The Institute for Domestic and International Affairs, Inc.
International Press Corps Background Information Directors: Ruchi Gupta and Katie D’Onofrio
Š 2006 Institute for Domestic & International Affairs, Inc. (IDIA) This document is solely for use in preparation for Philadelphia Model United Nations 2007. Use for other purposes is not permitted without the express written consent of IDIA. For more information, please write us at idiainfo@idia.net
Introduction _________________________________________________________________ 1 Technological Advancements in the Media ____________________________________________ 2
Government Run vs. Free Press _________________________________________________ 5 Case Study: United States __________________________________________________________ 6 Case Study: South Africa___________________________________________________________ 7 Case Study: Europe _______________________________________________________________ 8 Case Study: Iran _________________________________________________________________ 10 Case Study: Japan _______________________________________________________________ 11 Case Study: China _______________________________________________________________ 12 The ‘CNN Effect’ ________________________________________________________________ 14
Government Accountability ____________________________________________________ 14 The 24-Hour News Cycle______________________________________________________ 16 Summary___________________________________________________________________ 19 Discussion Questions _________________________________________________________ 21 Works Cited ________________________________________________________________ 22 Works Consulted ____________________________________________________________ 23
PhilMUN 2007
1
Introduction The term ‘media’ encompasses a wide spectrum, including the World Wide Web, newspapers, television, radio, and even advertising. People are bombarded by the media in every aspect of their lives, from watching television, to listening to the radio while driving to work, to seeing highway billboards. Media serves many different purposes; the two most common are delivering information and entertainment value. In terms of the government and politics, the media serves as a forum to express ideas and voice opinions on pertinent issues. The media has a responsibility to the people to inform them of what is happening in the world.1 Media has evolved through the years in order to adjust to the needs of people. Originally, news was shared only by word of mouth, either around a town, aboard a ship, on horseback, by pigeon, or via another carrier, but in early times, it took days, months or even years to receive communication from other countries or places. Through many technological advances, in the 19th Century, media became a very important enterprise and a much more efficient form of communication.2 When developing new media, people must think of the purpose of the instrument and what would be the most effective way to have a meaningful impact on its target audience. Broadcast media allows information to go out to millions of people in different places all at the same time, meaning people in big cities are exposed to the same information as those in small rural locales. This brings people closer together and allows for more standardized information to be given to large populations. The result can be the development of nationalism, as news is often considered to be a unifying force, often considered essential for government and political issues.3 Politics and media are reliant on each other in many ways. With the advent of radio and television, political candidates have a forum for their ideas and messages.
1
Marc, David, “Broadcasting, Radio, and Television,” Microsoft Encarta Reference Library, Microsoft Corporation, 1993-2003. 2 Ibid, 2. 3 Ibid, 5.
PhilMUN 2007
2
Without media, politics and government would have a difficult time finding supporters and keeping the public informed. Since there is a significant reliance on the media in the political arena, governments in many countries tend to regulate what is shown and shared with the populace. In some countries these regulations are stricter depending on the form of government in place.
In the United States, media is regulated by the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC), which regulates radio and television across the entire nation. Even though the U.S. is a democracy, what is broadcast over airwaves does not go unregulated because the government has an interest in protecting young viewers from inappropriate material. In other countries, where the government may be more restrictive in nature, the regulations are even stricter, meaning the people are only informed about what the government wants them to know.4
Technological Advancements in the Media As new technological advances have become available, media has been quick to evolve. One of the first inventions to affect the media was that of the telegraph in 1837, by American inventor Samuel F.B. Morse and British scientists Sir Charles Wheatstone and Sir William Fothergill Cooke.
This was the first form of instantaneous
communication, meaning it allowed people to receive information as it was occurring and not months, days, or years later. This invention banded the world together because transatlantic undersea cables were laid out so people from different continents could communicate with each other. The news was able to travel faster than ever before. The telegraph was replaced by the telephone around 1876 by inventor Alexander Graham Bell, which allowed for even better communication. People no longer had to send signals or typed messages because the telephone allowed for voice to voice communication.5 Although both the telegraph and the telephone were excellent forms of communication, technological advances improved the media further. Work began on the radio in 1895, when Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi transmitted a message in Morse
4 5
Ibid,15. Marc, 1.
PhilMUN 2007
3
code to a device about 2 miles away, which was not wired in any way to his transmission device. This was a step toward a new type of communication, wireless communication. He discovered that messages could be “cast broadly,” or broadcasted, through space and be picked up by receivers at random points.6 Marconi took his invention to London, where it was marketed for use on naval and commercial ships. By 1900, a wireless signal was transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean from England to Newfoundland, Canada.
