The Impact of a Teacher Preparation Programs on Professional Teaching Competencies – Female Novice Teachers’ Perspectives

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 118-135, January 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.1.7

Saba Qadhi, Manal Hendawi, Elham Ghazi Mohammad, Intisar Ghazi, Nasser Al-Dosari and Xiangyun Du Qatar University Doha, Qatar

Abstract. This study explored early career teachers’ perspectives on their competencies in professional teaching in Qatar. Using a mixedmethod research design, this study drew on empirical data from ninetlyfive survey respondents and ten individual interviews with teachers who were in their first four years of working in Qatari governmental schools. The findings of this study indicate that professional teaching competencies are strongly related to professional training through a teacher preparation program. This study identified a few of the specific challenges that novice teachers encounter and revealed a significant need to address these challenges to maintain their competencies. The study contributes to the literature by investigating novice teachers’ perspectives on their teaching competencies as supported by their teacher preparation program. More efforts to bridge the gaps between programs and schools are needed to prepare teachers in their early careers better.

Keywords: novice teachers; professional competence; training programs; preparation program; Qatar

1. Introduction

Student teachers are challenged to develop the professional teaching competencies needed to demonstrate high-level skills while preparing to work in schools. An alarming number of novice teachers do not fully make this transition after they complete their training, but rather leave the teaching profession in their first years of work. This can be explained by a lack of induction plans and professional development designed for new teachers (Fantilli & McDougall, 2009). The study will be significant as it can be used to redesign the teaching program at the university and implement an induction plan in the schools to benefit the students more and, in return, improve the overall education quality in the country. Novice teachers play a critical part in the country’s education system, and their actions significantly influence the state of the education system

in the country. Graduates from Qatar University’s teaching program are expected to be ready to discharge their duties immediately.

This research described some of the specific challenges that novice teachers face and showed a clear need to tackle these challenges to improve their skills and competencies. The research adds to the literature by exploring the experiences of novice teachers regarding their teaching skills as guided by their teacher training program. Further efforts are needed to bridge the gaps between programs and schools to better prepare teachers for early careers.

One of the most important reasons has been that novice teachers lack confidence in their capabilities and competencies to manage teaching work in practice (Baecher, 2012). Previous studies have identified a considerable lack of selfefficacy and presence of anxiety among novice teachers, and their first years of practice are regarded as a time of critical development (Faez & Valeo, 2012). When novice teachers face the reality of the profession’s requirements, they either strengthen their efficacy beliefs or leave the profession (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007). This situation has led to the debate surrounding whether the quality of pre-service programs, schools’ organizational cultures, and education policies are truly enhancing teachers’ competencies and helping them to keep up with the changes and workload (Cochran-Smith, 2013).

Facing global challenges, much of the recent literature has paid attention to the reasons behind many novice teachers’ choice to leave their profession as well as finding potential solutions to the shortage of qualified teachers (Sutcher, Darling-Hammond, & Carver-Thomas, 2016). Further, more recent attention has focused on the provision of adequate teaching preparation plans to help new teachers better prepare for their work (Ödalen, Brommesson, Erlingsson, Schaffer, & Fogelgren, 2019).

While a growing body of studies emphasizes the importance of novice teachers’ self-efficacy, and job satisfaction (author, 2017, 2018; Canrinus, Helms-Lorenz, Beijaard, Buitink, & Hofman, 2012), little is known about how novice teachers perceive their competencies in managing their teaching work at an early stage in their career. Therefore, it is essential to explore how novice teachers think they have achieved the necessary skills for their teaching profession with the support of teacher preparation plans. It is also required to discuss the challenges that novice teachers have encountered in applying the skills gained through their preparation programs to their teaching training in schools.

Nevertheless, society is still facing a severe challenge in that it lacks sufficient teachers, particularly qualified teachers (Ahmed, 2018; Ellili-Cherif, Romanowski, & Nasser, 2012). To prepare qualified teachers better, it is crucial to know how novice teachers evaluate their competencies related to their profession. Therefore, this study aims to explore how newly graduated teachers perceive their success in achieving the expected skills during their teacher preparation programs. Through a mixed-method study, we quantitatively surveyed ninety-five early career teachers’ self-evaluations of their teaching

proficiencies. Through interviews with ten teachers, we qualitatively explored their insights about how they were prepared for working as a teacher and what challenges they faced.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Research on novice teachers

According to (Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2005), teachers have a significant impact on student learning than any other factor related to the school system. The criticality of teachers to student learning, therefore, demands that they are well trained and adequately prepared to meet the objectives of their country’s education sector (Bettini, Jones, Brownell, Conroy, & Leite, 2018; Glennie, Mason, & Edmunds, 2016; Tait, 2008). It is, therefore, essential to understanding the preparation and retention of novice teachers, defined as those who are new entrants in the field or who have zero to three years of experience. Numerous studies have examined novice teachers’ retention, retention problems, and the need to address critical issues within teacher preparation programs (Gold, 1996; Smith & Ingersoll, 2004; Veenman, 1984; Zeichner & Tabachnick, 1981). However, novice teachers themselves have had limited input in determining practical approaches (Bettini et al., 2018). In addition to changing policies and reform models, novice teachers are likely to leave their jobs, mainly due to a lack of administrative assistance (Holmes, Parker, & Gibson, 2019; McLean, Abry, Taylor, Jimenez, & Granger, 2017).

Various studies have focused on the lack of competencies among novice teachers and the challenges they face in the teaching field (Friedman & Kass, 2002; Truchot & Deregard, 2001). Scholars have highlighted various aspects of teacher development related to these challenges; for instance, some studies point out that insufficient knowledge of school organization generates stress, which in turn affects the performance quality of novice teachers (Brackett, Mayer, & Warner, 2004; Lopes, Grewal, Kadis, Gall, & Salovey, 2006). On the other hand, some researchers claim that the formation of stress that stimulates the performance of teachers is backed up by the pressure that has been inducted in them through their educational program (Gavish & Friedman, 2010; Levski, 2003). Novice teachers may also experience particular stress because, since they are a part of an organization, they are assumed to work with the same efficiency and provide quality teaching at the same level as their senior colleagues (Brackett et al., 2004; Zins, 2004).

2.2 The role of teacher preparation programs

The crucial role of a preparation program is developing capabilities in novice teachers and enhancing their teaching competency (Azhar & Kayani, 2017).

Another ongoing change in teacher preparation programs is an increased focus on self-reflection. The majority of training workshops and professional development opportunities for novice teachers now pay attention to preparation done by the teacher through self-study (Goodwin et al., 2014). Similarly, teachers are observed to pay keen attention to their routines and curriculum and

maintain an individualistic focus to develop relative behavior (DeAngelis, Wall, & Che, 2013; Kang & Zinger, 2019). This focus on self-reflection is based on the idea that any teacher who lacks self-understanding cannot retrieve the behavior of students (Kukla-Acevedo (2008). Likewise, according to a stage-based model of teacher growth, novice teachers are not able to understand the thinking of students until they can recognize themselves as teachers and understand the classroom practices (DeAngelis, Wall, & Che, 2013). Many teachers work in specialized professional contexts in which they struggle to focus their attention on the classroom routines and curriculum and also struggle to focus on their behavior concerning the thinking of the students. It is crucial to understand and address this struggle because a teacher’s qualification and content exposure have a remarkable effect on their students’ achievements (Kang & Zinger, 2019). However, the practice of teacher training remains neglected due to a small number of educational institutions (Celik, 2011) and to several other factors (Youngs, Odden, & Porter, 2003). To address this lack of adequate teacher training, researchers should investigate the gap between the stimulating filaments of teacher preparation programs and their implementation in education plans.

2.3 Teacher education in Qatar

Teacher education in Qatar, as in other Arab Gulf regions, is characterized by a significant proportion of foreign teachers and by a majority female workforce. The supremacy of women in education and their omission from specific fields like administration and engineering is aligned with the conventional religious limitations placed on females, and the conventionally acceptable part of females as teachers in Islamic civilization was rapidly strengthened by various influential societies in Qatar (Abu-Tineh & Sadiq, 2018).

However, changes are underway, both in the gender balance of the teaching workforce and in the training of teaching. In 2001, the Qatari government raised concerns about the outcomes of the education system of Qatar due to the low scores obtained by secondary students in the Program for International Assessment (PISA) study and the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). The administration encouraged to embark on initiatives based on suggestions and recommendations for creating an educational system that would fulfill the changing needs of Qatar (Romanowski, Ellili-Cherif, Al Ammari, & Al Attiya, 2013).

Since then, studies have paralleled Qatar’s national focus on teacher training plans (Romanowski et al., 2013). In their detailed description of the education program and the aspects in which it lags, these studies have identified several attributes. To begin with, Qatar is now clearly inclined towards a modern form of training and development of teachers (Chaaban & Du, 2017). In 2001, a lack of competency in teachers was found to create obstacles for the students. After the reforms that began at the turn of the century, the development of teachers in Qatar has been viewed as a useful measure in that it is assisting students to be more expressive (Nasser, Cherif, & Romanowski, 2011). Currently, Qatar is still making crucial efforts to improve teacher development, although the traditional

training of a pressurized work culture persists in some regions (UNESCO, 2019). Consequently, there is a need for a detailed analysis of the factors that limit the implementation of teacher preparation programs.

Our review of the related literature has established that teacher preparation programs are essential for the development of novice teachers. However, not all the available educational institutions in Qatar are still implementing such programs. The Supreme Education Council’s Schools and Schooling report, which was issued in 2013, emphasized issues affecting performance in a government school; some of this one-third of independent school-teachers did not have a formal teaching qualification. Another critical point that has been identified from the literature is that teacher preparation programs are essential for the development of teachers as well as students. Also, this process yields opportunities for expert teachers to enhance their capabilities and launch new career opportunities. In response to the problems identified in the literature review, we formulate the following research questions: 1) In which ways do novice teachers think they have achieved the needed competencies for their teaching profession with the support of the teacher preparation programs? 2) What challenges have novice teachers met in applying the competencies gained through their preparation programs to their teaching practices in schools?

3. Methods

3.1 Research context

Q University is one of the leading institutions in the country, and its college of education is one of the essential institutions responsible for producing the country’s teachers. It offers a total of four programs, including early childhood education and primary, secondary, and diploma programs in Arabic, English as a second language, mathematics, science, social studies, and Islamic studies. The programs include four years period of study before the undergraduates can obtain a bachelor of arts degree, and in the fourth year, students have 10-weeklong internships in schools. On average, 1,000 students (95% female and 5% male) attend this college, and it graduates around 300 students each year. More than half of these go on to work in governmental schools.

3.2 Participants

Study participants included early career teachers who completed the undergraduate program study at Qatar University and worked as teachers in governmental schools for less than four years. After receiving ethical approval from the Ministry of Education and Higher Education and the Ethical Committee of Qatar University, the University does not keep official records of the employment situation for each graduate program. Our message asked the schools to forward the email to their newly employed teachers. Ninety-five teachers responded to our survey, and of these, ten participated in the interviews. All participants in this study were female. We divided the

participants into two groups: teachers with one year’s teaching experience or less and teachers with one to three (less than four) years’ teaching experience.

3.3 Research design and data generation

Explanatory mixed-method research was employed for data generation (Creswell & Clark, 2017). Two phases and sources of data were included: first, a questionnaire-based survey was used to invite the novice teachers to evaluate their competencies for the teaching profession; second, individual interviews were conducted with ten novice teachers.

