience, most do not even bother to listen.
36 37
Ibid. 60. Ibid. 61
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Summary There are many underlying problems that cause poverty and slow growth of human development in the Middle East.
Foreign influence upon this region has
continually placed them in a vulnerable state.
Rather than helping the area have
sustainable development, foreign influence has brought more chaos and difficulty to the area. The region is also vulnerable due to the reliance of many states on a single commodity to export. Since most Arab states are dependent on one resource, they are more susceptible to corruption and governments have control over most of the economic income of the state. Due to such vulnerability to corruption and control, these Middle Eastern countries find difficulty when trying to develop. Since the government has control of revenue, the civilians must try to please the regime in order to receive income enough to support their families. As the people of these authoritarian regimes submit themselves to the state, the regimes continually gain more power and eventually they begin to restrict flow of information and news, limit medical supplies, prevent education reforms, and much more that make the citizen even more submissive.
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Discussion Questions •
What are the underlying problems for lack of or stagnant development in the Middle East?
•
What has your state done to develop? To aid in development of other states?
•
How effective are NGOs in helping states with development?
•
How can the humanitarian issues in the Middle East be resolved?
•
Is it possible to end governmental corruption in the Middle East without infringing on sovereignty?
•
How much does foreign influence play a role in the lack of development in the Middle East? How can it be alleviated? If it is not a case of foreign interference, how can such a resource rich region not develop?
•
What effect has occupation had on development in the Middle East? Is occupation helping or not?
•
How can educational systems be improved? Whose responsibility is it to improve available education services?
•
How can healthcare infrastructure be improved?
•
What are the underlying causes of the lack of development in the educational and healthcare structures?
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Works Cited Aljazeera.net. “Poor Iraqis face struggle for survival.” Aljazeera. http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/554FAF3A-B267-427A-B9EC54881BDE0A2E.htm. Aljazeera.net. “The semantics of Israeli occupation.” Aljazeera. http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/74BC3C32-2A37-48C3-AA3749F561A0D4C0.htm. Bennanni, F., Elsadda, H., et all. Arab Human Development Report 2003. New York. United Nations Development Programme, Regional Bureau for Arab States. 2003. Bronson, Rachel. “Reconstructing the Middle East?” Brown Journal of World Affairs, Summer/Fall, Vol. 10 Issue 1(2003). Academic Search Premier, via epnet, http://search.epnet.com.proxy.libraries.rutgers.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph &an=10032652. Clark, Ramsey. “Protocol 1, Additional to the Geneva Conventions, 1977.” Geneva Protocol, Sec. 1, Chap.3, Article 53 (1992) Commission of Inquiry for the International War Crimes Tribunal. http://deoxy.org/wc/wc-proto.htm. Human Rights News. “Iran: Jailed Dissidents Denied Medical Care.” Human Rights Watch, http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/06/14/iran11125.htm . Human Rights News. “Turkey: Headscarf Ruling Denies Women Education and Career.” Human Rights Watch. http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/11/16/turkey12038.htm. International Association of Universities. “Sustainable Development.” International Association of Universities. http://www.unesco.org/iau/sd/sd_definitions.html. Le Billon, Phillippe. “Corruption, Reconstruction, and Oil Governance in Iraq.” Third World Quarterly, Vol. 26, No. 4-5 (2005), 685-703. Academic Search Premier, via Taylor & Francis. http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/link.asp?id=g8j6615163161185. McElroy, Wendy. “No Oil for Food.” Oakland, Calif.: The Independent Institute, April 29, 2003. http://www.independent.org/newsroom/article.asp?id=1148.
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“The Middle East Peace Process.” Europa. http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/mepp/index.htm. Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation (MPIC). “Major Development Challenges.” MPIC. http://www.mpichttp://www.yemen.org/new1/strategies.asp?contantmain=6&key=18. “Millennium Project.” One United Nations Plaza. http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/goals/index.htm. Passia. “Training and education in international affairs: Japan, Palestine and the Middle East (1999).” Passia, http://www.passia.org/seminars/99/japan/jpolicy.htm. Programme of Assistance to the Palestinian People. “Health Care.” United Nations Development Programme.http://www.papp.undp.org/en/10/health.htm. World Socialist Web Site. “Turkey: Growing poverty and social inequality.” The International Committee of the Fourth International. http://www.wsws.org/articles/2003/apr2003/turk-a24.shtml.
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Works Referenced Aljazeera.net. “UN: Poverty tied to gender inequality.” Alzazeera, October 12, 2005. http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/554FAF3A-B267-427A-B9EC54881BDE0A2E. Doumato, Eleanor Abdella. “Economic Restructuing in the Middle East, Implications for Women.” Middle East Report. No. 210, Spring, 1999. 17. JStor,http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=08992851%28199921%290%3A210%3C17%3AERITME%3E2.0.CO%3B2-T. Isfahani, D.S., Niva, S. Pfeifer, K., Prpstein-Posusney, M.,. “Reform or Reaction? Dilemmas of Economic Development in the Middle East,.” Middle East Report. No. 210, Spring, 1999. JStor, http://link.jstor.org/sici?sici=08992851%2899921%290%3A210%3C14%3ARORDOE%3E2.0CO%3B2-S. Kandiyoti, Deniz. “Women, Islam and the State.” Middle East Report. No. 173,Novemeber-December,1991. JStor, http://link.jstor.org/sici?sici=08992851%2899111%2F12%290%3A173%3C9%3AWIATS%3E2.0CO%3B2-1. Silvera, Alain. “The Classical Eastern Question.” Middle Eastern Studies. Vol. 36, Issue 4. October 2000, EBSCO. http://search.epnet.com.proxy.libraries.rutgers.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph &an=4082201. Takeyh, Ray. “Close but no Democracy.” National Interest. Issue 78, Winter2004/2005,EBSCO. http://search.epnet.com.proxy.libraries.rutgers.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph &an=15524851.