Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org
IJHSS.NET
Vol. 9 , No. 4
August 2017
International Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences
e-ISSN: p-ISSN:
1694-2639 1694-2620
AAJHSS.ORG Vol 9, No 4 - August 2017 Table of Contents A Review of Gratitude Research Shueh-Chin Ting
1
Motion Event Constructions in Oromo: Semantic and Morpho-Syntactic Properties* Wakweya Olani†and Elizabet Minase
16
Knowledge Management: Tool for Enhancing HRM Practices and Organizational Innovation Mueen Uddin
31
1
International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences p-ISSN: 1694-2620 e-ISSN: 1694-2639 Vol. 9, No. 4, 2017, pp. 1-15, ŠIJHSS
A Review of Gratitude Research Shueh-Chin Ting Department of Education, National University of Tainan, Taiwan Abstract Gratitude is a very special emotion. Our society and organizations should pay attention to gratitude, and furthermore, should understand how to manage gratitude. Up to now, gratitude research lacks a systematic arrangement. Thus, this study first reviews the near gratitude research and preliminarily finds that gratitude research could be divided into three categories: clarify the concept of gratitude; the consequences of gratitude; the causes of producing gratitude. Keywords: benefactor, beneficiary, emotion, favor, gratitude, guilt. Research Background, Motives and Purposes In contemporary society, gratitude plays a vital role, and many often express gratitude while talking (McCullough, Emmons, & Tsang, 2002). However, there are few academic researches on gratitude, till recently, when psychological studies began to systematically study gratitude (McCullough, Kilpatrick, Emmons, & Larson, 2001). Gratitude has been neglected by academic research, probably because gratitude is a psychological and positive emotion, which is likely to be overlooked (Linley, Joseph, Harrington, & Wood, 2006). Theories in many fields hold that gratitude is a significant variable regarding the establishment and maintenance of social relations (Bartlett & DeSteno, 2006). Some studies have demonstrated that gratitude has a positive influence on individuals, others, and organizations; for example, in terms of individuals, gratitude could enhance an individual's well-being (Toussaint & Friedman, 2009; Wood, Joseph, & Maltby, 2009); while for others, gratitude increases the occurrence of altruistic behavior (Bartlett & DeSteno, 2006; Tsang, 2006a). In regard to organizations, gratitude contributes to generate repurchase intention, positive word of mouth (Soscia, 2007), and long-term performance benefits (Palmatier, Jarvis, Bechkoff, & Kardes, 2009). Based on the foregoing, it can be determined that gratitude is worthy of advocacy. It will contribute to social harmony and organizational performance if we effectively utilize gratitude in
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
2
our social and management systems. However, according to this study, currently, there is a lack of integrated research on gratitude. This study reviews, analyzes, and classifies gratitude research, in order to learn the previous research categories of gratitude, help future researchers quickly grasp the entire picture of gratitude research, and serve as a reference for practitioners to make strategies based on gratitude. According to this study, there have been few studies (approximately 20) on gratitude in academic journals in recent years, most of which focused on clarifying the concept and consequences of gratitude, while few discussed the causes of gratitude. This study summarizes gratitude research published in academic journals in recent years, as shown in Table 1, having four aspects, including author and publication year, method, theme, and findings. The preliminary findings of this study indicate that gratitude research can be classified into three categories: the concept of gratitude, the result of gratitude, and the cause of gratitude. Clarifying the Concept of Gratitude McCullough et al. (2001) proposed that gratitude is an affective readout that alerts people that they have benefited from another person’s prosocial behavior. Gratitude has been conceptualized as a moral virtue, an attitude, a trait, or a coping response as well as a state of thankfulness or appreciation (Pelser et al., 2015). The first category of gratitude research clarifies the concept of gratitude. Some studies have explored the differences between gratitude and other similar concepts, including indebtedness (Algoe, Gable, & Maisel, 2010; Tsang, 2006b), happiness (Soscia, 2007), and appreciation (Wood, Maltby, Stewart, & Joseph, 2008c). Some studies pointed out that the characteristics of gratitude and the state of gratitude were two different concepts, and proved the relationship between them (Wood, Maltby, Stewart, Linley, & Joseph, 2008d), while some verified the measurement of the characteristics of gratitude (Chen, Chen, Kee, & Tsai, 2009). Through the efforts of such research, this study clarifies the basic concept of gratitude, and gains a clearer understanding of it. The following paragraphs further explain the research regarding the basic concept of gratitude in recent years. (1) The characteristics of gratitude and the state of gratitude are two different concepts Wood, Maltby, Stewart, Linley, and Joseph (2008d) clarified the concept of gratitude by comparing the characteristics and state of gratitude, and believed that people with the characteristics of gratitude were more likely to produce the state of gratitude. The characteristics of gratitude indicate personal differences; in other words, it refers to the frequency of the emotion and mood of gratitude in daily life. In contrast, the state of gratitude refers to the current thinking of emotion, mood, and action tendencies of gratitude. The most commonly used scale to measure gratitude characteristics is the gratitude questionnaire (GQ), which includes six questions, "I am grateful for many aspects of my life", "If I am asked to list the
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
3
things that I want to appreciate, that will be a long list", "When I face the world, I don't think there is anything that is worthy of my appreciation", "I want to appreciate many people", "As I grow older, I find that I am more and more grateful to people, things, and environments in my life", and "It takes a long time for me to be grateful to a matter or person." Based on these questions, we can understand the meanings of the characteristics of gratitude. Chen, Chen, Kee, and Tsai (2009) further simplified the six GQ questions into five. (2) Gratitude and indebtedness are two different concepts Tsang (2006b) verified the different influences of the motivations of people extending help to others on gratitude and indebtedness, in order to prove that gratitude and indebtedness were two different emotions. When comparing benevolence and unknown motivations, Tsang found that, if a helper extended help with the motivation of benevolence, the one being helped was more likely to feel gratified; nevertheless, there were no differences between the influences of benevolence and the unknown motivations of the helper on indebtedness. When comparing selfishness and unselfishness, Tsang found that, if a helper extended help with unselfish motivation, the one being helped was more likely to feel gratified; nevertheless, there were no differences between the influences of the selfishness and unselfishness of the helper on indebtedness. The findings also indicated that gratitude and indebtedness were two different emotions. Algoe, Gable, and Maisel (2010) pointed out that gratitude was a positive emotion, while indebtedness was a negative emotion. Gratitude inspired people to thank the benefactor in a creative way; however, when one had the sense of indebtedness, he/she would only focus on returning the favor. They assumed that indebtedness could maintain a relationship, while gratitude could enhance it, implying that gratitude and indebtedness were different. (3) Gratitude and happiness are different concepts Soscia (2007) found that gratitude could predict re-purchase intention and positive word of mouth, while happiness could not, which demonstrated that gratitude and happiness are different concepts. (4) Gratitude and appreciation are the same concept Wood, Maltby, Stewart, and Joseph (2008c) by exploratory factor analysis concluded that gratitude and appreciation were the same factor. Studies on the Consequences of Gratitude The second category of studies on gratitude explored the consequences of gratitude, which has had rich achievements in recent years. With respective to positive consequences, it has been found that gratitude could strengthen relationships and increase satisfaction with future life (Algoe, Gable, & Maisel, 2010; Howells, 2014; Wood, Joseph, & Maltby, 2008a), raise the
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
4
awareness of employees to common social responsibilities (Andersson, Giacalone, Jurkiewicz, 2007), inspire prosocial behaviors of the benefactor (Bartlett & DeSteno, 2006; Tsang, 2006a), produce long-term performance benefits (Palmatier, Jarvis, Bechkoff, & Kardes, 2009), generate re-purchase intention and positive word of mouth (Soscia, 2007), create well-being (Lin, 2016; Toussaint & Friedman, 2009; Wood, Joseph, & Maltby, 2009), intimacy with the helper (Weinstein, DeHaan, & Ryan, 2010), gain higher social support, and reduce stress and depression (Lin, 2015; Wood, Maltby, Gillett, Linley, & Joseph, 2008b). The above researches explain that gratitude had favorable influence on individuals, others, and organizations from the point of view of individuals. In addition, some studies have probed into the influence of gratitude from the viewpoint of groups, and found that gratitude activities in a disaster area held by governments also had a good effect on non-disaster areas (Raggio & Folse, 2011a, 2011b). While almost all the results of gratitude were positive, there were still negative findings. Some asserted that when gratitude could not be returned, one might have the sense of guilt (Cohen, 2006). Some studies probed into the causes and consequences of the sense of guilt (Dahl, Honea, & Manchanda, 2003; Dahl, Honea, & Manchanda, 2005). However, when gratitude could be returned, the result was positive. Just as Palmatier, Jarvis, Bechkoff, and Kardes (2009) pointed out; the beneficiary would have behaviors with long-term interests to an organization due to their intention to return gratitude. The results of gratitude are further explained below according to recent academic research. (1) Increasing well-being Toussaint and Friedman (2009) found that gratitude and well-being had positive and strong correlation, which could be explained with affect and belief as mediators. Weinstein, DeHaan, and Ryan (2010) discovered that gratitude could affect the beneficiary’s positive attitude and well-being, and intimacy to the benefactor. Wood, Joseph, and Maltby (2009) found that the predictive ability of gratitude to psychological well-being was stronger than the 30 facets of the five major personality. Lin (2016) found gratitude could directly increase well-being and also indirectly increase well-being through social support and coping style. (2) Reducing stress and depression Wood, Maltby, Gillett, Linley, and Joseph (2008b) deemed that gratitude could reduce stress and depression. Lin (2015) revealed a significant path from gratitude through self-esteem and psychological well-being to depression. (3) Enhancing relationships Algoe, Gable, and Maisel (2010) assumed that gratitude could enhance relationships. Wood, Maltby, Gillett, Linley, and Joseph (2008b) held that gratitude could obtain higher social support. Howells (2014) had shown that from the perspective of senior high school teachers, gratitude
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
5
could impact positively on building teacher-student relationships. (4) Increasing satisfaction with life Algoe, Gable, and Maisel (2010) pointed out that gratitude could increase satisfaction with future life. Wood, Joseph, and Maltby (2008a) thought that gratitude could predict life satisfaction. (5) Raising the awareness of social responsibility Andersson, Giacalone, and Jurkiewicz (2007) found that gratitude could raise the awareness of social responsibility of employees. (6) Increasing prosocial behavior Bartlett and DeSteno (2006) found that gratitude contributed to the occurrence of prosocial behavior. Tsang (2006a) assumed that gratitude could inspire the beneficiary to have prosocial behavior to the benefactor. Palmatier, Jarvis, Bechkoff, and Kardes (2009) deemed that gratitude could stimulate relevant return behavior, and for a company, it could produce long-term performance benefits. (7) Being helpful to an organization Soscia (2007) found that gratitude could predict re-purchase intention and positive word of mouth. Raggio and Folse (2011a, 2011b) discovered that gratitude activities held in disaster areas by governments had good effects, including enhancing the willingness of consumers to purchase products made by the disaster area, and have prosocial behaviors, such as volunteering and donations, purchasing the products and services of the disaster area at a higher price, visiting the disaster area, and spreading positive word of mouth. (8) Generation of the sense of guilt when gratitude could not be returned Cohen (2006) argued that gratitude was not necessarily a positive emotion; when gratitude could not be returned, a sense of guilt would be generated. Dahl, Honea, and Manchanda (2003) pointed out that there were three kinds of guilt, as based on different reasons, including: negative influence on others (other type), violation of social morality (social type), and failure to achieve self-standard (self-type); and they found that different types of the sense of guilt would lead to different consumption responses. Dahl, Honea, and Manchanda (2005) studied the generation and influence of the sense of guilt of consumers, and found that if consumers had a sense of guilt toward salesmen, they wanted to make up for the latter. Studies on the Causes of Gratitude The third category of studies on gratitude explores the influencing factors of gratitude, meaning the causes of gratitude. While there are few studies on this aspect, based on such studies, we can
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
6
still identify some important causes of gratitude. Palmatier, Jarvis, Bechkoff, and Kardes (2009) studied the relations between sellers and buyers, and found that the investment in relationship marketing by the seller could lead to the gratitude of short-term customers, thus, gratitude of customers was related to two factors. The first factor was the seller or the benefactor. The second was the investment in relationship marketing, meaning the favor given from the benefactor to the beneficiary, or the factor of a favor. Wood, Maltby, Stewart, Linley, and Joseph (2008d) discovered that a favor with different degree of interest would influence the state of gratitude through beneficial appraisal. This study holds that a favor with different degree of interest belongs to the factor of favor itself. Tsang (2006a) deemed that one was more likely to have gratitude when receiving favor from others, rather than from accident; this is a comparative study of benefactor and accident. Tsang (2006b) found that if the helper extended help with the motivation of benevolence and unselfishness, the one being helped was more likely to feel gratified; thus, it was a study on the motivation of the benefactor. Unsworth, Turner, Williams, and Piccin-Houle (2010) pointed out that gratitude was less likely to be generated in a relationship with high trust. This study considers that a relationship with trust belongs to environmental factors. Weinstein, DeHaan, and Ryan (2010) observed that the one being helped receiving the help extended with spontaneous motivation was more likely to feel gratitude than with a controlled motivation. This study believes that the motivation of the benefactor belongs to the factors of the benefactor. Wood, Maltby, Stewart, Linley, and Joseph (2008d) held that the characteristics of gratitude would influence the state of gratitude through beneficial appraisal. This study holds that the characteristics of gratitude belong to the factors of the beneficiary. Based on the abovementioned research, this study classifies the influencing factors of gratitude into four categories: factors related to favor itself, the factors of the benefactor, the factors of the beneficiary, and environmental factors. (1) Favor In the context of exchange, if customers received some relationship benefits (e.g. additional efforts, care, or gifts from the service providers), they would be grateful. These relationship benefits belong to favors to customers; for the seller, it is an investment in relationship marketing. Palmatier, Jarvis, Bechkoff, and Kardes (2009) argued that an investment in relationship marketing by the seller could generate the gratitude of short-term customers. Regarding the value of favor, Wood, Maltby, Stewart, Linley, and Joseph (2008d) pointed out that those who considered help from others as more valuable would have a higher state of gratitude. In addition, the degree of interest would influence the state of gratitude through beneficial appraisal, implying that the value of favor would influence gratitude. Unsworth, Turner, Williams, and Piccin-Houle (2010) explored the relationship between postgraduates and their professors, and found that there was positive correlation between the altruistic behavior and value of the behavior of professors and the gratitude of postgraduates.