3.3.1 Quantitative data sources – a questionnaire-based survey A questionnaire-based survey method was used to gain an overview of the opinions and standpoints of novice teachers. The questionnaire was developed by the research team to align with the curriculum objectives of the teacher preparation program and the national professional standards for teachers in Qatar (Council, 2007). The questionnaire contained ten items inviting participants to respond to the question, “Could you please reflect and report to what levels you were prepared for your teaching job in the following aspects?” using a four-point Likert-type scale. 1 = “Not prepared at all, and I am not competent in this aspect” 2 = “Reasonably prepared, and I am confident in demonstrating most of the requested competencies in this aspect” 3 = “Well prepared, and I am highly confident in demonstrating all requested competencies in this aspect” 4 = “Excellent, and I am highly confident in demonstrating excellence in this aspect”

Following (Creswell & Clark, 2017), the questionnaire development procedure was as follows: 1) interviews were conducted with four teacher preparation program faculty members; 2) four programs coordinators reviewed an initial draft of the survey; 3) expert validation was conducted by other, senior experts with 10-20 years of experience in teacher preparation programs, followed by minor revisions regarding the phrasing of items 1, 2, 6, 8 and 9; and 4) another expert validation was conducted by statistical experts to review the rate and scale of the questionnaire design. Three rounds of discussion led to the revision of the scales before the research team, and experts reached a final agreement on the current version. After the expert validation, a language professional first performed translation into Arabic. Then back-translation was used to examine the validity and linguistic parallelism of the questionnaire (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2013). A few rounds of translation back and forth between English and Arabic were carried out before two other language experts reached a final agreement on its validity. Then the survey was tested by five novice teachers.

3.3.2 Qualitative data sources – semi-structured interviews The individual interviews were conducted to firstly triangulate the quantitative data results and secondly to further explore these teachers’ experiences and challenges. Ten teachers volunteered to participate in the semi-structured interviews after they had participated in the survey. Among these, six were first-

year teacher graduates, and four had worked for between one and three years. All the volunteer teacher participants were female, with an age range of 24–30. During the interviews, they were invited to reflect on their work performance regarding their professional knowledge, overall teaching skills, and professional disposition. They were also asked to provide examples demonstrating how their teaching had led to students’ learning gains. Besides, they were invited to relate their current performance at work to the teacher preparation program they had attended and to identify challenges in applying what they had learned to their work. Each interview lasted 30–60 minutes. The interviews were conducted in Arabic and audio-recorded, then transcribed and translated to English for content analysis (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009).

3.3.3 Data analysis The quantitative data from Ninety-five surveys were analyzed based on descriptive statistics to examine participants’ responses. We computed the means and standard deviations for each item of the questionnaire.

To analyze the qualitative data from the ten interviews, we employed a thematic analysis based on the interview questions and the commonalities in the responses obtained from the interviewees that, helped us to infer meanings with the help of linguistic features in the agreed settings (Cohen et al., 2013). Our analysis also focused on strengthening the meanings expressed by the interviewees, which were then coded for analysis, whereby the concepts revealed through the responses were shortened (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009).

4. Results

4.1 Quantitative data results

Fundamental statistical analysis was conducted on the data collected using the questionnaire. The Cronbach’s alpha of the survey is .946, indicating the right scale of reliability of the measure. The means and standard deviations of each item of the survey were calculated to identify the perspectives of novice teachers. We also compared the two groups of teachers: those with one to three years of experience and those who were first-year graduates (N=17). The descriptive statistics for the participants’ responses are presented in Table 1, providing an overview of the conclusion of the quantitative data source.

Table 1: Overview of the quantitative data analysis results

Items 1. Providing a variety of opportunities that support student learning and development. 2. Accommodating students’ differences and cultural backgrounds to provide them with 1-3 years’ experience (N=78) First-year graduates (N=17) Total (N=95)

Mean Std.

Dev. Mean Std.

Dev. Mean Std. Dev.

3.14 0.82 3.41 0.62 3.19 0.79

3.04 0.89 3.18 0.73 3.06 0.86

learning opportunities for improving their achievements. 3. Establishing a classroom environment of respect and support that provides a culture for learning. 3.32 0.83 3.47 0.62 3.35 0.80

4. Having sufficient content knowledge in the professional field. 3.08 0.92 3.35 0.61 3.13 0.88 5. Motivating learners and engaging them in critical thinking by teaching a variety of perspectives and concepts. 3.13 0.94 2.94 0.83 3.09 0.92 6. Engaging in assessment activities and using the data for instructional decision making and student improvement. 3.05 0.88 2.71 0.77 2.99 0.87 7. Planning integrated and coherent instruction to meet the learning needs of all students. 3.08 0.91 3.47 0.51 3.15 0.86 8. Providing student-centered instruction that is characterized by clarity, variety, and flexibility. 3.10 0.86 3.12 0.70 3.11 0.83 9. Reflecting on and using multiple resources, such as professional literature and interacting with colleagues, to aid growth as an educator. 3.17 0.86 2.94 0.56 3.13 0.82 10. Collaborating to ensure learner growth and advance the profession. 3.26 0.81 3.53 0.51 3.31 0.77 Total 3.14 0.74 3.21 0.39 3.15 0.69

Following the scale range of 1:00-1.75 for scale 1, 1.75-2.50 for scale 2, 2.50-3.25 for scale 3, and 3.25-4.00 for scale 4, the overall result of the novice teachers’ selfevaluation of their performance at work is positive, with a total mean of 3.15 for the whole survey. That means the participants believed they were prepared for their teaching position. Comparing the two groups, teachers with one to three years’ experience reported M=3.21 for all items, while teachers with less than one year’s experience reported M=3.14 for seven out of the ten items. Although there were three items with means of lower than three reported by teachers with less than one year’s experience, they were still within the range of scale 2, meaning they considered themselves generally prepared.

A t-test was conducted to compare the two groups (one to three years of experience and first-year graduates), and no significant difference was identified between them, either for any of the individual items or for the ten items in total (t = -0.41).

4.2 Qualitative data results

The ten interviewees confidently self-evaluated their readiness for working as teachers in the aspects of professional knowledge, teaching skills, and professional dispositions. During the analysis, attention was paid to the comparison between those teachers in their first year of teaching experience (T1-

6) and those with one to three years’ experience (T7-10). Similar to the quantitative results, there was no apparent difference between the two groups of participants. Nevertheless, more individualized opinions were observed regarding different aspects of teacher readiness. Below, we report the interview findings in the following structure: 1) teaching performance and its impacts on student learning gains; 2) link between teaching performance and the teacher preparation program; 3) points missing from the teacher preparation program, and,; 4) teaching-learning through work.

4.2.1 Teaching performance and its impacts on student learning gains All the teacher participants discussed how their teaching performance contributed to student learning gains. Interestingly, the participants provided contrary evidence in this matter. Four of them (T3, 5, 7, and 9) considered helping students by using diverse teaching strategies to be one of their teaching achievements. As one participant said:

I apply a lot of teaching strategies and methods. I also take into account individual differences. I use different visualization strategies, some students are visual, auditory, and some like hand-on experiences. Therefore, I use all of that to deliver information and to improve the students’ performances. (T5)

Some teachers (T4, 6, 8, 10) referenced increased scores as good evidence of their performance and achievement:

I believe the best way to see my teaching outcomes are to prove that students improve their scores. In the past three years, I think my students have made excellent achievements in their grades. (T8)

The two teachers (T1 and 2) working in the area of early childhood education observed student growth as an achievement in both their teaching and their learning:

I have only been here for a month, and I have not managed a class yet. However, I tried to help the shy students who never speak to participate, and interact. A student never spoke when I first got here, but now she does, and she is more social now. (T1)

4.2.2 The link between teaching performance and the teacher preparation program The interviewed teachers were generally satisfied with what they learned from the teacher preparation program. They could link the benefits; they gained from the program to their daily exercise of teaching. The most cited benefits of the program included theories that helped develop a conceptual understanding of teaching and learning, a wide range of teaching strategies and skills for classroom management, and opportunities for micro-teaching. As they expressed:

I am glad I was in that program, and it made a significant influence on me. It made me feel confident at work…. I am used to creating new

teaching strategies…. I can see I know quite a lot of strategies that even qualified teachers do not know. (T3)

It (the university program) had a significant influence in the sense that I proficient the situations that I now experience with my students. The experience of managing a class during the internship was highly beneficial, and the university instructors were role models for me at work. (T4)

I have been teaching two and a half years now, and people in my school always say that they chose me because I graduated from the Qatar university program, meaning I am high-quality. Moreover, I have proved this to them. This made me quite proud of my program of study. (T9)

Nevertheless, T7 pointed out that the quality of teaching was also related to individual factors, including attributes such as responsibility and passion. As she said:

I think being a teacher is not about being a graduate from any college. It has more to do with our passion and how we love the profession of teaching. With passion, we can get more engaged in the job and with our students. Without passion, even graduates of the best program may not necessarily make a good teacher…. [It] depends on the individual. (T7)

4.2.3 Challenges - Points missing from the teacher preparation program The interviewed teachers identified a few significant challenges, which were described as points missing from their teacher preparation program. First, all the teachers interviewed mentioned that, despite their confidence in their professional knowledge and skills, during their first six months, they experienced a gap between the program and their work-life, and sometimes they felt insecure about how to handle specific real-life situations. As one of them said:

I know the teaching strategies, and I know when to use each strategy. However, my problem is that sometimes I do not know what to do in specific situations. For example, I took the Child Development course, but now I deal with children who are three years old. I cannot give them academic stuff because they should only learn some letters and pronunciation. The strategies that I learned are not very helpful in this situation. (T2)

Besides, half of the interviewed teachers reported knowledge gaps regarding assessment. The quantitative outcomes reflect where the survey question regarding assessment yielded the lowest of all scores from first-year graduates (2.71) during their teacher preparation.

In our program, we had a course on assessment, which gave us many techniques for how to assess students; I even got a good grade in that

course. Nerveless, I never learned how to deal with all the issues around assessment in real life. We are only testing students on memorization because we only want good grades. Now I am learning how to use assessment to provide feedback and consider this process qualitatively rather than quantitatively. (T7)

Further, three teachers (T2, 5, 9) mentioned their lack of preparation for handling students in a classroom setting. As one said:

I know a lot about the theories of classroom strategies, but I wish I had known more how to deal with students; in particular, they are so different from each other. I did not know until I was standing in the classroom. It took me two years of struggling with this, and I may have gotten more confident now, but I still have a lot more to learn. (T9)

4.2.4 Teacher learning All the interviewed teachers expressed positive attitudes about their ongoing learning while working as a teacher and in particular about applying what they learned in their university programs to real-life training. As one teacher said:

We must continue to learn new things. Although we learned a lot from the university program, it was not enough for me. I still have to learn some things. (T1)

Also, three teachers (T4, 7, 9) reflected on the effect of real-world experience. As one said:

What I learned from the program is meaningful now based on the work experience. The teaching experience makes me learn more comprehensively. (T4)

The interviews also identified one missing aspect of teacher preparation, which is that some interviewees struggled with continuous learning in response to reallife problems. As one said:

When I face situations where I do not know what to do, I am now reading books to search for answers… (T6).