Canadian inventor, Reginald Fessenden,
further developed radio transmission by broadcasting a wider range of sounds, such as the human voice and music. In 1914, American inventor Edwin Howard Armstrong patented a new device which allowed radio signals to be amplified in order to broadcast to the general public. For the first time, people were able to hear the voice of their President in their own homes, along with reliable news on a regular basis.7 The next significant invention in communication was the television. Research for the television occurred as early as 1884, when German inventor Paul Nipkow transmitted an image through space. His work was developed further in the mid 1920s by Charles Francis Jenkins and John Logie Baird. However, television broadcasting did not gain popularity until after the Second World War. Both radio and television changed the lives of many people, in terms of both communication and knowledge. First, radio allowed people to communicate faster and experience news and entertainment first-hand. Television added the benefit of an image along with the words once used by radio personalities.
It allowed average people to experience extraordinary events, from
breaking news on a battlefield, new sports’ records, to entertainment venues only once experienced by the upper classes.8 Beyond the advent of color television and cable television, development in communication was lacking for nearly fifty years until the development of the internet and, subsequently, the World Wide Web (WWW). This changed the media in many 6
Ibid, 2. Ibid, 4. 8 Ibid, 8. 7
PhilMUN 2007
4
ways, by allowing for more stories as well as more in-depth writing. It also allowed for quicker information exchange as well as multi-media. For the first time, news could be reported real-time to broad, even limitless audiences at a low cost. News on the internet can also take the form of video, as well as images, sound, and text. It is also available on-demand, meaning that stories can be posted and read at any time. Readers can watch a report whenever they want, not only when it is being broadcast. It is also no longer necessary to build giant antennas and repeaters to broadcast a television or radio signal. Instead, media outlets simply need a computer with access to the internet and they can disseminate their news and opinions to almost anywhere in the world. The internet was established in the early 1970s as a global network of computers, but was originally used by scientists to exchange information among themselves, universities, and government agencies. The web was developed during the late 1980s, as a more effective way to communicate.9 Established publishers began putting their items on the web even before 1989, both on public and private servers, but it quickly picked up steam, with many journalists putting their columns and newspapers online for viewers in the early 1990s. About one hundred newspapers were online in 1994, followed by six hundred in 1995 and seven hundred in 1996. Altogether, between newspapers, magazines, broadcasters, and news services, there are more than four thousand news-gathering organizations on the Web today. Needless to say, this has changed the face of journalism in many ways.10 The internet is very beneficial in terms of spreading news more effectively and quickly but there are also some downsides to this form of communication. The internet is accessible to anyone with a computer and an internet connection. There are internet cafes, libraries, and other places which allow people to access the internet without access to a home computer. For the first time, the principles of journalistic integrity and
9
Chase, Neil, “Journalism Jumps to the World Wide Web,� Microsoft Encarta Reference Library, Microsoft Corporation: 1993-2003, 1. 10 Ibid, 2.
PhilMUN 2007
5
precepts of the news editor are being eroded. Now anyone can post their feelings and opinions on the internet as if they were from a veritable news source.11 With the increasing popularity and access of the World Wide Web, another recent trend that had developed is blogging, which is defined as the process of writing and publishing informal journals on thoughts, comments, and philosophies about various topics for public viewing.12 Blogs and other independent media on the internet not only serve as a check to corporate or government controlled media, but also allow freedom of expression in nations where self-expression is uncommon.
Government Run vs. Free Press In certain countries, there is less regulation of the media than others, often depending on the type of government. In some countries, the media is under full control of the government, whereas in other countries, the people are allowed free reign over media.
