Vol 6 no 1 november 2015

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IJHSS.NET

Vol. 6, No. 1

November 2015

International Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences

e-ISSN: p-ISSN:

1694-2639 1694-2620

AAJHSS.ORG Vol 6, No 1 – November 2015 Table of Contents An investigation of Victorian municipal public health plans for strategies that alleviate food insecurity- a qualitative case study Ms Brydie Clarke and Dr Jan Moore

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Metaphors as a rhetorical figure in Martin Luther King Jr.’s I Have a Dream Dr Trisnowati Tanto and M.Hum

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What Business Schools Teach? A Study In Indian Context Dr Namita Rajput and Ms Bharti

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International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences p-ISSN: 1694-2620 e-ISSN: 1694-2639 Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 1-16, ŠIJHSS

An investigation of Victorian municipal public health plans for strategies that alleviate food insecurity- a qualitative case study Ms Brydie Clarke and Dr Jan Moore School of Health and Social Development, Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia.

Abstract Access to safe nutritious food is vital for health, however many Victorians are food insecure.

This study aims to explore whether Victorian Municipal Public Health Plan (MPHP) documents include strategies to reduce food insecurity and to understand how the process of local government planning may impact on the inclusion of strategies within these high level plans. A case study of three Municipal Councils in Victoria, Australia employed two data gathering methods: (1) MPHP documents were critiqued to assess decisions made regarding the inclusion of FI within the MPH plans; (2) Qualitative interviews with Local Government Authority (LGA) staff were conducted to establish what the barriers and enablers for the inclusion of strategies to support food security were. LG organisational culture, structures and planning processes, workforce capacity and access and utilisation of evidence all impacted on whether strategies to reduce food insecurity were included in MPHP plans. The findings indicated that greater direction is needed from state government regarding strategic planning approaches that build a more cohesive planning environment. Interventions that focus on organisational culture and capacity to support evidence informed, integrated MPH planning are required to enable strategies that promote food security at local government level.

Keywords: Food insecurity, health planning, healthy public policy, public health, local government, evidence informed decision making

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Introduction Regular access to safe nutritious food is vital for health, however as many as 300,000 Victorians are regularly at risk of being food insecure (McCaughey Centre for Community Wellbeing, 2014).

The term food insecurity (FI) can be described as not having regular or certain access to safe, nutritionally adequate and culturally appropriate foods (Burns, Jones, Frongillo, 2010; Vichealth 2005). FI is associated with poorer physical health outcomes, particularly in both children and elderly populations (Ramsey, Giskes, Turrell & Gallegos, 2012) and can increase the risk of conditions such as cardiovascular disease, obesity and diabetes (Gowda, Hadley & Aiello, 2012; Pan, Sherry, Njai, Blanck, 2012; Seligman, Jacobs, Lopez & Tschann, 2012). In addition, FI can impede the successful management of these chronic illnesses (Bengle, Sinnett, Johnson, Johnson, Brown & Lee, 2010; Seligman, Jacobs, Lopez & Tschann, 2012), augment the risk of mental ill health and may compromise psychosocial functioning (Hamelin, Beaudry and Habicht, 2002).

These potential negative health and social impacts can result in a significant burden not only on individuals and families, but also across the wider community.

The definition of FI implies individuals should not have to rely on acquisition of food through socially unacceptable means such as food banks or other Emergency Food Relief (EFR) services.

However, EFR programs are common approaches used to support individuals and families experiencing FI (Furber, Quine, Jackson, Laws & Kirkwood, 2010). In Australia, the demand for EFR services is rapidly increasing, with over 500 such community food programs (CFPs) currently operating in Victoria alone (FareShare, SecondBite & VicRelief, 2011). A recent study found that Victorian CFPs were able to provide only 66 per cent of the food required to meet the demands of their local communities (FareShare, SecondBite & VicRelief, 2011). Whilst CFPs can provide positive health and social benefits to clients (Furber, Quine, Jackson, Laws & Kirkwood, 2010), they are largely reliant upon a voluntary workforce and food donations. Thus, EFR programs do not provide a sustainable solution to this public health issue (Wood, 2012). To develop strategic answers to this complex situation, the current reliance on EFR needs to be strengthened by policy and food system planning to not only improve EFR coordination, but to create supportive environments that enable individuals to obtain a regular supply of fresh healthy foods in more socially acceptable ways (Burns et al., 2010; ).

Understanding and acting on the number of underlying social determinants of FI is important to enable the development of environments where nutritious food is readily accessible and affordable for all community members. Social determinants that have been identified as barriers to food security include poverty, inadequate housing and transportation access and other forms of social disadvantage (Foley, Ward, Carter, Coveney, Tsortos & Taylor, 2009; Walker, Keane and Burke 2010). In Victoria, the financial barriers to healthy food that are experienced by many vulnerable groups have worsened in recent years. For example, increasing food prices coupled with rising housing prices (Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute (AHURI), 2011), pharmaceuticals and utility costs (Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, 2011) in combination with reduced social safety nets (Phillip & Nepal 2012) have made it difficult for low socio economic status (SES) groups to readily access nutritious food. This was emphasised by a recent study which found that the cost of a healthy meal plan equated to 47 per cent of disposable income for welfare dependant families compared to only 16 per cent for average income families (Landrigan & Pollard 2011).

Whilst levels of community FI continue to rise in Victoria, Local Government Authorities (LGAs) are well placed to create opportunities to develop better food access. In doing so, LGAs need to consider what strategies can be established and incorporated in the development of MPHPs to alleviate FI at a local government level. This requires a systematic approach whereby strategies to support food security at the individual�level are employed in conjunction with those 2

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aimed at improving community capacity and upstream policy and environmental interventions (Pomerleau, Lock, Knai & McKee 2005; Slade, 2009). Local government sits in an opportune position to implement this systems approach and combine top-down policy interventions with integrated, locally relevant, individual-level interventions, influencing the determinants of food access and availability (Sacks, Swinburn, Lawrence, 2009; Yeatman, 2009). The close links that exist between local governments, local stakeholders and the community, as well their legislative authority and obligations to develop and implement locally applicable policies and plans, provides potential for a coordinated approach to food security.

Although Australian local governments are becoming increasingly involved in food and nutrition activities, the degree of involvement remains highly varied (Yeatman, 2009). Strategies have traditionally focused on supporting short-term relief activities such as food banks and soup kitchens or individual capacity building strategies involving community education and training strategies (Slade, 2005; ,Lawton, 2011; Montague, 2011). There is opportunity for action given the community level in which local governments operate, however current involvement through planning and policy development, to support the redesign of local food supply or determinants of food access, appears to be limited (Lawton, 2009; Allendar, Gleeson, Crammond, Sacks, Lawrence, Peeters, Loff & Swinburn 2012). Understanding why this is so, is important in order to achieve future changes in local food systems, hence investigation of process regarding consideration of FI at local government level is necessary.

Victorian policy and planning context Victorian local governments have been required to develop Municipal Public Health Plans (MPHPs) since 1988 with the Public Health and Wellbeing Act in 2008 formalising the responsibility of local governments to apply a public health approach in their planning. This revision mandates that council “seek to protect, improve and promote public health and wellbeing within the municipal districtâ€&#x; (Public Health and Wellbeing Act 2008). This new legislation identified a need for LGAs to not only protect the population from infectious disease but also promote the conditions in which persons can be healthy through supportive built, social, economic and natural environments (Public Health and Wellbeing Act 2008).

The revised act strengthened the requirements of local government public health planning through the inclusion of new key principles, which include utilisation of evidence, community consultation and evaluation (Public Health and Wellbeing Act 2008). The act also specifies clear functions of council for improving and promoting public health, including creating environments supportive of good health, managing public health planning at the local level and facilitating and supporting local agencies whose work influences public health and wellbeing (Public Health and Wellbeing Act 2008).

As a result under the new act each LGA must develop a MPHP within the period of 12 months after each local government general election. In doing so LGA plans must demonstrate examination of data about the community health status and their determinants, provide opportunities for involvement of people in the local community during development, implementation and evaluation of the plan, as well as specify how the council will work in partnership with the Department of Health and other agencies to implement initiatives, projects and programs to accomplish the objectives of the plan. When developing the MPHP documents, LGAs are required to use the Environments for Health framework, which is underpinned by a social determinants approach. As such, MPHPs provide an ideal mechanism for strategic actions to be developed and principles incorporated into local government policy and planning schemes to ultimately improve local food access and availability (Allendar et al. 2012).

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Development of MPHPs is a relatively new task for many local councils, with staff facing challenges in prioritisation, planning and implementing interventions within a climate of increasingly scarce resources (Brackertz, 2013; Pricewaterhousecoopers 2006). Although capacity for strategic planning has been growing in local government across Australia (Prior & Herriman, 2010), staff required to formulate MPHP documents face difficulties such as inexperience, competing values, rationalities and access to evidence during the complex development process (Howlett, 2007; McDougall, 2007).

Currently there is little known in regard to how well Victorian local governments have incorporated strategies within their MPHPs to improve access and availability of healthy foods within their local community. Furthermore, there is little information on the process undertaken by local government organisations when developing their MPHPs and how this influences the inclusion of various strategies and objectives that may impact upon FI. Therefore, the aims of this paper aims are to 1) identify the degree in which the MPHP documents include food insecurity as an issue and set out key objectives and priorities to reduce community food insecurity, and 2) give insight into why objectives or strategies to support a reduction in FI were or were not included within MPHPs. Methods A qualitative embedded case study approach provided a framework in which to investigate the MPHP development process of three LGAs in Victoria and how process and decision-making contributed to, or prevented strategic action on food access and availability to be incorporated into MPHP documents. An embedded design, was selected as opposed to a single case study, as it allows subunits of analyses may be incorporated so that a more complex design is developed (Yin 2003).