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
7
(2) The benefactor The efforts and motivations of the benefactor would influence gratitude. Wood, Maltby, Stewart, Linley, and Joseph (2008d) assumed that, when the one being helped believed that the helper spent high costs to help him/her with altruistic intentions, the former would have a higher state of gratitude. Tsang (2006b) found that if the helper extended help with the motivation of benevolence and unselfishness, the one being helped was more likely to feel gratified. Weinstein, DeHaan, and Ryan (2010) thought that the one being helped was more likely to feel gratitude for the helper with spontaneous motivation than that with controlled motivation. In addition, unlike the aforementioned study categories, Tsang (2006a) deemed that favor given by others resulted in higher gratitude than gained by accident, implying that gratitude had a strong relationship with the benefactor, meaning the benefactor was a vital factor generating gratitude. (3) The beneficiary When the personality traits of an individual had the characteristics of gratitude, it had key influence on the presence of gratitude. Wood, Maltby, Stewart, Linley, and Joseph (2008d) believed that those with characteristics of high gratitude had more positive beneficial appraisals regarding help from others, resulting in a higher state of gratitude. More positive beneficial appraisal included that the help from others was more valuable, and was given with higher costs and stronger altruistic intentions. (4) Environment The relationship environment in which the benefactor and the beneficiary interact influences gratitude. Unsworth, Turner, Williams, and Piccin-Houle (2010) discovered that, in a relationship with high trust, gratitude was less likely to be generated, because, in such relationship, the parties had had the expectation to obtain interest, thus, less attention was paid to the favor extended by the benefactor. So, there was less gratitude. Moreover, Cohen (2006) found that gratitude varied according to individuals, culture, and religions. Culture and religion belonged to environmental factors, while individual was the beneficiary previously mentioned.
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
8
Table 1. Gratitude Studies Published in Academic Journals in Recent Years. Author and Publication Year Algoe, Gable and Maisel (2010)
Method
Theme
Findings
Questionnaire
Roles of gratitude and indebtedness in maintaining a romantic relationship between cohabiting lovers
For men and women, the gratitude generated from interactions could enhance the relationship and increase satisfaction with future life. Indebtedness could maintain a relationship, while gratitude could improve a relationship.
Andersson, Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2007)
A longitudinal study on 308 American whitecollars
Influences on social responsibility of hope and gratitude
Hope and gratitude could raise the awareness of social responsibility of employees. Employees with stronger hope and gratitude had a stronger sense of responsibility over other employees and social events, but did not influence the sense of responsibility over economic/security/quality events.
Bartlett and DeSteno (2006)
Experiment with student samples
Correlation between gratitude and prosocial behaviors
The beneficiary would exert efforts to help the benefactor, even if the former had to pay the costs. The effects of gratitude were different from general positive emotions. Gratitude could drive helping behaviors.
Chen, Chen, Kee and Tsai (2009)
Questionnaire with student samples
Verification of the validity of the GQ6 questionnaire
Confirmatory factor analysis showed that five items model was superior to GQ6.
Cohen (2006)
Retrospective and qualitative study
Cohen reviewed the key points of Emmons and McCullough (2003) and discussed four questions, including: Is gratitude an emotion? What are the cognitive components of gratitude? Is gratitude positive or negative? Is gratitude moral?
Gratitude was not necessarily a positive emotion. When gratitude could not be returned, a sense of guilt would be generated. It was not necessary for gratitude to have a reason and assessment structure. Gratitude varied due to individuals, culture, and religions.
Dahl, Honea and Manchanda (2003)
Critical incidents and questionnaire
In the context of a consumption, the categories of the sense of guilt related to a consumption, and consumer reactions which resulted from different senses of guilt.
There were three kinds of guilt based on different reasons, including: negative influence on others (other type), violation of social morality (social type), and failure to achieve a self-standard (self-type). Consumers with the social type of guilt were more likely to adopt corrective measures than those with the self-type of guilt. Consumers with the self-type of guilt were more likely to adopt admitting measures than those with the social type of guilt.
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
9
Author and Publication Year
Method
Theme
Findings
Dahl, Honea and Manchanda (2005)
Experimental study
Cause and influence of the sense of guilt of consumers
When consumers and salesmen had social connections, and consumers had the right to control their purchase decisions, if consumers did not purchase, a sense of guilt would be generated. When consumers had the sense of guilt, in their future interaction with the salesmen, they wanted to make up for the latter, rather than for the company.
Howells (2014)
Questionnaire and focus group
Investigate the role that gratitude may have in enhancing teacher-student relationships.
Gratitude impacted positively on the teachers, classroom and school environment.
Lin (2015)
Questionnaire
Explore the relationship between gratitude and depression in young adults
Self-esteem and psychological wellbeing acted as full mediators of the association between gratitude and depression
Lin (2016)
Questionnaire
Explore the relationship between gratitude and well-being
Structural equation modeling showed partial mediation effects of social support and coping style between gratitude and well-being
Palmatier, Jarvis, Bechkoff and Kardes (2009)
Experimental study and longitudinal field study
Explore the mediating role of gratitude in the correlation between the investment in relationship marketing by the seller and performance results
The investment in relationship marketing by the seller generated the gratitude of short-term consumers. Based on return behaviors related with gratitude, consumers generated the long-term performance interests of the seller.
Raggio and Folse (2011a)
Online survey
Effects of gratitude activities held by governments in disaster areas
Governments held gratitude activities to respond to the help from the outside, which was appropriate and beneficial. After receiving the expression of gratitude, consumers were more likely to purchase the products made by the disaster area, and continue to have prosocial behaviors, such as volunteering and donations. The gratitude activities would also encourage those who had not participated in the help and recovery activities to join future similar activities. This policy had economic and social feedback to disaster areas.
Raggio and Folse (2011b)
Online survey
Effect of the gratitude activities held by the government after the Louisiana hurricane
Those who had heard or saw the ads of "gratitude" had more positive attitude toward Louisiana and the local residents. They were more willing to purchase the products and services of
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
10
Author and Publication Year
Method
Theme
Findings Louisiana at a higher price, visit the state, and spread positive word of mouth, indicating that it was appropriate for the government to hold gratitude activities. The expression of gratitude generated affective commitment, followed by positive outcomes.
Soscia (2007)
Experimental study
The relationships among assessment (goal consistency/inconsistency ), consumer emotion (gratitude, happiness, guilt, anger, pride, and sadness), and postconsumption behavior (positive and negative word of mouth, repurchase intention, and complaint)
Assessment results generated emotions, which affected the postconsumption behavior. Especially gratitude could predict re-purchase intention and positive word of mouth, while happiness could not. In addition, the sense of guilt could prevent complaints and negative word of mouth.
Toussaint and Friedman (2009)
Questionnaire survey of the patients in Psychotherapy Outpatient
The effect of forgiveness and gratitude on wellbeing, and whether the relationship was mediated by affect and belief
Both forgiveness and gratitude had strong and positive relationship with well-being, and was mostly mediated by affect and belief.
Tsang (2006a)
Experimental study
Adopting the method different from the past which was often used like script of and selfreporting. Tsang triggered gratitude in the lab and measured the influence of gratitude on prosocial behaviors. In addition, Knowing whether gratitude was equivalent to positive emotion.
One was more likely to have gratitude when receiving a favor from others, rather than receiving a favor by accident. The favor from others could inspire the motivation of prosocial behavior to the benefactor.
Tsang (2006b)
Experimental study
The influence of intention of the helper on gratitude and indebtedness
When comparing benevolence and unknown motivations, Tsang found that, if the helper extended help with the motivation of benevolence, the one being helped was more likely to feel gratified. Nevertheless, there were no difference between the influences of benevolence and unknown motivations of the helper on indebtedness. When comparing selfishness and unselfishness motivation, Tsang found that, if the helper extended help with unselfish motivation, the one being helped was
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
11
Author and Publication Year
Method
Theme
Findings more likely to feel gratified. Nevertheless, there were no difference between the influences of selfishness and unselfishness of the helper on indebtedness. The findings indicated that gratitude and indebtedness were two different emotions.
Unsworth, Turner, Williams and Piccin-Houle (2010)
Interview and online questionnaire
Study on the emotion and expression of gratitude, and the relationship between postgraduates and their professors in the context of relationship.
There was positive correlation between the altruistic behavior and value of behavior of professors and gratitude of their postgraduates. Such a conclusion was true in the context of work relationships with low trust rather than with high trust.
Weinstein, DeHaan and Ryan (2010)
Reading a script and answering open-ended questions
Influence of the spontaneous motivation of the helper and the controlled motivation on the one being helped
The one being helped received the extended help with spontaneous motivation was more likely to feel gratitude than that with controlled motivation. Help with spontaneous motivation could predict positive attitude and affect, as well as intimate feeling of the one being helped. Gratitude played a mediating role in the influence of spontaneous help on the positive attitude, well-being, and intimate feeling of the one being helped.
Wood, Joseph and Maltby (2008a)
Questionnaire of 389 adults
Predictive ability of gratitude to life satisfaction
After controlling the Big Five domains of personality, gratitude could explain 9% more variance of life satisfaction. After controlling the Big Five all facets of personality, gratitude could explain 8% more variance of life satisfaction.
