Training Professional Humanities’ Teachers: A Controversial Study about Generic Methods

literature through generic training will find it easier to adjust in this type of innovative school. The interviews' answers over three years of training and practical work, exposed more and more interesting facts regarding professional and mental difficulties. Their training process included all the advanced educational models, to introduce them to practical perception and reinforce their steps along an axis built between the academic world and its demands for a degree, and the school that adheres to the constraints of a policy determined each time anew. Thus, the question arises again: why should they engage in overqualified studies of their subject of specialization, as if they were medical students? Why do they need academic degrees, cultivation of research skills, and writing articles about professional and practical training, when in fact their status, and presence as “specialized teachers” is diminishing in the classroom and public? (Nir et al., 2016; Hannon & Peterson, 2017).

5. Conclusions

In modern classrooms, students participate in more active learning and are highly motivated by working in project-teams and subject-groups. By developing partnerships in understanding and analyzing failure, they are more likely to retain knowledge. This pedagogical approach accords them the freedom to learn in their way, and to solve common problems by carrying on open-minded debates and brainstorming. Another important outcome of this article is that collaborative learning redefines traditional student-teacher relationships, in and outside the classroom (Paniagua & Istance, 2018; Sahlberg, 2018). It is imperative to examine how demanding disciplinary learning (like in the past), more hours of reading and practicing and fewer hours of recreation and screen games, devoid of group background noise, and enhance the drive to explore and excel. This is essential to enable maximal concentration in reviewing and enriching memory reservoirs and the ability for greater and more complex analytical, cognitive, and mental understanding.

The findings which are presented here, prove that the gap between theory and practice, which derives from the complexity created by generic perceptions, increases. These issues became critical for all graduators at the Israeli Colleges of Education and are been discussed in teams of experts in the educational systems. Although it is still early to arrive at a definite conclusion about the data of continuous change in generic teaching, it performs in any pedagogical discourse with more extensively in recent years. This is mainly due to the socio-cultural state of affairs and because of geopolitical events that define the reality of the background of all educational and disciplinary processes, and mostly, the face of the next generation. The discussion around these issues needs more researches for accomplishment to make better decisions in teachers' training, especially in the Humanities studies.

6. References

Ainscow, M. (2005). Developing inclusive education systems: What are the levers for change? Journal of Educational Change, 6(2), 109–124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-005-1298-4 Alammary, A., Sheard, J., & Carbone, A. (2014). Blended Learning in Higher Education: Three Different Design Approaches. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 30(4), 450 – 440. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.693 Ashton, P. T. (1996). Improving the Preparation of Teachers. Educational Researcher, 25(9), 21–35. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X025009021 Bauder, J., & Rod, C. (2016). Crossing the thresholds: Critical information literacy pedagogy and the ACRL framework. College & Undergraduate Libraries, 23(3), 252–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/10691316.2015.1025323 Brophy, J. (2006). Observational Research on Generic Aspects of Classroom Teaching in P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 755–780). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203874790.ch33 Bergman, M. (2018). A Knowledge Representation Practionary - Guidelines Based on Charles Sanders Peirce. New York: Springer International Publisher. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98092-8 Carlson, D. (2017). Teachers in Crisis: Urban School Problem and Teachers' Work Culture. New York: Routledge. Christianakis, M. (2010). Collaborative Research and Teacher Education. Issues in Teacher Education, 19(2), 109-125. Calarco, J. (2019). Social Class and Student-Teacher Interactions in T. Domina, B. G. Gibbs, L. Nunn & A. Penner (Eds.). Education and Society – An Introduction to Key Issues in the Sociology of Education, (pp. 96 – 110). California: University of California Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvpb3wn0.11 Doolittle, A. (2015). The best of Many Worlds: Methodological Pluralism in Political Ecology. In L. B. Raymond (Ed.) The International Handbook of Political Ecology, (pp. 515 – 529). Northampton: Edward Elgar Publications. https://doi.org/10.4337/9780857936172.00047 Freire, P. (1997). Teachers as Cultural Workers – Letters to Those Who Dare Teach. New York: Routledge, Westview Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429496974 Fullan, M. (2016). The New Meaning of Educational Change. New York: Routledge and Teachers College Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-4451-8_12 Gamoran, A., & An, B. P. (2016). Effects of school segregation and school resources in a changing policy context. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 38(1), 43–64. https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373715585604 Goleman, D. (2006). Social intelligence: The new science of human relationships. New York: Bantam Dell. Goodman, A., Joshi, H., Nasim, B., & Tyler, C. (2015). Social and emotional skills in childhood and their long-term effects on adult life. Washington: Institute of Education. Griffin, P., & Care E. (Eds.). (2014). Assessment and teaching of 21st century skills: Methods and approach. New York: Springer. Grollios, G. (2016). Paulo Freire. New York: Routledge. Hannon, V., & Peterson, A. (2017). Thrive: Schools Reinvented for the real challenges we face. London: Innovation Unit Press. Hattie, J. (2015). What Doesn’t Work in Education: The Politics of Distraction. London: Pearson.

Hattie, J. (2016). The applicability of Visible Learning to higher education. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology, 1(1),79–91. https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000021 Nir, A., Ben David, A., Bogler, R., Inbar, D., & Zohar, A. (2016). School autonomy and 21st-century skills in the Israeli educational system: Discrepancies between the declarative and operational levels. International journal of educational management, 30(7), 1231-1246. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-11-2015-0149 Paniagua, A., & Istance. D. (2018). Teachers and designers of learning environments: The importance of innovative pedagogies. Paris: Center for Educational Research and Innovation, OECD. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264085374-en Plucker, J., Clint K., & Dilley., A, (2019). What we know about collaboration" In E. Eisenberg & O. Selivansky-Eden (Eds.). Adapting Israel's Education System for The Challenges of the 21st Century, (pp. 31 – 42). Jerusalem: The Israel Democracy Institute. Ravitch, D. (2016). The Death and Life of the Great American School System: How Testing and Choice Are Undermining Education. New York: Basic Books. Rosiek, J., & Kinslow, K. (2016). Resegregation as Curriculum: The meaning of the new segregation in U.S. public schools. New York: Routledge. Rothstein, R. (2017). The color of law: A forgotten history of how our government segregated America. New York: W. W. Norton. Sahlberg, P. (2015). Finnish lessons. What can the world learn from educational change in Finland? New York: Teachers College Press. https://doi.org/10.17323/18149545-2014-4-260-268 Sahlberg, P. (2018). Finnish ED Leadership: Four Big, Inexpensive Ideas to Transform Education. Carolina: Corwin. Schofer, E. (2019). The Growth of Schooling in Global Perspective. Education and Society –An Introduction to Key Issues in the Sociology of Education, 8–22. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvpb3wn0.5 Tamir, Y. (2015). Who's Afraid of Equality? Education and Society in Israel. Tel Aviv: Yedioth Ahronoth and Chemed Books. [Hebrew] Virtanen, A., & Tynjälä P. (2019). Factors Explaining the Learning of Generic Skills: A Study of University Students’ Experiences" Teaching in Higher Education, 24 (7), 880-894. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2018.1515195

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 8, pp. 16-39, August 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.8.2

The Effects of Mobile Learning on Listening Comprehension Skills and Attitudes of Omani EFL Adult Learners

Abdullah Al-Shamsi, Abdo Mohamed Al-Mekhlafi* , Saleh Al Busaidi and Maher Mohammad Hilal Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5627-2609 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2821-6199 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9649-429X https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7026-498X

Abstract. This study aimed to explore the effect of using mobile learning on improving adult learners’ listening skills in Oman, to investigate their attitudes, and to explore the factors that stand as barriers to its implementation. The study is quasi-experimental consisted of two groups, an experimental group (n=15) and a control group (n=16) from a foundation program at a military educational institute. The research data included the results of two sets of listening tests and learners’ responses on an attitude questionnaire. The students in the experimental group outperformed their counterparts in the control group as a result of the mobile learning strategy. There was a statically significant improvement in the experimental group students’ listening ability. Also, the participants had positive attitudes towards using mobile learning in improving their listening comprehension skills. The participants found that mobile learning enhanced their motivation, increased their exposure, expanded their vocabulary repertoire, and provided easy access to “anytime” and “everywhere” learning. However, they emphasized some challenges that were related to mobile software design, screen sizes of mobile phones, network connections, and the appropriateness of the listening content. Based on the findings, the study suggested some educational implications and recommendations.

Keywords: Mobile learning; listening comprehension skill; attitudes; language exposure; autonomous

1. Introduction

Mobile devices are the next generation of learning as they are extending into all areas of human life (Kim, 2013). Mobile learning is providing us with

*Corresponding author: Abdo Mohamed Al-Mekhlafi; Email: raymoh123321@gmail.com

opportunities to change the existing learning methods and strategies and gives a more flexible approach to manage learning experiences on the move (KukulskaHulme & Traxler, 2005). Mobile learning technologies “help produce learning that is personally customized, socially constructed, and which extends beyond the classroom” (Holden & Sykes, 2011, p. 4). Several empirical studies assert that mobile-learning is a useful and instructive tool for language learning, and it can encourage students to be more autonomous and independent in their learning process (Chen, 2016; Liu & He, 2015). Chen (2016) emphasized that “Mobile learning apps provide multiple channels and modalities for adult learners to practice language skills” (2016, p. 40).

Regarding language learning, researches in the literature have shown that listening comprehension is crucial for second language acquisition (Feyten, 1991; Richards, 2005). Listening ability is an essential factor that contributes significantly to the second language learning process. Richards (2005) stated that “The development of good listening skills is seen not only as something valuable for its own sake but as something that supports the growth of other aspects of language use, such as speaking and reading” (p. 85). However, many language learners and teachers consider listening as the most difficult skill to be taught (Aryana & Apsari, 2018).

In Oman, several studies assessed the students' listening comprehension skills. They found out that Omani students have difficulty in listening comprehension due to incompetent treatment of listening comprehension and insufficient exposure to listening outside the classroom (Al-Busaidi, 1997). Also, the listening materials and conventional teaching methods are of poor quality (Al-Belushi, 1999). Moreover, learners are unable to follow listening materials in a stressful environment because of the cognitively demanding listening activities (Al-Issa, 2005). Likewise, Al-Handhali (2009) claimed that content issues, lack of exposure, lack of encouragement, and teachers’ methodological decisions in classrooms all contributed to listening comprehension difficulties. Therefore, the problem of this current study lies in the weak performance of many Omani students’ in listening comprehension and their insufficiency of exposure to the English language outside classrooms.

Therefore, listening skills must be investigated further in Oman. New approaches in teaching are needed to be adopted, and modern technologies are required to be exploited and utilized. Al-Harrasi (2014) recommended that a less-stressful environment is necessary for the classroom, and learners need more interactive listening activities. Al-Belushi (1999) also recommended utilizing the latest technologies that are made available for language learning. He urged teachers to encourage students’ autonomy and independence in their learning process and to give opportunities for individual students to listen to what interests them and to listen in their own time and place. Thus, a shift towards integrating educational technologies is required to give learners some opportunities to practise listening comprehension skills outside the classroom independently. Therefore, to improve the learners’ listening skills, it is recommended to increase time exposure to the language by providing different listening materials for students to listen to in their

free time outside the classroom. Also, it’s essential to utilize advanced technologies, online listening materials and to provide less stressful learning environments (Al-Belushi, 1999; Al-Busaidi, 1997; Al-Handhali, 2009; Al-Issa, 2005).