The case study also involved a two-stage process. In stage one, MPHP documents were reviewed to identify if they included statements of issue identification, as well as any objectives or strategies relating to FI. Stage two involved qualitative interviews with staff from the three LGAs to develop an understanding of the influences surrounding the inclusion or omission of FI objectives or strategic actions.

The MPHP documents were accessed from each LGA website and were imported into the qualitative analysis NVivo9ÂŽ software to facilitate document analysis. This involved looking for content that identified food insecurity as an issue, as well as any content relating to objectives, strategies or actions to reduce community food insecurity.

To understand the process of MPH plan development within each LGA, three qualitative semistructured interviews were conducted in 2011, with Key Informants (KI) from differing Victorian LGAs. The data from the three sites; interview and document findings make up this case study example.

Ethical approval to conduct the research was provided by Deakin University Human Research Ethics committee. KIs were recruited through the local government Chief Executive Officers who were asked to provide organisational consent for participation in the study. To be eligible to participate in the interviews, individuals had to have played a significant role during the process of developing the councilsâ€&#x; most recent MPHP, such as social planners or strategic planners. In order to meet ethical standards set by Deakin University, anonymity of participants was provided. This was to prevent any potential participants recruited into the study feeling coerced to participate, or to mitigate any risk to the participants in regard to the data they provided 4

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influencing their existing workplace relationships. Hence, the names of the local government sites are not provided to protect confidentiality of participants.

The face-to-face interviews were audio-recorded and conducted in a safe, neutral location, nominated by the participant. All interviews were transcribed verbatim and were presented to participants who then had an opportunity to review and reflect upon the interview content, to ensure accuracy and enhance validity (Green, Willis, Hughes, Small, Welch, Gibbs & Daly, 2007; Mays and Pope, 2000). As part of the analysis process, the audio files were listened to and the revised transcripts were reread to allow greater familiarisation with and immersion in the data (Morse, Barrett, Mayan, Olsen, Spiers, 2002). Transcripts were then inductively analysed using NVivo9® software. This involved reducing content through a process of coding, categorisation and identification of themes (Creswell 2007; Green et al. 2007). Data gathering and analysis was conducted in a concurrent and iterative manner, whereby initial interpretations from stage one were utilised to inform the subsequent data collection and analysis phases. This inductive approach was considered appropriate given the studies exploratory nature and the case study method employed (Blignault & Ritchie, 2009; Stake, 2000). In addition, it is important to note that an interpretivist perspective was used throughout this process, whereby the examination of people‟s lived experiences and perceptions of reality appreciates the context (Denzin &Lincoln, 2011). This is also shaped by the researchers experience and worldview (Denzin &Lincoln, 2011).

Case selection The time and resource allocations of the project limited the research to three LGA cases studies.

Ensuring balance and variety of cases was pertinent, for „natural generalisability‟; to give the greatest opportunity for learning (Stake, 2000). As such, a purposive sampling method, based on key demographic characteristics was used to select three LGAs. The initial pool of municipalities was based on evidence of moderate to high demand for food relief, which was ascertained through the Victorian based food relief agency SecondBite (Lindberg, R. 2011, oral communication, 2 June 2011). From this initial group, LGAs were selected to ensure adequate diversity of demographic characteristics such as total population, age distribution, cultural diversity and socio-economic disadvantage.

Local Government Area one (LG1) was a suburban municipality with a large population and with a high demand for community food relief (Lindberg, R. 2011, oral communication, 2 June 2011). This largely reflected the heightened social disadvantage experienced within the locality.

LGA two (LG2) was a large peri-urban municipality experiencing significant regional population growth. LG2 rated better than LG1 in terms of overall social disadvantage according to national datasets. The final case, (LG3) was a small suburban population with significantly higher average wealth and less social disadvantage. LG2 and LG3 also had reportedly high demand for community food relief (Lindberg, R. 2011, oral communication, 2 June). The municipalities had similar median ages, with LG3 being slightly older (median age of 40 years) than LGA 1 and LG2 (median age of 35 years). LG2 had significantly high levels of multiculturalism with 56 per cent of the population born outside Australia compared to LG1 and LG3 which had rates of 22 and 18 respectively. Table one provides a summary of the characteristics for all the LGAs selected for inclusion.

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Table 1: Population characteristics of included Local Government Areas Municipality

Population Number

Geographical (sq/kms)

area SEIFA index 1

LG1

90000

25

1060

LG2

125 000

120

900

LG3

200 000

1000

995

The SEIFA index is a an indicator for Socio-economic Indexes for Areas and is a summary measure of several socio-economic conditions within an area. It Incorporates measures of: relative socio-economic disadvantage, relative socio- economic advantage and disadvantage, economic resources, and education and occupational status ABS. The lower the SEIFA score the more disadvantaged is the community (ABS, 2013) 1

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Results

Food insecurity content within MPHP documents

There was a varying degree of strategic action upon FI across the LGAs. Examination of the MPHP from LG1 uncovered content that clearly addressed FI. There was a clear definition of FI and how this issue translates to suboptimal nutritional and health status, as well as providing recent data on the prevalence of FI experienced across the municipality. Furthermore, the document contained a strategic objective to improve the availability and affordability of healthy foods, particularly for disadvantaged populations. It also contained an extensive range of broader goals and strategies or actions, which could support the underlying determinants of FI. For LG2 healthy nutrition was a priority within the MPHP with a strategy related to enhancing food access through community development, licensing and regulation or land use and urban planning. In addition, the plan contained objectives associated with the enhancement of local fresh food production. However, the MPHP document did not contain any explicit reference to the term FI nor was there any supporting content within the document that recognised other potential underlying factors of poor nutrition, such as low income, limited education and social isolation.

The MPHP from LG3 recognised FI as an issue for a small proportion of residents. LG3‟s plan included data on the levels experienced within the community, as well as, a statement reporting a funding allocation to a local community organisation which, amongst other material support, provided food vouchers to vulnerable community members (although the percentage of this funding used to support FI strategies remained unclear). The document did not contain any objectives or strategies relating to food access, food availability or affordability.

All the three MPHP‟s, developed by the LGAs, did have a strong focus on supporting the social inclusion for community members, as well as, listing a number of strategies to improve the built environment in terms of public transport and the use of public space, all of which are determinants of FI. However, there was significant scope within MPHP to draw on affordability and availability of nutritious foods to support the most vulnerable community members, but such areas were not discussed in any of the municipal plans critiqued.

Influences on the inclusion of food insecurity within MPHP documents

The next section discusses the key themes to emerge from the qualitative interviews with LGA practitioners. Highlighted are the enablers on MPHP decision-making regarding the inclusion of food insecurity strategies to tackle the issue in the local communities.

Access and utilisation of evidence

Access to local evidence that identified the social health issues within individual municipalities was a pivotal barrier to the effectively examining FI during the planning process. Practitioners relied heavily on general health status data, such as, the Victorian Population Health Survey (VPHS) and Community Indicators Victoria (CIV) data sets.

More and more we are actually relying on the population health survey data….as you know it was only recently that the Victorian Population Health Survey (VPHS) went down to a local government level, so prior to that we, along with a lot of other local councils, weren't quite sure how the state wide and the south-eastern area data how fit with us… So we have just basically used the data through Community Indicators Victoria.

[Key Informant (KI), LG1] We found that we don’t really have good local evidence. So that’s where we have been working in the last couple of years is to try and get the local evidence.

[KI, LG2] 7

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Evidence from these sources formed the basis of the initial health priority identification process, provided information to support community consultation activities and was used during strategic decision making discussions with councillors. However, such data sets are limited in understanding the nature of complex public health issues. For example, information regarding food security from these data sources is drawn from one question: “Have there been any times in the last 12 months when you ran out of food and could not afford to buy more?� (McCaughey Centre for Community Wellbeing, 2014). Informants suggested that this epidemiological measure did not allow a deep understanding of population groups within their community who are at greater risk. Nor do these measures provide any information on the possible causes or consequences of FI for these individuals. As such, a lack of detail regarding FI creates a significant barrier to prioritising FI, as well as, for identifying appropriate mitigation strategies to include within the MPHPs. This finding supports existing advocacy calling for more comprehensive data collection on both individual and community food security in Australia (Moore 2011; Innes- Hughes, Bowers, King, Chapman, Eden 2010; Budge & Slade 2009).

Specifically, a Victorian community data set would be helpful in ascertaining the specific barriers to nutritious food in Victorian municipalities to help identify locally relevant strategies to act upon these.

It is important to consider the different forms of evidence and application within the planning process. Evidence and how it relates to public health planning has been described using three categories; type 1: descriptions and analysis of determinants of health and disease and their distribution across the population. In Victoria, type 1 evidence primarily used by local government authorities is in the form of the aforementioned VPHS or CIV epidemiological data; type 2, refers to the assessment of intervention options for those most effective in changing health outcomes or risk factors; type 3: Assesses interventions which are best implemented in a given context to achieve the desired effects (Skovgaard, Nielson & Aro 2007).

When asked about the use of evidence or data for strategy development, LGA informants referred only to type 1 evidence in their priority decision-making process, thus, missing information that considers what interventions have been demonstrated to be most effective and for whom. This may have been due to the informants playing a lesser role in the planning for selection and implementation of strategies, hence, tending to focus on the prioritisation process only. Given the lack of discussion of evidence of effectiveness, it remained unclear as to whether only issues with developed and implementable solutions were more likely to be prioritised.