The level of control affects how knowledgeable people are about their
government or events taking place in other countries. In countries with a free press system, the people are generally well-informed and are able to make their own decisions when it comes to an important event or idea, such as an election or decision to go to war. However, in countries with a government run press, the people receive much less information about what is truly happening because the government maintains stricter controls over what is reported, thus are not given the opportunity to make a well informed decision about major events.13 Western ideals for media differ vastly to those ideals practiced elsewhere in the world. The United States is a good example of a country that practices a system of free press. Due to the fact that political leaders are elected by the people and not appointed, the general populace has a say in the government and its activity. The press helps
11
Ibid, 3. www.worldwidelearn.com/elearning-essentials/elearning-glossary.htm 13 Marc, 15. 12
PhilMUN 2007
6
citizens to monitor their government and gives them a way to stay informed on local, national, and international issues.14 In many nations in the Middle East and Asia, the media is much more restricted by the government. Chinese and North Korean media is almost exclusively limited to government run media outlets and foreign and internet media is usually censored before it can get to the people. Many countries in the Middle East and Asia have governmental agencies that monitor the press and broadcast media to limit what opinions are expressed to a mass audience. For example, Saudi Arabia employs 3,500 officers in the Mutaween, which is the Authority for the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice, whose main responsibility is to ban consumer products and media, including Western music and television.15
Case Study: United States Since the First Amendment was ratified in 1791, the United States has enjoyed a relatively free and flourishing press. There are, however, notable exceptions. The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 made “false, scandalous, or malicious writing” against the government a federal crime and made it illegal to “write, print, utter, or publish” anything critical of the president or of the Congress. The Court made it clear in the critical 1964 decision in New York Times v. Sullivan that the laws were in violation of free speech. In a unanimous decision, Justice Brennan wrote: “Although the Sedition Act was never tested in this Court, the attack upon its validity has carried the day in the court of history.”16 In that landmark ruling, the justices established the “actual malice” standard, meaning that publishers or journalists could not be held accountable for defamation or libel published unless it could be proven that the publisher either knew that the information was false or demonstrated “reckless disregard” for truth in the process. This 14
Kovitz, Milton, “Freedom of the Press,” Microsoft Encarta Reference Library, Microsoft Corporation: 1993-2003,
1. 15
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2399885.stm http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=376&invol=254. New York Times Company v. Sullivan: Supreme Court Decision. Findlaw.com.
16
PhilMUN 2007
7
ruling kept the New York Times, America’s largest newspaper, from financial ruin and set a precedent that would provide the framework for the rise of investigative journalism. This, in turn, helped to uncover many truths for the American people regarding the ongoing war in Vietnam and their leaders at home. The Supreme Court has revisited the rights of the free press many times since then including New York Times v. US, another landmark case, in which the Court held that confidential documents regarding Vietnam could be published against the wishes of the U.S. government. As mass media grows as a result of the internet age, true freedom of the press continues to encounter obstacles, but it has become easier to circumvent those impediments through the opportunity afforded by widespread, affordable, uncensored publishing on the internet. Recent clashes between the U.S. government and journalists in instances such as the Valerie Plame affair and coverage of the war in Iraq demonstrate that the United States media is still considered “less free� than many other western nations. According to the NGO, Reporters without Borders, the U.S. media ranks fortyfourth in press freedom, behind most of Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and even Costa Rica.17
Case Study: South Africa In recent years, Africans have been able to
As a result, innovations and media practices
Apartheid: a social policy or racial segregation involving political and economic and legal discrimination against people who are not Whites; the former official policy in South Africa.
already in place throughout the developed world
Source: wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn
develop a stronger mass media, mostly through technological innovations sweeping the continent.
have been imitated in Africa. South Africa has become the leader in African media since end of apartheid in 1994. South Africa currently publishes about 280 magazines and 36 daily and weekly urban newspapers.
17
http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=554. Annual Worldwide Press Freedom Index. Reporters sans frontiers. 14 September 2005.
PhilMUN 2007
8
In 1996, radio stations were deregulated and radio is thriving as South Africa’s largest broadcast medium, now much more liberalized and widespread. There are forty radio stations broadcasting throughout Johannesburg daily, as a result. Broadcasts are usually in English, but ten of South Africa’s other official languages can be heard, as well as German, Hindi, and Portuguese.18 The South African Broadcasting Corporation is the nation’s public service broadcaster, and while it is wholly owned by the South African government, it derives funding only from advertising and licensing fees, so it could be argued that it is an impartial medium. Television, however, is still the most closely regulated sector of the mass media. There are only four terrestrial television channels in South Africa, three of which are operated by the government.
Case Study: Europe The media in Europe is largely free and as news outlets enjoy a wide range of liberty in that censorship is not very strict. This openness led to controversy when in October 2005 a Danish newspaper published a controversial political cartoon depicting the Islamic Prophet Mohammed. This led to backlash from the Muslim world in early 2006 as Islam forbids the likeness of Mohammed from being printed. Despite this controversy, Europe is usually praised for the openness of its media systems because it provides its audience with a vast range of material and gives the viewer the discretion of whether or not they seek to absorb that information. The first twelve countries listed on the Reporters without Borders “Worldwide Press Freedom Index” are found on the European continent.19 This is not to say, however, that there is no accountability for the press in the area as European states have various safeguards to ensure that journalistic integrity is upheld and the news reporting is honest. Some states, such as Denmark, have multiple ministries that operate as accountability systems.20 In Germany, there is a Press
18
http://www.southafrica.info/ess_info/sa_glance/media/radio.htm. South Africa’s Radio Stations. Accessed 10 May 2005. 19 http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=554. Reporters without Borders For Press Freedom. Worldwide Freedom Index 2005. Accessed 11 July 2006. 20 http://www.ejc.nl/jr/emland/denmark.html. The Danish Media Landscape. European Media Landscape. European Journalism Centre. Accessed 11 July 2006.