Concerning utilizing advanced technologies, several studies have reported the potential use of mobile-based technology in enhancing language learning and accordingly have required EFL teachers to use mobile learning to perform language learning activities (Al Aamri, 2011; Al Yafei & Osman, 2016; Beatty, 2010; Chen, 2016; Kim, 2013). Crompton and Burke (2018) urged higher education teachers to use mobile technologies to increase learning opportunities outside classrooms. Mobile devices can allow language learners to access different learning materials everywhere, flexibly, and at any time (Kim, 2013; Read & Kukulska-Hulme, 2015). Also, they help to overcome many problems such as anxiety of language learning, inadequate language practices, and deficiency of language exposure (Rahimi & Soleymani, 2015). Furthermore, students can develop self-regulation and self-assessment through mobile devices (Gangaiamaran & Pasupathi, 2017; Liu & He, 2015; Zheng & Chen, 2018). Besides, some mobile learning applications can provide opportunities for immediate feedback and language analysis (Chen, Hsu & Doong, 2016). Mobile learning can establish an educational electronic learning platform that offers motivating educational experiences for instructors and students. It can also enhance the learners’ self-regulated learning experiences and increase language exposure outside the classroom.

Therefore, the importance of promoting listening comprehension skills and the great opportunities that mobile-learning can positively offer has led to the need to investigate this issue further in Oman. The primary purpose of this study, thus, is to explore the impact of mobile-learning on improving listening comprehension skills and explore the pedagogical attitudes of students towards the integration of the mobile-learning in their classroom activities. The study addresses the following research questions: 1. Are there any statistically significant differences in listening performance between students who learn listening skills through mobile devices and students who conventionally learn listening skills? 2. What are the students’ attitudes towards using mobile devices in improving their listening comprehension skills? 3. What challenges do students face in using mobile devices?

2. Literature Review

The growing popularity of the term mobile learning among language learners and the vitality of listening skill in language acquisition bring with them a shift in focus that may impact the teaching and learning process. This dramatic shift towards using m-learning in teaching English language listening skills can provide access to listening materials from everywhere and at anytime. The literature review provides a theoretical background of English listening comprehension skills and information background about mobile learning and its impacts on EFL contexts.

2.1 Listening Comprehension Skill in L2 Learning

Listening comprehension skill plays an active part in L2 learning (Brown, 2001; Feyten, 1991; Richards, 2005; Vandergrift & Goh, 2012). Listening is an essential skill in a way that exists in most of the activities we do throughout our lives (AlBelushi, 1999). A person cannot communicate or interact with others unless s/he understands the spoken language (Rivers, 1966). Therefore, the rationale behind teaching listening skills is to prepare English language learners for understanding the actual speech in real-life communication contexts and for facilitating second language acquisition. Besides, listening ability contributes significantly to the predictability of foreign language acquisition process (Feyten, 1991) and creates a channel by which the learner gains access to a great deal of comprehensible input in the target language (Krashen, 2013; Rost, 2007). Furthermore, the development of listening comprehension plays a significant role in developing other language skills (Dunkel, 1986), expands the learners’ vocabulary repertoire and grammar knowledge (Rost, 1994), and improves learners’ pronunciation of the target language (Harmer, 2007). Listening plays an active part in the language learning process, and language learners cannot maintain acquisition until a certain amount of the listening input in the target language is intelligible.

2.1.1 Learners’ Problems in Listening Comprehension Although listening plays a significant and constructive role in language learning, language learners confront several difficulties and problems when practising listening comprehension skills. Kim (2013) stressed that many English learners find listening skill a challenging skill as it demands a complex process of interpreting information from sound, especially when there are no visual aids. Also, students need to comprehend and process both content knowledge (data) and linguistic knowledge (language) simultaneously while they are doing the listening. According to Namaziandost, Ahmadi and Keshmirshekan (2019), limitations on learner’s listening ability are due to the listener’s limited vocabulary, length of the discourse, inability to understand the speaker’s accent, and the speaker’s speech rate. In his article, Goh (2000) notified that students tend to forget what they hear quickly, are unable to recognize the meanings of words, and tend to face difficulty to comprehend the intended purpose of the message even though they had understood the literal meaning of the words. Thus, learners’ problems in listening comprehension are due to personal cognitive differences, individual emotional statuses such as learners’ anxiety, and the context of the spoken language (Vandergrift & Goh, 2012).

2.1.2 Contemporary Trends in Teaching Listening Comprehension The difficulties that EFL learners face when listening to the target language and the value of mastering listening skills for language acquisition emphasize the importance of seeking new strategies and techniques to facilitate listening comprehension skills. Teachers should help students improve their listening comprehension proficiency by reducing students’ concern about listening and providing a less worrying classroom environment (Al-Handhali, 2009). Also, students should be encouraged to promote self-regulated learning to seek listening opportunities outside the classroom (Gangaiamaran & Pasupathi, 2017; Yabukoshi, 2018; Vandergrift & Goh, 2012). Moreover, there has been an

increasing call on employing more authentic materials in the learning process (Vandergrift, 2007), and on providing more extensive listening exposure to the target language outside the classroom (Lee & Cha, 2017).

Based on the above discussion, integration of mobile learning can enable students to reduce their anxiety, increase their language exposure, enhance independent learning, and develop some learning strategies so that learners are motivated to seek more opportunities outside the classroom (Al Aamri, 2011; Al Yafei & Osman, 2016; Chen, 2016; Kim, 2013; Kukulska-Hulme & Traxler, 2005; Liu & He, 2015; Rahimi & Soleymani, 2015). Vandergrift (2007) emphasized that “Broader access to these new technologies will likely shift the focus from the classroom to independent learning” (p. 206). Mobile devices can be utilized outside the classroom to enhance the learning process and create a more self-regulated learning environment (Zheng & Chen, 2018). Besides, mobile-based learning can be a convenient tool in providing immediate feedback and assessment for students so that they track their self-improvement in the language (Chen, Hsu & Doong, 2016). Therefore, this study intends to examine the effect of using mobile devices in improving listening comprehension skills.

To sum up, the previous studies in the literature show that listening comprehension is a complex process which requires much listening exposure and extensive practice outside the classroom. Therefore, teachers need to inspire learners to become independent, to look for listening opportunities outside the classroom through using English language media, to establish goals and means of self-evaluation, and to keep a record of their performance. The use of mobile learning can facilitate a shift from teacher-led education to student-led one, so that students can listen to the language anytime and anywhere and be more selfindependent.

2.2 Mobile Learning (M-Learning)

Many scholars and practitioners have described mobile learning in different forms (Grant, 2019). Brown (2005) defined M-learning as being a subset of E-learning that is explicitly a form of web-based delivery of content and learning management; moreover, it features with mobility, flexibility, and convenience when compared to online learning. However, Peters (2007) went further in defining m-Learning as being a model of flexible learning that is ‘just in time, just enough and just for me’. Other scholars described mobile learning as a sort of portable education that uses portable devices to access learning and knowledge on the move without the time and location constraints (Kukulska-Hulme & Pettit, 2009; Traxler, 2009). ElHussein and Cronje (2010) attempted to provide a comprehensive definition of mobile learning that is “any type of learning that takes place in learning environments and spaces that take account of the mobility of technology, mobility of learners, and mobility of learning” (p. 20).

2.2.1 Significance of Mobile Technology in EFL Context M-learning recognizes learners’ diversity and individual differences to determine the way of learning (Traxler, 2009). It has the potentials to provide authentic listening materials such as songs and news in English for language learners

(Elfiona, Embryany & Pamela, 2019). Authentic materials can help the language learners see how the language is related to the real word (Brown, 2001), enhances their active involvement in the learning process (Hapsari & Ratri, 2014), and fosters their self-confidence (Unver, 2017). Furthermore, mobile technology can contextualize the learning activities, and it can combine between formal and informal learning opportunities (Pulla, 2020). Thus, learning won’t only be limited to the classroom setting but also will be extended to learning in real-life communities.

Moreover, mobile technology gives students the flexibility and motivation to learn at their own pace at a convenient time. It promotes autonomy and makes the learning process more independent (Al-Hunaiyyan, Alhajri & Al-Sharhan, 2018; Beatty, 2010; Kim, 2013; Read & Kukulska-Hulme, 2015; Traxler, 2009). It also involves learners in determining their objectives, developing more useful learning strategies, and determining the method and timing that they decide on (Raya & Fernández, 2002). Besides, it can provide a variety of English expressions and vocabulary (Kim, 2013). Hence, mobile learning can fit different learning styles, directs learners to control their education, contextualize the learning experiences, and frees learners from the formality of conventional education.

2.2.2 Challenges Although mobile learning has proved to have significant merits in the learning process, it cannot stand without some drawbacks. Rogers and Price (2009) mentioned that overloaded information, distractions by mobile devices, and difficulty in designing appropriate learning experiences that encourages collaboration and interaction between learners are the three main challenges that may occur when employing mobile technologies. Therefore, language teachers must create mobile learning experiences which are not too bewildering or overly complicated and make sure that learners are not working in isolation from their counterparts. Likewise, Zhang (2019) found that a lack of internet access, a lack of continuity of mobile data transfer, weak cellular signals in some areas can hinder a real continuous learning experience on mobile devices. Likewise, Alrefaai (2019) found that EFL learners face various challenges when they use mobile devices such as technical problems, small screen sizes, distractions, the accuracy of the information, health problems, and getting bored. In Oman, there is a shortage of technological aids or a failure of some teachers to utilize them due to their lack of knowledge or training on how to use educational technology (Al-Issa & AlBulushi, 2012; Al-Musawi, 2007; Al-Senaidi, Lin & Poirot, 2009).

2.3 Emerging Mobile Technologies in the Omani context

Several studies in Oman examined the teachers’ and students’ attitudes towards mobile-based learning. Al-Emran and Shaalan (2017) revealed that M-learning could be adopted by all academics regardless of their age and qualifications. However, instructors’ attitudes towards mobile technology are determined by their beliefs about the effectiveness of mobile technology in education. The more positive perception they have towards mobile technology, the more optimistic they are towards the utilization of M-Learning. Likewise, Al Aamri (2011) found that students like to use mobile devices while teachers do not want them to do so.

Teachers think that mobile devices could be a big distraction for both teachers and students. Therefore, the researcher recommended fostering the use of mobile technology in education and emphasizing the merits of mobile phone in the classroom. In this respect, Al Yafei and Osman (2016) noted that m-learning could be an effective medium for self-learning as it promotes autonomy and increases learners’ motivation which helps in solving many motivational barriers that might occur under fixed and even monotonous educational routines. Both learners and language educators hold positive attitudes towards integrating mobile technologies in the Omani context. However, there should be more studies investigating the merits of mobile devices in the classroom to gain confidence in using it.