Irrespective of the influence on priority setting, given the critical role that intervention selection plays for achieving intended outcomes, this finding is salient and supports continued advocacy for the development and trial of interventions that support the increased use of evidence of effectiveness within the local government setting (Armstrong, Waters, Dobbins, Anderson, Moore, Petticrew, Clark, Pettman, Burns, Moodie, Conning & Swinburn 2013; Armstrong, Prosser, Dobbins & Waters, 2010; Thomas, Hodge & Smith 2009; Pettmann, Armstrong,Pollard, Evans, Stirrat, Scott, Davies-Jackson, Waters 2013; Petticrew, Platt, McCollam, Wilson, Thomas, 2008).

Capacity to apply an integrated planning approach

Informants also identified that LG organisational culture and structures influenced the extent to which an integrated approach to planning and development of the MPHP was achieved. In particular, barriers to effectively engage stakeholders across the various departments of council were experienced by informants, limiting stakeholder involvement or discussion of the lived experiences of individuals and populations groups within the LGA, regarding FI.

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An integrated planning approach was evident when support from organisational leaders meant that departments outside of the community and health directorates were receptive to initial communication and continuing engagement in the decision-making process throughout MPHP development.

We ran focus groups with the departments across council in the initial phase… to identify priorities… and to set the priorities… and get their buy-in and input. Then personally I went to each of those areas and sat down with them and helped them develop an action plan, I wrote it up, sent it back to them, got them to review it, got them to put in performance indicators and timelines, identify whose responsible… and then from there… we held another focus group to get people to once again have a look at it, to make sure they are aware of the objectives particularly the ones that relate to them… make sure they were still on track and that their actions were still viable… So pretty much all of the team leaders and managers whose work relate to what’s in here [referring to the MPHP document] were involved from the very start.

[KI, LGA 2] If senior management were not encouraging however, this lead to difficulty in gaining input from areas of council integral for tackling the broader issues of food access and availability.

I invited all departments pretty much... the people who wanted to come, and did come, were your classic Youth Services, Aged Services, Social Services, pretty much, like the Social Development Department...we got less representation from Planning Development and less representation from the City Works which is the waste management, transport and parking development... So of the really the traditionally blokey areas there's less attendance.

[KI, LG1] So I’d like to see maybe a more cohesive approach across council... Whilst the environmental health department are involved, which is fantastic, there's other departments in council that would be really good to be involved in it but I haven’t found a way to get there yet.

[KI, LG3] Although the above passage demonstrates an important ideological shift in that the practitioner identified the importance of using an Environments For Health approach, it does highlight the challenges in implementing this integrated style of planning. Therefore engaging senior management across departments is critical to ensure buy-in from various planning, transport and economic department staff whose work relates directly to food access. This adds to previous research that has highlighted senior management support as critical for achieving interdepartmental collaboration for successful MPHP development (Thomas, Hodge & Smith, 2009; Davey, 2006) and is despite the relatively recent legislative changes that require local governments to use an integrated Environments For Health approach to MPH planning. As such legislation in this case may not be enough, but rather, in some cases, strategies are also needed to ensure LG senior management recognise MPHPs as an important tool within council policy and planning and support cross-organisation participation (McBride & Hulme 2001).

This may also be a reflection of broader issues experienced by local governments in terms of resourcing capacity and systems to support high level strategic planning (Tan & Artist 2013). The historical context of local government within the Australian federal polity and recent increase in roles and responsibilities for local government in planning and service provision, which arguably have been unmatched by concomitant increases in financial capacity, may in part explain, this limited workforce capacity and support for integrated strategic planning, even when leadership is supportive (Brackertz, 2013). Therefore, these findings may also indicate the need for interventions to optimise organisational capacity, culture and systems to support integrated planning (Armstrong et al. 2013; Pettmann et al. 2008).

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Organisational culture

Organisational culture also influenced how food and nutrition issues were situated politically. For example, a more traditional organisational culture evident at one LG, which considered public health activities to be broader than the local government remit, hindered the inclusion of food access and availability strategies into their MPHP. ...some of these staff have been here for twenty years and they started working when health was considered quite different. The traditional thought is that health is all about clean water, and of course it is about clean water you can't argue with that but I had to say that it is also the environments for health and it’s all interlinked.

[KI, LG1] Another example of this was given when an informant stated that council wanted to “…do the right thing by all of the rate payers” and as a result was careful to consider “...things that that might sit well with [the] community” [KI, LG1] during the strategic decision making process. As such, they emphasised that either senior council staff or the broader community would need to first consider food security as an issue before it could justifiably be included as a priority in future strategic plans: ... if a councillor got behind it [food security]... if a councillor said “what are we doing about this [be]cause it looks like a real issue” that would probably, that might spark [action]… the issue speaking to people is probably the important thing.

[KI, LG3] These findings suggest that although food security is becoming increasingly acknowledged as an issue within the Victorian context, more advocacy is needed to increase the community‟s awareness and to gain councillors and senior executive support for action upon this issue. This is consistent with previous research that found real or perceived community needs are perhaps the strongest drivers of local council policy change (Allendar et al. 2012). Described by de Leeuw (2007) as cultural rationality, this reflection of values, ethics and what is perceived social opinion is argued to be most crucial for priority setting in local government.

Networks and partnerships

Community networks were also vital to enhance MPHP development, for both increasing local council awareness of food security as an issue and by providing resources to local government in regard to how this problem may be mitigated. For example, differences the perception of the severity of FI within the community were evident despite the measured incidence of FI and demand for food relief being similar for the three municipalities.

All key informants acknowledged their regions Primary Care Partnerships (PCPs) or the Food Alliance2 as being both an important information source and/or a facilitator for the development and implementation of strategies to support food security. Similarly, the Municipal Association Victoria (MAV) and the Victoria Local Government Association (VLGA) were also identified as being important for providing information in regard to FI. Working with food systems stakeholders such as these better-enabled practitioners to identify efficacious food security interventions to suit local contexts and integrate these into the MPHPs. This adds to evidence that encourages local governments to engage with community partnerships and alliances for the enhancement of public health activities (Thomas et al. 2009, de Leeuw 2007).

2

The Food Alliance is a partnership network between the local government and various charitable organisations including food rescue and emergency food relief providers, as well as broader community based organisations.

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Informants also generally perceived the role of local government as being the facilitator of new and existing community networks and as communication channels across the local community.

We decided that council itself cannot do a lot of the implementation. It actually has to come from agencies and people who are actually working with the people who are food insecure ... So that [having the food alliance network] has been really good [be]cause it has enabled these people to go off and do these things... to work on those areas.

[KI, LG3] Whilst it is important for local governments to work with and enhance networks and partnerships, their involvement at a higher policy level is essential. With the literature suggesting that urban and strategic planning mechanisms have the greatest potential to influence food access, availability and affordability (Montague 2011; Allendar et al. 2012; Enns, Rose, de Vries & Hayes 2008; Pretorius, 2008).

Discussion This case study demonstrates that there was variation in the identification of FI as an issue within Victorian Local Government Authorities. There was also a discordant degree of inclusion of objectives and strategies to reduce FI across the local government areas included in this embedded case study. To our knowledge, this is the first study to examine Victorian local government Municipal Public Health and Wellbeing Plans for content related to food insecurity.

This is also the first study of how the MPHP planning processes influenced inclusion and prioritisation of food insecurity within MPHP planning documents.

The case study illuminated a number of planning process influencesâ€&#x; upon MPHP development, which impacted whether FI was included as a priority by the local governments in these strategic documents. These influences were: access and utilisation of evidence, capacity for integrated planning, organisational culture and networks and partnerships. Whilst there are no known studies, specifically focused on local government MPHP planning decision-making and food insecurity, there have been two studies of local government planning or policy within the area of healthy eating more broadly (Allendar et al. 2012, Yeatman, 2003). The findings herein support Yeatmanâ€&#x;s study (2003), which found evidence and organisational factors as important influences of local food and nutrition policies. The other by Allender and colleagues (2012), found leadership support, political ideology and external groups as the key influences on local policy decision making (although this study looked at both healthy eating and physical activity policy decision-making).

The results do also support a growing body of literature internationally, exploring the influences on various policy development processes (at local, state and national levels) and how these impact upon the inclusion strategies focused on healthy eating or nutrition (Craig, Felix, Walker & Phillips 2010; Freudenberg, 2015; Mosier, 2013; Quinn, Johnson, Krieger, MacDougall, Payne, & Chan, 2015; Ulmer, Rathert, Rose, 2012; Yeatman, 2003). Many of these studies have identified organisational factors (Craig, et al. 2010; Freudenberg, 2015; Mosier, 2013; Quinn, et al. 2015; Ulmer et al., 2012; Yeatman, 2003), access and utilisation of evidence (Quinn, et. al, 2015; Yeatman, 2003;), and the role of networks and partnerships (Freudenberg, 2015; Craig, et al. 2010; Mosier, 2013; Quinn, et al., 2015; Ulmer, et al., 2012) as critical to food and nutrition being included in government policies or plans. These studies also, however, found other factors such as political ideology, personal values and beliefs and issue framing as critical (Craig, et al.

2010; Freudenberg, 2015; Mosier, 2013; Quinn, et al. 2015; Ulmer et al., 2012; Yeatman, 2003).

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Therefore, future studies focusing on food insecurity policy or plan development may benefit by exploring the role of such factors in decision-making.