5. Discussion

This study aimed to explore novice teachers’ self-evaluation of their competencies at work. A mixed-method design was used, including quantitative data from the survey findings of ninety-five teachers and qualitative data from interviews with 10 participants.

5.1 Novice teachers’ perception of their teaching competency

We attempted to evaluate the perceptions of teachers regarding their teaching competencies with the support of teacher preparation programs. Based on the quantitative assessment, we inferred that the teachers were generally confident in their abilities to apply the professional knowledge, skills, and dispositions

targeted by their preparation programs during their work in Qatari governmental schools. This is also consistent with the conclusion of the qualitative analysis, in which all participants confidently evaluated themselves as being ready to perform the part of a teacher in the areas of teaching skills, professional knowledge, and professional disposition. It is noteworthy that these results contradict the findings of (Goh, Yusuf, & Wong, 2017), who found that there is significant variation among novice teachers regarding their perceptions of their competencies and that these perceptions are subject to different situations and the quality of teaching preparation program.

The researchers conducted a study on two groups of teachers by drawing a comparison between teachers with less than one year of experience and teachers with one to three years of experience. No differences were found between these two groups in terms of their perception of their teaching skills following the outcomes of the qualitative analysis. Similarly, the outcomes of the t-test in the quantitative analysis also found no differences in the perceptions of the two groups, as all participants were confident in their readiness to teach.

The results of this study also indicated that certain aspects of teacher preparation programs need to be improved; for example, participants reported in the survey that they had the least confidence in their preparation for student assessment, which is in line with conclusion reported in previous studies (Alkharusi, 2011). This result suggests a gap between the theories teachers learn in their teacher preparation programs and the practice of teaching in schools, and it more explicitly suggests explicitly that assessment theory is far from the real practice of diverse assessment methods. This aspect deserves more attention in teacher preparation programs in terms of providing student teachers with more chances to understand the reality of work-life in schools regarding developing diverse assessment techniques and, in particular, using assessment as a way to encourage student learning. The results of the interview corroborated the quantitative results, further revealed the concern of the participants about developing evaluation methods that promote student learning, and highlighted evaluation techniques as a critical issue among novice teachers, who consider the grades and scores of the students to be the only way to assess their performance. While the evaluation is already recognized as important teaching ability, one suggestion for teacher training programs would be to further improve the effectiveness of teachers in evaluating students in a manner that helps them achieve their maximum potential.

Also, it is worth pointing out that the novice teachers in this study reported a comparatively low level of reflection that drew on multiple resources, such as literature or peer comments. In Qatar, although classroom study and collaborative learning are encouraged, these practices remain limited (Al-Kaabi & Hossain, 2018). Collaboration learning, peer review, and assessment are approved in the classroom to increase the students’ reflections in the teaching and learning process.

It suggests that teacher-training programs should further improve the skills of classroom study and collaborative learning with colleagues. Furthermore, the

qualitative data revealed the impact of teaching performance on student learning gains, with a variety of evidence provided by the participant teachers. Some of the teachers in this context identified the positive impact of their teaching on student performance based on the scores and grades of the students. However, some of the teachers provided evidence of a positive teaching impact on student performance based on students’ interpersonal skills development. In this regard, one of the respondents found improvement in students’ speaking skills after the end of the year. This is validated by the work of (Adnot, Dee, Katz, & Wyckoff, 2017), who found that effective teaching performance tends to have a significant impact on students’ interpersonal skills, as effective teachers increase student confidence and enable them to develop these skills to their full potential. It means that teacher-training services already provide student teachers with specific opportunities to improve their communication skills for student teachers to enhance their communication, interpersonal, and teamwork skills so that they can better use those skills to facilitate learning for their students. Moreover, the results of the interviews outline a visualized strategy as an active technique through which teachers can influence the performance of their students. The result is consistent with a study by (Kucher & Kerren, 2015), who found that visual representation of information positively influences students’ performance and helps increase their knowledge of a particular subject.

5.2 Points missing from teacher preparation programs

This study also attempted to analyze the challenges that come across by novice teachers while applying their knowledge and skills in their teaching profession. The qualitative interview data reported a variety of opinions concerning the problems they had met, and half the participants had experienced the challenge of differentiation, or in other words, the ability of teachers to identify the differences between the students and to fulfill the needs of each student (Coubergs, Struyven, Vanthournout, & Engels, 2017). The responses also indicated that this challenge is mainly due to a lack of focus on differentiation techniques in teaching preparation programs. According to Coubergs, Struyven, Vanthournout, & Engels (2017), the increasing diversity of the student body is raising some severe difficulties for teachers, who often find it difficult completely to understand a student’ s attitude in terms of their concerns, needs, and ways of thinking. Understanding a student’s position ultimately defines the performance of the teacher. Therefore, the findings of this study and the findings of the previous literature suggest that different approaches require more attention in teacher preparation programs.

The responses of the interviewees also highlighted that a lack of experience and ability to cope with different situations is another critical challenge faced by most of the novice teachers. In this context, the outcomes highlighted an instance in which a respondent faced difficulties in dealing with three-year-old children, as they require a different style of teaching. Similarly, the style and approach of teaching are highly subject to different situations and factors, which implies that teachers are responsible for being adaptable for being able to change their teaching styles as per the requirements (Collie & Martin, 2016). Based on our

findings, it can, therefore, be stated that teacher preparation programs must place more emphasis on providing training on how to cope with a variety of situations while maintaining the highest level of teaching.

Further, this study divided the novice teachers into two groups: very beginner teachers with less than one year of experience and teachers with one to three years of experience. Neither the quantitative nor the qualitative outcomes revealed differences between these groups. Even the identified difficulties were more individualized as opposed to being associated with a specific group. Furthermore, the findings of this study on the challenges faced by teachers are also consistent with the findings of the previous literature, implying there is a significant need to address all of these problems to maintain the competencies of teachers.

5.3 Contribution of the study

The results of this study have the following implications. First, the study contributes to the literature by bringing in novice teachers’ perspectives on their teaching competencies as supported by their teacher preparation program. The study also identified a few of the problems that the novice teachers encounter that deserve attention from both teacher preparation programs and schools. Second, more efforts to bridge programs and schools are necessary to prepare teachers in their early careers better.

Since this study highlighted the significance of training in the field of education for both novice teachers and qualified teachers, it will help to enhance the educational system in Qatar. Skilled teachers will be able to refine their skills, while novice teachers will learn to implement many teaching practices. Moreover, different schools and colleges can enhance their teacher development practices by using the discussed teacher training in their institutional processes.

5.4 Limitations and future research directions of the study

Given the accessibility issues for the researcher, the study was limited to a sample size of ninety-five participants. The study was also limited to the geographical bounds of Qatar and Q University. The findings of the study, therefore, remain provisional and have a few limitations. First, the findings are mainly derived from teachers’ views, which could be further validated through a comparison with other perspectives like mentors and colleagues from schools, instructors from the training program, and students. Second, the current study mainly focuses on novice teachers working in governmental schools in Qatar. Therefore, further studies may include novice teachers working in international schools, who usually graduated in other countries, and thus provide an additional perspective to examine the effect of teacher preparation programs in the current study. Third, the outcome of the study may be further enriched by and compared with other sources of data, such as classroom observations and narratives. For future studies, the sample size could be increased, while other methodological techniques could be adopted.

6. Conclusion

In conclusion, this study provides conclusive evidence that teacher preparation programs have a positive impact on the preparation of novice teachers in terms of their acquisition of professional skills and their overall contribution towards student development. Furthermore, the participant teachers were able to develop students’ learning capability during their teaching practice. This investigation also explores specific difficulties encountered by novice teachers in Qatar. Consequently, the research has practical implications for and contributes to Qatar’s educational mechanism.

The participants selected had given diverse opinions regarding the impact of the development programs preparing them for the future. The novice teachers found the programs significantly growing them in their confidence and selfsufficiency to become strong teachers in practice. Moreover, the teachers were able to develop innovative skills to build the learning capability of the students in the future. The overall analysis confirms that teacher preparation programs are necessary to help novice teachers place firm grounds in the educational career. To formulate a strong study in the future, it is suggested the research be backed with valid methods to be used to analyze the impacts. The impact analysis was focused mainly on using the academic administrations and the teachers as participants to assess the worth of the preparation programs.

References

Abu-Tineh, A. M., & Sadiq, H. M. (2018). Characteristics and models of effective professional development: the case of school teachers in Qatar. Professional Development in Education, 44(2), 311-322. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2017.1306788 Adnot, M., Dee, T., Katz, V., & Wyckoff, J. (2017). Teacher turnover, teacher quality, and student achievement in DCPS. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 39(1), 54-76. https://doi.org/10.3386/w21922 Ahmed, F. B. J. (2018). Challenges of the Knowledge Society: Exploring the Case of Qatar. Global Economic Observer, 6(1), 39-54. https://doi.org/10.1111/muwo.12080 Al-Kaabi, A. F. A., & Hossain, S. (2018). The Effects of Collaborative Learning on Students’ Achievements and Skills According to Their Learning Styles within an E-Learning Environment: Qatar University. In Academic Growth in Higher Education (pp. 88-101): Brill Sense. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004389342_008 Alkharusi, H. (2011). Teachers' Classroom Assessment Skills: Influence Of Gender, Subject Area, Grade Level, Teaching Experience, and In-service Assessment Training. Journal of Turkish Science Education (TUSED), 8(2). author. (2017, 2018). Azhar, M., & Kayani, M. M. (2017). Study of the Impact of Training of Novice Teachers in the Context of Transformative Learning in Punjab, Pakistan. Advanced Education, 4(8), 84-91. https://doi.org/10.20535/2410-8286.112533 Baecher, L. (2012). Feedback from the field: What novice preK–12 ESL teachers want to tell TESOL teacher educators. TESOL Quarterly, 46(3), 578-588. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.43 Bettini, E. A., Jones, N. D., Brownell, M. T., Conroy, M. A., & Leite, W. L. (2018). Relationships between novice teachers’ social resources and workload

manageability. The Journal of Special Education, 52(2), 113-126. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466918775432 Brackett, M. A., Mayer, J. D., & Warner, R. M. (2004). Emotional intelligence and its relation to everyday behavior. Personality and Individual differences, 36(6), 13871402. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(03)00236-8 Canrinus, E. T., Helms-Lorenz, M., Beijaard, D., Buitink, J., & Hofman, A. (2012). Selfefficacy, job satisfaction, motivation, and commitment: Exploring the relationships between indicators of teachers’ professional identity. European journal of psychology of education, 27(1), 115-132. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212011-0069-2 Chaaban, Y., & Du, X. (2017). Novice teachers' job satisfaction and coping strategies: Overcoming contextual challenges at Qatari government schools. Teaching and Teacher Education, 67, 340-350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.07.002 Cochran-Smith, M. (2013). Introduction: The politics of policy in teacher education: International perspectives. Paper presented at the Educational Forum. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2013). Action research. In Research methods in education (pp. 368-385): Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315456539-22 Collie, R. J., & Martin, A. J. (2016). Adaptability: An important capacity for effective teachers. Educational Practice and Theory, 38(1), 27-39. https://doi.org/10.7459/ept/38.1.03 Coubergs, C., Struyven, K., Vanthournout, G., & Engels, N. (2017). Measuring teachers’ perceptions about differentiated instruction: The DI-Quest instrument and model. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 53, 41-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2017.02.004 Council, S. E. (2007). Qatar National Professional Standards for Teachers and School Leaders. Doha, Qatar: Eduction Institute. Creswell, J. W., & Clark, V. L. P. (2017). Designing and conducting mixed methods research: Sage publications. DeAngelis, K. J., Wall, A. F., & Che, J. (2013). The impact of preservice preparation and early career support on novice teachers’ career intentions and decisions. Journal of teacher education, 64(4), 338-355. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487113488945 Ellili-Cherif, M., Romanowski, M. H., & Nasser, R. (2012). All that glitters is not gold: Challenges of teacher and school leader licensure licensing system in Qatar. International Journal of Educational Development, 32(3), 471-481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2011.11.010 Faez, F., & Valeo, A. (2012). TESOL teacher education: Novice teachers' perceptions of their preparedness and efficacy in the classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 46(3), 450471. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.37 Fantilli, R. D., & McDougall, D. E. (2009). A study of novice teachers: Challenges and supports in the first years. Teaching and teacher education, 25(6), 814-825. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2009.02.021 Friedman, I. A., & Kass, E. (2002). Teacher self-efficacy: A classroom-organization conceptualization. Teaching and teacher education, 18(6), 675-686. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0742-051x(02)00027-6 Gavish, B., & Friedman, I. A. (2010). Novice teachers’ experience of teaching: A dynamic aspect of burnout. Social Psychology of Education, 13(2), 141-167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-009-9108-0 Glennie, E. J., Mason, M., & Edmunds, J. A. (2016). Retention and satisfaction of novice teachers: Lessons from a school reform model. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 4(4), 244-258. https://doi.org/10.11114/jets.v4i4.1458