Wood, Maltby, Gillett, Linley and Joseph (2008b)
Longitudinal field study and questionnaire
Correlation among gratitude, social support, stress, and frustration
The direct model obtained support. Gratitude could gain higher social support, and reduce stress and frustration.
Wood, Maltby, Stewart and Joseph (2008c)
Questionnaire
Structure of gratitude and appreciation
Analysis of the exploratory factors indicated that gratitude and appreciation were the same factor. Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis also indicated that gratitude and appreciation were a single-factor structure, and for respondents of different genders, such structure did not change. The author suggested that literature on gratitude and appreciation could be integrated.
Wood, Maltby, Stewart, Linley
Experiment of reading essays
Establishing the mechanism to connect the
Those with high characteristics of gratitude had more positive beneficial
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
12
Author and Publication Year and Joseph (2008d)
Method
Wood, Joseph and Maltby (2009)
Questionnaire
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
Theme
Findings
characteristics of gratitude, objective context, and state of gratitude
appraisal on the help from others, resulting in a higher state of gratitude. More positive beneficial appraisal included the consideration that the help from others was more valuable, and was given with more costs and stronger altruistic intention. Such positive beneficial appraisal fully mediated the relationship between the characteristics and state of gratitude. Moreover, objective contexts with high and low benefits would influence the state of gratitude through beneficial appraisal.
Predictive ability of gratitude to psychological well-being
The predictive ability of gratitude to psychological well-being was stronger than that of the 30 facets of Big Five of personality.
13
Conclusion Gratitude is often used in everyday life; however, the users of gratitude lack correct concepts because very few studies on gratitude, and insufficient attention was paid to such significant emotion. Certainly, it is a pity that gratitude is not properly utilized in life and organization management. Through examining past studies on gratitude, this study obtains a clearer concept of gratitude. Additionally, we know the favorable results of gratitude which should be well utilized; surely, the findings also could prevent the occurrence of negative results of gratitude. Moreover, fully understanding the influencing factors of gratitude is beneficial to managers to propose strategies that can inspire gratitude. To sum up, this study is helpful to effectively interpret and manage the attitudes and behaviors of gratitude. Acknowledgements The author is grateful to Ministry of Science and Technology in Taiwan for the financial support (MOST 104-2410-H-024-018-MY2). References Algoe, S. B., Gable, S. L., & Maisel, N. C. (2010). It’s the little things: Everyday gratitude as a booster shot for romantic relationships. Personal Relationships, 17(2), 217-233. Andersson, L. M., Giacalone, R. A., & Jurkiewicz, C. L. (2007). On the relationship of hope and gratitude to corporate social responsibility. Journal of Business Ethics, 70(4), 401-409. Bartlett, M. Y., & DeSteno, D. (2006). Gratitude and prosocial behavior: Helping when it costs you. Psychological Science, 17(4), 319-325. Chen, L. H., Chen, M. Y., Kee, Y. H., & Tsai, Y. M. (2009). Validation of the gratitude questionnaire (GQ) in Taiwanese undergraduate students. Journal of Happiness Studies, 10(6), 655-664. Cohen, A. B. (2006). On gratitude. Social Justice Research, 19(2), 254-276. Dahl, D. W., Honea, H., & Manchanda, R. V. (2003). The nature of self-reported guilt in consumption contexts. Marketing Letters, 14(3), 159-171. Dahl, D. W., Honea, H., & Manchanda, R. V. (2005). Three Rs of interpersonal consumer guilt: Relationship, reciprocity, reparation. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 15(4), 307-315. Howells, K. (2014). An exploration of the role of gratitude in enhancing teacher-student relationships. Teaching and Teacher Education, 42, 58-67. Lin, C. C. (2015). Gratitude and depression in young adults: The mediating role of self-esteem and wellbeing. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 30-34. Lin, C. C. (2016). The roles of social support and coping style in the relationship between gratitude and well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 89, 13-18. Linley, P. A., Joseph, S., Harrington, S., & Wood, A. M. (2006). Positive psychology: Past, present, and (possible) future. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1(1), 3-16. McCullough, M. E., Emmons, R. A., & Tsang, J. A. (2002). The grateful disposition: A conceptual and
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
14
empirical topography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(1), 112-127. McCullough, M. E., Kilpatrick, S. D., Emmons, R. A., & Larson, D. B. (2001). Is gratitude a moral affect? Psychological Bulletin, 127(2), 249-266. Palmatier, R. W., Jarvis, C. B., Bechkoff, J. R., & Kardes, F. R. (2009). The role of customer gratitude in relationship marketing. Journal of Marketing, 73(5), 1-18. Pelser, J., de Ruyter, K., Wetzels, M., Grewal, D., Cox, D., & van Beuningen, J. (2015). B2B channel partner programs: Disentangling indebtedness from gratitude. Journal of Retailing, 91(4), 660-678. Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Washington: American Psychological Association. Raggio, R. D., & Folse, J. A. G. (2011a). Expressions of gratitude in Disaster management: An economic, social marketing, and public policy perspective on post-Katrina campaigns. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 30(2), 168-174. Raggio, R. D., & Folse, J. A. G. (2011b). Gratitude works: Its impact and the mediating role of affective commitment in driving positive outcomes. Journal of the Academy Marketing Science, 37(4), 455-469. Reis, H. T., Clark, M. S., & Holmes, J. G. (2004). Perceived partner responsiveness as an organizing construct in the study of intimacy and closeness. In D. J. Mashek and A. Aron (Eds.), Handbook of closeness and intimacy. Mahwah NJ: Erlbaum. Solomon, R. C. (2004). Foreword. In R. A. Emmons and M. E. McCullough (Eds.), Psychology of gratitude (pp. v-xi). Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press. Soscia, I. (2007). Gratitude, delight, or guilt: The role of consumers’ emotions in predicting postconsumption behaviors. Psychology & Marketing, 24(10), 871-894. Toussaint, L., & Friedman, P. (2009). Forgiveness, gratitude, and well-being: The Mediating role of affect and beliefs. Journal of Happiness Studies, 10(6), 635-654. Tsang, J. A. (2006a). Gratitude and prosocial behavior: An experimental test of gratitude. Cognition and Emotion, 20(1), 138-148. Tsang, J. A. (2006b). The effects of helper intention on gratitude and indebtedness. Motivation and Emotion, 30(3), 199-205. Unsworth, K. L., Turner, N., Williams, H. M., & Piccin-Houle, S. (2010). Giving thanks: The relational context of gratitude in postgraduate. Studies in Higher Education, 35(8), 871-888. Weinstein, N., DeHaan, C. R., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). Attributing autonomous versus introjected motivation to helpers and the recipient experience: Effects on gratitude, attitudes, and well-being. Motivation and Emotion, 34(4), 418-431. Wood, A. M., Joseph, S., & Maltby, J. (2008a). Gratitude uniquely predicts satisfaction with life: Incremental validity above the domains and facets of the five-factor model. Personality and Individual Differences, 45(1), 49-54. Wood, A. M., Joseph, S., & Maltby, J. (2009). Gratitude predicts psychological well-being above the Big Five facets. Personality and Individual Differences, 46(4), 443-447. Wood, A. M., Maltby, J., Gillett, R., Linley, P. A., & Joseph, S. (2008b). The role of gratitude in the
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
15
development of social support, stress, and depression: Two longitudinal studies. Journal of Research in Personality, 42(4), 854-871. Wood, A. M., Maltby, J., Stewart, N., & Joseph, S. (2008c). Conceptualizing gratitude and appreciation as a unitary personality trait. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(3), 619-630. Wood, A. M., Maltby, J., Stewart, N., Linley, P. A., & Joseph, S. (2008d). A social-cognition model of trait and state levels of gratitude. Emotion, 8(2), 281-290.
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
16
International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences p-ISSN: 1694-2620 e-ISSN: 1694-2639 Vol. 9, No. 4, 2017, pp. 16-30, ©IJHSS
Motion Event Constructions in Oromo: Semantic and Morpho-Syntactic Properties* Wakweya Olani† and Elizabet Minase PhD Candidates of Descriptive and Theoretical Linguistics at Addis Ababa University Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Abstract Framing of motion events involves realization of the component schema encoded in verb roots or in other elements out of the verb root which identifies a certain language into its category of the motion event pattern. The present paper tries to outline major points about motion event systems in Oromo in terms of semantic and morpho-syntactic characteristics in which some syntactic and pragmatic patterns are also slightly treated. The semantic core schemas are mainly considered, and the component elements of the framing verb —figure, motion, path, ground and co-events (manner and cause) are distinctly addressed as they are realized in Oromo. Three forms of lexicalizing core schemas have been identified as figure conflating, path conflating and co-event conflating types in the language. The ground in motion events is marked by using case patterns, and the verb argument mainly occurs in monovalent structure though few motion verbs seem to be bivalent by assigning accusative case to their direct objects. Key words: motion, encoding, framing, event. Introduction Background The mode of encoding motion events is a language specific preference in terms of semantic component elements in an event. Oromo, a member of the lowland East branch of Cushitic family in the Afro-Asiatic phylum, is named as Afaan Oromo in the language community, which literally means ‗language of Oromo. In Oromo, motion events are systematized semantically and morpho-syntactically; the cognitively conceptualized metaphoric expressions as in Samuel‘s, (2007) and some pragmatic constraints are also important in motion systems of the language. The aim of the present paper is to revisit the description of occurrence patterns of motion events in Oromo mainly in terms of their conflation systems along with some morpho-syntactic properties. It focuses on semantic values with some innovations as additional points to what has already been described so far in few relevant studies.