This study has a number of limitations. As a qualitative case study, this research may be questioned in regard to the ability to generalise the findings beyond this context. However, given that the case study context is provided, the learning‟s outlined herein may be amenable to „naturalistic generalisation‟ (Yin, 2014). It must also be acknowledged that data was collected following a time lapse between when the strategic planning process undertaken by those involved was carried out and the conducting the interviews for this case study. This may have resulted in recall bias (Patton, 1999). Furthermore, the study investigated only the content of the MPHPs not the strategies currently being implemented at each council. This is important to consider, given that it has been noted that opportunity exists for enhancement of local government processes not only developing, but also for, delivering these high level plans (Tan & Artist 2013). Furthermore, the study did not look at associations between the inclusions of FI objectives and strategies in MPHP documents and the impact of these on community levels of FI. This was beyond the scope of this study but is recommended that future research be undertaken to examine the association between government strategic priorities and changes at the community level.

A number of strategies were employed to help enhance the reliability of the study, including use of an immersive analytical process (conducted by BC), which involved continuous reflection, and self-conscious data collection, analysis and interpretation (Mays & Pope, 2000). In addition, the use of purposively sampling of interviewees, who were given the opportunity to view transcripts for accuracy, as well as, the studies use of verbatim quotes which allowed direct access to respondents‟ views, increases the trustworthiness of findings (Hannes, 2011). As such the case study presented provides authentic examples of current Victorian local government MPH planning processes and the implications for strategic action upon FI. 5. Conclusion This qualitative case study of Victorian MPH planning found numerous underlying factors influenced the ability of local government practitioners to formulate strategic actions upon FI. These included an unmet need for comprehensive and meaningful data on FI, inadequate access to, and utilisation of evidence of effectiveness, as well as organisational culture and systems that limited an integrated approach to plan development. The study provides important insights for policy makers and practitioners working to influence local public health planning in support of food insecurity. In particular, the findings suggest that the development of systems to support access to and utilisation of evidence, as well as to enhance policy networks and partnerships may assist in food insecurity being incorporated into local government MPHP priorities and strategic actions.

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International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences p-ISSN: 1694-2620 e-ISSN: 1694-2639 Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 17-24, ©IJHSS

Metaphors as a rhetorical figure in Martin Luther King Jr.’s

I Have a Dream

Dr Trisnowati Tanto, M.Hum English Department, Faculty of Letters, Maranatha Christian University, Bandung, Indonesia Abstract In the case of speeches, a writer‟s style of writing or speaking is worth analyzing, especially when this style can serve as a powerful tool to convey the writer‟s message as well as to attract the readers or listeners‟ attention in keeping on reading or listening and appreciating the writer or speaker more. In this case, a writer or speaker can use certain linguistic features to function as foregrounding elements in the text. This paper focuses on the use of metaphors as a rhetorical figure used by Martin Luther King in his speech, I Have a Dream. Furthermore, this paper will see how these metaphors become interesting and effective foregrounding elements that can attract the readers‟ or listeners‟ attention. The method used in analyzing this is the descriptive method with the referential technique. The grand theory used is Stylistics, which is a study of style in language, or more specifically, the study of distinctive linguistic features. This analysis results in the findings that the metaphors in the speech are proved to be a powerful feature in conveying King‟s messages.

Keywords: speech, foregrounding elements, metaphors, rhetorical figure.

Introduction As a social creature, communication is a vital aspect in human life. People are related to one another by communicating. We can communicate and exchange our thoughts, opinions or feelings to other people. Nevertheless, the ways of communication should be based on the context, participants and the communication goals as well.

There are many options of how to communicate something. A speaker has to choose one of the best styles in delivering the message appropriately. When it comes to choosing something, there must be a good reason for that. The speaker has to decide the choice of the style that he or she uses for a special purpose or intention.

According to Leech (1994: 12) style is the linguistic characteristic of a particular text. In Linguistics, the study which deals with the style of language is Stylistics. Stylistics is simply defined as “the (linguistic) study of style” (Leech, 1994: 13) and it “describes what use is made of language” (Leech, 1994: 13). In Stylistics we are able to explain something explicitly or implicitly “how language serves a particular artistic function” (Leech, 1994: 13).

Leech (1994: 210) also states that rhetoric is one of the topics in Stylistics. Rhetoric deals with some features of language that create "the art or skill of effective communication.” (Leech, 17

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1994: 210) By using rhetoric in our communication, we will achieve such communicative ends at a different level. Besides being able to make the communication successful in transferring our ideas, we can also produce effective and beautiful form of communication. Moreover, when one tries to communicate one‟s ideas through writing, one must think more deeply, as readers with different points of view will read it. It is possible that the reader may not see something exactly as the writer sees.

In our daily life, there are many examples of the use rhetorical figures in our daily life: in speeches, advertisements, song lyrics or any texts. A writer must make a text “interesting, clear, persuasive, and memorable, so that they will pay attention to, understand, believe, and remember the ideas it communicates.” (Harris, 2011: para. 5).

Analyzing the use of metaphors as a rhetorical figure in Martin Luther King‟s I Have a Dream is interesting. Martin Luther King was active and a very important figure in the civil rights movement in America. He fought for gaining social reformation, especially in the abolishment of the practice of racial discrimination, but he did not approve of any kinds of violence. Besides, he was also known as a very good writer. All this was internationally recognized, which was obvious from the Nobel Peace Prize that he got in 1964. (“Biography of Martin Luther, Jr.”) He succeeded in changing the history through his phenomenal speech, I Have a Dream, delivered on August 28, 1963 in the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. Basically this speech contains the description of the sufferings of African Americans caused by the practice of racial discrimination in America. King also intended to make the federal legislation to pay attention to this issue and make changes. (“I Have a Dream-Background”). The speech is very powerful and that leads to the analysis of the rhetorical figures, especially the metaphors, which are used in the speech and how they give a big impact to the speech.

The topic of Stylistics is significant because it encourages us to be more critical in understanding an effective way of communicating an idea. Thus, when reading a text, we will learn to take a deeper meaning through some of the rhetorical figures that are used in the text. Besides learning how to comprehend the context of the text, we can also learn to appreciate the form or style of the language so that we can get pleasure from the artistic value of the speech. Moreover, we can also be encouraged to think „out of the box‟ in dealing with the issue of stylistics. In brief, we are expected to be able to communicate better on a meaningful level.

In this article the metaphors that Martin Luther King, Jr. uses in the speech I Have a Dream are discussed in detail and his purpose of using those metaphors in the speech.

Method This research is a descriptive research. After intensively reading the data source, which is a text in the form of a speech, the data are collected by selecting the metaphors used by the speaker. The metaphors collected are limited to the ones describing the black Americans‟ condition before and after the decree of the emancipation was made. The data was then analyzed based on the literal meaning of the words used in the metaphors and related to the context.

Theoretical Framework In analyzing a text, we need to pay attention to the type, the way in which language is used in the text, and the writer‟s intention or reason for choosing a certain style. Style is “linguistic characteristics of a particular text.” (Leech, 1994: 12) In a text we can see the style in detail and focus on what words or structures are specifically chosen to others. In Linguistics, we have “the 18

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study of style … defined as the analysis of distinctive expressions in language and the description of its purpose and effect” (Verdonk, 2010: 4) called Stylistics. In Stylistics we also deal with literary appreciation and linguistic description in order to get the aesthetic function as well as linguistic evidence. (Leech, 1994: 13) In this stylistic analysis what is focused more are the outstanding forms and structures.

Each of these element “holds a promise of stylistic relevance with the reader‟s or listener‟s interest or emotions” (Verdonk, 2010: 6). This means that the reader or listener is influenced psychologically by these outstanding elements in a text, which is termed as foregrounding in stylistics. Foregrounded elements often include “a patterning of parallelism in a text‟s typography, sounds, word choices, and grammar or sentence structure.” (Verdonk, 2010: 6) Other potential markers are repetitions of “some linguistic element, and deviations from the rules of language in general or from the style we expect in particular text type or content.”

(Verdonk, 2010: 6) Actually, we can say that one communication is successful when “the speaker initiates a message which is encoded into a text, and then it is decoded successfully into a message by the hearer.” (Leech, 1994: 210) The message from the speaker is delivered as it is to the hearer.

However, there are additional standards of success which make the communication more effective as well as having an artistic value, which is called rhetoric. Therefore, basically rhetoric is “the set of principles for achieving communicative ends at a certain level in the traditional sense of art or skill of effective communication” (Leech, 1994: 210). More specifically, rhetoric of the text deals with „„the superficial expressive form of language, as it is determined by syntax, phonology, and graphology.” (Leech, 1994: 211) Furthermore, by using rhetoric, the speaker leads and draws the hearer to get the affection expected, such as feeling or emotion (angry, pleased, love, satisfied, etc). (Peacham, 1997: para. 1) Rhetorical figures generally are the figures of “decoration and variety that help the hearer to pay attention, help them to believe on the speaker and emphasis, association, beauty, and organization that will help them remember.” (Harris, 2011: para. 5) According to Leech (1994: 214), there are five kinds of rhetorical figures, namely endfocus, segmentation, simple and complex sentences, iconicity and cohesion. Besides, Harris (2011: para. 5) adds some more kinds of rhetorical figures. There are metaphor, repetition, understatement, antithesis, asyndeton, hyperbole, euphemism, allusion, and parenthesis. In this thesis, I only focus on the use of repetition and metaphors as they are dominantly used in the text analyzed.