Goh, P. S. C., Yusuf, Q., & Wong, K. T. (2017). Lived Experience: Perceptions of Competency of Novice Teachers. International Journal of Instruction, 10(1), 21-36. Gold, Y. (1996). Beginning teacher support: Attrition, mentoring, and induction. Handbook of research on teacher education, 2, 548-594. https://doi.org/10.12973/iji.2017.1012a Goodwin, A. L., Smith, L., Souto-Manning, M., Cheruvu, R., Tan, M. Y., Reed, R., & Taveras, L. (2014). What should teacher educators know and be able to do? Perspectives from practicing teacher educators. Journal of Teacher Education, 65(4), 284-302. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487114535266 Holmes, B., Parker, D., & Gibson, J. (2019). Rethinking Teacher Retention In Hard-ToStaff Schools. Contemporary Issues in Education Research (CIER), 12(1), 27-32. https://doi.org/10.19030/cier.v12i1.10260 Kang, H., & Zinger, D. (2019). What do core practices offer in preparing novice science teachers for equitable instruction? Science Education, 103(4), 823-853. Kucher, K., & Kerren, A. (2015). Text visualization techniques: Taxonomy, visual survey, and community insights. Paper presented at the 2015 IEEE Pacific Visualization Symposium (PacificVis). https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.21507 Kukla-Acevedo, S. (2008). Teacher effectiveness: The roles of teacher characteristics, preparation, and turnover. Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2009). Interviews: Learning the craft of qualitative interviewing. In: London: Sage. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638180.2012.675165 Levski, D. (2003). The development of the sense of a failure among students of teaching. Unpublished seminar paper. Unpublished seminar paper. Lopes, P. N., Grewal, D., Kadis, J., Gall, M., & Salovey, P. (2006). Evidence that emotional intelligence is related to job performance and affect and attitudes at work. Psicothema, 18, 132-138. McLean, L., Abry, T., Taylor, M., Jimenez, M., & Granger, K. (2017). Teachers' mental health and perceptions of school climate across the transition from training to teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 65, 230-240. Nasser, R., Cherif, M., & Romanowski, M. (2011). Factors that impact student usage of the learning management system in Qatari schools. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 12(6), 39-62. https://doi.org/10.31357/fmscmst.2016.00242 Ödalen, J., Brommesson, D., Erlingsson, G. Ó., Schaffer, J. K., & Fogelgren, M. (2019). Teaching university teachers to become better teachers: the effects of pedagogical training courses at six Swedish universities. Higher Education Research & Development, 38(2), 339-353. Rivkin, S. G., Hanushek, E. A., & Kain, J. F. (2005). Teachers, schools, and academic achievement. Econometrica, 73(2), 417-458. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2018.1512955 Romanowski, M. H., Ellili-Cherif, M., Al Ammari, B., & Al Attiya, A. (2013). Qatar’s educational reform: The experiences and perceptions of principals, teachers, and parents. https://doi.org/10.5296/ije.v5i3.3995 Smith, T. M., & Ingersoll, R. M. (2004). What are the effects of induction and mentoring on beginning teacher turnover? American educational research journal, 41(3), 681714. https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737026003681 Sutcher, L., Darling-Hammond, L., & Carver-Thomas, D. (2016). A coming crisis in teaching? Teacher supply, demand, and shortages in the US. In: Palo Alto, CA: Learning Policy Institute. Tait, M. (2008). Resilience as a contributor to novice teacher success, commitment, and retention. Teacher Education Quarterly, 35(4), 57-75.

Truchot, D., & Deregard, M. (2001). Perceived inequity, communal orientation, and burnout: The role of helping models. Work & Stress, 15(4), 347-356. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370110086380 Tschannen-Moran, M., & Hoy, A. W. (2007). The differential antecedents of self-efficacy beliefs of novice and experienced teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23(6), 944-956. UNESCO. (2019). Sustainable Development Goals. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2006.05.003 Veenman, S. (1984). Perceived problems of beginning teachers. Review of educational research, 54(2), 143-178. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543054002143 Youngs, P., Odden, A., & Porter, A. C. (2003). State policy related to teacher licensure. Educational Policy, 17(2), 217-236. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904803017002002 Zeichner, K. M., & Tabachnick, B. R. (1981). Are the effects of university teacher education washed out' by school experience? Journal of teacher education, 32(3), 711. Zins, J. E. (2004). Building academic success on social and emotional learning: What does the research say? : Teachers College Press. https://doi.org/10.1177/002248718103200302

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 136-158, January 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.1.8

The Discursive Governing of Elementary School Student Identity in Norwegian Educational Policy 2000–2015

Fred Rune Bjordal1 Østfold University College Halden, Norway

Gunn Elisabeth Søreide University of Bergen Bergen, Norway

Abstract. Drawing on a study of five Norwegian white papers from the period 2003–2013, this article illuminates how student identity is discursively negotiated and constructed in educational policy documents in a period of transformation in Norwegian education. By employing discourse analysis using ‘the student’ as a nodal point, the white papers are analysed in four phases: (1) identify identity resources, (2) construct subject positions, (3) cluster subject positions into student identities, and (4) identify the discursive governing of student identities. Our analysis of the documents shows how the policy documents draw on traditional and well-known educational discourses, but also how a new discourse, ‘The discourse of compliance’, emerges in this period. In particular, the article discusses possible challenges and dilemmas that might arise, such as the challenge of ‘metonymic transfer’ and ‘the temporal dilemma’, when student identity is negotiated and constructed in the intersection of different educational ideologies and discourses. The article also elucidates how ‘The discourse of compliance’ is relevant for the development of the new Norwegian educational reform of 2020. Our findings are of interest for all actors within the educational context and underscore the importance of investigating student identity in policy research. The article also lays the groundwork for several suggested approaches for further research on the topic.

Keywords: Student Identity; Educational Policy; Bildung; Competence; Compliance

1 Corresponding author: Fred Rune Bjordal, fred.r.bjordal@hiof.no

Introduction and background

This article illuminates and discusses how Norwegian educational policy documents discursively negotiate and construct elementary school student identity in a period of transformation in Norwegian educational policy. The aim of this article is to demonstrate how policy documents construct ‘the student’ and to discuss the possible consequences and dilemmas this construction might cause for schools and students. This article will also show how global, neoliberal educational ideas are incorporated and negotiated in national educational policy (Dale, 1999) where social-democratic values, the Bildung-tradition, and progressive pedagogy have previously held a strong position.

From the late 1980s elements of neo-liberal educational and governing ideas have been gradually introduced in Norwegian education (Hansen, 2011; Helgøy & Homme, 2016; Hovdenak & Stray, 2015). However, both educational policy and curriculum in Norway has mainly been influenced by a combination of ideas originating from social-democratic values, the Bildung-tradition, and progressive pedagogy. This strong influence, as well as a cross-political consensus in Norway’s parliament on the “public provision of education, organized along comprehensive lines”, (Wiborg, 2013, p. 420) made Norwegian education relatively resistant to neo-liberal policies throughout the 1980s and 1990s (Wiborg, 2013). This changed at the beginning of the new millennium, with what has been characterised as ‘the PISA-shock’ (Prøitz & Aasen, 2017). The fact that Norwegian pupils performed worse than expected on the first PISA–test, combined with a conservative government from 2001 to 2005, paved the way for the 2006 ‘knowledge promotion’ (K06) educational reform (Prøitz & Aasen, 2017; Skarpenes, 2014; Wiborg, 2013), a reform that marks a significant change toward an emphasis on more neo-liberal educational ideas in Norway.

The increased emphasis on neo-liberal ideas in the K06 reform resulted in explicit and tangible changes in the Norwegian educational sector, such as an increased focus on the relationship between education and employability and the transition from a curriculum with content specifications to a curriculum stating measurable learning outcomes. The curricular change was also accompanied by an increased focus on outcomes and evidence in the governing of schools, resulting in the implementation of accountability systems and a national framework for quality control (Prøitz & Aasen, 2017). The introduction of educational ideas steaming from neo-liberalism in Norwegian educational policy has continued throughout the first decades of the millennium (Hilt, Riese, & Søreide, 2019; Prøitz & Aasen, 2017; Skarpenes, 2014; Wiborg, 2013).

However, a recent study investigating the initiating document of an ongoing educational reform (Reform 2020) in Norway illuminates how neo-liberal educational ideas and traditional ideas and values from social-democratic, Bildung, and progressive traditions intertwine in Norwegian educational policy (Hilt et al., 2019). Additionally, Skarpenes (2014), Prøitz and Aasen (2017), Helgøy and Homme (2016), and Vislie (2008) show how these traditional values and neo-liberal educational ideals intertwine, merge and/or support each other, both in the period before, during and after the development and implementation

of the K06 reform in 2006. Apparently, instead of replacing central, traditional educational values, such as a unified educational system, solidarity and inclusion, neo-liberal educational ideology seems to be adapted and adjusted in dialogue with traditions in the Norwegian context (Hilt et al., 2019; Prøitz & Aasen, 2017).

This adoption might also be why Norway’s educational policy framework has been relatively consistent throughout the first decade of the new millennium. In 2005 a centre-socialist government (Stoltenberg II) replaced the conservative government (Bondevik II). The Stoltenberg II government mainly continued the conservative government’s educational policy trajectory and implemented K06 with only minor adjustments (Telhaug, 2011; Tolo, 2011; Wiborg, 2013).