PhilMUN 2007
9
Council to which members of the public may appeal directly for complaints related to news coverage, and if the Council supports the complaint, the news outlet at fault must publish the ruling.21 Others states, such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, have codes that stress the obligations and responsibilities of reporters.22 Each state has its own method for establishing accountability in the press, all of which endeavor to strike a balance between the freedom of the media, the rights of citizens, and the protection of government. News coverage in Europe is highly modernized and showcases the various forms of media including internet, radio, television, and print. Newspapers remain an important medium on the continent. Finland is ranked third in the world for newspaper readers with 455 copies sold per 1,000 inhabitants as of 1998.23 Greece circulates a total of eightyeight newspapers: nine morning, fifteen evening, seventeen weeklies, six financial newspapers, and nineteen sports papers, appealing to the various interests within the country.24
Television and radio are also very popular in Europe. France has six
nationwide channels, half of which are owned by the French state and half of which are commercial ventures.25
Even the small island state of Cyprus has seven television
channels, only two of which are operated by the state. The state monopoly on radio and television that had existed since the 1950s ended in the early 1990s, offering new opportunities for media within that nation.26 In Estonia, although most radio stations are local, one company is working to build up a national network. Estonia has enjoyed relative freedom from government regulation over radio and television since is achieved
21
http://www.ejc.nl/jr/emland/germany.html. The German Media Landscape. European Media Landscape. European Journalism Centre. Accessed 11 July 2006. 22 http://www.ejc.nl/jr/emland/bih.html. The Bosnia Herzegovina Media Landscape. European Media Landscape. European Journalism Centre. Accessed 11 July 2006. 23 http://www.ejc.nl/jr/emland/finland.html. The Finnish Media Landscape. European Media Landscape. European Journalism Centre. Accessed 11 July 2006. 24 http://www.ejc.nl/jr/emland/greece.html. The Greek Media Landscape. European Media Landscape. European Journalism Centre. Accessed 11 July 2006. 25 http://www.ejc.nl/jr/emland/france.html. The French Media Landscape. European Media Landscape. European Journalism Centre. Accessed 11 July 2006. 26 http://www.ejc.nl/jr/emland/cyprus.html#2. The Cyprus Media Landscape. European Media Landscape. European Journalism Centre. Accessed 11 July 2006.
PhilMUN 2007
10
independence from the former Soviet Union.27 One of the largest television and radio systems in Europe is the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), which is the largest broadcaster within the United Kingdom.
The BBC is primarily a public service
organization that receives much of its revenue from the British government but also operates commercially in many areas outside of Great Britain. It has two television channels, five national radio stations, more than forty local radio stations, and an assortment of cable and digital television channels. BBC also has Europe’s most visited website.
The company claims to reach approximately 94 per cent of the British
population over the course of one year rendering them highly influential in shaping the information disseminated to the general populace of the country.28 In general, the media in Europe is considered both advanced in technology and responsible in its journalistic mission. Reporters Without Borders describes the media atmosphere in most European states as having good or satisfactory situations. There are a few states that are described as having noticeable problems and a selection of countries, all of which are in Eastern and Southeastern Europe, that are described as having “difficult situations” pertaining to the exercise of free press. Just one European state, Turkmenistan, is considered to have a “very serious situation.”29
Case Study: Iran Since the Islamic Revolution in 1979, Iran has become known for a particularly harsh government with little freedom for journalists and the media. In fact, it is currently ranked 164th by Reporters without Borders for press freedom, fourth from last.30 Newspapers are regularly shut down and journalists often serve prison sentences for disagreement with the government. However, the internet and the rapidly modernizing
27
http://www.ejc.nl/jr/emland/estonia.html#2. The Estonian Media Landscape. European Media Landscape. European Journalism Centre. Accessed 11 July 2006. 28 http://www.ejc.nl/jr/emland/uk.html#2. The British Media Landscape. European Media Landscape. European Journalism Centre. Accessed 11 July 2006. 29 http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=53. Europe and the Former Soviet Union: News By Country. Reporters sans Frontiers. Accessed 11 July 2006. 30 http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=554. Annual Worldwide Press Freedom Index. Reporters sans frontiers. 14 September 2005.