Aristotle says "It is metaphor above all else that gives clearness, charm, and distinction to the style." (Harris, 2011: para. 26). A metaphor is a type of figure of speech in which there is a comparison between two things. Thus, there must be some similarities between the two objects or ideas being compared. (Mangrum &Strichart, 2011: para. 1) Metaphors are used in a way to make the hearer get a picture or an image in their mind, once the speaker conveys the message. Therefore, through a metaphor we can explain things “by making the abstract or unknown concrete and familiar”. (Harris, 2011: para. 26) Besides, a metaphor also “enlivens by touching the reader's imagination.” (Harris, 2011: para. 28) Furthermore, it affirms “one more interconnection in the unity of all things by showing a relationship between things seemingly alien to each other.” (Harris, 2011: para. 28) 19

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There are several reasons why a speaker uses metaphors when delivering his or her message. The first one, metaphors “can help readers or listeners to better understand something about the object or idea to which the metaphor is being applied.” (Mangrum & Strichart, 2011: para. 3). The second reason is that metaphor “can make speaking and writing more lively and interesting, so that it can communicate a great deal of meaning with just a word or a phrase.”

(Mangrum & Strichart, 2011: para. 4). The last reason is that metaphor implies something, so the hearer has to think what they are hearing.”(Mangrum & Strichart, 2011: para. 5) One of the examples of metaphors can be found in this sentence ”The teenage boy's stomach was a bottomless pit.” (Mangrum & Strichart, 2011: para.8) If a pit has no bottom, it will never be full no matter how often it is filled. It is a metaphor because here a pit is compared to the teenage boy‟s stomach, which means that he always feels hungry and wants to eat. The writer encourages the reader to have a better understanding about how big the teenage boy‟s appetite is by imagining a bottomless pit. The writer does not imply the meaning directly; on the other hand, the reader has to think what they are reading in another way, that is by imagining that the boy‟s stomach is like a bottomless pit. Furthermore, the writer prefers the phrase bottomless pit to make the writing more lively and interesting to read, so that it can communicate the meaning well.

Discussion When using metaphors, a speaker conveys the meaning implicitly, but it helps the hearer think more logically and globally. It turns out that when the metaphors are given, the hearer is encouraged to logically think further to get the meaning behind the metaphors. In the speech, King uses metaphors which are closely related to the black American‟s life, like nature, so that they are able to understand and remember the points. Furthermore, metaphors can make the speech more interesting to read.

There are 17 data of metaphors found in the speech, and they can be classified into the metaphors used to describe the black Americans‟ condition before the decree is made (13 data) and metaphors used to describe the black Americans‟ condition after the decree is made (4 data).

The metaphors of the first classification of metaphors can be seen in the following: (1) “flames of withering injustice” (2) “the long night of their captivity” (3) “crippled by the manacles of segregation” (4) “the chains of discrimination” (5) “a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity” (6) “the whirlwinds of revolt” (7) “jangling discords of our nation” (8) “quicksands of racial injustice” (9) “sweltering summer of the Negro‟s legitimate discontent” (10) “mountain of despair” (11) “the dark and desolate valley of segregation” (12) “sweltering with the heat of injustice” (13) “sweltering with the oppression” (King, Jr., 1963) King uses some metaphors to describe the black American‟s condition before the decree is made. King states that the condition is like data (2) “a long night of captivity”. Captivity is the state of being kept as a prisoner or in a confined space. Furthermore, in this metaphor, the word night is engaged with the negative sense. The word night can be related to the period of darkness.

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It is not the literal darkness, but it represents the life of the black American before the decree was made. Hence, the black American are not only described as being captivated but they are also described as being in the state of darkness, lacking a clear direction, because we can hardly see something in the dark, even something near. King intensifies his explanation of the black American‟s condition by adding the word long. It emphasizes the duration of the captivity which did not take place in a glance, but for a very long time.

Furthermore, King also portrays the condition as (7) “the jangling discords”. The word jangling means to make an unpleasant sound, like two pieces of metal hitting each other, while discord is harsh confused mingling of sounds. Both jangling and discord have a negative meaning.

King takes the similarity between the jangling discords and the situation of the black American before the decree was made, which is unpleasant, messy, and complicated.

King also relates the black American‟s condition to data (10) “the mountain of despair”.

The word despair means the feeling of having lost all hopes. The word despair clearly has a negative meaning. It describes the feeling of the black American; they have already lost heart and given up all hope or expectation. This desperate condition is intensified by the word mountain, which suggests something big, tall, and solid.

The next metaphor that King uses is (5) “a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity”, in which the two main ideas, namely island of poverty and a vast ocean of material prosperity, seem to contradict each other. It is amazing how King describes that actually the black American lived in both conditions. Basically, the word island has a neutral meaning. It is a piece of land surrounded by water; however, in the speech the word island does not stand alone. There is an adjective used to describe what kind of island the black American lives on. It is a lonely island. The word lonely means sad and spent alone, unhappy because there are no friends or people to talk to. We can see that King shows the similarity between a lonely island and the condition of the black American. It is the same as the black American‟s condition as they are unhappy without anyone who supports and helps them. Besides, no one can get on or off an island without crossing the water first. This means that we are separated from others by water. King further tells about “a vast ocean of material prosperity”. Therefore, one barrier for the black American is the prosperity that surrounds them. This condition is so ironic because they live in a poor condition and suffer from the lack of everything in the midst of great prosperity. The words lonely and poverty, which refer to the black American, obviously have a negative meaning. The intensity of the black American‟s negative condition is heightened when an ironic situation is added by the other metaphor.

There is one topic that is highlighted by King in his metaphors. It is about racial injustice.

Data (1) “flames of withering injustice”, (12) “sweltering with the heat of injustice”, and (13) “sweltering with the heat of oppression” all illustrate injustice. The word injustice is preceded by the word withering, and sweltering. Withering means “intended to make somebody feel silly or ashamed”. (Hornby, 2011: 1708) It has more or less the same meaning as the word sweltering.

Sweltering is “to be very hot in a way that makes us feel uncomfortable”. (Hornby, 2010: 1511) How the black Americans must have felt at that time because of the intense injustice happening to them is illustrated by the word sweltering again by King, in (9) “sweltering summer of the Negro‟s legitimate discontent”. Thus, when the summer described here is a sweltering summer, it can be imagined how unbearable it is. Through these metaphors, King wants to show how uncomfortable the Negro‟s life before the decree is made. King defines the intensity of injustice that happened at that time by including the words flames and quicksand, as in data (8) “quicksands of racial injustice”.

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As we know, flame is different from fire. It is “one of the visible manifestations of the combustion process and the main source of heat from a fire.” (Johnson and Miyanishi). In this context, the word flames is associated with the negative meaning, because King uses that word to describe the high intensity of the injustice for the black American. In addition, King intensified the condition by comparing the condition to the quicksand. Quicksand is “deep wet sand that we sink into if we walk on it” (Hornby, 2010: 1201) or a situation that is dangerous or difficult to escape from. Being in a quicksand, we are not able to move and do anything. Quicksand limits our moves and actions. Once we sink into it, we will find it difficult to escape and survive. It is exactly the same as what happened to the black American. The racial injustice stopped their movement, so that they could not move forward and they became passive. In this metaphor, once again King uses words which carry a negative meaning.

Talking about racial injustice, King brings the discussion narrower, to the segregation, discrimination and oppression that has happened many times in the black American‟s life. In the table, we can see there are two metaphors, (3) “crippled by the manacles of segregation” and (4) “(crippled by) the chains of discrimination”. Literally speaking, crippled means “to damage somebody's body so that they are no longer able to walk or move normally”. (Hornby, 2010: 348) The word crippled, which has a negative meaning, is used to give a picture about the Negro‟s condition. They are seriously damaged so that they cannot run their life normally. King compares the thing that made the black American crippled to two things; the manacles and the chain. The manacle and the chain here are closely related to the power of segregation and discrimination which have bound them tightly. Segregation and discrimination have a negative meaning. Both of them stand for more or less the same thing. It is about treating someone in an unfair way.

Thus, a much bigger negative sense is created when those negative words are joined with the words chain and manacles, which are usually made out of metal or strong material. It stresses on how powerful the bondage of segregation and discrimination was.

King also compares the black American‟s condition related with segregation to (11) “the dark and desolate valley”. Valley is “an area of low land between hills or mountains, often with a river flowing through it; the land that a river flows through.” (Hornby, 2010: 1648) Connotatively, valley is considered a low point or condition. As valleys are between mountains or hills, and below them, the word valley signifies the low condition of the Negro. Furthermore, King elaborates the condition of the valley, with the adjectives dark and desolate. Therefore, in this metaphor, the negative associative meaning of the word valley is even more emphasized by the negative adjectives dark and desolate.

King tries to portray that the opposition happened not in one time only, but like whirlwinds, as seen in data (6) “the whirlwinds of revolt”. It keeps spinning around until it causes a lot of problems for the black American. It is clearly seen that both whirlwinds and revolt contain a negative meaning, which leads to the understanding that the black American‟s condition here is portrayed negatively.

From all the diction that King uses in the metaphors, it is obvious that all of the words either have or are associated with a negative meaning. Thus, we can conclude that actually King wants to tell the hearer that before the decree is made, the black American was poor, unhappy, desperate and treated unfairly. All the good things or conditions did not seem belong to them.

King also gives a great picture of what will happen after the decree is made. The metaphors illustrating the black American‟s condition at this moment are as follows: (14) “the sunlit path of racial justice” (15) “the solid rock of brotherhood” 22

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(16) “an oasis of freedom and justice” (17) “a beautiful symphony of brotherhood” (King, Jr., 1963) We believe those great things will not happen until the decree is really taking control over the black American‟s life. Now, he describes the condition by associating it with the sunlit path of justice, solid rock and beautiful symphony of brotherhood, and an oasis of freedom and justice. King puts positive diction in describing the condition. He states racial justice as the sunlit path and oasis. The word sunlit means “illuminated by direct light from the sun, while oasis has a meaning of a fertile spot in a desert, where water is found”. (Hornby, 2010: 1497) Sunlit can refer to something bright which is good, because if there is light, darkness will disappear. As a result, all the negative things will be left behind, as the black American is walking to a better future of racial justice. It is the same with the word oasis. If we are wandering in the desert without any water, without any food, and without any hope anymore, but suddenly we hear about oasis, we will extremely be full of joy at the moment. It is like what happens to the black American. They have been suffering for a long time and now King offers them hope of racial justice. From both metaphors, we can see the same points that the black American will find hope, justice and chance to live a better life after the decree is made.