*
We are grateful to Dr. Meyer, Ronny and Dr. Endalew Asefa for their constructive comments in the preparation of this paper. There’s much to say about their generous support in directing and advising us towards quality of our work. † Corresponding Author, E-mail: wakwoyaolani@yahoo.com http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
17
In the typological sense as Talmy, (2000) states, an event mainly conflates motion with semantic elements like figure, path and manner in which motion is the basic component that yields the other information pieces in appropriate morpho-syntactic and semantic fashion. Motion event which represents any movement encoded by verb is systematized in its semantic components, and hence the verb is considered as macro-event, in Talmy‘s terms, for the analyzable elements in it. The semantic components of motion events are considered as the core schemas based on which typological categorizing of languages may happen because motion events encode notions of figure, path and co-events in different systems either in the verb root, or in separate elements out of the verb. Talmy, (2000) identifies a two way distinction of verbs in the languages‘ typological system of encoding motion as verb-framed and satellite-framed types; the earlier one represents the conflation of motion with the semantic element, path in the verb root whereas the latter one refers to using of separate patterns (satellites) for expressing path. In addition to Talmy‘s typological two-way verb forms of motion in languages, other scholars like Ameka and Essegbey, (2013) suggest the third type as equipollently-framed languages involving both features of verb-framed and satellite-framed motion event patterns in almost equal realizations related with path encoding. Languages may normally exert both verb-framed and satellite-framed patterns of encoding motion events, mostly not in equal status, so that one is dominant over the other; for example, English is basically a satellite-framed language that involves few verb-framed patterns as in the verbs enter and exit —motion+ path conflation. It is pretty rare to find languages that equally employ both features so that we just consider the dominant one for determining motion event system typology of a certain language. Verkerk, (2014: 308) states that languages are labeled as verb-framed or satellite-framed on the basis of frequency of the unmarked system to encode path because languages usually employ both framing types not in equal status. Some studies treated motion events in Cushitic languages few of which are parts of the Grammar related studies or under other broader topics. Occurrence pattern of motion events in Cushitic languages may behave the same in some ways especially for the genetic relation; Hence, Kambaata —Tries (2007) and Sidaama —Kawachi (2007) are taken into account as additional references especially for some comparative sense in case the explanatory context demands some relational point. Oromo motion systems are revisited in this paper based on Talmy‘s typological theory and the most relevant studies conducted so far. The purpose is to substantiate what is already done through additional data explanations, and to fill some overlooked issues in Oromo motion events. The specific objectives to be met are as follows: - Identifying and classifying encoding of the motion. - Characterizing the occurrence patterns of motion events in terms of semantic and morphosyntactic properties. Methods After identifying the related studies on the concept of motion events and data systems, semantic and morpho-syntactic properties of Oromo motion events are treated based on the research outputs and empirical evidences, but the semantic aspect is given due attention as the meaningwise component elements of motion events are important issues in such studies. The paper work follows appropriate procedure of surveying the relevant studies and reviewing them thoroughly with involvement of some data presentations where necessary; primary and secondary data items were employed. For the new data items, the tool is introspection since one of the investigators is native of Oromo. Relevant points of the previous studies and the new data were systematically organized based on the language specific motion encoding patterns; these points were presented in light with Leonard Talmy‘s typological theories of languages in their motion event systems. Using the compiled research outputs and data presentations, some inferred discussions in the Oromo motion systems were provided with appropriate conclusions afterwards. http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
18
The literature: Overview Oromo is basically an SOV language whose case system is nominative marked; the accusative case is morphologically unmarked while subject of transitive and intransitive verbs are marked for nominative case (Debela and Meyer, 2008; Konig, 2008). Besides the semantic phenomenon of expressing motion events, morpho-syntactic and syntactic constraints also play significant roles in determining the typological category of a language so that involvement of morphology and syntax happens according to the language‘s preference (Walchli and Solling, 2013:87). The communicative value of motion verbs may sometimes depend on even pragmatic sense; a certain syntactically acceptable motion expression can be semantically senseless due to using of less appropriate patterning with the involvement of shared knowledge (Meyer, 2007). Oromo is identified as a verb-framed language in Talmy‘s typology in which the core schema (path) is mapped into the verb with rich path conflation in motion events (Debela, 2007; Samuel, 2007). The verb-framed system of encoding motion is hypothetically considered to be the basic feature of the general African languages (Schaefer and Graines, 1997: 197), and Oromo probably confirms this tendency. However, some features of satellite-framed languages like manner conflation in verb root are also observed in the language since there is no language with rigid boundary referring to one typological framing of core schema in motion verbs. Previous studies on motion event constructions in Oromo (Debela, 2006 & 2007; Samuel, 2007; Debela and Meyer, 2008) and Highland East Cushitic languages like Sidaama (Kawachi, 2007), and Kambaata (Tries, 2007) can be cited as the related ones. However, the studies on Oromo are obviously the most relevant descriptive works with considerable points taken into account in the present paper. Debela, (2006) classifies motion events in Oromo according to their integrated semantic components according to Talmy‘s typological elements in motion verbs —motion, path, co-event, figure, and ground. Debela, (2007) treats path conflating motion verbs reconsidering the sub-categories within path-oriented motion verbs stated in his broader work about one year back; both papers focus on semantic phenomenon of the motion events in Oromo with slight consideration of the syntactic and/or morpho-syntactic properties of motion verbs, but Debela and Meyer, (2008) focuses on marking of grounds as syntactic phenomenon of motion events with some morpho-syntactic patterns in the language. The basically motion verb baɁuu ‗to go out‘ in Oromo as described by Samuel, (2007) focuses on semantic representational variations and schematic analysis with a detailed explanations. On the way of describing semantic properties of the verb, it treats the motion related features in the language indicating that motion verbs on one hand may convey semantic elements like path in the root and on the other hand such semantic features are expressed by separate words (like adpositions or nouns), not in the verb root. For example, the verb sussukuu ‗to trot‘ which conflates motion with manner and seenuu ‗to enter‘ which conflates motion with path dominantly convey semantic elements (path and manner) in semantics of their root so does the motion verb baɁuu ‗to go out‘ in Samuel‘s paper which conflates path. Tries (2007) describes Kambaata as verb-framed motion encoding system; it demonstrates the occurrence of path, manner, figure and ground of motion in terms of morpho-syntactic and semantic characteristics along with case systems on ground NP‘s for encoding path. Considering Sidaama as a verb-framed language, Kawachi (2007) describes the motion event with specific semantic category, manner as conflated notion; it examines manner verbs in connection with boundary crossing and ground positioning (goal and source NP‘s). The paper focuses on morpho-syntactic phenomenon with some semantic considerations in manner verb constructions of the language.
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
19
Results and Discussion Oromo motion event systems The core semantic components of motion events figure, motion itself, path, ground and coevent (manner/cause) from which path is the predominantly lexicalized entity in the verb root are systematized in Oromo. The conflation types are motion with figure, motion with path, and motion with co-event (manner/cause) though Debela, (2006) adds the fourth conflation motion with neutral semantic category, motion only. Even though encoding these semantic elements in the verb root is mainly observed, path and manner can also be expressed by preverbs or other forms out of the motion verb; these happens through separate markers in satellite forms through different systems. The co-events, manner and cause happen in locomotive and non-locomotive motion events respectively. The ground NP is structured either in unmarked form or through case marking that grammaticalizes other functions like object or adjunct in motion event construction of the language. The core schemas of framing verbs in Oromo are as follows:
Figure
A certain kind of figure (the moving entity) is inevitably involved in motion events, and the motion verbs that relatively specify the figure are considered as figure conflating verbs. As one type of motion events, such verbs as in Debela, (2006: 62) are described figure-oriented because they convey figure specification within the verb root. This might be conceptually similar with Kersten‘s (2003: 919) point of the figure‘s involvement in motion encoding; it states that the information of motion is not only conveyed by verbs but also by nouns in some appropriate contexts whereby the noun is considered to play a determining share of a motion type. The two approaches towards motion and figure integration seems to be conversely proportional that the earlier one focuses on the motion verb identifying the figure type whereas the latter prefers the figure type to be determining factor for the motion type; however, the general point is that figure and motion are semantically intertwisted in some verbs like ɗanɡalaɁuu ‗to be spilt‘, jaaɁuu ‗flow‘, ʧ’op’uu ‗drop‘, bubbisuu ‗blow‘, lolaɁuu ‗to flood‘ in Oromo. Most of the ―figure-oriented‖ motion verbs are derived from nouns whose meanings are related with the noun (i.e. figure) they are derived from. These verbs include: lolaɁuu ‗to flood‘, bubbisuu ‗to blow‘, roobuu ‗to rain‘, and their bases (noun forms) are lolaa ‗flood‘, bubbee ‗sandstorm‘, rooba ‗rain‘ respectively. Hence, the semantic connections between the motion of the verb and nature of the figure are intuitive because they are basically from the same notional roots. However, there are motion and figure combinations in verbs that are not derivational like ɗanɡalaɁuu ‗to be spilt‘. Consider the examples in 1 below: 1
(a) aannan milk:Nom
ɗanɡalaɁ-e
(b)
spill-3sm:Pfv
muʧ’aa-n
kurkur-t-e
child-Nom
toddle-3sf-Pfv
‗The milk spilt‘ (c) lolaa-n Flood-Nom
lolaɁ-e flood-3sm:Pfv
‗The flood flooded‘
‗The child toddled‘ (d)
bubbee-n
bubbis-e
sandstorm-Nom
blow-3sm:Pfv
‗The sandstorm blew‘
The motion verbs in (a) and (b) above identify that the subjects are liquid and child respectively as their semantic content; these verbs are semantically figure-oriented. The verb ɗanɡalaɁe ‗spilt‘ takes as liquid subject, and the verb kurkurte ‗toddled‘ refers to a child subject with the diminutive marker -t- as in the verb. Unlike the first two sentences in example 1 above, the latter two (c) and (d) contain verbalized forms of the nouns (their subjects) so that they are inherently http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
20
related because their verbal sense emanates from the nominal sense itself, but semantics as conflation of motion and figure is involved in all framing verbs above. Since, the figure-oriented motion verbs seem to be embraced under the co-event, manner, they can be considered as sub-categories of manner conflating verbs. Such verbs lexicalize figure besides the co-event but a large number of other verbs happen as manner-oriented ones without encoding figure in the verb root. This may make us categorize manner verbs as motion + manner + figure and motion + manner types in their sub-division in Oromo. In such analysis, we find a two way distinction of motion encoding in Oromo regarding conflation of semantic components in the motion event as path-oriented and manner-oriented which can ultimately be considered as Ameka and Essegbey‘s (2013) motion typology, equipollently-framed language. However, this hypothetical tendency needs to be confirmed by other research with more empirical evidences in motion related features of the language. Such complexity of verb components in languages is a token for high integration of events as typological theories indicate. According to Wakasa (2016: 146), the semantic components motion and manner conveyed in one clause makes it complex event in the integration pattern; taking event other semantic component like figure, as in Oromo, would make it more complex event.
Motion
The major and typical semantic component, motion is considered for determining the verb type in event description, and the event involves some kind of movement. Basically, motion event can be neutral or without conflating of other semantic schemas like path and figure in the verb root as a categorical possibility in languages Talmy, (2007: 101). However, occurrence of a sole motion conflation in Oromo can be controversial. According to Debela, (2006), the Oromo verb deemuu ‗to go‘ is considered to convey motion only without specifying the figure, path, manner, etc of its own. The unmarked NP seeming the verb object happens in adjunctive function though it appears in the same form in paradigmatic position and morphological similarity with the syntactic object. The movement (translocation) conveyed in the verb deemuu ‗to go‘ is not known what the figure takes for the motion; maybe by car or on horseback or on foot etc. Neither does it show what course of motion the figure follows for moving from one location to the other as claimed in Debela‘s paper, so that the verb deemuu ‗to go‘ is considered as just motion-oriented. However, it seems empirically pretty ungrounded to determine the verb deemuu ‗to go‘ neutrally motion-oriented because it can have a notion of path when it is used alone in a sentence (without a verb external path encoding element) in Oromo (Debela and Meyer 2008). Separate path encoding preverbs may actually change path of the motion by changing the deictic center. 2
(a)
muʧ’-iʧʧ-I boy-Def-Nom
deem-e go-3sm:Pfv
‗The boy went away‘
(b)
muʧ’-iʧʧ-i boy-Def-Nom
as- deem-e Path-go-3sm:Pfv
The boy walked towards here‘
The route taken is away from a deictic center that deeme ‗went away‘ seems to conflate motion and path behaving like the verb sokke ‗went away‘ in (a) above. Actually, varied path can be expressed with this verb, when it is used with path encoding preverbs like as- ‗here‘, aʧʧi ‗there‘ as opposite direction. The preverb as- ‗here‘, in (b), is an adverbial proclitic which indicates the path of the motion by specifying the way to be taken by the figure.