Although brief, this introduction shows how the development of Norwegian educational policy, in the period 2000–2015, is simultaneously characterised by change of, merging with and stability in educational ideas. As different policy ideas and discourses grant access to different student identities, it is especially interesting to investigate the discursive negotiation of student identities in these periods of transformation. Nevertheless, few studies have explicitly focused on how policy discursively constructs student identity in this period in Norway, although there are a few studies that discuss the relationship between policy and how groups of students are categorised. Skarpenes and Nilsen (2014) discuss how assessment policies might classify and categorise groups of Norwegian students as deviant and in need of special attention and special needs education. Skarpenes (2014) also uses Norway as an example to discuss how the merge of ideas from progressive education and neoliberalism construct a specific form of individuality that underwrites educational policy and practice. This, he claims, has resulted in a focus on self-regulation and adaptive education that might alienate and exclude groups of students.

In our research we build on the above-mentioned research on Norwegian educational policy (2000 – 2013) and the discussions on how this policy “make up” categories of students. By using a discourse analytical approach our article contributes with more detailed insights into how educational policy documents, in this first decade of the new millennium, draw on both neo-liberal and more traditional Norwegian educational discourses in the construction of student identities. However, our analyses also show how a new ‘discourse of compliance’, often associated with neo-liberal identity, is introduced in this period.

Theoretical framework

In this article, we draw on Foucault’s understanding of power as a nonessential, relational phenomenon that regulates meaning and identity (Alvesson & Sköldberg, 1994, p. 303). Based on this understanding of power, we consider white papers to be an institutional act and part of a complex discursive system which controls subjects (Andreasson, 2007) through the construction and governance of identity. Further, our understanding of the construction and governing of identity is framed by discourse theory (Laclau & Mouffe, 2014;

Torfing, 2003). Discourse theory emphasises discourses’ significance in the construction of identity, as discourses regulate the way we think, speak and act in/about life (Bjordal, 2016). One of the ways discourses construct and regulate identity is by offering identity resources or subject positions. Subject positions are patterns of thought, speech and act. Identity is constructed by the way individuals and groups of people are assigned and/or consciously and unconsciously choose from the accessible palette of discursively constructed subject positions. When subject positions cluster or they are combined in certain ways, they form identities (Søreide, 2007). White papers can, in other words, be understood as a circulating power which implicitly and/or explicitly constitutes discursive patterns of thought, speech and action (Schei, 2007), or student identities.

In periods of transition and change, several discourses will have access to, and attempt to regulate, the field of education, and educational policy can, in such periods, be defined as a “field of discursivity” (Torfing, 2003). The field of discursivity can be described as a space where different discourses meet and negotiate definitions of elements. This space is neither completely outside nor inside a discourse, but an area that is “… discursively constructed within a terrain of unfixity” (Torfing, 2003, p. 92), leaving a number of discursively constructed elements, such as student identity, open for negotiation. This negotiation between discourses is not to be understood as a fight for existence, but more as a game of domination (Torfing, 2003). The metaphor ‘playing field’ is therefore deliberately preferred in favour of ‘battlefield’ when the ‘field of discursivity’ is described.

In this playing field, the discursive negotiation over meaning and identity can play out in different ways. If a discourse, or a bundle of discourses, becomes dominant in the definition of student identity, the result is hegemony. However, it is also in the field of discursivity where antagonisms are revealed and most visible. Antagonisms, or conflicts, are necessary for discursive negotiations to exist, and arise when two or more discourses block each other’s definition of elements (Jørgensen & Phillips, 1999; Torfing, 2003). In a later section of this article, we will show precisely how three different discourses negotiate over meaning and identity in the policy documents. First, we will describe the material and the analytical approach.

Method

The analysis of the empirical material is inspired by approaches to discourse analysis (Alvesson & Willmott, 2002; Andreasson, 2007; Jørgensen, 2002; Krüger, 2000; Schei, 2007; Søreide, 2007) that are compatible with the theoretical framework described above. In the following sections, we will firstly give a brief introduction of the five white papers that constitute the empirical material before we describe the more specific analytical phases.

Material As described in the introduction, the first 15 years of the new millennium (2000–2015) comprised an especially interesting period when it comes to the discursive

negotiation over educational policy ideas and student identities in a Norwegian context. We have therefore selected white papers for analysis that are published in this period. A white paper is a document that reports the Norwegian government’s ideas and policies within a particular field to the Parliament (Norwegian Government Security and Service Organisation, 2016). White papers from the Ministry of Education will consequently represent the current government’s future policy ideas and initiatives for the educational sector. The selected white papers include descriptions of general expectations and goals for all pupils in all elementary and lower secondary schools in Norway. White papers that, for instance, exclusively focus on special needs education or inclusion of pupils from minority language groups were excluded. Based on the above criteria, we selected the following five white papers for analysis:

1) Report No. 30 to the Parliament (2003-2004) “A Culture for Learning” [Kultur for læring]: As an element of the introduction of a (low stakes) accountability system in the governing of schools, this white paper replaced a content-based curriculum with descriptions of learning outcomes/expected competencies for students. The report also introduced five basic skills: 1) oral and 2) written communication, 3) reading, 4) numeracy and 5) digital competencies.

2) Report No. 16 to the Parliament (2006-2007) “Early Intervention for Lifelong

Learning” [Tidlig innsats for livslang læring]: This white paper is a part of the government’s pursuit to reduce social and economic differences in society. Through early intervention and support for students that struggle with their learning, kindergartens and schools must ensure the opportunity for a high-quality learning outcome and the completion of basic and upper secondary education for all students. According to the report, these educational measures will enhance opportunities for social mobility and participation in society, working life and lifelong learning.

3) Report No. 14 to the Parliament (2008-2009) “Internationalisation of

Education in Norway” [Internasjonalisering av utdanninga]: This white paper proposes a series of measures with the intention to ensure that students on all levels develop the necessary skills to act and interact in what is described as an increasingly globalised world.

4) Report No. 22 to the Parliament (2010-2011) “Motivation – Ability –

Possibilities” [Motivasjon – Mestring – Muligheter]: This white paper specifically focusses on lower secondary education and how schools and teachers must work to stimulate and uphold a feeling of mastery and motivation for learning in students grade 8–10. Such motivation is presented as vital for the students’ learning and thereby for their future possibilities in education, society and working life.

5) Report No. 20 to the Parliament (2012-2013) “On the right path” [På rett vei]: The purpose of this white paper is to introduce measures so that comprehensive education in Norway can be better equipped to face pupil’s

needs and abilities, as well as the expected future demands of society and working life.

Analysis Due to its capacity to investigate text, language and communication processes (Jørgensen & Phillips, 1999) we use discourse analysis as an analytical approach, to analyse the text in the policy documents. Discourse analysis also has the capacity to identify how student identity is communicated and discursively constructed in the policy documents. As underscored in the theoretical framework, different discourses use different semantics to conceptualise ‘the student’ in different ways. These conceptions give students access to a variety of identity resources, or subject positions, which again cluster and construct identities. In the analysis, ‘the student’ is therefore perceived as a “nodal point” (Laclau & Mouffe, 2014) that several discourses aim to fill with meaning. The analytical aim is thus first to identify what identity resources, or subject positions, the documents offer students, second to identify how these resources construct student identity and third how student identity is discursively governed and negotiated.

The analytical procedures of the documents consist of four main phases, which we describe in the following. The first author conducted the analyses. However, all categories, codes and findings were discussed with the second author, who has extended experience with the analytical approaches and procedures and is familiar with the selected documents. First, expectations and descriptions in the documents of what pupils should know, do, feel, learn, and perform were identified and excerpted. The excerpts were then thematically categorised. These categories constituted the base for the construction of 23 subject positions that were listed, numbered and described (see appendix 1). The numbers representing each subject position were then used to code the policy documents. This second phase of the analytical process illuminated the distribution of accessible subject positions within and across the five documents. The third phase of the analysis identified how subject positions cluster and construct student identities. In total, 10 student identities were constructed and described in this phase (appendix 2). In qualitative analyses transparency in the analytical process is vital, as it enables readers to assess if findings are reasonable given the theoretical framework, the material and the analytical process. To ensure such transparency and reader validity, appendix 3 exemplifies how findings from phase three build on findings from phase two, which in turn are built on the findings from the first phase of the analytical process. Finally, we identified how three discourses govern the 10 student identities in the policy documents. This analytical phase had two theory-informed discourses, namely ‘The Bildung discourse’ and ‘The competence discourse’ as a point of departure. Throughout the analysis, it became evident, however, that a third discourse, termed ‘The discourse of compliance’, was also active in the construction and negotiation of identity resources and student identities.

In the following, we will first give a brief description of the three discourses before we show how they govern and negotiate hegemony over the student identities identified in the documents.

The discourses

As mentioned above, the final part of the analysis considers two theoryinformed discourses, ‘The Bildung discourse’ and ‘The competence discourse’, as a point of departure. These two discourses were initially selected based on our historical knowledge of the development and changes in Norwegian educational policy. As described in the introduction, Bildung is a phenomenon which has deep roots in Norwegian education, and the focus on competence and employability are increasingly emphasised in educational policy from the turn of the millennium. In the process of categorising identity resources and identifying student identities, a third discourse, ‘The discourse of compliance’, emerged from the material. In the following paragraphs, we will provide an account of the three discourses along with some examples of semantic indications of their presence in the documents.

The Bildung discourse In our definition of the ‘The Bildung discourse’, the critical and non-instrumental aspects of human existence are underscored. The latter draws on the idea that knowledge, relationships and things we do as humans have an intrinsic value. For instance, learning and knowing are considered important and valuable in its own right, regardless of whether what is learned will eventually result in better grades or better jobs. The critical aspect of Bildung entails the idea that, although it is important to learn as well as adjust to the norms and rules of the society, both learning and adjustments should be done in a critical and reflective way. This definition builds on the concept of paideia (Doseth, 2011; Myhre, 2009; Solerød, 2014), which takes its meaning from the ancient Greeks and refers to an individual’s active and conscious enculturation into society (Doseth, 2011). Adjusting to society requires comprehension and acceptance of the present social structures, but also an awareness of opportunities for evaluating and altering these existing structures (Torjussen, 2011). Consequently, individuals can contribute to both the upholding and the change and development of social rules and structures.

Semantic indications of the presence of ‘The Bildung discourse’ in the empirical material are words such as ‘democracy’, ‘democratic understanding’, ‘cooperative learning’, ‘student participation’, ‘student council’, ‘class council’ and ‘student influence’. These words are connected to qualities of Bildung that encourage a critical approach to and understanding and development of the society. These words are central in the descriptions of the subject positions that construct, for example, the student identity of ‘the democratic student’. The competence discourse The more instrumental and performative aspects of education are core to the way we define ‘The competence discourse’. This definition is based on the Latin origin of competence, competentia, which refers to having enough knowledge, sound judgment, skills or strength to perform satisfactorily and attain a requisite outcome (Lai, 1995, p. 17). To perform adequately means to use the things you know in a way that meets the demands of the situation you are in (Gullichsen, 1992, p. 7), whether these demands are explicated as expected educational

learning outcomes or tasks to be handled in a workplace. In this discourse, it is consequently not so much the things learners know that are important, but how they now and (in the future, will) transform their knowledge into competencies that enable them to perform adequately. In ‘The competence discourse’, knowledge and competence are therefore valued by their utility to society as a whole, but more importantly to businesses, professions and workplaces (Gullichsen, 1992, p. 7; Nordhaug, 1990, p. 19). Hence, an instrumental or functionalistic understanding of knowledge and education is a crucial feature of the way we define this discourse.

‘The competence discourse’ is also very much future-oriented. First, because the skills, knowledge and competences students learn and develop in school should be relevant for their future life as students and employees. Second, and in slight contrast to the former, this future-orientation positions the student as a lifelong learner. To be a lifelong learner means to face the demands from an increasingly uncertain future society and working life and to acknowledge the need for continuous learning and development to be employable and able to perform adequately.

Semantic indications of the presence of ‘the competence discourse’ in the empirical material are words such as ‘continuing education’, ‘competence’, ‘competence goals’, ‘career’, ‘labour’ ‘labour market’, ‘entrepreneurship’ and ‘mapping tools’. These words are examples retrieved from subject positions constructing, for example, the student identity of ‘The goal-oriented student’. The discourse of compliance In the analytical process, we identified how words, text segments, codes and thematic categories drew on ‘The Bildung discourse’ or ‘The competence discourse’. However, some words, text segments, codes and thematic categories were not completely aligned with either of these two discourses. For instance, some text segments describing students overlapped to a large degree with our definition of ‘The Bildung discourse’, but with a significant lack of key semantic indications such as ‘reflection’ and ‘critical thinking’. In other words, there seemed to be an analytical gap between ‘The Bildung discourse’ and ‘The competence discourse’. In our attempts to understand and frame these semantic indications more theoretically, we turned to the Norwegian philosopher Hellesnes’ (1999) discussions on socialisation. In these discussions, Bildung and a more compliant attitude are characterised separately. In contrast to socialisation as Bildung, socialisation as compliance indicates a non-reflective and non-critical acceptance of the social conditions of which the individual is a part (Hellesnes, 1999, p. 25).

With the above as a backdrop, our definition of ‘The discourse of compliance’ positions the individual as somebody who accept, internalise and submit to the available social frameworks, norms and rules. Education and socialisation are consequently perceived as unilateral enterprises, where the society is active, and the individual is positioned as a far more passive spectator of its socialisation

process. This discourse does not emphasise insight into how power relations govern and control the existence of the individual as a part of education and socialisation. Consequently, students might interpret all difficulties as personal and self-inflicted (Hellesnes, 1999, p. 25), as the ulterior and societal causes to the difficulties they encounter are under-communicated (Torjussen, 2011).

Student identities

In this section, we will present the ten student identities we identified in the analysis. Further, we will show (see Figure 1 below) and explicate how these identities are governed by the three discourses presented above. These descriptions are complemented by appendix 1 – 3.

Figure 1: Visualisation of identities and their governing discourses

Student identity 1: The knowledge-oriented student Lifelong learning and subject-specific knowledge are the core elements of this student identity. The basic skills and subject-specific knowledge the student learn, are used as a foundation for the desire to constantly acquire more knowledge. This identity consequently positions the student in a constant and lifelong search for more knowledge.

The significance of knowledge and lifelong learning to this student identity can be interpreted as a will to attain enlightenment and a recognition of the intrinsic value of learning and knowledge. It is, therefore, possible to argue that this identity is regulated by ‘The Bildung discourse’. However, lifelong learning is currently closely associated with employability and the ability to adjust to a flexible and changing working life, and thereby also incorporates the instrumental aspects of ‘The competence discourse’. There are few explicit descriptions in the material of precisely what knowledge students should acquire and how this knowledge should be learned. It is therefore unclear whether this identity promotes an unreflective reproduction of existing

knowledge, drawing on ‘The discourse of compliance’, or the more reflective construction of knowledge associated with ‘The Bildung discourse’. Student identity 2: The motivated student This student identity positions the student as highly motivated, not only to learn but also to educate herself. She is interested and eager to learn in all situations and highly values all opportunities to access new knowledge. This student is therefore thankful for all learning opportunities and explicitly appreciates the opportunities to learn and access knowledge that education offers.

This student identity is firmly grounded in a positive attitude towards learning and knowledge, which is an indication that the identity draws on ‘the Bildung discourse’ in its will to attain enlightenment. Importantly, this positive attitude is also clearly directed toward education. This direction, in turn, can be understood not so much as a will to achieve enlightenment, but rather an intention to educate oneself, which is a slightly different undertaking, as it very well might imply a more instrumental attitude towards future employability. Thus, it can be argued, this student identity might also draw on central elements of ‘The competence discourse’. Finally, in the description of the motivated student, a certain submissiveness can be found in the use of words such as ‘appreciate’, ‘thankful’ and ‘opportunities’. This can imply an expectation that students should accept and be grateful for the opportunity to be educated, rather than to critically reflect on their educational opportunities. This final point illustrates how this student identity also might draw on elements from ‘The discourse of compliance’, as well as ‘The competence discourse’ and ‘The Bildung discourse’. In other words, there is room for all three discourses to actively negotiate the more precise meaning of significant elements in both of these first identities. Likewise, the third identity presented below is governed by all three discourses. In this third identity, the dominant position of two of the discourses is more easily identified.

Student identity 3: The global student The global student is positioned as someone who is eager to learn about Norwegian culture and heritage as well as other cultures. She is also focused on learning multiple languages. This student will actively use her language and cultural knowledge as a tool to build friendships and collaboration, bridge different cultures both nationally and internationally, and to ensure that she is well prepared to function optimally in a multicultural and global future society. Although globally oriented, she will also use this knowledge to preserve Norwegian culture, heritage and identity in this future society.

The process of socialising young people for the world as global citizens with knowledge about languages, cultures and the benefits and challenges of a multicultural and global world, is traditionally closely connected to ‘The Bildung discourse’. However, the significance of language and national and global cultural knowledge in this identity is not framed as important due to its intrinsic value or to stimulate reflection. These competencies are underscored because

they equip the student with useful tools to cope with, function in, and adapt to a future society. Consequently, this identity predominantly draws on the instrumental aspects of ‘The competence discourse’, as well as the significant adaptive element of ‘The discourse of compliance’. The following four student identities are all governed by two of the discourses, in different combinations. Here it varies to what degree it is possible to identify the dominant discourse in the hegemonic struggle over the identities.

Student identity 4: The reflective and responsible learner This student is conscious and constantly aware of her learning processes and which study techniques that enable her to learn the best. Consequently, she reflects on and takes responsibility for her learning processes. This makes her an efficient learner, as it enables her to keep the right focus on learning, to utilise all learning opportunities and to maximise her learning outcome throughout her educational career.

At first glance, this student identity’s explicit focus on reflection and responsibility seem to draw on central characteristics of ‘The Bildung discourse’. Yet, the equally explicit focus on effective learning situates the reflection and responsibility within a more instrumental frame associated with ‘The competence discourse’. Still, one might argue that ‘effective learning’ can also be conceptualised in line with ‘The Bildung discourse’, if effectiveness is understood as a drive and will to be enlightened and educated. Although this identity draws on both discourses, the way ‘effective learning’ is connected to utilisation of learning opportunities and maximisation of learning outcomes indicates the dominant position of ‘The competence discourse’ over ‘The Bildung discourse’ in the discursive negotiation of this identity.

Student identity 5: The confident and content student This identity positions the student as someone who thrives at school and considers school to be a secure place to be and to learn. This student flourishes academically and socially. Her academic accomplishments and confidence, as well as her social surplus, enable her to contribute to an inclusive, positive and safe learning environment, where her fellow students also can thrive. Consequently, she has good relations with other students as well as teachers.

This identity is governed by both ‘The Bildung discourse’ and ‘The discourse of compliance’. The former is visible in the central position wellbeing, inclusion, accomplishment, socialisation and good social relationships take up in this identity. To be academically and socially confident and competent is valued as important in themselves. However, there are no semantic indications of critical reflection about how students are socialised into school or the way schooling is done, connected to this student identity. This identity positions the student as someone who thrives under the current circumstances. Students are consequently also expected to acknowledge and adapt to school’s academic and social expectations, traditions and context, rather than to challenge them. In sum, this indicates a dominant governing function of ‘The discourse of compliance’.

Student identity 6: The democratic student The democratic student values cooperation and working in groups. However, she underscores that cooperation and collective processes, both in the classroom and in the society at large, must be framed by democratic principles that ensure participation and enable everybody involved to contribute to the process.

The collaborative and participative attitude and democratic thinking that characterises this student identity are easily associated with values that are central to ‘The Bildung discourse’. This will, however, presuppose critical reflection as a significant part of the democratic, participatory and cooperative attitude that is so central to this identity. There are no explicit semantic indications of such reflection and critical thinking when it comes to ‘The democratic student’. As already underscored, the lack of reflection and critical thinking will be at odds with ‘The Bildung discourse’. In sum, this might be an indication that ‘The democratic student’ identity is governed in the overlap between ‘The Bildung discourse’ and ‘The discourse of compliance’. Neither of the discourses are dominant.

Student identity 7: The competing student This identity positions the student as someone who strives to perform and deliver results at her best ability. This student is therefore always, implicitly or explicitly, competing against her own and others’ accomplishments to ensure that results and performances are in accordance with expected learning outcomes. For the same reason, she is always eager to have her academic accomplishments assessed and compared to fellow students’ and her previous work.

The focus on performance, learning outcomes and comparison underscored in this identity is in line with neo-liberal educational policy ideas that advocate the comparison of individuals’, schools’ and national states’ abilities to perform in accordance with pre-defined quality indicators. These educational ideas are also central to ‘The competence discourse’. ‘The competing student’ is, in other words, an identity that draws heavily on the performative elements of ‘The competence discourse’. In the material that constitutes this student identity, the student is positioned as well-adjusted and well-functioning in a competitive and performative educational context. This indicates that ‘The discourse of compliance’ is also significant in the governing of this student identity.

These seven first identities are subject to discursive negotiation over significant elements of the identities. This means that there is a hegemonic struggle between two or all three discourses over these identities. The final three identities presented below are, on the other hand, more clearly governed by one dominant discourse.

Student identity 8: The socially well-functioning student The socially well-functioning student is positioned as law-abiding and socially competent. She is concerned with norms, laws and regulations, and considers it

vital for a well-functioning society that people know and act in accordance with social and juridical laws and norms. The student is thus interested in learning the social codes that regulate different social situations and relationships.

Compliance with the society’s social and juridical laws and rules as well as social competence are vital skills for ‘The socially well-functioning student’. The focus is on socialisation and incorporation into society. Although the focus on socialisation might indicate the presence of ‘The Bildung discourse’, the identity’s dominant focus on learning established social frameworks does not really open the opportunity for (re)construction of social, ethical or normative frameworks. Thus, this student identity constructs students who rather adapt to, than critically reflect over, the established norms, laws and rules. Consequently, we can argue for the dominant position of ‘The discourse of compliance’ in the governing of this identity.

Student identity 9: The goal-oriented student This identity positions the student as confident about her future professional career. She consequently uses her education to consciously and systematically discover, develop and improve her talents in accordance with these career plans. For the same reason, she also makes school activities as relevant and useful as possible for her perceived future career.

Within this student identity, talent development and school activities are valued due to their relevance and significance for the student’s future professional career. The instrumental, functionalistic and future-oriented aspects are so strong that it is difficult not to conclude that ‘The competence discourse’ has a hegemonic position in the governing of this identity.

Student identity 10: The socio-economically conscious student This student does her best not to become a socio-economic burden, both as a student and as a future citizen. She aims to be an active and economically profitable contributor to society throughout her life. As a student, she therefore consciously makes sound and appropriate educational choices and avoid selecting the ‘wrong’ educational trajectories that might be at odds with future career goals. In addition to being conscious about her educational and professional choices, this student also focuses on living as healthy as possible, both physically and mentally, to avoid being a burden to the welfare state system.

This student identity is based on the idea that in and through their educational efforts, all citizens should ensure that they are useful to society, employable and as light a burden as possible. The explicit instrumental, economic and futureoriented features of this student identity make it rather apparent that this identity is dominated by ‘The competence discourse’.

The discursive governing of student identity: some issues and dilemmas

As Figure 1 (page 144) and the above presentation of identities and discourses show, all three discourses are involved in an ongoing, discursive game of hegemony. In the following sections, we will discuss some issues and dilemmas this regulative game over hegemony has evoked.

Antagonistic, dominant or hegemonic discourses? The theoretical framework and the empirical findings presented above, creates a backdrop for a discussion about the relationships between the three discourses: are the relationships of an antagonistic nature, are one of the discourses dominant, or do the discourses support and strengthen each other, creating a cooperative hegemony of values, meanings and identities?

To identify and assess the strength of the three discourses in the regulation of student identities is not a straightforward matter. In our analyses, the strength and dominance of a discourse were identified by scrutinising the way values, goals, outcomes, knowledge and competencies, are legitimated in the policy documents. Based on this, we will argue that the governing of the student identities is slightly dominated by ‘The competence discourse’. The instrumental aspects of ‘The competence discourse’ are central in the legitimation of outcomes and competencies in the documents. This situates ‘The competence discourse’ in a dominant position when student identities are governed by this discourse in combination with one or both of the two other discourses. ‘The competence discourse’, either alone or alongside one of the other two discourses, is also involved in the regulation of the majority of the student identities we identified.

The analyses also show how ‘The discourse of compliance’ gains a significant position in Norwegian educational policy in the first decade of the new millennium. Also, this discourse is involved in the governing of a majority of student identities, although its presence is not so explicitly linguistically identifiable as the ‘The competence discourse’. The introduction of ‘The discourse of compliance’ is nevertheless an important element in the policy changes experienced in Norway over the last two decades. The features of ‘The discourse of compliance’ are highly associated with neo-liberal educational ideas (Hodgson, 2019). It could, therefore, be argued that the introduction of ‘The discourse of compliance’ and the student identities it regulates, facilitates the emphasis on neoliberal ideas such as self-regulation and responsibilism (Hodgson, 2019), that characterises student identity in the current ongoing Norwegian educational “Reform 2020” (Hilt et al., 2019; Riese, Hilt, & Søreide, in press).

When ‘The discourse of compliance’ regulate identities in tandem with ‘The competence discourse’ the two discourses strengthen each other. As identities that draw on ‘The discourse of compliance’ more easily accept, internalise and submit to available social and normative frameworks, these identities will be more open to the core values of ‘The competence discourse’. It can be argued that the two discourses exist in a complementary, rather than an excluding

relationship where the two make up a hegemonic unity that has paved the way for other neoliberal values, such as the abovementioned emphasis on responsibilism and self-regulation.

Based on our understanding of how the discourses construct ‘the student’, the discursive relationship between ‘The Bildung discourse’ and the two other discourses is much more conflicting and even somewhat diametric. When student identities are governed by ‘The Bildung discourse’ in combination with the other discourses, the struggle over meaning are more a question of either –or: Are students expected to critically reflect over knowledge (‘The Bildung discourse’) or are they expected to accept and reproduce what they learn (‘The discourse of compliance’)? The relationships between the ‘The Bildung discourse’ and the two other discourses are, in other words, antagonistic. This antagonism can create tensions, but also opens the opportunity for students to identify with different variations of policy-constructed identities.

Metonymic transfer As underscored in the introductory section of this article, Bildung has had a strong – at least symbolically – position in Norwegian education. Bildung is affiliated with the early stages of institutionalised education and the conception of ‘the student’ is closely linked to this institution. This indicates a hegemonic and robust relationship between ‘The Bildung discourse’ and the Norwegian conception of what a student is.

However, as ‘The competence discourse’ arguably expands and is joined by ‘The discourse of compliance’, the game of defining and controlling how ‘the student’ should be understood is changing. In the analysed documents ‘The competence discourse’, accompanied by ‘The discourse of compliance’, clearly dominates the triadic game of definition. This weakens the governing power ‘The Bildung discourse’ traditionally had over student identity, which again, as we will argue, is an indication of metonymic transfer. Metonymic transfer can be identified when one discourse takes control of a concept previously strongly connected to another discourse, initiating a new and competing definition of the concept (Torfing, 2003). Through this action, the ‘new’ discourse(s) strengthen their antagonistic position.

Metonymic transfer is sometimes difficult to identify, as it might be the meaning of the words, and not necessarily the words themselves, that are changed. An example from our analysis where metonymic transfer is visible is in ‘The reflective and responsible learner’. As previously described, this identity draws on central characteristics of ‘The Bildung discourse’, with its explicit focus on reflection and responsibility. Framed by ‘The Bildung discourse’ a reflective and responsible learner reflects on the knowledge she is engaged with and on how this knowledge can make her a responsible person. However, when reflection and responsibility are framed by ‘The competence discourse’ and efficiency, utilisation of learning opportunities and maximising of learning outcomes, the meaning of the words change. To be reflective is to be conscious of your learning process, and to be responsible is to utilise this consciousness to maximise your

learning opportunities. In other words, although the words might be unchanged, the focus has shifted from what the students learn and how this can enlighten young people, to how efficient students learn. This example also shows how the policy documents intertwine neoliberal educational values, such as student efficiency and self-regulation, with what we can call more traditional values, such as reflection, in the Norwegian educational system.

The temporal dilemma Finally, we will discuss a dilemma that is temporal, as it is related to the tension between the present and the future in the policy documents we have investigated. In the documents, the student is partly situated as a child or teenager currently attending elementary school (grade 1–10). Simultaneously, many of the descriptions of expected skills, competencies, behaviours and values concern the students’ future adult identity. The temporal dilemma is especially evident in the many policy statements that describe what the student must learn in school to be prepared for upper-secondary school, college and university, employment, or citizenship. There is a tension between a ‘here-and-nowpresence’ and an ‘in-the-future-presence’, which indicates that the student must simultaneously concentrate on both states of presence.

A dual focus on the present and the future is not unusual in educational policy and curricular texts. It is not controversial to argue that education is intended as preparation for something, implying that school is based on some kind of futurity. Although framed differently, a dual present/future perspective is also not exclusive to either of the three identified discourses. Nevertheless, we will argue that the dominant position of ‘The competence discourse’ and its strong instrumental features that value education in accordance with its usefulness amplify the temporal dilemma in the material we analysed. School becomes a time of transition focusing on the after-education life rather than the present and on developing rather than being. Consequently, the student becomes more a “work in progress” (Daniels & Brooker, 2014) and less an elementary school student in his or her own right.

Concluding comment

The construction and governing of identities are essential in all public policy initiatives (Béland, 2017; Hodgson, 2019; Mulderrig, 2019). The above presentation of student identities and their regulatory discourses shows how the logic surrounding the K06 reform not only resulted in explicit changes in curriculum and governing practices, but also in specific descriptions of what a student is, what a student should know and how a student should act and perform. Although often idealised, descriptions of and expectations for ‘the student’ in educational policy send very real messages to teachers, school leaders, school owners, parents, and most importantly, the students themselves about how to be a student. As student identities and the discourses that regulate them define normality and deviance, it is crucial to include analyses of identity in research investigating public policy.

Although we have discussed some issues and dilemmas that our analyses have evoked, what concrete, everyday consequences these policy-constructed identities have for students and their teachers lies beyond the scope of this article. However, by this article we encourage further research on this topic. Further research might also explore the interface between policy and practice concerning the dilemmas reported in this study. Another interesting approach should be a comparative analysis of two or more countries’ educational policy documents and their construction and governing of student identities.

Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge the reviewers for their constructive comments and suggestions for improvement. No grants or funding has financed the research.

References

Alvesson, M., & Sköldberg, K. (1994). Tolkning och reflektion: Vetenskapsfilosofi och kvalitativ metod [Interpretation and reflection: Philosophy of science and qualitative method]. Lund: Studentlitteratur. Alvesson, M., & Willmott, H. (2002). Identity regulation as organizational control: Producing the appropriate individual. Journal of Management Studies, 39(5), 619644. doi:10.1111/1467-6486.00305 Andreasson, I. (2007). Elevplanen som text-om identitet, genus, makt och styrning i skolans elevdokumentation [The individual education plan as text. About identity, gender, power and governing in pupils] (PhD Thesis). University of Gothenburg, Sweden. Béland, D. (2017). Identity, politics, and public policy. Critical Policy Studies, 11(1), 1-18. doi:10.1080/19460171.2016.1159140 Bjordal, F. R. (2016). Kompetanse - Danning - Tilpasning: En analyse av hvordan tre diskurser forhandler om elevidentitet i politiske dokument [Competence - Bildung Adjustment: An analysis of how three discourses negotiate student identity in political documents] (Master's Thesis). University of Bergen, Norway. Retrieved fromhttp://bora.uib.no/handle/1956/12952 Dale, R. (1999). Specifying globalization effects on national policy: A focus on the mechanisms. Journal Of Education Policy, 14(8), 1-17. doi:10.1080/026809399286468 Daniels, J., & Brooker, J. (2014). Student identity development in higher education: Implications for graduate attributes and work-readiness. Educational Research, 56(1), 65-76. doi:10.1080/00131881.2013.874157 Doseth, M. (2011). Paideia - selve fundamentet for vår forståelse av dannelse [Paideia the very foundation of our understanding of Bildung]. In S. Dobson & K. Steinsholt (Eds.), Dannelse: Introduksjon til et ullent pedagogisk landskap [Bildung: Introduction to a hazy educational landscape] (pp. 13-37). Trondheim: Tapir akademisk forlag. Gullichsen, A. H. (1992). Strategisk kompetanseutvikling eller profesjonsstyrt etterutdanning?: En analyse av opplæringsadferden i et utvalg kommuner [Strategic development of competence or professional development?: An analysis of training behavior in selected municipalities]. Trondheim: Norsk voksenpedagogisk forskningsinstitutt.

Hansen, H. F. (2011). NPM in Scandinavia. In P. Lægreid & T. Christensen (Eds.), The Ashgate Research Companion to New Public Management (pp. 113-130). Farnham: Ashgate. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9299.2012.02078.x Helgøy, I., & Homme, A. (2016). Educational reforms and marketization in Norway – A challenge to the tradition of the social democratic, inclusive school? Research in Comparative and International Education, 11(1), 52-68. doi:10.1177/1745499916631063 Hellesnes, J. (1999). På veg mot ein tilstand utan danning? [Towards existance without Bildung?] In Ø. Andersen (Ed.), Dannelse, humanitas, paideia [Bildung, humanitas, peideia] (pp. 23-31). Oslo: Sypress forlag. Hilt, L. T., Riese, H., & Søreide, G. E. (2019). Narrow identity resources for future students: The 21st century skills movement encounters the Norwegian education policy context. Journal of Curriculum Studies, vol.51(3), 384-402. doi:10.1080/00220272.2018.1502356 Hodgson, D. (2019). Conceptualising the compulsory education policy apparatus: Producing and reproducing risky subjectivities. Journal Of Education Policy, 34(1), 117-132. doi:10.1080/02680939.2017.1410578 Hovdenak, S. S., & Stray, J. H. (2015). Hva skjer med skolen?: En kunnskapssosiologisk analyse av norsk utdanningspolitikk fra 1990-tallet og frem til i dag [What is happening with the school? : A sociological analysis of knowledge in Norwegian educational policy from the 1990s to the present]. Bergen: Fagbokforlaget. Jørgensen, M. W. (2002). Refleksivitet og kritik: Socialkonstruktionistiske subjektpositioner [Reflexivity and criticism: Social constructionist subject positions]. Frederiksberg: Roskilde universitetsforlag/Samfundslitteratur. Jørgensen, M. W., & Phillips, L. (1999). Diskursanalyse som teori og metode [Discourse analysis as theory and method]. Frederiksberg: Roskilde Universitetsforlag Samfundslitteratur. Krüger, T. (2000). Teacher practice, pedagogical discourses and the construction of knowledge: Two case studies of teachers at work (PhD Thesis). Bergen, Norway: Bergen University College Press. Laclau, E., & Mouffe, C. (2014). Hegemony and socialist strategy: Towards a radical democratic politics. London: Verso. Lai, L. (1995). Kompetansekartlegging i kommunesektoren: Om tilnærming og metoder [Competence mapping in the local public sector: Approaches and methods]. Oslo: Kommuneforlaget. Ministry of Education and Research. (2004). Kultur for læring [Culture for learning] (Report No. 30 to the Parliament (2003-2004)). Retrieved from https://www.regjeringen.no/no/dokumenter/stmeld-nr-030-2003-2004/id404433/ Ministry of Education and Research. (2007). … og ingen sto igjen - Tidlig innsats for livslang læring [Early Intervention for Lifelong Learning] (Report No. 16 to the Parliament (2006-2007)). Retrieved from https://www.regjeringen.no/no/dokumenter/stmeld-nr-16-2006-2007/id441395/ Ministry of Education and Research. (2009). Internasjonalisering av utdanninga [Internationalisation of Education in Norway] (Report No. 14 to the Parliament 2008-2009). Retrieved from https://www.regjeringen.no/no/dokumenter/stmeld-nr-14-2008-2009/id545749/ Ministry of Education and Research. (2011). Motivasjon – Mestring – Muligheter [Motivation – Ability – Possibilities]. (Report No. 22 to the Parliament 2010-

2011). Retrieved from https://www.regjeringen.no/no/dokumenter/meld-st22-2010--2011/id641251/ Ministry of Education and Research. (2013). På rett vei [On the Right Way]. (Report No. 20 to the Parliament (2012-2013)). Retrieved from https://www.regjeringen.no/no/dokumenter/meld-st-20-20122013/id717308/ Mulderrig, J. (2019). The language of ‘nudge’ in health policy: Pre-empting working class obesity through ‘biopedagogy’. Critical Policy Studies, 13(1), 101-121. doi:10.1080/19460171.2017.1398672 Myhre, R. (2009). Grunnlinjer i pedagogikkens historie [Basics in the history of pedagogy]. Oslo: Gyldendal Norsk Forlag AS. Nordhaug, O. (1990). Kompetansestyring: En introduksjon [Competence management: An introduction]. In O. Nordhaug (Ed.), Kompetansestyring [Competence management] (pp. 19-31). Oslo: TANO. Norwegian Government Security and Service Organisation. (2016). Overview of document types. Retrieved from https://www.regjeringen.no/en/finddocument/overview-of-document-types/id2341785/ Prøitz, T., & Aasen, P. (2017). Making and re-making the Nordic model of education. In P. Nedergaard & A. Wivel (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Scandinavian Politics (1st ed., pp. 213-228). London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315695716 Riese, H., Hilt, L. T., & Søreide, G. E. (in press). Selvregulering som pedagogisk formål: Diskursive fornyelser i Fremtidens skole. [Self-regulation as an educational aim: Discursive renewals in The school of the future]. Nordisk tidsskrift for pedagogikk og kritikk [Nordic Journal of Pedagogy and Critique] Schei, T. B. (2007). Vokal identitet: En diskursteoretisk analyse av profesjonelle sangeres identitetsdannelse [Vocal identity: A discourse theoretical analysis of professional singers' identity formation] (PhD Thesis). University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway. Skarpenes, O. (2014). Education and the Demand for Emancipation. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 58(6), 713-733. doi:10.1080/00313831.2013.840677 Skarpenes, O. & Nilsen, A.C.E. (2014). Making up pupils. Norsk Pedagogisk Tidsskrift [Norwegian Journal of Education], 98(6), 424 – 439 Solerød, E. (2014). Pedagogiske grunntanker: I et dannelsesperspektiv [Fundamental ideas of Pedagogy: the perspective of Bildung]. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget. Søreide, G. E. (2007). Narrative construction of teacher identity (PhD Thesis). University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway. Retrieved from http://bora.uib.no/handle/1956/2532 Telhaug, A. O. (2011). Dannelsesbegrepet i grunnskolens læreplaner [The concept of Bildung in elementary school curricula]. In S. Dobson & K. Steinsholt (Eds.), Dannelse:Introduksjon til et ullent pedagogisk landskap [Bildung: Introduction to a hazy educational landscape] (pp. 211-255). Trondheim: Tapir akademisk forlag. Tolo, A. (2011). Hvordan blir lærerkompetanse konstruert? En kvalitativ studie av PPUstudenters kunnskapsutvikling [How is teacher competence constructed? A qualitative study of teacher students' knowledge development] (PhD Thesis). University of Bergen, Norway. Torfing, J. (2003). New theories of discourse: Laclau, Mouffe and Zizek. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Inc. Torjussen, L. P. S. (2011). Danning, dialektikk, dialog - Skjervheims og Hellesnes' pedagogiske danningsfilosofi [Bildung, dialectics, dialogue - Skjervheim's and Hellesnes's educational philosophy of bildung] In S. Dobson & K. Steinsholt (Eds.), Dannelse: Introduksjon til et ullent pedagogisk landskap [Bildung: Introduction to a hazy educational landscape] (pp. 143-162). Trondheim: Tapir akademisk forlag.

Vislie, L. (2008). Lifelong learning: A new framework for education in an era of globalisation? Nordic Studies in Education, 28(03), 161-172. Wiborg, S. (2013). Neo-liberalism and universal state education: The cases of Denmark, Norway and Sweden 1980–2011. Comparative Education, 49(4), 407-423. doi:10.1080/03050068.2012.700436

Appendix 1: Identified subject positions

Subject position Description

1 The student is oriented towards globalisation

2 The student prepares for a multicultural society

3 The student enjoys school The student learns to master several foreign languages, oriented towards utilising this knowledge in adult life. The student learns to use knowledge about different cultures to show tolerance and to build ‘cultural bridges’. The student thrives and feels secure at school.

4 The student is motivated for learning

5 The student experiences school as meaningful The student is motivated to learn and learns to become motivated to learn. The student is engaged in his/her own learning process The student learns to notice how schoolwork is related to his/her other significant discourses.

6 The student is responsible for his/her own learning 7 The student realises and develop/enhance his/her talent(s) 8 The student reflects on his/her own learning 9 The student is oriented towards becoming a benefit to the society 10 The student is confident about future career choices

11 The student acquires specialised knowledge

12 The student is focused on becoming among the best in the world

13 The student is law-abiding

14 The student is tolerant and inclusive 15 The student accomplishes and shows results The student learns to perform and to be focused, persistent and hardworking. The student learns to utilise latent and/or undeveloped abilities and/or talents. The student learns to know his/her limitations and potentials for development. The student learns how to contribute for the benefit of the society. The student learns which field of work/study is right for him/her, and thus avoids reselecting work/study. The student learns basic skills as well as specialised knowledge in every school subject. The student scores high on international tests, and thus demonstrates that Norway is a “knowledge nation”. The student learns norms and laws that regulate the members of society The student learns to be tolerant in relation to others’ prerequisites for learning The student learns to be goal-oriented, deliver results and to be judged by the accomplished results

16 The student is positive about education

The student learns to see the usefulness of education and knowledge 17 The student is an efficient learner The student learns how to maximise his/her educational outcome, and thus avoids individual learning resources going to waste.

18 The student is focused on collaboration and teamwork

19 The student is financially profitable for society The student learns to work with others to achieve goals and learns that collaboration is an important key to success The student learns to not waste society’s investments in knowledge and to be an efficient student.

20 The student is oriented and positive towards democracy. The student learns that democracy is an important advantage in Norwegian society and learns how democracy is to be used.

21 The student is focused on preserving and developing

Norwegian cultural heritage The student learns how Norwegian culture is created and why it is important to continue/develop this culture

22 The student is oriented towards lifelong learning

The student learns to learn, and learns that learning can/should continue throughout life 23 The student is socially competent The student learns different social codes and learns to become a socially well-functioning individual.

Appendix 2: Examples of subject positions that cluster and construct student identities

Subject positions Student Identity

 The student enjoys school  The student is tolerant and inclusive The confident and content student

 The student is motivated for learning  The student is positive about education

 The student is responsible for his/her learning  The student reflects on his/her learning  The student is an efficient learner The motivated student

The reflective and responsible student

 The student experiences school as meaningful  The student realises and develops/enhances his/her talent(s)  The student is confident about future career choices

 The student is focused on becoming among the best in the world  The student accomplishes and shows results  The student is oriented towards globalisation  The student prepares for a multi-cultural society  The student is focused on preserving and developing

Norwegian cultural heritage  The student is oriented towards becoming a benefit for the society  The student is financially profitable for society  The student is focused on collaboration and teamwork  The student is oriented and positive towards democracy

 The student is law-abiding  The student is socially competent The goal-oriented student

The competing student

The global student

The socio-economic student

The democratic student

The socially wellfunctioning student

 The student acquires specialised knowledge  The student is oriented towards lifelong learning The knowledge-oriented student

Appendix 3: Examples of text excerpts, subject positions and student identities: phase 1, 2 and 3 in the analytical process.

Source Phase 1

Text excerpt Phase 2

Subject position (no.) Phase 3

Student identity

Meld.St.20 2012-2013, s.10

Meld.st.16 2006-2007, s.80-81

Meld.st.30 2003-2004, s.86

Meld.st.20 2012-2013, s.91 “In a positive learning environment, the students contribute and support each other's work and learning” “The school should be a place where everyone thrives, feels belonging, and where everyone feels valued as individuals, regardless of family background, faith, ethnicity or cultural background” “An inclusive education requires that students with special needs also belong in an inclusive school community, and that they face challenges adapted to their needs and prerequisites” “In an inclusive comprehensive school, students with different backgrounds and different prerequisites meet and receive teaching in a school community” The student enjoys school (3)

The student is tolerant and inclusive (14) The confident and content student

Meld.St.20 2012-2013, s.67

Meld.St. 30 20032004, s.7 Meld.st.16 2006-2007, s.11

Meld.st.22 2010-2011, s.17 “Society and working life are more diverse, and the labour market is increasingly characterised by international competition and cooperation” “Norway is well placed to create the world's best school”

“In primary and secondary education, there are both compulsory tests and other artefacts teachers can use to map students' competence and skills” “Students learn best when they understand how work tasks are related to learning outcomes” The student is focused on becoming among the best in the world (12)

The student accomplishes and shows results (15) The competing student