King not only gives the black American hope of racial justice, but also a wonderful picture of living in unity. He emphasizes on how beautiful they are by giving the picture of beautiful symphony and solid rock. It is interesting why King still puts the adjective solid and beautiful, which is redundant. Symphony is “a long complicated piece of music for a large orchestra, in three or four main parts (called movements).” (Hornby, 2010: 1514) Surely, it must be harmonized and beautiful. What is more, when we talk about a rock, it will be associated with something strong and solid. Therefore, we can say that those adjectives are really unnecessary; on the other hand, King thoughtfully uses redundancy in order to emphasize how beautiful condition is, after the decree is made.

Conclusion There are seventeen data of metaphors in the speech. All the data of metaphors are used properly to describe the condition of the black American before and after the decree is made. In order to describe those conditions, which are abstract, King has his own way. First, from all the data of metaphors, most of them are closely related to nature, such as night, summer, ocean, quicksand, mountain, etc. Only two of the metaphors are related to the black American‟s experience, such as manacles and chain.

King is really wise in choosing certain words in the metaphors. He does not use a sophisticated yet unfamiliar words, but simple words that can be understood easily by the hearer.

I think nature is one of the most general things. It means all people are considered to know it so that it can be seen, felt and heard easily. It does not require high education and deep thinking to know it.

Besides, King is really thoughtful in using the words or phrases, most of which are closely related to their past life as slaves in the plantations. As a result, King uses some words like chain and manacle to describe the segregation. In my opinion they will understand the metaphors easily, because those objects are usually found when they are in the plantations.

Besides, they are also the things they can see, so that they are familiar enough for the Black American. The use of simple and familiar words in the metaphors becomes King‟s style in delivering the message.

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References Harris, Robert A. “A Handbook of Rhetorical Devices.” Retrieved 24 February 2014 from http://www.virtualsalt.com/rhetoric.htm.

Hornby, A.S. (2010). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. Eighth ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

King, Jr. Martin L. (1963). “I Have a Dream”. Retrieved 30 November 2014 from http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/mlkihaveadream.htm Leech, Geoffrey N., Michael H Short. (1994). Style in Fiction. London and New York: Longman.

Mangrum, Charles T. and Stephen S. Strichart. “What is Metaphor?” Retrieved 30 November 2014 from http://www.how-to-study.com/mobile/article.asp?id=7 Martin Luther King Biography. U.S Government Research Papers. Retrieved 15 Feb 2014 from http://www.studymode.com/essays/Martin-Luther-King-49060602.html.

Peacham, Henry. “A Glossary of Rhetorical Terms.” Retrieved 29 January 2014 from http://staff-www.uni-marburg.de/~naeser/rhetglos.htm Soukhanov, Anne H. (1996). The American Heritage Dictionary. Third ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Verdonk, Peter. (2010). Stylistics. Fifth ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences p-ISSN: 1694-2620 e-ISSN: 1694-2639 Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 25-37, ŠIJHSS

What Business Schools Teach? A Study In Indian Context Dr Namita Rajput Associate Professor in Commerce Sri Aurobindo College, University of Delhi namitarajput27@gmail.com

Ms Bharti (Corresponding Author) Assistant Professor in Management University School of Management Studies Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University bharti.1119@gmail.com

Abstract With education sector becoming a business model in itself, numerous colleges and universities have been established, churning out thousands of business management graduates every year in the market. The limited jobs and employment prospects existing lead to filtration of the talent pool, giving opportunities to only a few who have the relevant skills and capabilities. The present paper focuses on assessing the quality of education imparted by business schools in India and the opportunities for further development. We have interviewed the human resource managers and executives of companies across industries in Delhi/NCR to provide how businesses think about education and higher studies, particularly Master of Business Administration. We have used t-test to find out what type of skills- functional or soft skills are relevant to the employers. Further, a framework to study the quality of education in business schools in India has also been devised that can be used to assess the various factors and processes that affect the education quality in institutions. The paper concludes that general skills and not functional and technical add more value to an individual and hence are of more significance. The findings help in reducing the disparity between academia and business practitioners.

Keywords: business schools; skills; education; MBA; master of business administration; academia; business practitioners

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Introduction Asking why we need education is more important than getting education The world is placing an increased emphasis on the enlargement of ‗human capital‘ – the qualities, information, skills and motivations and knowledge embodied in people. The most relevant and frequently used term in academic circles has been ―lifelong learning‖ which deals with the increasingly rapid changes underway in modern societies. The youth needs to be empowered and equipped with updated knowledge, opportunities and skills on an ongoing basis.

This has lead to an increased need for better capabilities and competencies. The OECD Review, 2001, termed these as ―workplace competencies‖, and elaborated that they are as much an indispensable capabilities as traditionally technical and academic skills have been. Jobs are short run focus, but in the long run skills and sufficient quality of human resources are required to run the economy and make it prosper. Although academic qualifications and degrees are necessary, but so are the occupational skills like behavioral skills, for instance listening, communication, empathy, problem solving, patience, dealing with peers. (Lerman 2008, Heckman, Stixrud, and Urzoa 2006; Heckman and Rubinstein 2002; Almlund et al. 2007). Heckman, Stixrud, and Urzua (2006) find that except for college graduates, non-cognitive skills exert at least as high and probably higher impact on job market outcomes than do cognitive skills.

Growth of Management Education in India After liberalization, the scenario of Indian business education changed dramatically with many new universities and business schools opening in India. The influx of numerous global corporations in various sectors ranging from pharmaceuticals, insurance, FMCG, banking and engineering sectors led to sizeable increase in demand for professionals with managerial skills. It was then that a distinction between commerce graduate and management graduate was made.

The skills of a commerce graduate were different from that of a management graduate and it fell short of demands of the executive positions. Commerce graduates were equipped to solve and analyze accounting problems but were unable to handle the management component of the job.

The reorganization of skills market from commerce graduates to management graduates lead to evolution of new courses and further reinforced the perception of management education as a coveted degree. The business education model has witnessed commercial success, however, its relevance to the changing and dynamic needs of the businesses today has raised doubts. The primary idea behind getting the management degree is to acquaint oneself with the needs of the business world and provide solutions that promote long term sustainability. The job specific capabilities no longer hold primary significance for employers. The world is converging to a dynamic knowledge based economy where the capacity to continually adapt and upgrade the skills is indispensable. The concept of employability helps in bridging the gap between education and work. The specific skills and qualities required include that of resourcefulness, adaptability, flexibility, empathy and are significant ingredients for professional success. Hillage and Pollard (1998) define employability as having the capability to gain initial employment, maintain employment and obtain new employment if required. India had a culture of teaching management since 1886 when the first school set up was Commercial School of Pacchiappa Charties in Chennai, Southern India. Since the 19th century, there have been world class management institutions that have been set up and flourished in India starting from 1920 when Sri Ram College of Commerce was established to 1961 when the Government received the grant from Ford Foundation for setting up the Indian Institutes of Management at Calcutta and Ahmadabad. This helped in a substantial way to bring the model of the American Business education to India. Also the world reputed business schools like Sloan School of Management 26

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and Harvard Business School set up collaboration with the Indian Institutes of Management to exchange pedagogy and faculty. By 1990's total of six IIM's had been established apart from other world renowned management institutions. As on date, there are a total of 18 IIM's across India, many of which have started the admissions in the current year itself. Apart from IIM's, MBA degree is offered by various sate and central universities departments, autonomous institutes approved by AICTE and on distance education program as well. As per the recent report by AACSB 2013, the total number of educational institutes in India offering MBA are approximately 3600. With approximately 600 million of population in the age group of 0-24 years presently, the expectation is that the country will have close to 60% of its population in the working age group between 15- 59 years by 2022. Being the youngest nation in the world, the country will reap the benefits of the demographic dividends in the future. With regional disparities and the closed methodology of education, this is both an opportunity and challenge.

India needs to equip itself with the workforce that is employable with diverse skills and capabilities. Assuming that education and curriculum taught in business schools will provide the individual with all skills-both technical and soft, is unreasonable. If the professional success of a student was related to the MBA education then having an MBA degree should lead to career advancement in terms of work profile and salary over other students without MBA degrees. Also a management graduate should have better career prospects after studying management lessons and should be more prepared for the business world and should be more successful. Contrary to this, there are economic reasons for the little advantage that MBA education provides. With so many universities admitting students for MBA, the supply of management graduates has increased. Also, the course acts like a cash cow for the providers of business education. The demand has however not kept pace with the supply which has lead to minimum effect that a business degree might have on the professional aspect of an individual. Pfeffer & Long (2002) argue that the grades or MBA degree earned are not related to the career success. Also the business school research and management practices are not related significantly. The number of students failing business schools evaluations and examinations is not much and as a result the student credentials do not serve as a screen of minimum competency standards. As per the study

by ASSOCHAM, (2013), B-schools have been losing their shine and producing only 10% of the students that are actually employable. The study cites quality of management education and lack of infrastructure as the primary reasons. Also the course curriculum of business schools in India is highly quantified and based on analytics. Little attention is paid to what is actually required in the real corporate world. The soft skills for instance interpersonal capabilities, leadership, conflict resolution methods are not given the kind of attention they deserve. Little emphasis is placed on teaching methodology, and more on the syllabus. Clinical training, experiential learning, role plays form a part of methodologies of only a few business schools. Business schools have been a huge success story across the globe, but the relevance of business education and the output is under doubts. Adopting the teaching patterns and methods from other schools has lead to the loss of centrality on which the entire concept of business education is built. Students learn to talk about business, but it is not clear they learn business. In India, majority of the management schools have the same curricula that lays too much focus on building analytics and no emphasis on problem solving, interpersonal skills, leadership lessons. The history of business and global giants is an evidence that a business degree is not a ladder to succeed. Bill Gates, Mark Zukerberg, Steve Jobs are global examples of college drop outs who have made history in the world of business. The implication being that a business degree is no guarantee for success. The functional skills will keep changing with the jobs and over the course of the career. However, skill development is a continuous process and needs to be integrated in the entire education system. The present paper focuses on assessing the quality of education imparted by business schools in India and the opportunities for further development. India being the nation with a future demographic dividend and on the growth trajectory has an important role to play in the world economics. This can only happen if the nation treads the path of knowledge economy 27

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and develops skills necessary to sustain in the business. The paper is divided into following sections: Section I, i.e. the present section is the introduction and talks about the business education in India. Section II is the review of literature followed by Section III on research objectives and methodology. Section IV is the interpretation of results followed by Section V of conclusion and implications. Last section VI is references.

Section II: Review of Literature Gordon and Howell (1959) in their report concluded that the curricula offered was narrow and too simple. They urged the schools to include math, arts, science and strategy in the courses.

Montmore and Stone (1990) conclude that the business world perceives the purpose of education is to provide graduates with communication skills, team work, leadership and problem solving while for the student, the purpose is to improve earnings and career prospects. Wright et. al. (1994) describe the changes necessary in the marketing curricula for skill updation of the students to meet the future needs of the employer. They also suggest using the active learning processes to develop a culture of collaborative activities. Lastly the authors conclude that new skills are teachable and can be imbibed in the syllabus to help students meet future challenges.

Pfeffer and Fong (2002) concluded that the MBA degrees and qualification acquired in business school did not enhance people's career in terms of salary or job profile. Pfeffer and Fong (2004) study the business schools in the USA and how many of the problems confronting these are a result of a market-like orientation with little professional ethos. They conclude by suggesting a few measures that can be employed in the management schools in USA and can be replicated outside the country too. Emiliani (2004) described that there is a need to improve the way in which a course is taught to eliminate waste and improve the quality and relevance. The lean practices lead to better management of time, lesser ambiguity and improved outcomes. Emiliani (2005) studies the applicability of kaizen practices in improving the quality of business education and concludes that it is an effective process and a value proposition for the students of management. Punia and Kundu (2005) write that even though students qualify all the requirements of a business administration degree, yet they are unable to find employment. As many as 50 to 70% change jobs. The cause may lie in the course offerings and the methodology.

Shahaida et al (2006) propose a conceptual framework to incorporate all the factors that act as input for quality education. The authors propose to test this framework using structural equation model. Sharma and Saxena (2010) concluded that the gap that exists between the knowledge delivered at business schools and the industry expectations can be filled by integrating management education and industry. Proper support from both sides will help in overcoming the barriers. David et. al. (2011) do a content analysis of 200 corporate job descriptions and reveal 140 specific skills required. The paper also examines 200 resumes of the graduates and observed low to no proficiency on the job description-derived skill sets. The study concludes that there exists a disparity between school of business focus and practitioner needs. Kalpana Sahoo(2012) cite that Indian management education system should deliver education and training so as to enable a professional to adjust to the changing needs of the business.

Information technology should be utilized to give productivity dimension to management education. Gour et. al. (2013) have studied the perception of the faculty to improve the education quality among management students to match with the demands of the industry. They conclude that electives and curriculum contents improved the employability skills of the students.

The above studies imply that the basic course structure and curriculum is similar across most of the business schools. Even the textbooks used are alike , as a result of which the functional and analytical knowledge delivered to students is somewhat homogeneous in nature.

However the differentiating factor among the graduates is their personal attributes and skills that are acquired and developed over the time period. The businesses want candidates who have higher than average capabilities and credentials.

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Section III: Research Objectives and Methodology There is a general agreement that knowledge of relevant skills should be the basis of management schools, yet there is no consensus on what those skills should be. The paper has two sets of objectives.

Set 1: Our paper seeks to provide a framework to clarify what the employer thinks about employability.

Following are the sub-objectives: 1. To study what skills constitute employability for an employer 2. To study what relevant skills can be taught in the business school 3. To study the various methods by which we can bridge the gap between industry and academia To answer the first objective, interviews with 40 employers, HR executives and recruiters were carried out across industries in Delhi/ National Capital Region. The questionnaire consisted of various skills, both functional or technical and soft skills, that a management graduate should have to be eligible for a job. The employees were then asked to rate the skills on a scale of 1 (not important) to 10 (highly important). To answer the second and third objectives, we look at what skills should be taught in the business school and different types of methods of learning that can be included in the teaching methodology. The objectives have been studied by dividing the skills into two basic groups : Group 1 consisted of general skills. These have been called as core competencies and are related more to the personal attributes of an individual. The second component of general skills is the communication skills like basic computer knowledge, reading, writing, verbal communication.

Group 2 included the specific skills required for each type of job. These were the technical or functional skills that were subject related.

The next step was to confirm the responses of the executives statistically using t-test. The null hypothesis is the mean of general skills is equal to the mean of specific skills across the jobs.

Set 2: To develop a comprehensive framework to study the factors and processes that impact the quality of education imparted in business schools in India.

Sample Size For the first set of objectives, a total of 67 companies were contacted, out of which executives of 40 companies agreed to answer the questionnaire. The companies spanned across different sectors like fast moving consumer goods (FMCG), banking, insurance, manufacturing, telecom and e-commerce and IT. The companies were located in Delhi/ NCR. Although the sample size was small, yet the results can be generalized to a larger population since the interviews spanned across the companies in various sectors and industries which resulted in a natural and balanced mix of the executives. Also since the study is conducted on a primary data collection method, it can be taken as an attempt to gain original insight to bridge the gap between industry expectations and business knowledge. The overall questionnaire was divided into 3 sections: (i) What is the importance of General and Specific skills?: skills related to the personality of an individual and functional aspect of the job respectively (ii) What should be taught by the business schools? (iii) What should not be included in the curriculum?

The executives were asked to rate on a scale of 1 to 10 the relevance of each type of skill provided in the questionnaire. The responses from all the questionnaires were then entered into the data base and reviewed. The answers were then reviewed from the point of view of the industry. This helped in analyzing the skills relevant for each type of sector. The responses were then generalized to be applied to a larger population.

For the second set of objective, we have developed a graphical framework depicting the relationship between various factors and processes that impact the quality of business school 29

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output. The framework is based on three pillars of quality: i.e. quality of inputs, quality of systems and procedures and quality of outcome. The result is a measurable framework that can be tested statistically.

The three pillars of quality are: A. Input quality: This pillar is measured in terms of inputs and resources that B-schools in India utilize. The quality and superiority of these inputs has an impact on the output. Inputs are measured in terms of : 1. Administration quality and management: The vision of vice chancellors, dean, head of the department or promoters in case of private institutes impact the administration and thus output of a business school.

2. Student profile: This is judged during the entrance tests and regular examinations in the management school. The work experience of the student is also a factor that impacts the quality.

3. Faculty profile: The number of resource persons, knowledge base of faculty, their work experience have an impact on the quality of education.

4. Accreditation from external authorities: To be recognized by the regulators and external authorities like NAAC, UGC, AICTE the colleges have to fulfill certain eligibility criteria.

We have taken the quality and nature of recognition. The quality of parameters that are necessary to be fulfilled by the institutes is studied. This has an impact on the business school.

5. Facilities and resources: The infrastructure facilities of library, online databases, investment in statistical tools, R&D facilities are included.

B. Systems and Procedures quality: This pillar measures the quality of processes, systems and procedures that facilitate in imparting education in business school. It is measured in terms of : 1. Teaching methodology: The pedagogy of the institute, lecture deliveries, and teaching approach that faculties follow have an impact on the quality of outcome.

Only syllabus or curriculum teaching adds no value to student. Experiential learning, case studies, onsite projects have an impact on the student quality and education.

2. Workshops and programs: In order for business schools to deliver quality in education, the faculty has to be continuously updated of the new techniques, processes, researches and development in their respective fields. Faculty development programs, research methodology workshops are imperative for the development of faculty to add value.

3. Corporate relations: The business schools prepare students to find a stand in the real world of business. Thus, the industry interface and interactions with corporate is indispensable for the students to understand how the "real world" actually operates. Consultancy projects, seminars and conferences, internships give direct exposure to the student in terms of reality.

C. Quality of outcome : This pillar measures the final impact of inputs and systems and procedures on the value added in the students. It has been measured in terms of: 1. Consultancy and Research projects: If the industry is of the opinion that the academic research in institutes can be applied to the real circumstances, then it can be measured in terms of number of consultancy projects that are conducted by the academia on behalf of the industry.

2. Academic profile: It can be measured in terms of subjects and courses delivered to the graduates, grades and their academic performance.

3. Non academic profile: The performance of students in extra circular activities, placements in terms of salary packages offered, seminars organized is an outcome that can be measured to have an impact on the personality of the student.

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We have devised the above mentioned criteria to study the quality of education in business schools. The parameters have been drawn from the existing literature and during interviews with the executives.

Section IV: Analysis and Interpretation of Results Set 1: Employer's perception about employability Objective 1: To study what skills constitute employability for an employer It is often seen and experienced in practice that the business schools focus too much on the academics, and in the process miss out on the skills that should be honed in the students to help them get the job and later to sustain themselves in the career and prosper professionally. As can be seen from the table 1, these soft skills are of maximum significance to the employer across all industries. The reliability and ability to work in teams and groups leads to an increased employability factor among the students. These factors have been rated the highest on the rate scale by the respondents. More emphasis on people skills are placed by the executives. Factors like proactive, integrity, leadership qualities are preferred by the employers across all seven categories. Soft skills like motivation, conflict resolution, flexibility were valued high by the employers. These skills have been rated at 8-9 on the 10-point scale. Communication skills like verbal and written communication, reading and data interpretation were the attributes desired by the executives. Also proper knowledge of English language was desired amongst all the sectors, especially consulting, banking and insurance and other service related industries, where customer interface is more. They were rated lower than the first set of core competencies with ratings in the range between 6-8.The functional knowledge was the least valued amongst the skills required by the employers. Subject related know how and technical knowledge had minimum impact on the job prospects of a business graduate across sectors.

Table 1: Key Skills of Individuals in an Organization: Industry wise Banking Insurance Consultancy FMCG

Self Confidence, focus, motivation, technical skills, verbal and communication skills, self discipline, basic computer knowledge Verbal communication, problem solving, teamwork, reliability, basic computer knowledge, open mind, flexibility Verbal and written communication, problem solving, teamwork, flexibility, reliability, creativity, delegation

Telecom

passion, shared objectives, willingness to learn, leadership, integrity, teamwork Technical skills, verbal and written communication, advanced computer skills, teamwork, use of modern tools, flexibility, reliability Technical skills, knowledge application, problem solving, willingness to learn, teamwork, system design, reliability teamwork, integrity, basic computer knowledge, self motivated, flexibility, verbal and written communication, problem solving

E-Commerce

creativity, system design, knowledge of contemporary issues, customer service, entrepreneurship, flexibility, understand to take directions.

Information Technology Manufacturing

Table 2: t-Test for Differences in Importance of Specific skills and General skills Mean of Specific Mean of General Skills Skills Difference Mean 7.462777778 9.183888889 1.721111 Variance 19.96592712 0.076731046 -19.8892 Observations 40 40 31

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Pearson Correlation Hypothesized Mean Difference Df t Stat P(T<=t) one-tail t Critical one-tail P(T<=t) two-tail t Critical two-tail

0.765026827 0 39 -5.697602281 1.30887E-05 1.739606716 2.61774E-05 2.109815559

From the results it can be seen that the mean of general skills is more than the mean of specific skills. Also since p<0.05, we reject the null hypothesis. Thus we conclude that general skills are rated higher than the cognitive or functional skills by the employers. The statistical results follow the qualitative responses already presented above. Thus our first objective has been answered.

Objective 2: To study what relevant skills can be taught in the business school The answer to the second objective followed from the first one itself. The results above show that more emphasis needs to be placed on general and soft skills including core competencies in MBA program. Thus, more emphasis should be laid on educating students about the importance of skills that add to the employability factor. Most of the human resource executives who answered the questionnaire revealed that it is the soft skills that help the employees to rise in their career ladder . The ability to think creatively and negotiate with the clients, empathize with colleagues are in short supply and as such not many graduates are able to get the job at the first place or are not able to sustain in the organization. The business schools should put more focus on teaching these soft skills rather than functional knowledge. Also instead of using textbooks for teaching such courses, experiential methods like role plays, group discussions, active learning methods should be employed by the faculty to facilitate pragmatic learning.

Objective 3: To study the various methods by which we can bridge the gap between industry and academia From the responses of the executives, following are the ways in which the gaps between industry expectations and academia can be bridged: a. Reshaping of existing teaching methodology: The age old examination process and memorization of answers is redundant in evaluating students. These answers and questions that are mostly theoretical in nature are never practically applicable to any real situations that the organizations face. Business schools should focus on learning and understanding rather than memorization. The course structure and curriculum that has become degenerative over the time should be revamped and more practical approaches to teaching and evaluation should be introduced. The new methodologies will enable students to participate and become active learners. b. Active learning process should be introduced: Collaborative, teamwork and participative learning process should be employed in the class that prepare the students well. In the process, knowledge is not merely transferred, rather creative ideas are generated. This also fosters the team spirit. c. Introduction of cross functional specialization courses: The specialization courses taught in business schools need to be changed to include topics that are cross functional. Interdepartmental communication and inter-functional knowledge is a virtue that is considered significant.

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d. Developing management skills: Effective self management skills enable in overcoming personal and professional hurdles. Teamwork along with collaborations help in better management during crisis. Time management should also to be included whereby students are made to learn to stick to the deadlines. This will help them in prioritizing work as per the time available. Also, the courses taught should include the concepts of flexibility and changes. The students should be adaptive to constant changes that occur in real world business scenarios. e. Developing Entrepreneurship skills: Business simulation models and incubation centers should be developed and promoted in business schools whereby students with entrepreneur spirit can conceive their ideas. Also external and internal factors can act like stimuli and enable the students to think "out-of-the-box" and provide creative solutions. f. Industry interface: Interactions with industry, real time consultancy projects and on campus programs with the corporate should be encouraged. This adds to the problem solving skills of the students and also provides them with first-hand and real time experience.

With the few above mentioned approaches incorporated in the business school model, the output of the business schools will not only follow the expectations of the industry, but also has the potential to surpass them in the future.

Set 2: Following framework has been devised to study the quality parameters and factors that affect the business school education outcomes. Statistical method of structural equation modeling can be applied on it to measure the quality of business school education.

Input Quality

Administration quality and management

Systems and Procedures Quality

Teaching Methodology

Outcome Quality

Consultancy projects

Student Profile

Academic Profile

Faculty Profile Workshops and Programs Accreditation from external authorities

Facilities and resources 33

Corporate Relation

Non academic profile

Fig. 1: Conceptual Framework for Business Education Quality: http://aajhss.org/index.php/ijhss Structural Equation Modeling

Section V: Conclusion and Implications Through the study, we have attempted to gather an insight into the business of business schools.

With an ever growing population of MBA graduates in the market, and the number of education institutes that provide students with the business management degrees, the increase has not been reflected in the job opportunities and career prosperity for them. The present study is an attempt to understand the gap that exists between the business school output and the industry outlook.

We have studied two sets of objectives. The first set was to study the skills that are valued and considered relevant by the employers and how to bridge the gap in them. The sample consisted of interviews from human resource executives of companies in Delhi/National Capital Region.

The companies were a broad mix of different sectors. Responses were carried out using surveys and a structured questionnaire. The skills were divided into two major categories: specific or functional and general or soft skills. T-test was performed on the responses from executives to find out which of the two groups of skills was more relevant. We conclude that general or soft skills were considered more important than the technical knowledge by the corporate.

Communication skills in terms of written and verbal were rated high and were desirable in a candidate. reason could be that as the world is increasingly converging and becoming an interconnected economy, there is an inclination towards hiring those candidates that have a global appeal. A possible explanation can be that applicants applying for the same job can have diverse academic backgrounds, and as such the only way to find the best talent is by differentiating them using soft skills. Also the companies have on the job trainings and other induction programs where specific functional knowledge about the job is imparted to the employees on a regular basis. We also conclude that business schools should focus more on teaching these soft skills to the students rather than their functional knowledge and should employ innovative methods that involve the students as primary participants to give first-hand experience rather than promoting passive learning. Businesses today operate in multi dimensional set up where geographical lines have blurred and interdepartmental dependency has increased. Thus, readymade and one-sizefits-all solutions are not valued. Different situations would demand different degree of management skills. Also an employee who has the "willingness to learn" will be able to cope better with the circumstances than someone who just has the technical knowledge that might be readily applicable to the situation.

The second set of objective included the development of conceptual framework to find the relationship between the quality of inputs and output in business school education. A multidimensional structure was formed that included a total of 11 parameters to gauge the quality of inputs, systems and procedures and the final output. Structural equation modeling can be further applied on this model to test for the relevance of the parameters that determine the quality of education. To sum up, the management schools should be teaching the present generation to be innovative and creative to lead the future into growth and opportunities. For this to happen, they have to be taught in way that forces them to think beyond textbooks.

Implications of the study Our research attempts to question the practice of management schools in India. The research has several implications: 1. Further research can be done in this area. Our study evaluates the skills necessary with reference to the industry and sector to enhance the employability factor among graduates. A study can be attempted to evaluate the skills necessary on the basis of jobs and work profiles.

2. The research has been conducted using the sample companies in Delhi/ NCR. Similar research can be conducted on a national level to study if skill requirement is affected by regions. Also a step ahead can be taken to compare companies outside India with Indian 34

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counterparts. This will give a broader and appropriate conclusion as to management education relevance.

3. A survey can be conducted among the senior management to evaluate the key growth areas (KGA) for the employees based on the skill set present.

4. It can be deduced from the study that even though business schools are doing extensive research on diverse topics, yet the research is not grounded into actual business reality.

This study is an attempt to bridge the gap between academia and business world. New teaching methodologies can be employed by the faculty that encourage active learning process.

5. The analysis of the study can be applied to other domains like engineering as well. It can be used to study the skill gaps in engineers in India.

6. Business schools can establish a corporate relationship group to have an interface with the industry. Also entrepreneurship development programs can be focused upon.

7. The conceptual model so formed can be tested using structural equation modeling. This will validate the framework.

The research provides a direction for business schools in India to change their philosophy and education pattern so as to groom participative students into successful employees.

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