Path
Indicating the granular nature of events in motion construction, Antunano, (2008: 409) states that path is the core semantic element in motion events whose elaboration and way of encoding http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
21
may differ in languages. Path (the way taken) can either be lexicalized in verb root or expressed in separate elements using adpositions or some relevant case markings especially for source indicating NP‘s and destination indicating NP‘s; these markers refer to ground marking in order to encode path element. This supports, Tries‘ (2007: 199) and Kawachi‘s (2007:5) point that path can be conveyed through case marking on ground nouns and lexicalizing motion with path in verb root as well, but it is pervasively lexicalized in the framing verb. The path-oriented verbs make an important type of motion verbs because there are many verbs of this kind in Oromo; they happen conflating motion and path together. Examples of these motion verbs are ɗufuu ‗to come‘, ɡaluu ‗go home‘, k’ak’k’abuu ‗reach‘, lit’uu ‗to enter‘, ɗak’uu ‗to go‘, baɁuu ‗to exit‘, deebiɁuu ‗to return‘, etc that are classified into other sub-categories whereby the path element is common feature to all of them. The verbs are sub-categorized on the criteria of deictic space and base object that are somehow involved in the motion event of path. The motion may happen towards or from the deictic center; or it may be towards, away, across, beside or around the base. Debela‘s, (2006) is a relatively broader description of motion verbs in terms of semantic properties in Oromo besides which he treats again a more specific part of motion verbs in the language focusing on path-conflating verbs. Hence, Debela (2007) explains that path can either be lexicalized in the verb root or encoded by separate elements (adpositions or preverbs) in Oromo. The motion event also considers deictic position, reference point and ground in systematizing path in motion events of the language. The speaker or the addressee is the deictic center for the path conflating motion events in some verbs like ɗufuu ‗to come‘, koott-u/-aa ‗come-sg/-pl‘ (suppletive imperative form of the verb ɗufuu ‗to come‘) and sokkuu ‗to go‘ in which the meaning is based on where the speaker or the addressee is in the given discourse. Have a look at examples 3 below: 3
(a)
inni he:Nom
ɗuf-e come-3sm:Pfv
(b)
(ati) (you:Nom)
‗He came‘
koott-u come-2s:Imp
‗(you) come‘
These sentences are conceptualized in relation to the deictic position of the speaker or the addressee; for instance, sentence (a) may have two meanings in terms of the speaker and the addressee related deictic centers although it is basically related with the speaker‘s deictic center. The motion verb koott- ‗come‘ is just referring to the speaker related deictic center which the figure moves as in (b) without an overt goal NP because the discourse connected deictic location is not necessarily stated. A motion event can have relevant goal NP (the addressee related deictic center) as in example 4 below whereby the destination needs stated overtly as the goal NP because the word ɗufuu ‗to come‘ is mainly considered as the speaker related deictic center. 4
inni
gara-koo/kee
ɗuf-e
he:Nom
vicinity-Poss:1s/2s
come-3sm:Pfv
‗He came to where I am/where you are‘ The speaker/addressee related deictic center is distinguished by the given goal NP in the sentences above, and the word gara can be categorized as a noun class in such genitive construction [noun + genitive] combination in 4 confirming Debela and Meyers‘s (2008) claim that gara basically means ‗vicinity‘ being, and it is a noun. The Oromo verb sokkuu ‗to go‘ which conflates motion and path can happen in speaker or addressee based deictic center when the overt source of motion is not stated. Especially, in interrogative construction the deictic center from which the figure moves is addressee related.
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
22
5
(a)
inni he:Nom
sokk-e leave-3sm:Pfv
harɁa today ‗He left today‘
(b)
inni
yoom
sokk-e
he:Nom
when
leave-3sm:Pfv
‗When did he leave?‘
The source information intuitive to both the speaker and the addressee is the speaker related deictic location in sentence 5 (a) because the path conflating motion verb sokkuu ‗to go‘ represents that the figure departing from some defined location away in the discourse. In the second example, sentence (b), the source information is sought from the addressee which implies that the figure departs from the addressee related deictic center away. Therefore, the verb sokkuu ‗to go‘ is understood for its source in the discourse though the path is already there. Other groups of Oromo verbs that conflate motion and path can also be described in relation with static or moving base so that the motion happens towards, across, through or away from the base in the language. These information pieces may happen to be conveyed in the motion verb along with the component element path. Particular verbs of this kind in Oromo include: ɗak’uu ‗to go‘, ɡaɁuu ‗to reach‘, k’ak’k’abuu ‗to arrive‘, ɡaluu ‗to go home‘, lit’uu ‗to enter‘, deebiɁuu ‗to return‘, faʧ’aɁuu ‗to disperse‘, naannaɁuu ‗to circle‘, ʧ’eɁuu ‗to cross‘, and so on. Here are some examples of path conflating motion verbs with base related information: 6
(a)
(c)
inni he:Nom
bijja-tti country-to
ɡal-e. go3sm:Pfv ‗He went back to his country.‘
muʧ’aa-n
muka
jaab-e
child-Nom
tree
climb-3sm:Pfv
‗The child climbed a tree.‘
(b)
muʧ’aa-n child-Nom
na me
k’ak’k’ab-e. reach-3sm:Pfv
‗The child catches up with me.‘ (d)
nam-ich-i
darb-e.
man-Defpass-3sm:Pfv Nom ‗The man passed by.‘ Debela, (2006)
The verb ɡale ‗went home (country)‘ in 6 (a) encodes the information that the figure just went to his homeland (towards a base), and the destination marked by -tti probably adds some meaning of staying there for long time as place of residence. The opposite expression, the figure goes somewhere for short time is conveyed by the verb ɗak’e ‗went‘ which indicates that someone moved away from a certain base with the intention of getting back after some time. The sentence in (b) contains the verb k’ak’k’abe ‗arrived‘ which means got closer to the moving base (a)na ‗me‘ so that the motion is considered in terms of the non-static base unlike the verb ɡale ‗went home (land)‘ of sentence (a) whose destination is the static base ‗home country‘. The unmarked goal NP‘s in (b) and (c) seem to be syntactically and semantically direct objects because they are somehow affected by action of the verb; the goal NP‘s especially the animate bases are assigned for accusative case in Oromo motion event as bivalent structure. The verb jaabe ‗climbed‘ in (c) is http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
23
a movement upward from the earth, and the opposite is buɁe ‗climb down‘ which is a motion to the reverse whereby the point of departure is somewhere in the upper position of maybe a tree or a mountain or a building. The motion verb darbe ‗passed by‘ in (d) is better considered as basically bivalent verb, and it expresses that a side of something (i.e. base) is taken for the motion to happen; the verb can also be used along with adpositions like keessa ‗through‘, irra ‗above‘ or ʤala ‗under‘ as preverbs for further specified path (Debela, 2006: 61). A motion verb with a physically realized basic meaning can have several metaphorical meanings on the basis of sociolinguistic —language use and morpho-syntactic properties in which goal and source alternation makes semantic distinction along with morphological patterns. A case in point, the meaning of the word ɡaluu ‗to enter‘ happens to encode different meanings in varieties of structures as in 7 below: 7
(a)
inni mana-tti he:Nom house-to
ol-ɡal-e up-enter-3sm:Pfv
(b) inni he:Nom
‗He entered into the house‘ (c)
mana-tti ɡal-e house-to go-3sm:Pfv
‗He went to home‘
inni
waadaa
naaf
he:Nom
promise
me:Appl he:Nom enter-3sm:Pfv
ɡal-e
‗He gave me his word‘ (Lit: He entered into a promise for me)
(d) aariin
isa
anger:Nom him
irra-a
ɡal-e
Loc:Abl
go-3sm:Pfv
‗He settled his anger‘ (Sorrow went away from him)
The pre-verb ol- ‗up‘ in (a) adds a sense of immediacy to meaning of the verb ɡale ‗entered‘, and the encoded meaning with the pre-verb is to enter into a house which is the basic meaning of the word itself. The pre-verb ol- ‗up‘ and the goal NP marker -tti both are obligatory for conveying such meaning provided that the goal NP exists because the verb ɡale in (b) without the pre-verb mostly expresses different meaning that it just indicates the figure went home; no information about arriving at the destination or entering his house. Pre-verbs like ol- ‗up‘, ɡad- ‗down‘, ɡarɡar‗apart‘ can be integrated with path conflating motion verbs as adverbial functions (Debela, 2007: 80). The goal NP‘s in both (a) and (b) can be left out based on the awareness of the speaker and the addressee about the destination of the figure in such motion. The meanings of the verb ɡale in (c) and (d) are both metaphorically different. The action in (c) is not physical motion; it is rather cognitive that the verb ɡale represents action in communication. The applicative object like addressee (a)naaf ‗for me‘ is an optional participant that grammaticality of the sentence can be okay without it, but its presence specifies the benefactive object. The verb ɡale with source NP marked by vowel -a as in (d) encodes disappearance of some condition; it‘s a non-agentive form which metaphorically conveys stative meaning rather than physical motion. In addition to preverbs, path can be encoded by adpositions and case markings in Oromo which are structural forms apart from the conflation system. Even the considerably path-oriented verbs can take the adpositions and/or case marker for more specifying the goal or source NP of the motion event. Debela and Meyer, (2008) demonstrates that adpositions like ɡara ‗vicinity‘, bira ‗near‘, and irra ‗top‘ are common nouns functioning as locational notions; case markers -ii and ɗa+vowel length on source NP (ablative case), and -tti on the goal NP are with similar functions in motion construction; they encode path. According to Debela and Meyer (2008), adpositions and case markings may happen to change meaning of the motion event; their occurrence may add some new information whereby their
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
24
absence makes a grammatical structure. Example 8 below provides slight difference between the sentences with postposition keessa ‗inside‘ and without: 8
(a)
Tolaa-n
mana
Tola-Nom
house:Acc
Tolaa-n Tola-Nom
mana house:Acc
lit’-e
Debela and Meyer, (2008: 36, 40)
enter3sm:Pfv ‗Tola entered (his) house.‘
(b)
keessa inside:Acc
lit’-e enter3sm:Pfv
‗Tola entered into (his) house. ‘ The postposition keessa ‗inside‘ in (b) above adds emphasis only; no other significant meaning change happens because its occurrence. Basically, the two sentences (a) and (b) are similar with the unmarked object like goal NP in Oromo motion verb structure. The goal NP, mana ‗house‘ seems to be a direct object immediately following the verb in syntactic structure, but its semantic aspect categorizes the goal NP as an adjunct for locational meaning. Meaning change may, actually, happen for using adpositions in many situations of the language; for instance, when the prepositional notion gara ‗vicinity‘ is used, the goal NP functions as the location around which the motion is supposed to end whereas absence of the preposition makes the goal NP the exact destination of the move (in the motion).
9
(a)
inni he:Nom
Adaamaa Adama:Acc
deem-e go-3sm:Pfv
‗He went to Adama‘ (b)
inni he:Nom
gara vicinity:Acc
Adaamaa deem-e Adama:Gen go-3sm:Pfv
‗He went towards Adama‘ (Lit: He went to the vicinity around Adama)
Absence of the preposition gara ‗vicinity‘ in 9 (a) indicates the exact destination of the motion unlike the sentence (b) which conveys the notion of nearby the destination, not the exact destination. This meaning difference lies in using of adpositions along with the goal or source NP‘s as syntactic phenomenon; it works with several adpositions like bira ‗near‘ and irra ‗top‘ in respective meanings. Occurrence of some adpositions and morphological markers in ground NP‘s (goal and source) is mostly for adding emphasis to the ground.