PhilMUN 2007
11
Middle East have made it possible for a new venue in journalism to emerge. Since 2001, blogging has become very popular among youth in the nation of Iran, where 65,000 active weblogs are written regularly in Persian, the official language of Iran, making Iran the nation with the fourth-highest number of current blogs. Although blogging is frowned upon and some “blogger journalists” have been arrested in Iran,
Blog: Blog is short for weblog. A weblog is a journal (or newsletter) that is frequently updated and intended for general public consumption. Blogs generally represent the personality of the author or the Web site. Source: www.bytowninternet.com/glossary
there are simply too many blogs to be censored and many people work to provide new ways of evading the censorship of the Iranian government in the interest of bloggers and their readers.31
Case Study: Japan Japan, after the Second World War, started to adopt Western ideals for media, making it a good example of free press in Asia. In a 1986 world survey conducted by Freedom House, Japan received the highest ratings possible in the areas of political rights and civil liberties because the media system is controlled both by journalists as well as by corporate interests, thus allowing a wide variety of viewpoints. Similar to the United States, newspapers, television networks, and radio stations are privately owned and are a business like any other. The news is very important to Japanese citizens, as a means to keep them informed about government and worldly issues. According to a survey in 1997, 76.2 per cent of the Japanese population read a newspaper, with reading times averaging approximately 41.1 minutes a day.
Therefore, the media coverage must
encompass the ideals of this viewership in the stories they publish. Journalists and media sources have to take into consideration what is important and what these people want to read and know.32 They have incorporated ideals such as “accuracy, objectivity, fairness, diversity, and balance.”33 Japanese journalists shifted their goals to help aid social
31
http://www.blogcensus.net/ Beaudoin, Christopher, Betty Winfield, and Takeya Mizuno, Confucianism, Collectivism and Constitutions: Press Systems in China and Japan, Communication Law and Policy, Volume 5 Issue 3, Summer 2000, 342. 33 Ibid, 341. 32
PhilMUN 2007
12
reform and act as a government watchdog for the people. Even the largest papers in the country vowed to no longer be biased towards the government and instead show the “full” story. The “Cannon of Journalism,” adopted in 1946 by the Nihon Shinbun Kyokai, the Japan Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association, emphasizes the media’s liberal moral duties: The role to be played by newspapers in rebuilding Japan as a democratic and peace-loving nation is decidedly of great importance…[I]t is necessary for every newspaper in the nation to adhere to a high ethical standard, the prestige of its profession, and carry out its functions to the fullest. The Canon of Journalism, which stresses the spirit of responsibility, fairness and decency, constitutes a standard which should govern not only news and editorial writers but to an equal extent all persons connected with newspaper work.34
The Japanese government no longer oversees the press; it is now a self-regulated industry, managed by journalists. With the power they took from the government, they feel they have a duty to fulfill to the rest of the Japanese people. The concept of free press is actually practiced the way it was meant to in Japan, even more so than in countries such as France, Germany, and the U.S.35
Case Study: China The press in China is almost entirely operated by the government. communist state, the government strictly regulates many aspects of society.
As a The
populace makes very few decisions about the government, and many decisions in their daily lives are made for them. The media in China is based on a propaganda system, and the press only prints what the government wants reported and it is never critical towards the government.
In 1949, Mao Zedong put in place a “mass-biased, proletarian
revolution that saw the media and other means of public expression as vehicles of the state.”36
He felt that the media should be controlled by the government in order to
promote the ideals of the state. The government needed the press in order to gain support for its causes and the ensuing battle against the upper class. He felt that the media was the best way to spread these ideals to a vast amount of people, especially through 34
Ibid. Ibid. 36 Ibid, 335. 35
PhilMUN 2007
13
newspapers, which were then thought of as “the most powerful tool for the Party in contacting and influencing hundreds of masses on an everyday basis.”37 The media was a tool of propaganda for his effort to empower and to unify the people towards a common goal. While the government used the media to send its message, the masses were not allowed to express their opinions in the newspapers because Mao did not feel that they could be trusted. The people were not involved in the government’s decisions although he needed their support to consolidate his power. Mao ruled the country for about twenty five years and while he did, the media remained strictly under government control. During the 1980s under a new ruler, the media began to cover “broad policy debates that included occasional calls for free speech and press.”38 The press has changed since Mao’s rule but it is nowhere close to being a free press. The government still owns many of the newspapers, television networks, and radio stations, and oversees what is being written about events and ideas, regardless of ownership. Journalists are only allowed to publish or broadcast stories that are approved by the government, and a writer does not usually have the freedom to write his or her opinion unless it agrees with that of the government. There are also strict statutes regarding libel laws, which state: Anyone who, by violence or other methods, publicly insults a person or fabricates facts to defame a person shall be sentenced to not more than three years in jail, criminal detention, public surveillance or privation of private rights.39
Therefore, a journalist can be sued by any individual who does not like what is written. They are not protected by the government, and therefore, tend not to write stories that could get them into trouble. Although China has gained many new freedoms in the press, the government still has a heavy hand in the press and will probably continue to for many years.40
37
Ibid, 336. Ibid, 337. 39 Ibid, 338. 40 Ibid, 339. 38
PhilMUN 2007
14
The ‘CNN Effect’ Technological advances made in the media allow people to receive information quicker and easier. Due to the advent of cable news networks and the internet, a person can turn on his television at anytime of day and watch international news or search on their computer to find out what is happening throughout the world. Such advances have allowed people to be more informed about global issues and as a result they are more likely to question their government’s actions. The “CNN Effect” is a theory that suggests that global television has a role in determining foreign policy. Former U.S. Secretary of State, Madeleine Albright, told the U.S. Senate, “Television’s ability to bring graphic images of pain and outrage into our living rooms has heightened the pressure both for immediate engagement in areas of international crises and immediate disengagement when events don’t go according to plan.” As a result of international news, governments are held more accountable for their actions because of people’s emotional reactions to what is broadcasted.41
Government Accountability Even though in many countries the media is controlled by the government, global broadcasting allows people to learn about what is happening in other countries. Channels such as CNN, which air twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week, broadcast all around the world and show people what is happening in their country and elsewhere. If a country’s media is strictly controlled, these cable broadcasts are one way people can find out what is going on in such a country, however, coverage from these channels is often censored. As a result of such news channels, the governments of such countries are being held more accountable for their actions in humanitarian efforts, wars, and other big events.
41
Gilboa, Eytan, The Global News Networks and U.S. Policymaking in Defense and Foreign Affairs, 2002, The Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics and Public Policy, Harvard University, June 2002, http://www.ksg.harvard.edu/presspol/Research_Publications/Papers/Working_Papers/2002_6.pdf, Accessed: 5 February 2004.
PhilMUN 2007
15
Global news has an even greater impact on policy for three main reasons: it is broadcasted twenty-four hours a day; it is transmitted in real-time; and it is broadcasted to almost every place in the world.42
It also follows two formats, one that covers live
breaking news and one that offers continuing coverage of stories, such as ‘America at War’ or the ‘Middle East Crisis.’43 This process puts more pressure on politicians, policy experts, and journalists, because editors push reporters to broadcast new facts and images, reporters push leaders to respond fast to unfolding events, and the leaders push experts and diplomats to produce policy analysis and recommendations much faster.44 The CNN effect is noted in events such as: the Chinese government crackdown on students’ protest in Beijing’s Tiananmen Square in June 1989; the 1990-91 Gulf crisis and war following Iraq’s invasion and occupation of Kuwait; the Russian coup attempt of August 1991; and the civil wars and humanitarian interventions in Northern Iraq (1991), Somalia (1992), Rwanda (1994), Bosnia (1992-1995), and Kosovo (1999).45
American troops entered Somalia under the administration of George H.W. Bush to provide humanitarian assistance to the Somali population.
Images broadcast from
Somalia showed starving children as well as other signs of a severe humanitarian crisis, and once shown on American television, drew enough social pressure that American policy was appreciably affected. Then Secretary of State Lawrence S. Eagleburger, agrees that these images led him to advise Bush to send troops to Somalia. He was pressured by members of the United States Congress and many others who saw these images and were deeply disturbed.46 While that was a major reason why he reacted, it was not the sole influence. The atrocities that were taking place during the war that resulted from the breakup of the former Yugoslavia also compelled the government to act. Eagleburger felt entering Somalia could relieve some of the media pressures faced from not intervening in either crisis. So, they took advantage of the heavy media coverage of the Somalian crisis in 42
Ibid, 6. Ibid. 44 Ibid. 45 Ibid, 8. 46 Hess, Stephen, and Marvin Kalb, A Brookings/Harvard Forum: Press Coverage and the War on Terrorism: “The CNN Effect”: How 24-Hour News Coverage Affects Government Decisions and Public Opinion, 23 January 2002, http://www.brookings.edu/comm/trancripts/20020123.htm, Accessed: 3 March 2004. 43
PhilMUN 2007
16
hopes of developing good publicity for Bush, who was campaigning for re-election at the time. It also gave the administration more time to focus on developing a policy for Bosnia and Yugoslavia.47 Just as the media brought the United States military to Somalia, a disturbing image brought the troops out. The troops undertook a mission designed to extract some wanted Somalis from a dangerous part of Mogadishu. After several aspects of the mission went afoul of its initial plan, two American helicopters were shot down, resulting in the deaths of several American soldiers and countless Somali rebels. After Bill Clinton entered the White House, he was pressured to remove the troops after an image was aired of an American soldier being dragged through the streets. In order to prevent further harm to American lives, the troops were removed even though humanitarian efforts were not complete.48
The 24-Hour News Cycle When journalists and editors decide which stories to print, they try to take into account how their audience will react, and what impact their version of the story will have on the events they are reporting. Their job is to keep their viewers informed as to what is occurring in the world, but to do so in a responsible fashion. Reporters are often under time constraints just as politicians and other government officials are. Being on the air twenty-four hours a day means there is a lot of time to fill and developing new stories is very important. They cannot simply repeat the same stories throughout the entire day, so they must constantly research new stories, or update viewers on stories that are already being aired. Furthermore, there is constant competition between news networks for viewership, so breaking new stories first is also of great importance.
As a result,
sometimes facts and images are prepared very quickly with little time to research. The risk undertaken by media outlets to be the first one to report on a given story can be immense, as can be seen from the U.S. presidential election of 2000, where every major 47 48
Ibid, 3. Ibid, 2.
PhilMUN 2007
17
news network declared a winner well before the results were clear, even before polls closed in some states. CNN and other global news networks have been influential in many other international affairs. In addition to showing vivid images from events around the world they also give political leaders a chance to communicate with each other in front of millions of viewers. This was illustrated through the conflict between Iraq and the United States in the 1990s. During the Gulf War in 1991, Saddam Hussein made a statement through the international media suggesting that he would agree to end the war. These statements conflicted with previous statements Hussein made and U.S. President George H.W. Bush was not confident that Hussein’s peace plan was sincere. Bush had to make a quick decision, either to believe Hussein and move the troops or continue the war. Bush used CNN to get the message to Hussein because “all countries in the world had it and were watching it on a real-time basis.”49 In November 1998, Hussein again used the airwaves to communicate with the world. After Hussein ignored UN resolutions relating to the inspection and dismantling of weapons of mass destruction, U.S. President Bill Clinton authorized a military attack on Iraq. U.S. planes were in the air when an Iraqi official informed CNN that his government would comply with UN and U.S. demands and that an official request was being faxed to the United Nations. U.S. officials viewing CNN at the time then informed Clinton about the broadcast and he was advised to abort the mission. Hussein continued to ignore the UN inspection resolutions and the U.S. demands that he comply with them. He used the media to force Clinton to abandon his mission and ultimately achieved his own goals.50 Although many of these examples are between the U.S. government and other countries, the ‘CNN effect’ does not only affect American interaction with the media. CNN and all of the other major media outlets have many different stations around the world that broadcast different stories in every country. 49 50
Gilboa, 18. Ibid, 18.
Recently, United Nations
PhilMUN 2007
18
Secretary-General Kofi Annan launched the Global AIDS Media Initiative, a campaign to increase AIDS awareness by using international media. The campaign hopes to increase the awareness about AIDS through the use of entertainment. As well as using public service announcements, print advertisements, and billboards, the next step is to include characters with AIDS in sitcoms and other shows. Already, the United Kingdom and South Africa have television shows where the main characters have HIV or AIDS. The idea behind the initiative is to inform people about the disease and develop in people a better understanding of the threat.51
51
Brown, Hannah, “UN Urges broadcasters to air AIDS programmes: Entertainment is better than factual films for increasing awareness,� The Lancet, Volume 363 Issue 9405, January 2004, 295.
PhilMUN 2007
19
Summary The media impacts government, people, and events. Technological advances such as the Internet and twenty-four hour broadcasts have changed the way the media operates as has the government. Political leaders are influenced by the media in many ways and are forced to make quicker decisions about policies because they need to react quickly when news breaks. Media throughout the world is controlled and operated in different ways, and affects people by playing an important role in society.
52
The two technological advances that had the greatest effect on media are the television and the internet. Television has allowed political leaders to communicate with one another as well as deliver information more quickly to the people that it affects. It has given political candidates a platform to speak and has changed elections greatly. Politicians pour a large amount of money into making political commercials and advertisements. Additionally, 24-hour cable news networks like CNN have changed the way news is presented by allowing stories to develop live on the air, as opposed to only at certain times throughout the day or in the morning paper. Internet and radio are also ways to spread propaganda to a large population. Some government officials use the airwaves to improve their own images and gain support from their people. The Internet is another breakthrough technology that has helped the media greatly. More and more, newspapers are putting their stories on the Web, making information even more accessible to people from a variety of locations. It is very easy for people to stay informed about events in their country and around the world.53 In some countries though, the media is more controlled than others and not everyone has access to information. In China for example there are very few publicly owned television networks and newspapers. The government owns many of the stations and newspapers and controls them heavily; they only broadcast information which portrays the government in a positive manner. Many times the information that is written 52 53
Marc. Ibid, 2.
PhilMUN 2007
20
is propaganda and is used only to gain support for the government. Although the Chinese media has gained some freedoms in recent years, it is still far from being considered a free system. The government still owns a majority of television stations and newspapers and new forms of news media like international television news and the internet are frequently censored to eliminate criticism of highly controlling governments like China and North Korea. In countries where the media is heavily controlled, international television and news channels allow people to know what is happening throughout the world. This in turn has made governments much more accountable for its actions. Images of starving children and dead bodies speak louder than the rhetoric of government officials. Pictures and video are very helpful when attempting to portray events that need humanitarian attention. This can also hurt government because they have to make quicker decisions and might get involved with a problem too quickly or without time to think of the consequences.
PhilMUN 2007
21
Discussion Questions • If you were to write a newspaper, what would be the objective or main focus? From whose perspective would this paper be written? (i.e. free press, or government-run press) • How would you eliminate or limit biases when writing articles for the newspaper? • What are other ways you could use media to inform people, especially those who are living in countries where the media is government run? • Has media become another “big business”? Think in terms of commercial vs. public television. • What is the overall purpose of media? Is the media too influential in our lives? • Is media trustworthy or should people be guarded when watching the news or reading a newspaper? • How can you test the effectiveness of media in the different type of areas, including places like North Korea, Japan, and Western countries? • Which system, do you believe is better, a government-run media system or a free press system in which the government only steps in when necessary and the media is controlled by large corporations?
PhilMUN 2007
22
Works Cited Beaudoin, Christopher, Betty Winfield, and Takeya Mizuno. Confucianism, Collectivism and Constitutions: Press Systems in China and Japan. Communication Law and Policy. Volume 5 Issue 3. Summer 2000. Brown, Hannah. UN Urges broadcasters to air AIDS programmes: Entertainment is better than factual films for increasing awareness. The Lancet. Volume 363 Issue 9405., January 2004. Chase, Neil. “Journalism Jumps to the World Wide Web.” Microsoft Encarta Reference Library. Microsoft Corporation. 1993-2003. Gilboa, Eytan. The Global News Networks and U.S. Policymaking in Defense and Foreign Affairs. 2002. The Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics and Public Policy. Harvard University. June 2002. http://www.ksg.harvard.edu/presspol/Research_Publications/Papers/Working_Pap ers/2002_6.pdf Hess, Stephen and Marvin Kalb. A Brookings/Harvard Forum: Press Coverage and the War on Terrorism: “The CNN Effect”: How 24-Hour News Coverage Affects Government Decisions and Public Opinion. 1/23/2002. http://www.brookings.edu/comm/trancripts/20020123.htm. Kovitz, Milton. “Freedom of the Press.” Microsoft Encarta Reference Library. Microsoft Corporation. 1993-2003. Marc, David. “Broadcasting, Radio, and Television.”Microsoft Encarta Reference Library. Microsoft Corporation. 1993-2003.
.
PhilMUN 2007
23
Works Consulted Briggs, Asa. “Technology and the Media.� Microsoft Encarta Reference Library. Microsoft Corporation: 1993-2003. Barnhurst, Kevin. The Content of Reports on U.S. Newspaper Internet Site. 2002. The Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics and Public Policy. Harvard University. Fall 2001. http://www.ksg.harvard.edu/presspol/Research_Publications/Papers/Working_Pap ers/2002_1.pdf. Ching, Frank. The Post-1997 Hong Kong Press: How Free and for How long? Asian Afairs: An American Review. Spring 1999. Volume 26. Issue 1. Negbi, Moshe. The Enemy Within: The Effect of Private Censorship on Press Freedom and How to Confront It- An Israeli Perspective. 1998. The Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics, and Public Policy. Harvard University. November 1998. http://www.ksg.harvard.edu/presspol/Research_Publications/Papers/Discussion_P apers/D35%20.pdf. Xiguang, Li. Great sound makes no noise: Creeping Freedoms in Chinese Press. 2000. The Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics and Public Policy. Harvard University. Spring 1999. http://www.ksg.harvard.edu/presspol/Research_Publications/Papers/Working_Pap ers/2000_7.PDF.