In summation, the existing body of research shows that the use of mobile learning in language learning, especially in listening comprehension, is an essential contributor to second language learning. It increases the level of self-awareness and ability of learners and decreases the level of anxiety. Moreover, the literature provides conclusive empirical studies supporting the idea of using mobile learning that helps language learners undertake the listening activities in a scaffolded way and offers possibilities for interaction and collaboration. Thus, as the assertion that M-learning can enhance listening comprehension skills for L2 learners is assumed and demonstrated empirically, supporting the use of Mlearning as a means for increasing listening ability can encourage the appearance of this research in the future. Their unique features like portability, individuality, and connectivity make mobile based-instruction an integrative, an interactive, and innovative experience. The primary of the present study, therefore, is to investigate the effects of M-learning on the development of L2 learners’ listening ability.

3. Methods

This section discusses the research methodology and the procedures of designing and applying the research instruments including the statistical analysis that were adopted in analyzing and interpreting the results of the instruments, including a description of the participants, the research design, data collection, and data analysis.

3.1 Participants

The participants of the study were from the foundation program at a Military Educational Institute (MEI), Oman. They were about 48 students enrolled in level one. Two intact classes comprised the sample of the study, one as a control group (n =16 students) and the other one as an experimental group (n=15 students). All participants were full-time students registered for a 14-week course. They ranged in age from 20 to 23. All participants had a similar educational background and the same learning environment. The comprehension listening pre-test was administered to both groups before the intervention to determine the equivalency of the two groups in the English listening comprehension skill. The researcher conducted an independent-samples t-test to compare the mean scores between the two groups. Table 1 presents the means and standard deviations of the students' scores on the listening pre-test before receiving the intervention.

Table 1. Independent Samples T-test Results for Pre-test before the intervention

Groups n Mean* SD df t-value p-value

Control group 16 16.19 4.215 29 -0.845 0.405

Experimental group 15 17.47 4.207

*Total score=25

The results showed that there was no significant difference in mean pre-test scores between the control group (M = 16.19, SD = 4.215) and experimental group (M = 17.47, SD = 4.207) before the intervention, (t (29) = -0.845, p>.05). The p-value is 0.405 (p>.05), which advocates that there is no significant difference between the two groups. These results indicate that the level of listening ability of the two groups was equivalent at the start of the intervention.

3.2 Research Design

This study is a quasi-experimental research design in which the researcher used a pre-test and a post-test to determine the effect of mobile learning on students’ listening comprehension skills. The research followed this sort of design as there is no control of the random assignments of the subjects to the treatment group. Fraenkel, Wallen and Hyun (2011) affirmed that a quasi-experimental design is an experimental design in which the researcher cannot assign individual participants to groups randomly. Based on this, the researcher selected the experimental group and control group without randomization. The control group students received the English listening materials lessons following a conventional way of teaching. In contrast, the students in the experimental group worked with the same listening materials through mobile devices using the mobile application (Google Classroom). After the experiment, the researcher compared the performance of both groups to gauge the effect of the mobile-based learning treatment on the experimental group.

3.3 Research Instruments

To gather data, the researcher has administered a comprehension listening test and an attitude questionnaire. A brief explanation of each comes below.

3.3.1 Listening Comprehension Test The comprehension listening test was developed based on the objectives of the English language program course and aims to gauge the effectiveness of using mobile-based learning materials on the learners’ level of listening proficiency. The test was administered twice: as a pre-test before the intervention to determine the equivalence of the participants. Also, it was used as a post-test for both groups at the end of the treatment to measure the effect of using mobile learning on students’ listening ability.

A panel of the Head of English section, four EFL teachers who were teaching in the foundation program, three evaluation experts from the Exam Cell in the institute, and an external examiner specialist validated the content of the test.

There was an agreement among the panel about the suitability, clarity, and relevancy of the test scoring.

The listening test was pilot-tested by the Exam Cell on a group of 73 level-one students to establish its reliability. According to the results, the Cronbach alpha showed that the listening test reached the right level of internal consistency at about 0.87. Therefore, the researcher is confident that this test was reliable for data collection.

3.3.2 The Questionnaire The questionnaire survey was developed to assess the learners’ attitudes towards using mobile learning for improving their listening skills. The researcher designed the questionnaire based on the relevant literature and previous studies (Al Aamri, 2011; Al-Hunaiyyan et al., 2018; Al Yafei & Osman, 2016; Kim, 2013). The questionnaire consisted of two main sections. In the first section, there were 20 statements scored on a five-point Likert scale (1= strongly disagree; 2= disagree; 3= neutral; 4= agree; and 5= strongly agree). In this section, the participants indicate the level of their agreement and disagreement with the statements regarding their attitudes towards using mobile devices in improving their English listening skills. There are four main dimensions in this section: perceived usefulness, motivation, self-management of learning, and intention to use.

In section two of the questionnaire, there were open-ended questions, including what the participants liked most about using mobile devices in learning English listening skills, the difficulties they faced, and other suggestions to improve the implementation of m-learning. Appendix 1 shows the sections of the questionnaire.

The initial version of the questionnaire was reviewed and checked by twelve experts in the ELT and instructional technology field. The jury assessed the validity of the survey in terms of its relevance, clarity, and suitability. Based on their recommendations, the researcher made some modifications and changes accordingly.

The questionnaire later was pilot-tested on a sample of 30 students to check its reliability. Reliability analysis was calculated using Cronbach reliability coefficient; the coefficient was (α = 0.893) to the statements of the questionnaire. Thus, an alpha of 0.893 is an appropriate reliability coefficient as the statements of the survey reached the right level of internal consistency.

3.4 Description of the Materials

The study used the materials of the course textbook. The listening materials in the handbook are adapted from authentic sources to stimulate the learners’ interests and engage them in classroom discussions. A wide variety of recoding contents— including lectures, radio interviews, news reports, and informal conversations— are utilized to provide opportunities for extensive and intensive listening practices. The audio files are on a CD ROM that comes with the textbook.

Regarding the mobile-based listening materials, the researcher converted the original content of the course textbook into an electronic version. They emphasized the same course objectives and followed the same sequence of the teaching lessons. The mobile-based materials were assessed and validated by the course coordinator and the course teachers. They checked the validity of the materials in terms of its relevancy, clarity, functionality, and presentation in the mobile App.

3.5 Procedures and Implementation

This study aimed to investigate the students’ academic achievement in listening skills and their attitudes towards using m-learning. Therefore, the researcher divided participants of the research into two groups, a control group (used the conventional method) and an experimental group (followed mobile-based learning). The researcher firstly administered the listening pre-test for both groups, which showed that there were no significant differences between the two groups before the experiment.

The researcher conducted a tutorial for the experimental group to explain the plan of the study and to practise on how to use the mobile application (Google Classroom). Also, the researcher explained the instruments to the participants, and consent forms were signed, too. The students in both groups were exposed to the same listening materials, exercises and assignments for eight weeks. The control group followed the usual teaching method of a paper and pencil, while the experimental groups used the Google Classroom App.

In the last phase of the study, the post-test was administered to both groups to determine the impact of the listening-oriented mobile learning materials on students’ listening comprehension ability. Then, the students in the experimental group completed the attitude questionnaire and reflected on the use of mobile learning strategy.

3.6 Data Analysis

The researcher used the SPSS program (version 25) to analyze the listening comprehension test scores and questionnaire data. Descriptive statistics, including means and standard deviations, were computed for both instruments. An independent sample t-test was conducted before and after the intervention to compare the scores of both groups. The researcher also carried out a paired sample t-test to see if the students in the experimental group made significant improvements in listening proficiency after using the mobile App. Finally, to investigate the students’ attitudes towards the mobile learning strategy in learning English listening and the difficulties that they encountered, the participants’ responses to the questionnaire were tabulated and interpreted.

4. Results

The study was based on a quasi-experimental design in which two groups are involved with one group receiving the treatment. The results obtained from the research instruments were analyzed and presented. Tables were used to present and describe the data, and analysis and interpretations were followed.

4.1 The Effect of M-learning on Listening Comprehension Skill

To answer the first research question, the researcher administered a post-listening test to both groups and used an independent sample t-test to compare the scores of both groups. Table 2 presents the results of independent samples t-test of the post-test after the intervention by groups.

Table 2. Results of Independent Samples T-test for Post-test after the intervention

Groups n Mean* SD t-value df p-value

Control group 16 17.13 3.74 -2.57 29 0.016

Experimental group 15 20.20 2.83 *Total score= 25

The results show a clear significant difference between the mean score of the experimental group (M=20.20) and the control group (M=17.13). It resulted in a statistically significant difference between the groups (t= -2.093, p<0.05) and in favour of the experimental group. Thus, using m-learning was more effective than the conventional method in improving the learners’ comprehension listening skill. The eta squared (2 = 0.19) indicated a large effect size according to the guidelines proposed by Cohen (1988) for interpreting this value: 0.01=small effect, 0.06=moderate effect, and 0.14=large effect. In other words, 19% of the variations in the post-test scores were explained by mobile-based learning practices, which means that mobile learning treatment was effective.

To further investigate the impact of m-learning on the experimental group, the researcher also used a paired sample t-test. Table 3 summarizes the results of the paired samples t-test in both tests for the experimental group.

Table 3. Results of paired Samples T-test

Groups n Test Mean* SD t-value Df p-value Experimental group 15 Pre- 17.47 4.21 -3.54 14 0.003 15 Post- 20.20 2.83

*Total score=25

As shown in Table 3, the test results of the experimental group revealed a significant improvement in the post-test (M=20.20, SD=2.83) over the pre-test (M=17.47, SD=4.21). The results demonstrated that the mean scores were higher for post-test after the intervention at a significant level (t(14)=- 3.54, p <0.05). The results of the eta squared (2 = 0.47) also indicated a large effect size, according to Cohen’s (1988) three levels for interpreting this value. In other words, 47% of the variations in the post-test scores were explained by mobile-based learning practices, which also means that mobile learning treatment positively affected the learners’ listening ability.

4.2. The Attitude of the Participants

The data of the questionnaire were analyzed and addressed in four dimensions to answer the second research question. The dimensions are as follows: perceived

usefulness, motivation, self-management of learning, and intention to use. The respondents have shown different estimates of the statements of the questionnaire. Table 4 presents the overall mean of the survey.

Dimension

Table 4. The Dimensions of the Questionnaire

Mean SD

1. Dimension of Perceived Usefulness

2. Dimension of Motivation

3. Dimension of Self-Management of Learning 4. Dimension of Intention to Use

Overall Mean / Std. Deviation 4.32 0.42

4.15 0.37

4.05 0.42

4.15 0.35

4.17 0.39

As shown in Table 4, the participants generally tended to have a positive attitude towards using mobile learning for teaching English listening skills (M = 4.17, SD = 0.39). Thus, the results showed that the majority of participants had positive attitudes towards emerging mobile learning in the learning process as a useful tool for improving listening comprehension skills.

Each dimension of the questionnaire is further analyzed. Table 5 shows the students perceptions of the usefulness of mobile learning.