Ground
The stationary reference point of motion is semantically connected with motion event as the locational object encoded by morpho-syntactic pattern. Languages do not conflate motion and ground in verbs; they rather use case marking to express the ground of motion. Talmy (2007: 99) states that motion and ground are not considered together in conflation that the typological theory recognizes the two entities as separate elements separately indicated in motion event construction in languages. In Oromo motion verbs, three forms of conflation are observed: path,
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
25
figure and co-event are lexicalized in verb roots (cf. section 2.1), but ground NP‘s are marked by case systems especially ablative for source NP and locative for goal NP (Debela 2006, 2007; Debela and Meyer 2008). This common ground marking system seems to be for most Cushitic languages as Kambaata and Sidaama behave similarly as described by Treis (2007) and Kawachi (2007) respectively. Many goal NP‘s are in the unmarked (citation) forms whereas some others can be marked in Oromo motion construction; the marked goals may happen to be emphasized in the discourse with a meaning diverted towards locative concept. Debela and Meyer, (2008) explains that the locative marker -tti happens on the goal NP with a bit different meaning indicating the location at which some action happened rather than a goal notion depending on the verb type that the marked goal NP is used with. 10 (a)
(c)
mana-a he:Nom
ala baɁ-e country- goto 3sm:Pfv ‗He went out of house‘
mana
lit’-e
(b)
Fufaa-n mana-tti deem-e househouse-Loc fall-3sm:Pfv Nom ‗Fufa went inside house‘
(d)
mana-tti
interneetii
lit’-e
house-Loc
internet:Acc
enter3sm:Pfv
house:ACC
enter3sm:Pfv ‗He entered into house‘
‗He entered into house‘ Debela and Meyer, (2008: 8)
The morpheme -tti on the goal NP‘s of example 10 (b) and (d) indicate the locational notion of the motion (where the action happened) with a sense of emphasis in the discourse whereas the ground NP‘s in (a) and (c) mark source and goal respectively though the goal NP in (c) happen in the base (citation) form. The source NP‘s are usually marked by the ablative morpheme -a in Oromo, but the source NP in (c) is understood from the motion verb lit’uu ‗enter‘ which conveys that the exterior part of a certain bounded area would be the source; the goal NP is relatively more necessary for the completeness of the sentence. Some path verbs are structured involving shared knowledge of the speakers and the addressee in discourse about the ground; thus, the failure to recognize the shared knowledge makes the motion to be conveyed in different verb choice. For example, topography of the destination (place), if known or not, determines the verb type to be used in conflation related variation (Meyer 2007: 6). In Oromo the words bu’uu ‗to descend‘ and ba’uu ‗to ascend‘ need such shared knowledge so that the communication system goes well in pragmatic sense as in 11 below: 11 (a)
inni he:Nom
Wallaga Wallaga
buɁ-e descend3sm:Pfv ‗He went (down) to Wallaga‘
(b)
inni he:Nom
Finfinnee Finfinne:Acc
baɁ-e ascend3sm:pfv ‗He went (up) to Finfinne‘
These syntactically acceptable sentences in (a) and (b) happen to be pragmatically senseless if the topographic knowledge of the destinations is a gap —not commonly known by the speaker and the addressee. The verb in (a) indicates the slope goes downwards as one moves from the source center to Wallaga, and (b) conveys the reverse meaning.
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
26
Co-events: manner and cause
The semantic component elements of motion verbs include co-events (mainly manner and cause) in framing events besides figure, motion, path and ground. These co-events can occur within the motion events as complex motion construction. The semantic component elements manner, cause, concomitance* and purpose are described as co-events in motion verb structuring of which manner and cause are the most commonly lexicalized ones in the framing verb as the literature indicates (Talmy, 2000: 220). Co-events can be expressed in different ways on the basis of the typological identity of the language in event integration. They are expressed by elements other than the motion verb especially in the verb-framed languages; they are lexicalized into the verb roots so that the co-events are considered in conflation with motion especially as features of satellite-framed languages. The other way to convey co-events is using subordination in the complex sentence constructions which happens in most cases regardless of the language‘s motion system typology (Ameka and Essegbey (2013: 23). In Oromo motion events, manner is a co-event that can either be lexicalized in the verb root in which motion and co-event (manner) are conflated or it can be expressed by elements other than the motion verb especially as complex predication in converbal system, the predicate containing gerundive form as manner encoding word in Debela (2007: 84) seems untenable as the gerundive form is basically a nominal domain that is not analyzed as event expression, and the verbs with final vowel length like fiigaa ‗running‘ are progressive event describers whose vowel lengths are probably converb markers in progressive action. Manner is the common co-event in the motion events in Oromo, and the other co-event, cause is mainly encoded by the morphological and subordinating systems. The other co-events like concomitance and purpose, even cause are yet to be treated in the language‘s motion event construction (seeking further study). Manner conflating motion verbs are enormous in Oromo; manner is considered as the main semantic element, but not necessarily exclusive of other semantic components like path, figure and ground that may co-occur with in motion verbs. Verbs of such type include: fiiɡuu ‗to run‘, tiraʧʧuu ‗to trudge‘, ʃekkeluu ‗to move with one leg‘, lowuu ‗to creep‘, tarkaanfaʧʧuu ‗to stride‘, ɡanɡalaʧʧuu ‗to roll‘, siɡiɡaaʧʧuu ‗to slither‘, so and so forth. These verbs mainly encode manner along with motion though some involve path too; for instance, the verb siɡiɡaaʧʧuu ‗to slither‘ conveys the meaning that the figure slithers downward on a certain slope course as the natural gravity behaves this way. Look at the examples in 12 below: 12
(a)
nam-iʧʧ-i
tarkaanfat-e
man-Def-Nom
stride-3sm:Pfv
‗The man strode‘ (b)
ɗaɡ-iʧʧ-i
siɡiɡaat-e
stone-Def-Nom
slither-3sm:Pfv
‗The stone slithered down‘ Debela, (2006: 54f)
*
Represents events occurring at the same time because they are somehow related or maybe one causes the other in a language. Such feature is probably encoded by the morpheme –(i)s as a suffix appended to the co-event subject in Oromo.
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
27
The sentences indicate manner conflating motion verbs that (a) shows the way one takes foot that is a relatively longer stepping distance walk whereas in (b) the figure gets dragged towards a lower space of a slope on the earth surface. These and the related verbs are clearly manneroriented ones that they most importantly convey manner of the movement, how of the motion is communicated within the motion verb. When motion verbs happen in a complex way of structuring, the core schema contained in the verb may determine the way the verbs co-occur in the sentence. The verbs put one after the other in converbal sense can have two separate forms which is semantically constrained as manner co-event system. Given that two main verbs involving motion, the one needs to precede the other so that the sentence becomes grammatical and acceptable. Belkadi (2015: 58) indicates that the main verbs precedence structure in motion systems depends on the inherent semantic value and pragmatic consideration within the respective language. The precedence basis in Oromo seems to be more prominently semantic because it, as in example 13 below, identifies the meaning whereby two path verbs exert a certain meaning and manner verb co-occurring with path verb shows another meaning. 13
(a)
inni
ɗuf-e-e
sokk-e
he:Nom
come-Pfv-Cnv
go-3sm:Pfv
‗He came and then went‘ (b)
inni
fiig-e-e
ɗuf-e
he:Nom
run-3sm:Pfv-Cnv
come-3sm:Pfv
‗He came running‘ The two path conflating verbs ɗufe ‗came‘ and sokke ‗went‘ in 13 (a) are just sequenced events that happen one after the other, and the two verbs can structurally be exchanged with the reversed acceptable meaning. Hence, the events are separate although the first is converb and the next one is main verb in the complex predication. On the other hand, relation between the two verbs fiige ‗ran‘ and ɗufe ‗came‘ in (b) is semantically different from that of (a), but their syntactic structure is similarly okay. The meaning difference lies in the core schema that the sequenced verbs express as their distinctive feature that is the co-event (manner) conflating motion verb preceding the path conflating motion verb makes the manner verb an adverbial modifier instead of separate motion event, and reversing the position of these verbs brings senseless construction (Meyer, 2007: 8). The other co-event, cause seems to happen in an action that conveys motion, and the motion in such complex predication is the embedded semantic entity whereby the matrix verb is not a trans-locational motion by itself but causes such motion. Hence, the co-event (cause) can be considered as the conflated entity because the motion is caused by other verb. Such motion expression happens as the second hidden motion event of an overt verb (Talmy 2007: 75). In Oromo, the verbs like ɗiituu ‗to kick‘ and darbaʧʧuu ‗to throw‘ in 14 below may happen to be of this kind because they are motion causing actions through body movement. 14 (a)
inni he:Nom
kubbaa ball:Acc
‗He kicked a ball up‘
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
ol-ɗiit-e Pathkick3sm:Pfv
(b)
inni he:Nom
ɗakaa stone:Acc
‗He threw a stone away‘
aʧʧi-darbat-e Path-throw3sm:Pfv
28
Within the simple like sentence in (a), the verb ɗiite ‗kicked‘ is construed to embed the motion event [cause move] of the object kubbaa ‗ball‘, and the other sentence (b) contains the verb darbate ‗threw‘ with the same hidden meaning [cause move] of the object ɗakaa ‗stone‘. The matrix verbs are just the causers of the motions as co-event system, and the motion is a kind of locomotive motion through non-locomotive movement because the agent causes the motion through axial body movement. If the cause event ɗiite ‗kicked‘ should be structured with overt framing verb as complex clause, the cause indicating event precedes, and the sentence follows temporal structuring in separate clauses. However, such meaning is usually the understood one from the embedded meaning within the matrix verb (Kawachi, 2016: 20). Valence of motion verbs Most of the motion verbs are like monovalent verbs in their syntactic structure that they happen with adpositional or suffixal case of their bases which are clearly adjuncts from the surface forms in the structure as well; however, some path-oriented verbs take a syntactically direct object like NP right after the verb in the unmarked goal object in the accusative case. The unmarked forms of direct objects look like the objects of transitive verbs in their morphological surface though the functional information is an issue of argument. The path conflating motion verbs especially that are referenced to moving or static base take a direct object like NP in the syntactic relation likewise the mono-transitive verbs (in bivalent system), and the passivisability may be okay; however, the NP that directly follows the motion verb play different semantic role as an object motion verb because it doesn‘t receive action of the verb unlike in non-motion verbs (Debela 2007). The object element in the motion verb functions as specifying the base with reference to which the motion happens; therefore, it can be considered as an adjunct on the basis of semantic constraint. 15 (a)
lit’-e. enter3sm:Pfv ‗The child entered the house.‘
muʧ’aa-n child-Nom
mana house
(b)
man-ni he:Nom
lit’-am-e. stone:Acc
‗The house was entered.‘ Debela (2007:85)
The morphologically unmarked goad NP mana in (a) above seems to fulfill the syntactic and morphological criteria with passivisability structure in (b); however, Debela (2007) considers the accusative markedness possibility of this goal object and realizes it as false direct object; it hence states that the verb lit’uu ‗to enter‘ is a monovalent verb. The role of the object is claimed to be an adjunct appearing as a direct object of motion verbs especially with the path conflating ones so that all motion verbs are treated as monovalent verbs. According to Debela and Meyer (2008), motion verbs in Oromo are categorized into three based on their valence in the goal marking system as morpho-syntactically marked (for verbs like bakaʧʧuu ‗to run away‘, ʧ’eɁuu ‗to cross‘ and ɡodaanuu ‗to move‘), postpositionally modified (for verbs like ɗak’uu ‗to go‘, ɗufuu ‗to come‘ and buɁuu ‗to descend‘) and the verb-externally unmarked types (for verbs like darbuu ‗to pass‘, k’ak’k’abuu ‗to reach‘ and lit’uu ‗to enter‘. Interestingly, the verb-externally unmarked goals of motion verbs are considered similarly with the direct objects of bivalent (transitive) verbs in Oromo. The third type of motion verbs are just like bivalent verbs with a sense of affectedness on the direct object, and this description seems to be satisfying the criteria for the bivalent nature of some motion events.
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
29
Conclusion As a dominantly verb-framed language, Oromo lexicalizes three core semantic entities figure, path and co-event (basically manner) in the verb root as three forms of conflation. Path and coevent (manner) are the most common semantic elements to be in the verb root; path as the most widely lexicalized element in the verb root is encoded with reference to deictic center or a base (stationary or moving). Besides, the conflation systems, these semantic entities are encoded by preverbs, case markings and adpositions too; the affixes are on the ground NP‘s for case markings in motion constructions. Case morphology is a considerable phenomenon in specifying relational information between the motion verb and the ground NP (or the base). Even though the overwhelming majority of path-oriented motion verbs are just considered as monovalent types regardless of some direct object like goal NP‘s after them, there are some path-oriented motion verbs constructed in bivalent argument system for their morpho-syntactic and semantic applicability likewise the mono-transitive verbs. Abbreviation 1,2,3 Abl Acc Appl Cnv Def article f Gen
person ablative accusative applicative converb definite feminine possessor
Imp Loc m Nom NP‘s phrases Pl Pfv s
imperative locative masculine nominative noun plural perfective singular
References Antunano, I. I. (2008). Path Salience in Motion Events. J. Guo, E. Lieven, N. Budwig, S. ErvinTripp, K. Nakamura, S. Őzçalişkan (eds.) Cross-linguistic Approaches to the Psychology of Language. New York: Psychology Press, 403-414. Belkadi, A. (2015). Associated motion with deictic directionals: A comparative eoverview. SOAS Working Papers in Linguistics, 17: 49-76. Debela G. (2007). Path in Oromo motion constructions. APAL – Annual Publications in African Linguistics 5: 73-88. Debela G. (2006). Manner, path and figure in Oromo verbs of motion. Lissan 20, 1/2: 51-66. Debela G. and Meyer, R. (2008). Marking of grounds with path-oriented motion verbs in Oromo. Unpublished manuscript. Kawachi, K. (2016). Introduction: An Overview of Event Integration Patterns in African Languages. Asian and African Languages and Linguistics, 10: 1-36. Kawachi, K. (2007). Manner of motion verbs in Sidaama and boundary crossing. In: Elliot, M., Kirby, J., Sawada, O., Staraki, E. and Yoon, S. (eds.), Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society, 2: pp. 1 – 15. Kersten, A. W. (2003). Verbs and nouns convey different types of motion in event descriptions. In Linguistics: 41(5), pp. 917 – 945. König. Ch. (2008). The marked-nominative languages of eastern Africa. In: Heine, B. and Nurse, D. (eds.), A linguistic geography of Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 251-271. Meyer, R. (2007). Self-agentive motion verbs in Muher. APAL – Annual Publications in African Linguistics 5: 1 – 18.
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
30
Samuel A. (2007). Moving Metaphorically: the Semantics of the Oromo Motion Verb ba’uu ‗to go out‘. Unpublished MA Thesis: Addis Ababa University. Schaefer, R. P. and R. Gaines. (1997). Toward a typology of directional motion for African languages. Studies in African Linguistics 26, 2: 195-220. Talmy, L. (2000). Towards a Cognitive Semantics, Vol. 2. Cambridge: The MIT Press. Talmy, L. (2007). Lexical Typologies. In: Shopen, T. (ed.), Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Vol. 3. Grammatical Categories and the Lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 66 – 168. Treis, Y. (2007). Motion Events in Kambaata. APAL–Annual Publications in African Linguistics 5, 197 – 226. Verkerk, A. (2014). The correlation between motion event encoding and path verb lexicon size in the Indo-European language family. Folia Linguistica Historica, 35: pp. 307-358 Wakasa, M. (2016). An Analysis of Complex Event Representation in Amharic Texts. Asian and African Languages and Linguistics, 10: 139-155. Walchli, B. and Solling, A. (2013). The encoding of motion events: Building typology bottom-up from text data in many languages. In Goschler, J. and Stefanowitsch, A. (eds.) Variation and Change in the Encoding of Motion Events. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. (77 – 114).
31
International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences p-ISSN: 1694-2620 e-ISSN: 1694-2639 Vol. 9, No. 4, 2017, pp. 31-40, ©IJHSS
Knowledge Management: Tool for Enhancing HRM Practices and Organizational Innovation Mueen Uddin Department of Information Systems, Faculty of Computing Effat University Jeddah Saudi Arabia
Abstract Knowledge management (KM) is the process of creating, utilizing, sharing, storing and reuse of knowledge for making better organizational decisions due to the availability of relevant knowledge. The proper management of knowledge and proper utilization of human capital helps in creating innovation for running any successful business. Well-structured and well-managed knowledge and knowledge-based human capital leads to innovation that is more constructive. The research proposed in this paper signifies the effects of knowledge management on HRM practices and organizational innovations in different multinationals. To perform this research, a Questionnaire was prepared to collect primary data from 200 employees working at different public and private banks. Different analysis were performed like: The Co-relation was applied to find the effects of how much knowledge management enhances HRM practices and helps in bringing organizational innovation in public and private banks in Pakistan. T-test using two variables i.e. (1) Categorical, which was „Organization‟ and (2) Continuous variable, „Knowledge‟ were also used to find the same impact, and it was found that, there is not much significant difference of knowledge management in public and private organizations. The correlation analysis was also performed, and results clearly suggest that a positive relationship exists between knowledge management and HRM practices, which directly enhances HRM practices and organizational innovations. Keywords: Knowledge Innovation.
Management,
Human Resource
Management,
Organizational
Introduction Knowledge Management (KM) is an umbrella term with the diversity of mutually supporting functions that includes knowledge creation, knowledge mapping, knowledge transport, and knowledge sharing and knowledge storage. KM has the capacity to focus on people and technology to bring advancement and improvement in the business‟s structure and its functions (Sveiby, 1997). According to Tan & Nasurdin (2011), knowledge management is an important approach in maintaining organization culture, its structure and effectiveness. In organizations, people possess the knowledge, skills and abilities but lacks tools and apparatuses to use that knowledge properly by applying different knowledge management tools for effectively using the effective human capital that will ultimately lead to innovative performance and create competitive advantage in multinational organizations. According to (Ruggles, 1998), knowledge management is an effective process of creating, leveraging and sharing the desired knowledge
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
32
and capabilities present in human minds. For any successful organization or business, innovation is considered as an essential element that involves new inventions and discoveries to get new products, systems and procedures (Gloet & Terziovski, 2004). Types of knowledge There are two types of knowledge found in organizations: 1. Tacit knowledge 2. Explicit knowledge Tacit knowledge This type of knowledge is actually personal, situational and eventually linked with the person who holds the knowledge. Therefore this type of knowledge is complicated to transfer, formalize and manuscript to the others (Edvardson, 2003). According to the serban and laun (2002), tacit knowledge is created with the personal experience and past history. One can share the tacit knowledge only with the help of good communication and interpersonal skills (Muhammad et. al, 2015). Explicit knowledge In contradictory to the tacit knowledge, explicit knowledge is considered to be ceremonial and objective and cab be expressed in words, figures and measurement. This type of knowledge is easy to transfer from the person who holds the knowledge to the person who demands it with formal and informal techniques and sources and therefore can easily store and saved in documents and files (Edvardson, 2003). According to the Serban and Laun (2002), sources of explicit knowledge can be manuals, policies, procedures, reports, databases etc. Further classification of knowledge management activities and their measures as suggested by (Allee, 1997) are:
Knowledge creation Knowledge retention Knowledge sharing Knowledge innovation
The research proposed in this paper assesses the level of Knowledge management in public and private banks in Pakistan including public banks like (NBP, Sindh Bank, First Women Bank Limited etc.) and private banks (Habib Bank, Sonehri Bank, UBL) were selected as the sample for this research. Employees of both genders-officers and non-officers- were selected for assessing the effect of knowledge management on HRM practices and organizational innovation. The purpose and significance of knowledge management The basic purpose of knowledge management is to transfer and deliver the knowledge from those who have to those who need it in order to increase the organizational performance. In today‟s information based economy, knowledge is an essential source for competitiveness rather than physical assets and financial resources. If multinationals effectively use and transfer the knowledge across their organizations it would be source of competitive advantage for the organization, as people and their knowledge can be helpful in creating value of their business firms rather its position in the market (Armstrong, 2006). Human Resource Management Goals HRM systems are helpful in producing organizational capabilities to attain new challenges and provide solutions to achieve those challenges and objectives. HRM processes helps to
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
33
accomplish human capital goals effectively and efficiently (Armstrong, 2003). The specific goals of HRM are as follows: Achieving High Performance through People The fundamental goal of the HRM is to contribute in achieving organizations goals and attainments of organizational performance (Armstrong, 2003). To mark out the advantages of a good human resource management, business firms and multinationals will have effective, proficient and skillful people working under useful processes to accomplish organizational objectives. Human resources also helps organizations to make sure that all resources available are properly utilized and their utilization is maximized to a level that helps to create and accomplish core competencies and distinctive features from the organization‟s competitors. It is basic sources to compete with other rivals through creating uniqueness with the help of effective human resources (Capelli and Crocker-Hefter, 1996). Enhancing motivation, commitment and job engagement This is another important goal of human resource management. It increases the motivation and performance of the employees and makes efforts to retain the talented and intellectual employees in the organizations. Purcell (2003) highlights that, enhancing motivation, commitment and job engagement helps employees make better decisions while working in their respective positions. Where as in discretionary behaviors, people usually work at their own to achieve their personal and organizational objectives based on their personal choices built according to their own interests, care, newness and productive behavior of their jobs (Mohammed et. al., 2015). Innovation For any successful organization or business, innovation is considered as essential component (Bagno et. al., 2017). By generating innovative ideas and creating an environment where people and employees suggest different innovative notions and thoughts helps in building the capacity and aptitude towards enhancing business‟s performance, create competitive advantage, adding more value to the business and plays an important role in problem solving (Shila & Choi, 2015). Innovation helps the organization to bring newness in its structure, processes and products. Innovations involves new inventions and discoveries resulting in getting new products, systems and procedures (Gloet & Terziovski, 2004). Organizational innovation Organizational innovation is the process of bringing innovation and newness in the existing structures, processes and products or creating new product, new ideas and new behaviors in the organization (Damanpour & Gopalakrishnan, 2001). In organization, people possess the knowledge, skills and abilities that need to be properly utilized using knowledge management tools so that the organization can fully utilize its effective human capital that will ultimately lead to innovative performance and create competitive advantage. According to the Chaung (2005), organizational innovation is categorized in two distinctive aspects: 1) Width of innovation: It involves processes, products, services, policies, procedures, systems etc. 2) Deepness of innovation: It includes the effect of innovation on long-term profitability, the degree of influence, importance of innovation etc. Related Work Davoudi & Kaur (2012), conducted research on “The mutual linkage between human resource management and knowledge management”. The objective of this study was to highlight the linkage between human resource management and knowledge management. The researcher used
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
34
a proposed model to clarify the relationship between HRM and knowledge management and took support from relevant literature about knowledge management and human resource management and their influence on each other. This study shows the results that effective combination of HRM and KM leads to firm‟s superior performance and organizational higher outcomes Jergensen et,al. (2011) conducted research on Human Resource Management and Innovation: What are Knowledge Intensive Firms Doing? The main objective of this study was to explore the influence of effective human resource management on innovation capacity and identify the impact of how HRM practices become considerable issue for sustained innovative competence of the firms. In this study, the researcher focus on shifting the trend of traditional production companies into knowledge-intensive firms (KIFs). The researcher collect the information from several literatures related to HRM and innovation in KIFs and collect data from case studies of Denmark and Australia companies accepted as most admirable in innovation. The results generated were based on case studies regarding the role of HRM in KIFs. The researcher concluded that, there is a wide difference of HRM practices between the traditional manufacturing companies and knowledge-intensive firms especially in term of employment practices. Tan & Nasurdin (2011) conducted research on “Human Resource Management Practices and Organizational Innovation: Assessing the Mediating Role of Knowledge Management Effectiveness”. The objective of the study was to convert business model from labor-intensive to knowledge intensive in order to create more value added activities. Author fills the gap between knowledge management and human resource management practices by bringing organizational innovation. Author collected data from 171 large manufacturing firms in Malaysia. By using regression techniques, the researcher finding indicates the positive relation between HRM practices which includes: (recruitment of new personnel, performance appraisal of employees, career management, training and development, reward and payroll system etc.) and organizational innovation that involve: (product innovation, process innovation, and administrative innovation) author also finds a direct relation of knowledge management with organizational innovation Donate & Guadamillas (2011), conducted research on “Organizational factors to support knowledge management and innovation”. The main objective of this study was to analyze the how knowledge exploration and exploitation practices and innovation influenced by organizational factors such as human resource (HR) practices, leadership and cultural values via an empirical study. The researcher choose 111 Spanish innovative companies and industries, collected data from these companies, and statistically tested the samples using appropriate tools. The authors also conducted surveys for gathering data related to knowledge management and organizational factors in the firms and find out the cause of knowledge based culture, knowledge based leadership and knowledge oriented HR practices on the knowledge searching and utilization practices and outcomes through innovation in the companies. The researchers concluded that managers should place a great emphasis on knowledge examination and utilization practices with effective organizational factors to bring constructive innovation in the organization. Santana & Sierra (2010) conducted a research on “Managing Knowledge through Human Resource Practices”: Empirical Examination on the Spanish automotive Industry. The main objective was to explore the link between HRM practices and KM practices and identify the ways in which HRM practices shows their impact on human capital abilities, skills, motivation and opportunities to involve in knowledge management activities (knowledge creating,
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
35
knowledge sharing, knowledge maintaining and knowledge transferring mechanism) within the organization). The results generated show that effective sharing and maintaining the knowledge plays a mediating role between HRM practices and knowledge formation.