Statement

Table 5. The dimension of Perceived Usefulness

Mean SD

1. Mobile learning provided more extensive listening practice. 2. Listening practice through the mobile device improved my listening ability. 4.33 0.62

4.47 0.52

4. I listen to audio materials using my mobile device more than once. 4.00 0.93 12. Listening practice through mobile devices helped me learn a variety of English vocabulary. 4.47 0.74 Overall Mean / Std. Deviation 4.32 0.42

The results showed that the students generally had a positive perception of the usefulness of using mobile learning in learning the listening skill (M=4.32). The participants in the experimental group think that mobile learning was useful in improving their listening ability as mobile devices have successfully increased their exposure to the target language and have expanded their vocabulary repertoire.

Table 6 shows the students’ responses to the statements that tackled the motivation dimension towards mobile learning.

Statement

Table 6. Dimension of Motivation

Mean SD

5. Using mobile devices motivated me to practise the listening skill. 4.27 0.59 6. The mobile device reduced my anxiety in learning listening skill. 3.87 0.99 7. I enjoyed the exercises through my mobile device than the traditional way. 4.20 0.78 17. I prefer mobile phone exercises to paper-based listening exercises. 4.13 0.74 18. I am satisfied with using the mobile device for practising listening skills. 4.27 0.59

19. Mobile devices encourage self-studying outside classroom. Overall Mean / Std. Deviation 4.13 0.64

4.15 0.37

Overall, the results indicated that the students believed that mobile devices motivated them to practise listening exercises better than the conventional method of paper-based tasks (M=4.15). The participants in the experimental group think that mobile learning has the potentials to encourage them to practise listening skills outside the classroom.

Table 7 shows the students’ attitudes on mobile learning effectiveness towards providing a flexible delivery of learning and directing the learners towards a more independent self-management of learning.

Statement

Table 7. The dimension of Self-Management of Learning

Mean SD

3. Mobile devices helped me to practise listening anytime and anywhere. 4.47 0.92 8. Mobile devices provided immediate feedback while listening. 4.13 0.74 9. Mobile devices assisted me in selecting listening tasks outside the classroom. 3.87 0.64

10. Mobile devices helped me manage my listening activities outside the classroom.

11. Mobile devices helped me evaluate my listening skills outside the classroom.

13. I believe I can improve my listening skills alone through mobile devices without the teacher’s help.

Overall Mean / Std. Deviation 3.80 0.78

4.20 0.56

3.80 1.01

4.05 0.42

Generally, the students believed that mobile devices provide learning dispositional characteristics like anytime and anywhere sort of learning, provision of quick feedback and independency of teachers (M=4.05). Consequently, learners can develop a more independent and self-directed style of learning. Therefore, mobile learning has the predisposition to provide a self-management style of learning.

However, the success towards shifting to a more self-management of learning depends on the learners’ willingness and intention to seek their self-directed style of learning outside the classroom. Therefore, examining the fourth dimension of the plan to continue using mobile learning is crucial. Table 8 presents the students’ intention to continue using mobile learning to practise language learning further.

Statement Mean SD

14. I would like to practise other English skills using mobile devices. 4.20 0.78 15. I encourage others to use mobile devices for English language learning. 4.60 0.63 16. I would like to listen to authentic materials through my mobile device. 3.87 0.74

Table 8: The dimension of Intention to Use

20. I’ll continue using mobile learning for learning English after the course. 3.93 0.96

Overall Mean / Std. Deviation 4.15 0.35

The results emphasized that the students had the willingness to engage with the language learning process through mobile learning (M=4.15). The highest score was on statement 15 (I encourage others to use mobile devices for English language learning, M=4.60) followed by statement 14 (I would like to practice other English skills using mobile devices, M= 4.20).

4.3 The Challenges of using Mobile Devices

The researcher used a thematic analysis of the open-ended questions following coding methods to answer the third research question. There were four main themes emerged from the analysis of the data using the coding method. These themes are attributed to the following issues: mobile software-related issues, mobile features-related issues, technical issues, and listening to content-related problems.

Some students complained about some issues related to the features of mobile software (Google Classroom). The design of mobile software did not allow the learners to play the recordings and view the questions on the same page on their mobile phones. Participant #3 said, “it was difficult to listen to the audio materials and answer the questions at the same time”. Due to this issue, the participants tend to forget what they heard quickly and faced difficulty to grasp the intended meaning of the recordings. Participant #11 added, “When listening to the audio materials, it was not possible to look at the question page at the same time, so we had to close the listening page and open the questions page. For this, we often forgot things or we were unable to answer directly”.

Other students complained about some mobile features-related issues. Most of the complains related to the screen sizes of mobile phones. The participants said that the screen sizes of mobile phones were small, which made it difficult for them to read and answer the questions. Participants #6 wrote, “The words were tiny and unclear due to the small screen of the phone”. Also, due to the small sizes, some students faced difficulty in typing the answer on the screen. Participant #10

added, “The screen size of the phone was small, and therefore, there was difficulty in reading some questions and answering them; the phone does not help much in writing”.

Students also commented on technical issues and mentioned things including a wireless network service and lack of internet access. Some students had some difficulties accessing the Internet using the wireless network due to the lack of internet coverage. Participant #7 wrote, “Internet in the college was slow. Opening the audio file took a lot of time”. Alternatively, they had sometimes to use their internet subscriptions to download the listening materials, which was inconvenient for them.

Some students also mentioned some listening content-related issues like the audio files were not very clear, and the speakers were very fast, which made it difficult to understand the audio files. Participant #9 mentioned, “Sometimes the speaker was not clear in pronouncing some words, and some recordings were highspeed”.

Summing up, the findings of the study showed that there was a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) between the post-test mean scores of the experimental group and the control group. Moreover, mobile learning is a novel educational strategy that can bring effectiveness, incentives, and motivation to the learning process; however, its implementation has some limitations and challenges on software design, screen sizes of mobile phones, and networks connectivity.

5. Discussion

The first research question asked, “Are there any statistically significant differences in listening performance between students who learn listening skills through mobile devices and students who conventionally learn listening skills?” The findings to this question revealed that mobile-learning had a statistically significant effect on the students’ listening comprehension skills. The learners in the experimental group significantly outperformed the learners in the control group in the post-listening test even though the two groups were equivalent in the pre-listening test before the experiment. The findings of the study indicate the usefulness of using mobile devices in enhancing English language listening learning which lends support to several previous studies (Al Yafei & Osman, 2016; Chen, 2016; Chen, Hsu & Doong, 2016; Lie & He, 2014; Rahimi & Soleymani, 2015; Read & Kukulska-Hulme, 2015). They all provided support to the effectiveness of mobile devices in enhancing the language teaching and learning process.

The improvement of the experimental group students in listening comprehension skills might have been due to the potentials that mobile learning has provided. The researcher noticed that the students in the experimental group were highly interested in exploring learning the target language listening skills through their mobile devices. The students translated their high degree of motivation towards mobile learning into a higher level of engagement, exposure, and inclination to explore more listening materials through their mobile devices. Read and

Kukulska-Hulme (2015) claimed that using a mobile app to motivate students’ practice on listening comprehension promotes intrinsic motivation for prolonged exposure to the target language. Mobile learning has succeeded in creating a relaxing learning atmosphere as learners could self-regulate their learning process. The students in the experimental group were able to learn listening skills anywhere and at any time rather than restricting themselves to a fixed place or a limited time, as the case with the control group.

In contrast, the learners in the control group appear to have been less motivated and less exposed to the target language outside the classroom, judging from their failure to meet deadlines in submitting most of their homework. It seems that the self-directing and portable attribute of the mobile learning strategy might demonstrate to be an essential motivational factor in increasing exposure and in enhancing autonomous learning over the non-portable conventional method. Hence, sustaining motivation is required for language learners to keep on listening to a considerable amount of listening materials and getting constant exposure to the target language outside the classroom in a self-regulation manner so that they gain significant improvements in their listening comprehension skills.

The second research question asked, “What are the students’ attitudes towards using mobile devices in improving listening comprehension skills?” The findings to this question suggested that the learners were influenced by the experiment and showed a significant positive attitude towards mobile-based learning. They believed that mobile learning was influential in improving their listening skills and they frequently mentioned anytime and anywhere learning, extensive practice, provision of a variety of vocabulary, motivation, and autonomy as the most favourable characteristics of mobile learning.

Therefore, the findings of the study were in agreement with the results of most of the previous studies as more exposure to the target language is provided outside the classroom (Kim, 2013; Read & Kukulska-Hulme, 2015). Also, mobile learning can reduce a lot of anxiety (Rahimi & Soleymani, 2015), enhance more selfregulated learning (Gangaiamaran & Pasupathi, 2017; Liu & He, 2015; Zheng and Chen, 2018; Yabukoshi, 2018). All of these studies claim that the use of mobile learning technology makes the learning process enjoyable, valuable, and portable.

Furthermore, the findings of the present study demonstrated that mobile learning is a critical motivator in increasing the learners’ incentive to further practise listening activities outside the classroom, which are also supported by previous studies (Al Yafei & Osman, 2016; Read & Kukulska-Hulme, 2015). Maria (2015) explained that the use of technology could motivate young learners during their EFL classes by creating a positive learning atmosphere as well as it can stimulate teachers to be innovative and creative in their materials design and teaching methods. The stimulating activities and the motivating use of mobile learning enable students to practise the target language and become active explorers of the English language; at the same time, they simultaneously improve their fluency and proficiency level. This present study revealed that learners’ motivation could be enhanced considerably through the use of mobile learning technology when

compared to the paper-based conventional teaching method. Substantially, the ingenious features of mobile learning, including availability, adaptability, individuality can generate multiple learning functions for our everyday life and can increase learners’ motivation. The uses of mobile technologies have shifted language learning from conventional-teaching methods focused on rote learning to a more constructive, interactive, innovative, and portable learning experience.

Another appealing attribute of mobile technology is the ability to enhance autonomous and self-regulated learning. Thus, the findings of this study are consistent with the results of (Al-Yafei, 2016; Chen, Hsu & Doong, 2016; Lie & He, 2014; Zheng & Chen, 2018; Vandergrift & Goh, 2012). These studies demonstrated that mobile learning could motivate learners to self-direct their learning process outside the classroom and can maximize the exposure to the target language. Beatty (2010) emphasized that the predisposition of autonomy and self-regulation enable learners to be independent of teachers and can manage and control their self-learning, which engages learners in developing metacognitive strategies for listening comprehension skills. Maintaining a high degree of motivation stimulates continuity of self-learning process. As a result, learners improve optimization of language exposure and increase regulation of language learning so that language listeners can achieve comprehension.

The third research question asked, “What challenges do students face in using mobile devices?” The results of the study suggested that the majority of the learners reported challenges that are related to limitations of the mobile software design, screen sizes of mobile phones, networks connection, and the appropriateness of the listening content. A review of literature on this regard revealed that the main challenges of mobile learning are lack of network connectivity and ownership (Zhang, 2019). Also, there are problems related to difficulty in designing appropriate learning experiences, overloaded information, and distractions by mobile devices (Rogers & Price, 2009). Al-Hunaiyyan et al. (2018) also found that institutional challenges, design challenges, technical challenges, evaluation challenges, and cultural and social challenges could hinder utilizing mobile learning effectively. Likewise, Sophonhiranrak and Sakonnak (2017) mentioned some of the flaws of mobile learning including the insufficient size of mobile screens, network connections, learners’ knowledge and perceptions towards m-learning, the appropriateness of the content provided, and the mobile applications used. In this respect, it seems that literature corresponded with the findings of this study as the challenges of mobile software design, mobile screen sizes, technology infrastructure, and appropriateness of the content are the main emerged themes when it comes to the real implementation of mobile learning.

The design of mobile software is related to the features of mobile applications such as its functionality and ability to meet some specific requirements like flexibility and usability (Ismail, 2016). The failure of a mobile app to meet the needs of learners in mobile learning might contribute to some usability issues, and accordingly hinders any advantages of the mobile learning strategy. Hence, for learners to see the potentials of M-learning, it is vital to design and develop mobile software that considers some desirable features such as convenience, usability,

reliability, performance and functionality. In this study, the participants complained about the difficulty to navigate between the audio files page and the questions page. In designing mobile applications, navigation is an important design element that stands as a success factor for a mobile app because it enables users to locate efficiently the information they need and to quickly get access to any learning content (Garofalakis et al., 2007). Therefore, in the instance of mobile learning, there is a need for mobile software that meets learners’ needs (Klimova, 2019), and gives special attention to functionality, usability, operability, and attractiveness issues. Future researchers should ideally investigate the expected quality characteristics of mobile software.

About mobile devices, the issue of mobile screen sizes can limit the sufficient display of the images and information on mobile phones. Besides, when the screen sizes are insufficiently small, they make typing on mobile phones very inconvenient. Therefore, the content of information must be displayed sufficiently on the mobile screen. Alhajri (2016) mentioned that “the organization of elements and media on the mobile screen will undoubtedly influence the ease and quality of learning, and has an important impact on learners’ cognitive load” (p. 2). Thus, the sufficient display of information on the screen and a user’s interaction with the learning content determines the success of mobile learning.

Besides, technology infrastructure such as connectivity and being able to get connected to networks is very critical in mobile learning so that real-time and ubiquitous learning is possible. Mobile learning is impossible without internet access. The availability of technology and broadband infrastructure is essential if teachers and students are to make full use of what mobile learning can offer. Motiwalla (2007) mentioned that the promise of mobile devices in instant access to knowledge anytime and anywhere has enormous benefits to learners, but will be restricted until wireless data access becomes more efficient and widely available. Hence, the availability of broadband and internet access for mobile learning is an indispensable necessity.

Regarding the content challenge, some students complained that some audio files were fast and incomprehensible. A similar problem was reported by Al-Busaidi (1997) when indicated that speed delivery of the listening materials was one of the major causes of listening difficulties for the Omani EFL students. Brown (2001) also referred to this problem as a rate of delivery which is a factor that might block the process of comprehending a spoken message. Therefore, designers of mobilebased materials must consider the appropriateness of learning content so that the benefit of mobile learning is attained. The listening materials must be understandable, meaningful and purposeful to the target group of learners. For the mobile learning method to arouse the learners’ desires to continue learning and to improve their listening ability, the listening materials should address the learners’ needs and be delivered in a non-distractive manner.

6. Conclusion

The current study emphasized the effectiveness of contextualizing m-learning practices on improving listening skills and revealed the merits of the integration of mobile phones in English language classes. Mobile learning can motivate language learners to be self-regulated so that more practices of the language and exposure take place. Also, the findings of the study showed that EFL learners have a positive attitude towards the use of mobile phones in language learning. However, the participants in the study stressed some challenges that were related to mobile software design, screen sizes of mobile phones, network connections, and the listening content. The proper development of the mobile learning strategy requires pedagogically adjusted curriculum and approaches to fit the new features of the learning-based mobile resources, and properly trained and motivated teachers and learners.

7. The study limitations

The sample is limited to male students who were enrolled in English language program courses in a military training institute in the academic year 2019-2020. Also, the study is only tackling English listening comprehension skills; therefore, the results of this study will not be applied to any other content area, but rather confined to listening comprehension achievement. Besides, it was difficult for the researcher to control the listening exposure of the control group outside the classroom and limit that exposure to the normal listening classroom only as they might use other mobile listening-oriented apps to improve their listening comprehension ability.

8. Recommendations

The findings of this study imply the need for more exposure and practices in the target language. Teachers should emphasize on extensive listening and encourage students to listen for pleasure through adopting mobile technologies outside the classroom. Furthermore, utilizing any mobile-based strategy in ELT curriculum should be in line with a sufficient training of teachers on the method, design of resources, and policies of evaluation, too. Therefore, the study recommended more professional development training courses for all EFL teachers in the Omani context aiming at familiarizing language teachers with mobile learning applications. The study also suggested more investigations on the EFL teachers’ perceptions towards using mobile learning in their classroom activities in Omani schools.

9. References

Al Aamri, K. S. (2011). The use of mobile phones in learning English language by Sultan Qaboos University students: Practices, attitudes and challenges. Canadian Journal on Scientific & Industrial Research, 2(3), 143-152. Al-Belushi, O. (1999). The Internet and Omani students’ English language learning problems: a critical study (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Manchester, UK. Al-Busaidi, S. (1997). An investigation into the causes of students' listening comprehension problems in English at second secondary level in two schools in the Sultanate of Oman (Unpublished master’s thesis) University of Exeter, Britain.

Al-Emran, M., & Shaalan, K. (2017). Academics’ awareness towards mobile learning in Oman. International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems, 6(01), 45-50. http://dx.doi.org/10.12785/IJCDS/060105 Alhajri, R. (2016). Prospects and challenges of mobile learning implementation: A case study. Journal of Information Technology & Software Engineering, 6(5), 1-8. http://doi.org/10.4172/2165-7866.1000189 Al-Handhali, H. K. (2009). Learners’ beliefs about listening in an Omani post-basic school. Research perspectives on education in Oman, 137-148. https://doi.org/10.1080/00094056.2014.872513 Al-Harrasi, K. T. S. (2014). Using “Total physical response” with young learners in Oman. Childhood Education, 90(1), 36-42. https://doi.org/10.1080/00094056.2014.872513 Al-Hunaiyyan, A., Alhajri, R. A., & Al-Sharhan, S. (2018). Perceptions and challenges of mobile learning in Kuwait. Journal of King Saud University-Computer and Information Sciences, 30(2), 279-289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksuci.2016.12.001 Al-Issa, A. (2005). The role of English language culture in the Omani language education system: An ideological perspective. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 18(3), 258270. https://doi.org/10.1080/07908310508668746 Al-Issa, A. S., & Al-Bulushi, A. H. (2012). English language teaching reform in Sultanate of Oman: The case of theory and practice disparity. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 11(2), 141-176. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10671-011-9110-0 Al-Musawi, A. S. (2007). Current status of educational technologies at Omani higher education institutions and their future prospective. Educational Technology Research and Development, 55(4), 395-410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-007-9041-x Alrefaai, I. (2019). Exploring EFL Graduate Students’ Attitudes toward, and Use of, Mobile Phones in Language Learning. Arab World English Journal (AWEJ) Special Issue: The Dynamics of EFL in Saudi Arabia, 70-84. https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/efl1.6 Al-Senaidi, S., Lin, L., & Poirot, J. (2009). Barriers to adopting technology for teaching and learning in Oman. Computers & Education, 53(3), 575-590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.03.015 Al Yafei, O., & Osman, M. E. (2016). Mobile Phone Apps: An Emerging E-Platform for Vocabulary Learning and Retention. Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 3(7), 286-308. Retrieved from http://jallr.com/~jallrir/index.php/JALLR/article/view/481 Aryana, S., & Apsari, Y. (2018). Analysing Teacher’s Difficulties in Teaching Listening. Eltin Journal, Journal of English Language Teaching in Indonesia, 6(2), 100106. https://doi.org/10.22460/eltin.v6i2.p100-106 Beatty, K. (2010). Teaching and researching computer-assisted language learning (C. N. Candlin & D. R. Hall, Eds). Harlow, UK: Pearson Education Limited. Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. White Plains, NY: Longman. Brown, T. H. (2005). Towards a model for m-learning in Africa. International Journal on Elearning, 4(3), 299-315. Chen, X. (2016). Evaluating Language-learning Mobile Apps for Second-language Learners. Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange, 9(2), 39-51. https://doi.org/10.18785/jetde.0902.03 Chen, Y. L., Hsu, C. C., & Doong, J. L. (2016, March). Self-regulation Assessment of Mobile Game-based Language Learning. In Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference (pp. 882-886). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). Retrieved from https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/171788/

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Crompton, H., & Burke, D. (2018). The use of mobile learning in higher education: A systematic review. Computers & Education, 123, 53-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.04.007 Dunkel, P. A. (1986). Developing listening fluency in L2: Theoretical principles and pedagogical considerations. The Modern Language Journal, 70(2), 99-106. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1986.tb05250.x Elfiona, E., Embryany, F., & Pamela, K. (2019). The Use of Mobile Application as the Authentic Listening Materials for Tenth Graders. Proceeding IAIN Batusangkar, 3(1), 111-116. El-Hussein, M. O. M., & Cronje, J. C. (2010). Defining mobile learning in the higher education landscape. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 13(3), 12-21. www.jstor.org/stable/jeductechsoci.13.3.12 Feyten, C. M. (1991). The power of listening ability: An overlooked dimension in language acquisition. The modern language journal, 75(2), 173-180. https://doi.org/10.2307/328825 Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E., & Hyun, H. H. (2011). How to design and evaluate research in education. New York: McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages. Gangaiamaran, R., & Pasupathi, M. (2017). Review on Use of Mobile Apps for Language Learning. International Journal of Applied Engineering Research, 12(21), 11242-11251. Garofalakis, J. D., Stefani, A., Stefanis, V., & Xenos, M. N. (2007, July). Quality Attributes of Consumer-Based m-Commerce Systems. In ICE-B (pp. 130-136). https://doi.org/10.5220/0002113101300136 Goh, C. C. (2000). A cognitive perspective on language learners' listening comprehension problems. System, 28(1), 55-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0346-251X(99)00060-3 Grant, M. M. (2019). Difficulties in defining mobile learning: Analysis, design characteristics, and implications. Educational Technology Research and Development, 67(2), 361-388. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-018-09641-4 Harmer, J. (2007). How to Teach English (2nd ed). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. Hapsari, Y., & Ratri, D. P. (2014). Extensive listening: Let students experience learning by optimizing the use of authentic materials, Jurnal Bahasa dan Sastra, 14(2), 251-260. https://doi.org/10.17509/bs_jpbsp.v14i2.723 Holden, C. L., & Sykes, J. M. (2011). Leveraging mobile games for place-based language learning. International Journal of Game-Based Learning (IJGBL), 1(2), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.4018/ijgbl.2011040101 Ismail, M. I. B. (2016). A Review of the Challenges and Issues in Mobile Learning. International Journal of Enhanced Research in Educational Development (IJERED), 4 (2). Kim, H. S. (2013). Emerging mobile apps to improve English listening skills. MultimediaAssisted Language Learning, 16(2), 11-30. https://doi.org/10.15702/mall.2013.16.2.11 Klimova, B. (2019). Impact of mobile learning on students’ achievement results. Education Sciences, 9(2), 90. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci9020090 Krashen, S. (2013). Second language acquisition: Theory, applications, and some conjectures. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kukulska-Hulme, A., & Pettit, J. (2009). Practitioners as innovators: Emergent practice in personal mobile teaching, learning, work and leisure. Mobile learning: Transforming the delivery of education and training, 135-155. Kukulska-Hulme, A., & Traxler, J. (Eds.). (2005). Mobile learning: A handbook for educators and trainers. London, UK: Routledge. Lee, Y. J., & Cha, K. W. (2017). Listening Logs for Extensive Listening in a Self-regulated Environment. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 26(5), 271-279. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-017-0347-0

Liu, Q., & He, X. (2015). Using mobile apps to facilitate English learning for college students in China (Bachelor’s thesis). University of Boras, School of business and IT, Sweden. Maria, D. (2015). Using Information and Communication Technologies to Motivate Young Learners to Practice English as a Foreign Language in Cyprus. JALT CALL Journal, 11(3), 283-292. https://doi.org/10.29140/jaltcall.v11n3.198 Motiwalla, L. F. (2007). Mobile learning: A framework and evaluation. Computers & education, 49(3), 581-596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2005.10.011 Namaziandost, E., Ahmadi, S., & Keshmirshekan, M. H. (2019). Listening comprehensions problems and strategies used by intermediate EFL learners. Journal of English Literature and Cultural Studies, 2(3), 28-41. http://jelcsjournal.com/browse.php?a_code=A-10-53-5&slc_lang=en&sid=1 Peters, K. (2007). m-Learning: Positioning educators for a mobile, connected future. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 8(2). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v8i2.350 Pulla, S. (2020). Mobile learning and indigenous education in Canada: A synthesis of new ways of learning. In Indigenous Studies: Breakthroughs in Research and Practice (pp. 175-199). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-0423-9.ch010 Rahimi, M., & Soleymani, E. (2015). The impact of mobile learning on listening anxiety and listening comprehension. English Language Teaching, 8(10), 152-161. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/elt.v8n10p152 Raya, M. J., & Fernández, J. M. P. (2002) Learner Autonomy and New Technologies. Educational Media International, 39(1), 61-68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09523980210131240 Read, T., & Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2015). The role of a mobile app for listening comprehension training in distance learning to sustain student motivation. J. UCS, 21(10), 1327-1338. http://dx.doi.org/10.3217/jucs-021-10-1327 Richards, J. C. (2005). Second thoughts on teaching listening. RELC Journal, 36(1), 85-92. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688205053484 Rivers, W. (1966). Listening comprehension. Modern Language Journal, 50(4), 196-204. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/322015 Rogers, Y., & Price, S. (2009). How Mobile Technologies Are Changing the Way. Mobile technology for children: Designing for interaction and learning, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-374900-0.00001-6 Rost, M. (1994). Introducing listening. London: Penguin. Rost, M. (2007). Listening. In D. Nunan & R. Carter (Eds.), The Cambridge guide to teaching English to speakers of other languages (pp. 7–13). Ernst Klett Sprachen. Retrieved from http://studentsrepo.um.edu.my/id/eprint/8610 Sophonhiranrak, S., & Sakonnak, S. P. N. (2017, October). Limitations of Mobile Learning: A Systematic Review. In E-Learn: World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education (pp. 965-971). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/181279/ Traxler, J. (2009). Current state of mobile learning. Mobile learning: Transforming the delivery of education and training, 1, 9-24. Unver, M. (2017). The use of authentic materials with low level learners of English. European Journal of English Language Teaching, 2 (1), 75-92. http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.293186 Vandergrift, L. (2007). Recent developments in second and foreign language listening comprehension research. Language teaching, 40(3), 191-210. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444807004338 Vandergrift, L., & Goh, C. C. (2012). Teaching and learning second language listening: Metacognition in action. Routledge.

Yabukoshi, T. (2018). Self-regulation and self-efficacy for the improvement of listening proficiency outside the classroom. The Language Learning Journal, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2018.1472626 Zhang, Y. (2019). Characteristics of Mobile Teaching and Learning. Handbook of Mobile Teaching and Learning, 13–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2766-7_5 Zheng, L., Li, X., & Chen, F. (2018). Effects of a mobile self-regulated learning approach on students’ learning achievements and self-regulated learning skills. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 55(6), 616-624. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2016.1259080

Appendix 1

Students’ Attitudes towards Using Mobile devices in learning English Listening Skills

First: In the following list, please indicate the level of your agreement and disagreement with the statements regarding your attitudes towards using mobile devices in English language learning. Statements Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

1. Mobile learning provided more extensive listening practice. 2. Listening practice through the mobile device improved my listening ability. 3. Mobile devices helped me to practise listening anytime and anywhere. 4. I listen to audio materials using my mobile device more than once. 5. Using mobile devices motivated me to practise the listening skill. 6. The mobile device reduced my anxiety in learning listening skill. 7. I enjoyed the exercises through my mobile device than the traditional way. 8. Mobile devices provided immediate feedback while listening. 9. Mobile devices assisted me in selecting listening tasks outside the classroom. 10. Mobile devices helped me manage my listening activities outside the classroom. 11. Mobile devices helped me evaluate my listening skills outside the classroom.

12. Listening practice through mobile devices helped me learn a variety of English vocabulary. 13. I believe I can improve my listening skills alone through mobile devices without the teacher’s help. 14. I would like to practise other English skills using mobile devices. 15. I encourage others to use mobile devices for English language learning. 16. I would like to listen to authentic materials through my mobile device. 17. I prefer mobile phone exercises to paper-based listening exercises. 18. I am satisfied with using the mobile device for practising listening skills.

Second: Open Questions:

Please read and answer the following questions:

1. What did you like most about using mobile devices in learning English listening skills ? …………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2. What difficulties did you face when using mobile devices for learning English

Listening skills? …………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………… 3. What do you suggest to improve the use of mobile learning in teaching English listening skills? …………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4. Do you have further comments you would like to add? …………………………………………………………………………………………………

>>>Thank you<<<

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 8, pp. 40-59, August 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.8.3

What about Study Motivation? Students´ and Teachers’ Perspectives on What Affects Study Motivation

Lena Boström Mid Sweden University, Sweden https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9182-6403

Göran Bostedt Mid Sweden University, Sweden https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4398-5394

Abstract. One out of every four upper secondary school students in Sweden interrupts their education, although the intention behind the new Curriculum for Upper Secondary School (GY 11) was to increase throughput of students with complete grades. Lack of study motivation is the most important explanation for students dropping out. This article analyzes study motivation from students and teachers’ perspectives. It is based on interviews in three upper secondary school programs that were analyzed with a qualitative approach and hybrid content analysis. Study motivation is set in relation to motivational strategies, achievement, and learning environment. The result showed similarities and differences in perceptions. Both teachers and students pointed to the importance of teachers, practical pedagogy, social relations, and the significance of grades for study motivation. An important difference between informants was that teachers put more emphasis on life skills and adapted study groups, whereas students pointed to the physical learning environment and teachers’ personalities as important. Conclusions in the study point to complex interplay between internal and external motivational factors and between situation, person, and learning processes. This leads to validity of interactive and transactional motivational perspectives. A broader and more in-depth study is needed primarily to understand students’ perspectives.

Keywords: increasing motivation; decreasing motivation; students´ and teachers’ perspectives; study motivation; upper secondary school

1. Introduction

One in every four students in Sweden drops out of upper secondary education. However, the intention of the new upper secondary school reform, Curriculum for Upper Secondary School (GY11), among other things, was to increase the

throughput of students with complete grades. Possible reasons for this trend are that the new system imposes higher requirements for admission to the upper secondary school’s national program, Swedish primary school students have declining knowledge results, and primary school students are less prepared for the increasing demands in secondary school (Skolverket, 2016). Lack of student motivation is the most crucial explanation for the drop-out rate. More than half of the upper secondary school students indicated in a national study (Sveriges Elevkårer & Lärarnas Riksförbund, 2015) that they experienced low or nonexistent study motivation. The most important factors for increasing student motivation are stated to be teachers’ subject competence, teacher–student relationships, educational support, and access to student health. In the study, teachers also pointed to students’ lack of prior knowledge from elementary school and the need to learn better study techniques to pass upper secondary school.

Dropping out of upper secondary education has individual and national consequences. The National Agency for Education has therefore implemented activities that are close to business (Skolverket, 2016) to prevent drop-outs. The National Agency for Education (Skolverket, 2019) has described the measures, which include conferences for principals and process support for schools. Several initiatives and key areas have been identified as necessary, such as early efforts to develop a systemic approach and to maximize the local scope for action. Motivation is a prerequisite for learning in school. However, scholars lack the main actors’ perspectives on these efforts, namely the students and the teachers. When students have low or non-existent study motivation or if students lack the necessary prerequisites, schools must find ways to help them achieve the knowledge goals. This study examines how students and teachers think about students´ study motivation and how a school can match the students. According to Skolverket (2019): “Lack of motivation makes it difficult to take advantage of school education. Conversely, those who do not qualify for teaching can suffer a lack of motivation. Assuming a lack of motivation—and thus corresponding compensation needs—motivation becomes something that needs to be added to the learning processes. ” (p. 154).

Because the new upper secondary school we studied has not yet achieved the ambitions that existed with upper secondary school reform regarding increased throughput, and because causal analysis points to student motivation as an important explanation, we studied upper secondary school students´ and teachers’ ideas about student motivation. We gained in-depth knowledge of students’ thinking about the issue of study motivation and compared their views with the teachers, who are the other important group of actors in classrooms. Another important reason for the interest in study motivation is that few national studies in the field exist (Lundahl et al., 2015) and research on the interaction between individual and learning environments in Swedish schools is limited (Blomgren, 2016). Analytical models of learning (in this case, study motivation) require an understanding of the interplay between individuals, educational material, and the social context (Imsen, 2006). Another important incentive for the research area is that there are few contemporary studies based on students as informants about their study motivation (Giota, 2013, 2017). A recent study

(Hofverberg, 2020) points to several different perspectives on motivation that need to be integrated in order to capture the complexity that students' driving forces constitute and that research should be conducted close to practice in collaboration with teachers.

The internal factors regarding study motivation are often highlighted in research, but Håkansson and Sundberg (2012) warned seeing the issue of motivation as a purely individual trait. They pointed out that motivation is contextual, changeable, and arises in dynamic relationships between people. Furthermore, factors such as family background class affiliation and grades (Skolverket, 2019), socio-economic belonging, gender, and ethnic origin (Skolverket, 2018) are cited as important for students’ study motivation. Several influencing factors can be assumed to both support and cause study motivation deficiencies. However, the responsibility for lack of motivation is often placed on the young people themselves, especially from many municipal representatives (Lundahl et al., 2015). Like Håkansson and Sundberg (2012), we believe that internal and external factors need to be considered in a discussion about study motivation. Thus, to analyze a lack of study motivation as a cause of low throughput in upper secondary school, a perspective is required that not only focuses on individual students but takes into account the entire school and classroom context (Imsen, 2006). This study contributes to the field by applying theories of educational psychology in practice-related activities in school. This is justified based on various research results (Giota, 2013, 2017; Hattie, 2009) that show motivational factors influence students’ study results. In this article, we analyze study motivation based on didactic aspects and learning environments. Our interest in the issue of study motivation can be expressed as an interest in analyzing both internal and external motivational factors. Responses from students and their teachers from three academic programs in a municipal upper secondary school constitute the empirical material. The school was located in the central part of a large city. For 2015, the municipality reported it was eight percentage points below the value for all municipalities in Sweden.

In view of the above problem, the purpose is to describe and analyze the upper secondary school students’ study motivation or lack of motivation from the students´ and teachers’ perspectives. The selected issues are as follows: • What experiences do teachers and students have about what increases students’ study motivation, and what is the cause of and explanation for possible low study motivation? • What differences and similarities exist in teachers and students’ perceptions? • How is study motivation linked to various aspects of education according to teachers and students?

The article initially describes the theoretical framework we used, namely motivation theory, motivation strategies, and learning environment. Thereafter, methodological approaches and the results are described. Finally, conclusions and educational implications are presented in a discussion that returns the result to the theoretical frameworks. The definitions that have been made are that the article focuses on students´ and teachers’ perceptions of factors that are directly linked to the school. Thus, how time outside the school affects students’ study motivation is not addressed.

2. Theoretical Overview

Study motivation is a multifaceted concept. Therefore, we begin with a general overview of motivation theory in the school context and then discuss motivation in relation to three theoretical starting points: achievement, motivational strategies, and learning environment. These assumptions are not mutually exclusive but overlap in different respects.

2.1 Motivation Theory

Motivation is a research area found in various disciplines (Woolfolk & Karlberg, 2015). There are different perceptions of what influences student motivation. One is that the interaction between teacher and student and access to student health are the most important factors in raising student motivation (Sveriges Elevkårer & Lärarnas Riksförbund, 2015). There are also different definitions and understandings of the concept of study motivation. It is often described with the dichotomous inner and outer motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2002). From within, controlled motivation arises when an activity feels engaging and rewarding. Internal motivation factors are about seeking and managing challenges based on an endeavor to satisfy personal interests and use one’s abilities (Woolfolk & Karlberg, 2015). In school, students with strong internal motivation show greater endurance with the tasks, seek more understanding in terms of knowledge, and try different strategies to achieve their goals (Giota, 2017).

Motivation is more often based on control when the result determines how motivated the student is, or if there is a reward that attracts (e.g., credits, praise, or useful skills in working life) or a “punishment” (e.g., missing student support, delayed studies) that threatens them. External motivational factors imply an endeavor to meet expectations or demands that come from or are perceived to come from, outside the individual (Giota, 2017; Woolfolk & Karlberg, 2015). Externally motivated students adopt more surface learning strategies, often giving up when rewards and benefits are removed etc. (Giota, 2017). External motivation can be divided into two subcategories of controlled or autonomous motivation. Controlled external motivation is about being controlled by someone else through reward, penalties, or fear of failure. Autonomous external motivation implies in the context of a school that a student has taken on the values of the school and makes an effort even if the activity does not give pleasure. Nonexistent motivation is the third aspect of motivation; that is, study motivation is entirely lacking. Students give up, blame other factors than themselves, and do not see the relationship between performance and results (Woolfolk & Karlberg, 2015).

Researchers have described the dichotomy of inner and outer motivation as clear cut, whereas others believe that internal and external factors are interdependent; that is, students internalize external causes (Vaanstenkiste et al., 2006) or internal and external factors constitute endpoints on a continuum (Covington & Mueller, 2001). Therefore, because there is an interaction between internal and external motivation, one can talk about motivation systems (Anderman & Anderman, 2009). The factors interact and, in many cases, depend on each other (Jerkeby, 2019). External motivation can be changed to the internal; they can exist simultaneously and vary between different times and tasks. Determining when students are driven by internal or external motivational factors is therefore tricky. The most important difference is the student’s motives for their actions (i.e., whether it is internally or externally motivated; Jerkeby, 2019). For students who find it challenging to find motivation in school, external motivation is a tool to get started with the studies. Furthermore, motivation is not a fixed trait that one either has or does not have. It changes, develops, and varies during the studies, and there are many factors, both internal and external, that affect it. The interactive theory of motivation makes it possible to capture and focus on the interaction between a person and a situation (Stensmo, 2005).

2.2 Achievement and Motivation

The interactive motivation theory focuses on achievements and expectations (Stensmo, 2005). It is about the desire of individuals to deal with a question and their fear of failure and how this is affected by the expectations that exist in the individual. This means that the interaction between the expectations of teachers, parents, and others, as well as their ambitions, shape students and their performance goals. Teachers’ significance for study motivation is well documented in research; that is, how they convey expectations of students (Giota, 2013), organize classroom activities (Hattie, 2009), stimulate engagement and effort, support individuals and groups, shape classroom climate (Hugo, 2011), choose didactic work methods (Boström, 2013), teachers´ subject-specific enthusiasm (Mahler, Großschedl & Harms, 2018) and lead learning (Stensmo, 2005). These are crucial interactive motivational factors along with the inner and outer motivational factors. To analyze lack of study motivation as a cause of low throughput in upper secondary school, a perspective is therefore required that not only focuses the individual student but takes into account the entire school and classroom situation (e.g., the relationship between student, teacher, and educational materials (Imsen, 2006).

Another, but partly overlapping, theoretical point of departure is that motivation is more about transaction than interaction (Perry et al., 2006). Motivation is then understood not only as an individual trait but is about negotiation of meaning in social interaction. Thus, motivation becomes an integrated process in a larger whole, impossible to separate from learning, individual differences, and the nature of tasks or social context. According to Perry et al. (2006), strong relationships exist between motivation and (a) communicated expectations, (b) clear feedback on results, (c) interactions between teachers and students and among students and their peers, (d) positive climate, and (e) teachers´ leadership. Blomgren’s (2016) summary regarding students’ perspectives on schoolwork, and the importance it has for study motivation, is that study motivation is primarily

shaped by perceptions of success and failure, as well as perceived self-capacity. This conclusion are similar to Perry et al. (2006).

2.3 Motivational Strategies

Strategies to increase student motivation can be understood and analyzed from various perspectives (Jerkeby (2019). Motivation strategies interact with each other in many different ways. If teachers are to contribute to students’ study motivation, a “toolbox” of different motivational strategies is required (Augustsson & Boström, 2016).

The following strategies are mentioned by various researchers in the field: understanding and taking into account the complexity of events, students and groups in the setting of teaching (Giota, 2013), the design of the tasks to enable adaptation to individuals and groups (Boström, 2013), constructive evaluations, taking into account time aspects and didactic diversity (Woolfolk & Karlberg, 2015), various teaching strategies and active work with metacognitive strategies (Boström, 2013), differences in students' perceived best learning and teaching strategies (Boström & Bostedt, 2020) and conscious leadership in the classroom (Augustsson & Boström, 2016; Hattie, 2009). Paying attention to the emotions that are brought about by success and failure and the teachers’ competence to handle them at both group and individual level is also relevant in this context (Giota, 2013; Imsen, 2006). Teaching strategies that impair student motivation include ineffective or no feedback (Giota, 2013), lack of connection, overly complicated tasks (Hugo, 2011), slow pace, focus on being transparent and not learning, poor planning, and punitive leadership. Other demotivating factors are unattractive classrooms and negative mood in the class (Woolfolk & Karlberg, 2015).

Factors that motivate students are also complex. According to Farrington et al. (2012), decisive factors that influence student learning outcomes are studyoriented behavior, endurance in studies, academic mindset, constructive learning strategies, and social ability. One’s self-esteem, experience ways of experience events, and individual goals (Hugo, 2011; Wery & Thomson, 2013) are crucial to study motivation, because allowing students to learn in their best individual way is of decisive importance for the results. Furthermore, previous research points to the importance of students’ perceptions of work tasks; that is, relevance, utility, level of difficulty, working methods (Granström, 2012), feedback, and grouping and group dynamics (Håkansson & Sundberg, 2012; Woolfolk & Karlberg, 2015; Zimmerman, 2018). Also, students overall “experiences” of teachers’ didactic competence (Hattie, 2009) and the importance of relationships (Aspelin, 2018) are also considered to have a positive effect on study motivation.

Positive, neutral, or negative teaching strategies affect student motivation accordingly. If teachers can match teaching strategies with students’ learning strategies, then good conditions are created for student motivation and study results. A concrete example is a student’s need for a clear teaching structure, which is not always in line with teachers’ perceptions (Boström, 2013). Both upper secondary school students and university students show a clear need for external structure to perform better (Boström & Gidlund, 2016). Students are motivated if they receive clear frameworks, instructions, deadlines, schedules, exemplary

examples and concretions, and regular feedback (Boström, 2013). This matching pedagogy seems particularly essential for students in need of support or in a classroom situation where behavioral problems occur (Gidlund & Boström, 2017). Grönqvist and Vlachos (2008) found that different types of students are affected in different ways, but that the match between student and teacher is crucial to students’ study motivation. However, they emphasized, “Figuring out which teachers are best suited in different situations is an open question” (p. 15).

2.4 Motivation and Learning Environments

The surrounding physical and social environment also affects students to varying degrees (Ahlberg, 2001; Valsö & Malmgren, 2019). For many students, study motivation is formed in the learning environment. According to Blomgren (2016), this is evident in students’ descriptions of feelings and perceptions of success and failure. Adapted learning environments with inclusive approaches are especially crucial for students who have not previously succeeded in school (Gidlund & Boström, 2017). Definitions of learning environment vary depending on scientific starting points and disciplines and include different perspectives on learning. Learning environments are described based on mental, social, and psychosocial dimensions (Sveriges Kommuner och Landsting, 2017). Another definition of the concept which goes further is including psychological, educational, cognitive, socio-economic, physical, communicative, social, and organizational aspects (Ahlberg, 2001).

If environments are to motivate students, then they should in some sense be good, which in research has been described as working methods, attitudes, and the physical layout of the classroom (Ahlberg, 2001). These factors can help create good conditions for all students’ sense of participation in activities (Antonovsky, 2005). Insights into and knowledge of how good learning environments are established are needed to understand student learning processes (Ahlberg, 2001). The same goes for students, namely that they understand what constructive learning environments are for them so that they can take responsibility for learning (Boström, 2013; Jerkeby, 2019). Opportunities to meet students on their own terms are about the knowledge and understanding of individual differences and similarities regarding student learning. In a learning environment, mutual interaction takes place where people affect and are influenced by the social and physical environment (Björklid & Fischbein, 2011). Learning takes place between people in a physical context and in a social context. An indispensable ingredient in the learning process is the tools that teachers use, which can be either physical or intellectual (Säljö, 2014). A good learning environment must therefore be initiated, created, developed, and evaluated to best support a student’s study motivation.

3. Empirical Starting Points

3.1. Upper Secondary School Programs

Three upper secondary school programs selected for empirical material collection were the Social Sciences Program (SSP), the Health and Social care Program (HSP), and the Individual Program (IP). The selection principles thus include both academic and practical programs, as well as a representation of student groups

with various past successes or challenges in their learning processes. To address our research questions, in spring 2017, we conducted six group interviews with 12 students, as well as three group interviews with 20 teachers from the three programs. The study is limited to factors that are directly linked to the school. How time outside of school affects students' study motivation is not a primary part of the study's interest. Furthermore, the study is limited to the four participating upper secondary school programs and group interviews with teachers and students.

The throughput figures for students at the upper secondary school in 2016 were about 8% below the national average, whereas the municipality’s Child and Education Board’s goals and resources plan (X Municipality, 2016) set high targets in terms of increasing the proportion of students completing their upper secondary studies in the course in 3 or 4 years. Thus, there was a clear political orientation that affects the children and education administration and the work of the municipal upper secondary school. In the local business plans for 2015–2016, a crucial area of development was found to increase student motivation. Such work was perceived by those responsible for the programs as helping to raise the results in the upper secondary school. The political ambitions of the upper secondary school are also reflected in an operational priority from the administration.

3.2 Data Collection and Data Processing

The design of questions for the group interviews was adapted from Blomgren (2016). The teachers interviewed consisted of those gathered at a work-place meeting for the teachers’ college for the intended program or those who volunteered to participate. The students were selected by teachers based on the criteria that the group of students would include both boys and girls and students with varying academic success. The interviews were conducted on-site at the school and were recorded and transcribed. The interviews lasted between 40 min and 1.5 hr. The transcribed interviews comprised approximately 250 A4 pages of text.

3.3 Method

We used a hybrid content analysis method (Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006; Rising Holmström et al., 2015). We conducted group interviews as a data collection method. All contributors were informed about the project’s aims and current ethical research principles (Vetenskapsrådet, 2017). At the start of the interviews, all informants were informed that participation was voluntary and that they could cancel the interview at any time.

The interviews focused on organizational conditions, perceptions of interpersonal processes, and individual characteristics. To achieve the purpose, we used a hybrid content analysis that began with deductive analysis based on selected theories and perspectives, and then moved on to an inductive analysis and finally connected the theoretical starting points with the empirical material in the result.

A deductive (targeted) content analysis (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005) was initially used to answer the research questions. The analysis was based on predetermined themes when the interview material was analyzed (Mayring, 2000) and was characterized by a more structured process compared with unconditional coding. The deductive content analysis enables comparisons with results from previous

research and the results of discussions based on different selected theoretical perspectives (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008). This article tests theories in the field of study motivation that see motivation as a social and contextual interplay (Hugo, 2011; Perry et al., 2006). The analysis of the interviews was based on four themes: motivation, motivational strategies, learning environments, and more. Based on the four themes, a categorization matrix was developed that was then systematically used in the analysis of the interviews.

After an initial deductive analysis phase of the interview responses, the analysis turned into an inductive approach (see Figure 1). With selected themes as breaks, the categorization matrix was developed. Data were sorted via an inductive process (i.e., the text “spoke freely” within each theme and generated categories). After a close reading, the parts of the text that expressed identifiable ideas or positions (units of meaning) were condensed by coding within each theme. The empirical content was examined methodically, the texts were interpreted step-bystep, and data were classified to distinguish patterns. The empirical material was broken down into meaning-bearing units, which were condensed into shorter sentences and then abstracted into codes, describing the content of the meaningunits. Codes with similar content were combined into themes and organized into categories. To make the analysis transparent, codes and categories were combined in an analysis scheme. These categories were interpreted and presented in their respective themes with some telling quotes, and finally, the two informant groups were compared. The two researchers discussed the results of analysis thoroughly until we reached consensus, a process that resulted in the further refinement of categories and a final thematisation. To offer credible, generalisable results, we have reported our methodological approach, means of categorisation and analytical method herein.

Figure 1: The analysis process

The analysis process was not linear but had more of an iterative character, where the process moved back and forth between the different phases. Through reflective dialogues between the researchers, the data processing was carried out. The participants were coded in the transcribed material with the numbers T1–T20 for teachers and S1–S12 for students to distinguish them more efficiently during the processing of the data set.

4. Results and Analysis

The results are presented and analyzed based on the study’s purpose and its three research questions. The presentation of the result is based on the developed theme and categorization matrix. In the four themes (i.e., motivation, motivational strategies, learning environments, and more), there are common and distinctive categories within both the teacher and student groups, but also between them. The categories that were condensed were teachers, students, structure, social relations, and results.

4.1 Motivation

Regarding the upper secondary school students’ study motivation, several influence categories were found. Teachers were the most important motivator, according to the informants: “I would say that perhaps the teacher’s most important task is to work with and improve and develop students’ motivation. But I would also like to say that it is the students’ most important task to become aware that their own motivation is so incredibly crucial, and that motivation is something that can change.” (T8).

Teachers are perceived as the single most important factor that affects students’ study motivation and through their leadership they can influence students’ inner motivation is confirmed by other research (Hattie, 2009; Hugo, 2011; Håkansson & Sundberg, 2012). The approaches that describe constructive teachers are clarity and the ability to give constructive feedback and push students and to be “interesting".

Students’ responsibility for study motivation was a prominent theme in the empirical material. However, students and teachers’ images differed from each other. The teachers placed more emphasis on the students’ inner motivation, with descriptions that study motivation can be controlled from within and the importance of students being responsible, wanting to learn, and seeing the benefits of going to school. In the teachers’ answers, there was also a strong belief that students work towards goals and sub-goals and know the purpose of their studies.

The students, on the other hand, did not discuss to any great extent their inner motivation. Two study-motivating aspects for them were to experience the benefits of learning and participation in the planning of teaching. The interviews did not provide unambiguous or comprehensive answers regarding the students´ strategies for building their inner motivation. However, the empirical material showed that the teachers “views on how students should muster study motivation differed from the students” (T9). Important questions include whether students learned or understood the importance of mental strategies or whether teachers understand students’ cognitive strategy.

Regarding the category of arrangements, students and teachers consistently showed that a more practical and laboratory arrangement of lessons has a positive effect on study motivation. This is in line with the results Boström and Bostedt (2020) present in a new study on vocational classes´ study motivation.

Motivational teaching planning was described as “learning for working life” (T4). The results are not entirely in line with international and national research on learning strategies (Boström, 2013; Niemivirta, 2004). This research indicates that at group level, there are differences in what are called perceptual preferences; that is, learning-by-doing (Dewey, 1897) is an approach that may suit some students well, others not. Boström (2013) showed, for example, that students in an upper secondary school’s vocational program preferred teaching that is based on learning-by-doing to a greater degree than students in academic programs.

Work-place learning was an example of how teaching methods in or about real life generate higher study motivation and higher student attendance compared with regular school lessons. According to T2, having “courses that you can do close to reality, it often becomes . . . easier for the students to become study-motivated.” If the approach was not sufficiently well-planned or too monotonous, students’ study motivation decreased. The design of assignments was also crucial for students’ study motivation (cf. Hugo, 2011; Håkansson & Sundberg, 2012). Another aspect of the teaching structure concerned the upper secondary school common subjects, which were not as popular with the students in the vocational programs as they were in the academic programs. These subjects lowered the study motivation. The time aspect was also emphasized by the students as an essential factor in increasing or decreasing motivation: “Time is more important than methods . . . but this is where you get a little time for certain things” (S5).

Teachers and students agreed on the importance of grades for study motivation, namely that the presence of grades can both increase and decrease motivation: “If I get a high grade on one task, I will be motivated for the other. Grades give motivation” (S2); “If I get bad grades/. . ./ or if I am behind, then I cannot work at all. It will be a vicious circle” (S4).

In summary, the results showed that study motivation could be seen as both a controlled and autonomous external motivation-driven phenomenon (cf. Imsen, 2006; Woolfolk & Karlberg, 2015). In the teacher interviews, the perception emerged that the students did not reflect sufficiently on what they had learned, even though information was submitted so they would not fail. This is a strategy that demonstrates control via external autonomous motivation (Wery & Thomson, 2013). If students do not reflect on what they have learned, then it can be seen as a rejection of the school’s mission to stimulate students’ metacognitive competence.

4.2 Motivational Strategies

Motivational strategies were perceived as active behaviors or actions to create motivation in the students, which can include students’ thoughts, feelings, and actions, but also teachers’ actions or surrounding structures or cultures (Jerkeby, 2019). Similar themes that emerged about motivation can also be discerned within this theme (i.e., teachers, students, structure, and results). Here, however, social relations are also added as a category.

Teachers’ behaviors were of strategic importance, according to both teachers and students, which is in line with current research (Håkansson & Sundberg, 2012;

Hattie, 2009; Hofvenberg, 2020; Jerkeby, 2019). One difference between teachers and students was that they emphasized different teaching behaviors as important. The teachers pointed to their knowledge competence, the importance of being up to date on the subject, and the ability to enthuse the students and to see and build on students’ strengths (cf. Mahler et al. 2018). The students emphasized teachers’ personal qualities in the treatment as important for study motivation (e.g., teachers should be happy, understanding, and have the competence to provide support, but should not stress the students). According to the teachers, students’ motivational behaviors were that they are responsible and curious. Behaviors that reduce or remove motivation are, according to some of the teachers, different types of defense mechanisms or “repressed dissatisfaction” (T12).

Students consistently mentioned that finding enjoyment in school work was a motivational strategy: According to S8, “Study motivation means to do what is fun. So it’s fun if you want to do it. If it’s boring, it’s not fun”. This was also commented on by teachers: “Everything should be pleasurable. In general, I think students today are pleasure-driven young people” (T20). Here we can discern generational differences between teachers who prefer learning to be serious and young people who are motivated by the teaching being pleasure-filled. This is a challenge to deal with in everyday pedagogical practice.

According to the teachers and students, the motivation to study decreased or increased depending on the structure of the courses (e.g., through good planning and participation). Planning includes teachers’ lesson and course planning, joint planning, and the students’ planning. The students emphasized the importance of being able to choose a variety of working methods: “When I am motivated, there is a variation in the teaching, with varying tasks and subject areas” (S6). Another motivational strategy was “to get rid of the stamp of boredom” (T3).

Social relationships as motivational strategies recurred in the student and teacher interviews. If teachers and students can build good relationships, then the study motivation is affected in a positive sense. The pedagogical task is facilitated with good relationships, for example, by giving feedback and making the right demands. Similar to Hattie’s (2009) results, the interviews showed that relationships between teacher and student were the most important study motivating factor. According to T1, “One must build relationships, and the biggest obstacle to reaching students who do not have motivation, it is the absence. Because if they are not in place, then it is very tough to motivate them.” Results in the form of grades as a motivation strategy were problematized by both teachers and students. The overall picture was that grades could create study motivation, but that they could further inhibit motivation if they were low. “The whip, it is to reach the good grades then, because you should be able to apply to university or what-ever ” (S10). The grades as a structurally inhibiting and stress-related factor were also problematized by the informants. The new grading system created excitement and stress for the students, and the demands are very high. In this study, grades can be seen as an area where motivation can arise as controlled external or autonomous external motivation (Imsen, 2006; Woolfolk & Karlberg, 2015) and its effect on study motivation can be both promoting or inhibiting.