Hypotheses Following hypothesis were drafted to test the level of knowledge management across different banks and how it enhances the overall HRM practices. H1: Private Banks act upon knowledge management more than public banks. H2: Knowledge management enhances HRM practices. H3: Knowledge management brings organizational innovation Research Technique and Tools For this research Independent Samples T-test was used to compare the mean score for two groups of subjects - private and public- categorical variable i.e. organization. The continuous variable for this test was knowledge management. Correlation was used is this research to find out the correlation between two variables. Here the two continuous variables were knowledge management and HRM practices. Correlation was also used is this research to find out the correlation between two continuous variables. Here the two continuous variables were knowledge management and organizational innovation. The study used the primary source to collect the data and the instrument that was used to collect the primary data was questionnaire and the questionnaire was consists of close ended questions. Which further classified into categorical and continuous variables. Sampling techniques are of two types: probability sampling which is also known as representative sampling and other one is non probability sampling which is also called judgmental sampling. Random sampling is the basic form of sampling and it is the best practice that is used for probability sampling, because it is a controlled method that assumes that each element in the given population has equal opportunity to be selected therefore every element has a non-zero chance of selection (Corbett et.al., 2014). In contrast to the probability sampling, non-probability is “a non-random�, which means there is not equal chance of selection for every element in the population therefore each member in the population does not have a non-zero chance of being selected (Emory, 1980). There are four types of probability sampling, which are simple random sampling, systematic sampling, cluster or group sampling and stratified methods of sampling, whereas purposive, self-selection, convenience and quota are the major types that are used for the collection of non-probability samples (Mark et al., 2007). Total sample size for this research was 200. A sample size for public banks was 100. Out of which 70 were males and 30 were females and the sample size for private banks was 100. Which is further divided into 75 males and 25 females. For collection of data sampling-probability or representative sampling was used for this research. From probability sampling, Stratified method was used for collecting of data. Stratified sampling is a modification of random sampling in which the whole population is divided into two or more strata and then from each stratum a random sample is drawn. Data was collected for this research from private and public banks in Pakistan. Likert scale was used for this study, which was used for the measurement of the tendencies of the respondents about Knowledge management, HRM practices and organizational innovation. This scale is majorly used in social sciences (Chen & Huang (2009).
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
36
Research Analysis and Results Analyzing private banks act upon knowledge management more than public banks Analyzing private banks act upon knowledge management more than public banks was evaluated through Independent-samples t-test. Two variables were required for this test, one categorical and other continuous. The categorical variable used was organization (private and public) and continuous variable used was knowledge management. Table 1: Group statistics for the level of knowledge management Group Statistics Organization Total Know Mgt
N
Public Private
Mean
100 99
Std. Deviation
23.73 23.86
Std. Error Mean
4.451 4.076
.445 .410
Table 1 for independent sample t test shows that mean and standard deviation of public and private organization. In the above table N indicates the number of employees of public and private organizations. Here 99 employees were from private organization and 100 were from public organization. Table 2: Independent samples Test for the level of knowledge management Leven’s test for Tangible Rewards
equality of
T-test for equality of means
variances Std
95%
confidence
Mean F
Sig.
t
Df
Sig.
.error interval of Differe differe Difference
(2-
nce
nce
tailed)
Equal variance
.673
.413
Lower
Upper
-.212
197
.832 -.129
.605
-1.322
1.065
-.213
195.813 .832 -.129
.605
-1.322
1.064
the
assumed Equal variances not assumed Table 2 Levenâ€&#x;s test show significant level of 0.413, which means the condition of equal variances has been violated because it is more than the cut out of .05. Significant value (2-tailed) is 0.832. Significant value (2-tailed) was chosen because the assumption of equal variance has been violated. As the significant value (2-tailed) is more than the cut out of .05 (.832) therefore
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
37
there was not a significant difference in the mean score of private and public organization. An independent-sample test was conducted to compare the knowledge management scores for Private and Public organization. There was not a significant difference in scores for private banks (M= 23.86, SD= 4.076) and public banks (M=23.73, SD=4.41); P=0.832 (two-tailed). Therefore it was proved that there is no significant difference in the level of knowledge management in public and private organization. Knowledge Management Enhances HRM Practices Knowledge management enhances HRM practices were tested through correlation. For correlation two continuous variable were required here those are knowledge management and HRM practices. Table 3: Descriptive statistics for Knowledge management and HRM practices Mean Std. Deviation N Total Know Mgt 23.79 4.248 Total HRM Practices 45.42 9.573
200 200
Table 4: Correlations for Knowledge management and HRM practices Total Know Mgt Total Know Mgt
Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Total HRM Practices Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
1 200 .547** .000 200
Total HRM Practices .547** .000 200 1 200
Tables 3 & 4 clearly show the mean, standard deviation and number of employees from private and public organizations. In table-4 the correlation is .547 that means both the continuous variables are positively related with the strength of 0.54 that proves Knowledge management enhances HRM practices. Knowledge Management brings Organizational Innovation Table 5: Descriptive statistics for knowledge management and organizational innovation
Mean
Std. Deviation
N
Total Know Mgt
23.79
4.248
200
Total Org Innovation
25.07
5.009
200
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
38
Table 6: Correlations for Knowledge management and HRM practices Correlations Total Know Mgt Total Know Mgt
Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Total Org Pearson Correlation Innovation Sig. (2-tailed) N **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
1 200 .519** .000 200
Total Org Innovation .519** .000 200 1 200
Tables 5 & 6 show the mean, standard deviation and number of employees from private and public organizations. In table-4 the correlation is 0.519 that means both the continuous variables are positively related with the strength of 0.51 that proves that Knowledge management brings organizational innovation. Conclusion Hypothesis inferred that” knowledge management is more in private sector than public sector.” This hypothesis was tested through independent sample t test. The results of this test showed that the private organization have mean and standard deviation (M= 23.86, SD= 4.076) that was slightly higher than the mean and standard deviation of public organization (M=23.73, SD= 4.451). It proved that the level of knowledge management is almost equals in both public and private sectors. Hence we accept the null hypothesis and reject the alternative hypothesis. H0: knowledge management is not more in private organization than public. HA: knowledge management is more in private organization than public. The other hypothesis inferred that “knowledge management enhances HRM practices.” Correlation was used to test this hypothesis. The result showed that knowledge management and HRM practices have positive relation with strength of 0.547. It proves that if knowledge management increased then HRM practices will also increase. Hence knowledge management enhances the HRM practices so we accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null hypothesis. H0: knowledge management does not enhance HRM practices. HA: knowledge management enhances HRM practices. The last hypothesis inferred that “knowledge management brings organizational innovation”. This hypothesis was tested through correlation. The result showed that knowledge management and organizational innovation have positive relation with strength of 0.519. It proves that if
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
39
knowledge management increased then organizational innovation will also increase. Hence knowledge management brings organizational innovation so we accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null hypothesis. H0: knowledge management does not bring organizational innovation. HA: knowledge management brings organizational innovation. The research proposed in the study reveals that there is the positive effect of knowledge management on public and private organizations. This study showed that the knowledge management is an important tool for enhancing the performance in the organization; therefore it should be applied in all organizations at all levels. The results of this research showed the positive relationship between the knowledge management and HRM practices and also between knowledge management and organizational innovation. This study showed that the knowledge management is an important tool for enhancing HRM practices and organizational innovation in public and private banks in Pakistan. References Alee, V. (1997). 12 principles of knowledge management .American society of training and development, 151(11), 71-74. Armstrong, M. (2003). A handbook of human resource management practice, 6th edition, Cambridge University Press, 4-6. Armstrong, M. (2006). A handbook of human resource management practice, 10th edition, Cambridge University Press, 176. Bagno, R. B., Salerno, M. S., & Dias, A. V. C. (2017). Innovation as a new organizational function: evidence and characterization from large industrial companies in Brazil. Production, 27, e20162073. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1590/0103-6513.207316. Cappelli P. Crocker, H. A. (1996). Distinctive human resource are firm‟s core competencies, Organizational dynamics, 7-21. Chaung, L. M. (2005). An empirical study of construction of measuring model for organizational innovation in Taiwanese high tech enterprises. Journal of American academy of business, 9(2), 299-304. Corbett, A. C., O‟Connor, G. C., & Peters, L. (2014). Designing the organization for corporate entrepreneurship and institutionalizing the Innovation Function (interactive paper). Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research, 34(16), 19. Damapour, F. Gopalak, K. S. (2001). The dynamics of the product and process innovation in organization. Journal of management studies, 38(1) 45-65. Donate M. J. Guadamillas, F. (2011). Organizational factors to support knowledge management and innovation”. Journal of knowledge management, 15(6), 890-914. Edvarsson, I. R. (2003). Knowledge management and HRM strategies. Faculty of Business Administration University of Akureyri, 4(1), 1-23. Emory, (1980). Business Research Methods. 3rd ed., Richard D Irwin. Inc, 84-371. Gloet, M. & Terziovski, M. (2004). Exploring the relationship between knowledge management practices and innovation performance”. Journal of manufacturing technology management, 15(5), 402-409. Jorgensen, F., Becker, K. and Judy, M. (2011). Human resource management and innovation: what are knowledge intensive firms doing? International journal of technology management, 56(2), 123-37. Mark, S., Philip, L., & Adrian, T. (2007). Research Methods for Business Students, 3rd edition, Pearson Education Limited, 169-376.
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
40
Mousavi, D., S. M. & Kaur, R. (2012). The mutual linkage between human resource management and knowledge management, Economic and management journal, 1(2), 13-29. Muhammad, F., Irfan Ullah R., Mahzhar, H. (2015). HR Practices and Organizational Innovation: The Mediating Role of Knowledge Management Effectiveness, Journal of Resources Development and Management, 13(1), 48-62. Purcell J., Kinnie, N., Hutchinson, S., Rayton, B. (2003). Understanding the people and performance link: unlocking the black box. Chartered institute of personnel and development, 12-15. Ruggles, R. (1998). The state of the notion: knowledge management in practice. Calif Manage Rev, 40(3), 80-90. Santana, P. P. & Sierra C. M. (2010). Managing knowledge through human resource practices: An empirical examination on automotive industry. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 21(13) 2452-2467. Serban, A. M, Luan, J. (2002). Overview of knowledge management. New direction for institutional research, 2002(113), 5-16. Shila S. & Choi S. L. (2015). The Review of Improving Innovation Performance through Human Resource Practices in Organization Performance, Asian Social Science, 11(9). Sveiby, K. (1997). The new organizational wealth: Managing and measuring knowledge-based Assets, Berrett-Koehler Publisher, 37. Tan, C. L., & Nasurdin, A. M. (2011). Human resource management practices and organizational innovation: assessing the mediating role of knowledge management effectiveness, Electronic journal of knowledge management, 9(2) 155-167.
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss