IMTS Civil Eng. (Environment engineering)

I ns t i t ut eofManage me nt & Te c hni c alSt udi e s ENVI RONMENTENGI NEERI NG

500

Ci v i lEn g i n e e r i n g

www. i mt s i n s t i t u t e . c o m

IMTS (ISO 9001-2008 Internationally Certified) ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING

ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING

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CONTENTS ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING UNIT - 1: Nature of Environment and Resources:

01-32

Definition, scope and; importance, need for public awareness. Renewable resources and Non-renewable resources: Forest resources: Use and over- exploitation, deforestation, case studies. Timber extraction mining dams and their effects on forests and tribal people. Water resources: Use and over utilization of surface and ground water, floods, droughts, conflicts over water, dams’ benefits and problems. Mineral resources: Use and exploitation, environmental effects of extracting and using mineral resources, case studies. Food resources: World food problems, changes caused by agriculture and overgrazing, effects of modern agriculture, fertilizer-pesticide problem, water logging, salinity,. Case studies, Energy resources: Growing energy needs, renewable and non renewable energy sources, use of alternate energy sources, Case studies. Land resources: land degradation; man induced landslides, soil erosion and desertification. Role of an individual in conservation of natural resources, equitable use of resources for sustainable lifestyles UNIT- II: Eco System

33-49

Concept of an ecosystem, Structure and function of an ecosystem, Producers, consumers and decomposers, Energy flow in the ecosystem, Ecological succession, Food chains, food webs and ecological Pyramids, Introduction, types, characteristics features structure and function of the following

ecosystem- Forest ecosystems, Grassland ecosystem, Desert

ecosystem, Aquatic ecosystem UNIT –III: Biodiversity and its Conservation:

50-68

Introduction – Definition: Genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. Biogeographically classification of India. Value of biodiversity: consumptive use, production use, social, ethical, aesthetic and option values. Biodiversity at global, national and local levels. India as a megadiversity nation Hot –spots of biodiversity, Threats of biodiversity: habitat loses, poaching of wildlife, man – wildlife conflicts. Endangered and endemic species on India. Conservation of biodiversity: UNIT – IV: Environmental Pollution and Protection

69-93

Definition, Causes, effects and control measures of Air pollution, Water pollution, Soil Pollution, Marine pollution, .Noise pollution, Thermal pollution, nuclear pollution. Solid waste Management: Causes, effects and control measures of urban and industrial water. Role of an individual in prevention of pollution, Pollution- case studies. Disaster management; floods,

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earthquake, cyclone and landslides. Population growth, variation among nations, Population explosion - family welfare programme, Environment and human health.

UNIT – V: Social Issues of the Environment:

94-109

Sustainable development, urban problems related to energy, Water conservation, rain water harvesting, watershed management, Resettlement and rehabilitation of people; problems and concerned, Environmental ethics: Issues and possible solutions. Climate change global warming, acid rain ozone layer depletion, nuclear accidents and holocaust Case studies.

Wasteland reclamation. Consumerism and waste Products. Environment protection act. Issues involved in enforcement of environmental legislation. Public awareness.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING

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UNIT– I NATURE OF ENVIRONMENT AND RESOURCES 1:0 DEFINITION Environmental science is the application of knowledge from many disciplines for the study and management of the environment. It involves and understands of scientific principles, economical influence and political action.

The word ‘Environment’ is a general term that refers to the external conditions in which an organism lives”.

Environment refers to the sum total of conditions which surround man at a given point in space and time.

Environment is the sum of all social, economical, biological, physical and chemical factors which constitute the surroundings of man. Who is both makers and molder of his environment?

The word ‘Environment comes from a French word ‘Environ’ or ‘Environed’ meaning ‘around’, ‘round about’, ‘To surround’, ‘To encompass’. The environment is the base of all life and the source of all goods.

Types of environment Environment may be divided into two types, namely.

1. natural environment and 2. man made environment Natural environment The natural environment system operates through self regulating mechanism called homeostatic mechanism, i.e. any change in natural ecosystem brought about the natural process is counterbalanced by changes in the other components to the environment. Thus, there exists a reciprocal relationship among various components of the environment. The components are air, water, soil, radiation, land, forest, wildlife etc.

Man made environment Man is the most powerful environmental agent spearheaded by modern technologies. He is capable of modifying the environment according to his needs to a great extent. It includes technology, transportation, housing, dam building, industrial revolution, colonies in space.

Computerization of space laboratories and channelization of energy sources such as hydro, thermal and nuclear energy.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING 1:1 SCOPE AND NATURE Environmental education is a learning process that increases people’s knowledge and awareness about the environment and associated challenges, develops the necessary skills and expertise to address these challenges, and fosters attitudes, motivations and commitments to make informed decisions and take responsible action.

“Environmental Education is the process of recognizing values and clarifying concepts in order to develop skills and attitude, necessary to understand and appreciate the interrelatedness among man, his culture and his biophysical surroundings. It also entails practice in decisionmaking and self-formulation of a code of behaviour about problems and issues concerning environmental quality”.

1. To make the citizens environmentally literature. By acquiring environmental awareness, they can make proper decisions to protect the environment.

2. To create awareness among learners about the natural resources, disturbances caused to environment; causes for such disturbances/pollution and measures to minimize its impact.

3. To provide necessary attitude for the conservation of environment.

4. To develop appropriate skills in the citizens to identify environmental problems and their cause; to develop ecofriendly technology to tackle them for the benefit of all.

5. To understand the ecological system, and the cause and effect relationship between human attitude and the environment.

6. To become capable of evaluating alternative solutions to environmental issues; and 7. To understand the effects of using the environment is multiple ways.

1:2 IMPORTANCE It is essential for the self-fulfillment and social development of the child and the adult.

It is essential for understanding the different of chains and the nature’s ecological balance.

It plays an important role in understand in a d appreciating how the environment is used for making a living and promoting material culture.

It enables one to appreciate and enjoy nature and society.

It includes a concern for the systematic change of environment for the distant and the immediate welfare for mankind.

It makes one conscious of the problems of population explosion depletion of natural resource global warming etc.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING

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The five elements of nature – water, and air atmosphere and fire constitute the earth. Any change in one of these elements is bound to affect the equilibrium of the other elements. The environment is subject to constant change as changes happen in the elements constituting the earth. Any change in the environment brings impacts on all living organisms including man.

From the dawn of human civilization man had commenced his interference into the environment. For his needs of wood and logs, he used to fell trees and thus, deplete forest wealth. HE had been killing birds and animals for food and fore his own security. With the advent of industrialization chemical effluents have been flowing into the clean rivers, thus, polluting them.

During stage of lesser growth in human population, the effects of man made pollution were not felt or noticed with care. But during the last few years the overgrowth of human population, the effects of man made pollution ere not felt or noticed with care. But during the last few years the overgrowth of human population, combined with the advancements in science and accelerated development of industries, more and more damages have come to be caused to the environment.

Human activities are the basic causes for all kinds pollution in every part of the world. It is like digging one’s own grave. Man who lives in the environment that he pollutes will have to undergo and suffer due to fatal consequences of his own actions. IT is pitty that man has been ignorant of the fatal consequences of his won intrusions into environmental wellbeing. As some of his actions have for reaching and long-standing effects on the environment, the life of our further generation is at stake.

The selfish nature of human being is the root cause of environmental degradation.

Without any social consciousness, he causes his domestic wastes spill all over the public road.

He, who desires accumulative of wealth for successive generations, forgets that the harm done to environment by him will affect generations to come. What he does today in polluting the environment will bring havoc to future generations. To cite an example, between 1950 and 1963, due to the widely used pesticides, there was effective pest control leading to increase in food production tin the U.S.A. But the use of pesticides brought another unexpected problem. The pesticides used were highly toxic, and birds that thrived on the pests, which carried the toxicity of the pesticides, began to die. During the next season, there were not enough thirds to eat the pests, and therefore the pests survived causing more damage to production.

A study undertaken in a most polluted town, Kanpur, revealed that the average differenced between a boy/girl form the polluted area and non-polluted area was 4 cm in height and 3 kgs in weight. Underlining the importing of environment on human growth and development, the then Prime Minister, Indra Gandhi, while addressing the Stockholm Conference (14

th

June 1972)

sponsored y the United national, emphasized the need to reconstruct man’s relationship with the environment that around him. The following are among the important decision of the 1972 world conference at Stockholm:

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING 

Care should be bestowed on removing garbage/wastes form cities /villages etc. The damages caused by the wastes to the environment should be studies in detail.

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Urgent efforts should be undertaken to reduce/minimize pollution to water and air.

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Growth and developments in the spheres of commerce, trade and technology should be carries out in such a way that there is least interference in the environment.

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Mesures to be taken to control pollution in seas/oceans should be taken to enhance marine wealth and use it to economic development.

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Wild animals and energy resources have to be protected.

Pollution can be classified into different categories, like air pollution, domestic polluting, what pollution, noise pollution, etc. Noise pollution was specific to industries earlier. No newer equipments and implements vehicles, etc. cause noise pollution and affect man. th

In “The Hindu”, dated 8 September 1991, Under the column “Health Watch”, the following was published with the caption: ’Death’ cigarettes sell like hot cades.

A firm in California has first come up with a kind of cigarette aptly named ‘Death’. On the block packaging, a skull and cross bones are displayed and the whole thing skills for about $ 3.

Although the cigarettes cost 30% more than the other brands, over 35,000 packets were sold in the nine weeks they were on the market. The founding company hopes to cross over $ 220 million when the ‘Death’ cigarettes hit the nationwide market. The developed country, the sale of cigarettes was at a high point. If this is the condition in a developed country, the sale of cigarettes hit the nationwide market. The moral of the story – “cigarettes are deadly -but the truth sells”.

Even in a developed country, the sale of cigarettes was at a high point. IF this is the condition in a developed country like USA, what is to say about the state in the developing and underdeveloped countries?

The developed countries dominated the global market till the last century. But now the developing countries also compete for their shares in world markets. The result in increased incidence of pollution everywhere in environment ‘World Environment day’ (June 5) is declared and programmes are carried out. Due to environmental problems, the cost of production increase.

For example, the cost of purification for water has become high.

Solution to problems of pollution had issues related to environment would help the Developing countries. Protection of the environment would pave way for more production of goods. Natural resources like forest resources (wood, etc) have to be presently used. While cutting trees, new plants/trees should be simultaneously grown through schemes like social forestry. Environmental problems cannot be isolated to nations. Pollution and consequential problems of one nation will percolate to the nations also and even over the wheal world.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING Therefore, each country should take due care for the protection and strive for global environmental balance.

There are several enactments / legislations in India for the protection of environment. Schools and colleges would do well if they could inculcate a culture of conservation and protection of environment among the students. No there is growing awareness environment, and the time is appropriate to formalize such awareness of environment, and the time is appropriate to formalize such awareness through the process of education.

Through environmental education, we should strive to sensitize the learners and the public about issues pertaining to environment and also assist them in developing the values for environment. Such a spirit would go a long way in protecting our common heritage-environment and, thus, the future of humanity.

1:3 NEED OF PUBLIC AWARENESS Protection of the atmosphere (climate changes, depletion of ozone layer) Protection of land resources (combating deforestation, desertification and drought) Conservation of biological diversity (protection of fresh water resources and oceans and coastal area and the national use and development of their living resources) Environmentally sound management of biotechnology and hazardous wastes Prevention of illegal traffic in toxic products and wastes Improvement in living and working conditions of the poor by eradicating poverty and stopping environmental degradation.

Environmental education, particularly relating to environmental impact assessment of major and medium developmental projects, is necessary for better environmental management.

Enrichment of environmental assists through learning and by doing. Academic credit is to be given to economic development programs and field work: university research programs should increasingly come close to the local and regional environmental problems. Under this program.

There is a shift in research priorities with emphasis on application rather then ton pure research.

At primary level of education more emphasis should be given to building awareness. Voluntary organizations are expected to work on the following.

1. Conservation and development of land, water, air, ahora and fauna.

2. Promotion of environmental awareness at all levels by organizing seminars, workshops etc. to prevent deforestation.

3. Involvement of local people in tree planting programs of the government.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING 4. Participation in environmental education programs of the government especially for women and rural children.

Voluntary measures such as installation of pollution control devices, safe disposal of garbage, avoiding discharge of wastes into the rivers etc. should be followed. Here the firms and households who are decision makers in the production and consumption, adopt such measures that reduce pollutants and dispose unavoidable pollutants in such ways that control their adverse impact on the environment, such as composting of farm wastes, gobar gas production form dung and various methods of recycling of the wastes are the other ways of environment management.

Banana sheath is processed in paper and boards. Sewage is used for cultivation of forage, etc. tannery effluents and waster water discharged from paper mills art rated and recycled. Factories and housing colonies maintain lawns and parks to improve aesthetic value of their surroundings.

1:4 FOREST RESOURCES Forests are self sustaining wooden tracts with biotic community dominated by trees. They contain 90% of the terrestrial bio-mass and cover 40% of the land. They occupy nearly 23% of geographical area of India. Forests are useful both economically as well as ecologically besides having aesthetic value. They provide some direct and indirect uses to human society.

Direct uses 1. Forests provide domestic fire wood, timber to make furniture and building material like doors and windows. Forest products can also base to produce sandal oil and paper boards and news print.

2. They also fulfill the human food needs to some extent, providing fruit trees like almond, walnut, cashewnut, chilgoza.

3. They provide some herbal spices like nutmeg, cinnamon and clove which help us in curing human ailments.

4. Certain chemicals used in dyeing industries are obtained form the barks of some trees.

They also provide gum, natural rubber etc.

Indirect Uses 1. Forests protect the soil form the direct action of rain and wind plants hold the soil particles firmly. Therefore erosion is prevented.

2. Plant litter and humus make the soil spongy and its humus holds rainwater and prevent run off. Slowly water percolates into the soil providing perennial supply to springs and rivulets.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING

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3. Forests have a moderating effect on temperature and other climate regions. It increases the rainfall frequencies and humidity of the atmosphere.

4. Forests are homes for a large number of wild animals and plants.

5. Forests reduce atmospheric pollution by absorbing polluting gases and collecting suspended particulate matter.

Deforestation Deforestation is removal of forest cover in India one – third of the land was covered with forests during the late 1930s. It is now reduced to only 23% land.

The reasons for deforestation are as follows.

1. Shifting cultivation: A patch of land is cleared through lopping and burning. The ash is mixed with soil. The cleared land is cultivated for 2-3 years. During this period it loses almost all its nutrients through run off. Absence of organic matter reduces moisture retention and increases soil erosion. Permanent degradation occurs if shifting cultivation is carried on. In short intervals weeds may grow in such areas.

2. Hydro-electric projects: Dams, reservoirs and hydro-electric projects submerge large forest facts; they uproot thousands of forest dwellers form their area of residence, much before the construction of a dam. A lot of land is cleared of providing residence for the workers; for which wood and other forest products are used up.

3. Hill and forest roads: Construction of roads and railways in the hilly forested area brings about a lot of deforestation, which cause landslides and soil erosion.

4. Canals: Canals are built to provide water to cites, industries and agriculture. Sarda Sahayak Canal Irrigation project was commissioned in Eastern U.P. it 1974 to irrigate 16 lakh hectare of land. In 1987, Singh and afroz, two research scholars, studied the impact of this project. There report reveals that seepage of water from the canal damaged 13,677 houses, harmed 2,200 cattle and cost 1,42,000 hectares of land out of cultivation.

5. Fuel wood requirement: Demand of fuel wood is rising. It was 86.3 million m³ in 1983 and nearly 300 million m³ at present. Naturally several million hectares of forest has to be wiped out to meet this demand.

6. Industrial demand of wood: In India, industrial demand for wood is also steadily increasing. It was 16 million m³, 25 million m³ in 1980 and exceeds 40 million m³ presently. One eighth of the wood is used by paper mills.

7. Overgrazing: India has a large livestock, population that has steadily grown from 292.02 th

million in 1951, 500 million in the last decade of 20 century. But grazing land is hardly

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING 13 million hectares. As it is insufficient, the livestock naturally graze in forests. The animals trample the seedlings and cause compaction of soil, leading to soil erosion, and increased run off.

8. Forest fire: Forest fires can be natural or man made. They often continue to rage for several days destroying big portions of forests.

9. Quarrying and mining: In forested and hilly areas mining and quarrying are harmful.

They spoil vegetation over large areas due to mien dust, ore and mine wastes.

10. Dams: While constructing huge dam’s vast area of forests and human settlements have been destroyed. It leads to social problems. E.g. the dams being constructed across the rivers Narmada (Sardar saravor dam) and ganga (Tehari dam).

Effects of deforestation: The deforestation affects the natural environment in many ways. They are 1. Shrinking fuel wood: India’s fuel demand is about 212.6 million m³. But the availability is low. For example, it is only 58 million m³ in India. The rest is obtained through collection of forest litter, scraping, excessive lopping and use of dung cakes. It leads to shortage of natural fertilizer.

2. Reduced timber: Availability of timber for Industries is gradually decreasing. For example Southern India the home of tropical forests, now obtains bamboo for its paper mills form Arunachal Pradesh. Scarcity of timber wood is already hitting the furniture industry.

3. Changed climate: Deforestation leads to excessive heating during summer and excessive cooling during winter. There is reduced rainfall and more dust storms.

4. Soil Erosion: India loses some 6000 million tones of to soil every year due to water erosion caused by absence of tree cover in the hills. It is estimate that some 40,000 hectares of land are annually turned to barren land in India due to deforestation.

5. Drought: In the absence of forest cover in the water shed areas the springs have dried up. Rivers contain very little water during dry season resulting in drought.

6. Flash floods: Due to non-retention of water in the watershed areas. Sudden furious floods occur during the rainy season. In Indian sub continent, some 400 million people are affected, the loss of property if Rs. 1000 crores and loss of life is very high.

7. Situation: Soil an eroded form hill is deposited not the reservoirs and river beds. Storage capacity of reservoirs is reduced. Consequently there is reduced power generation. Silt deposited at the beds of rivers results in over flow, paves currying and changing course.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING 1:5 WATER RESOURCES About 97.2% of the hydrosphere consists of marine salt water. The remaining 2.8% is fresh water. The largest reservoir of rest water is stored as ice in the world’s ice sheets and mountain glaciers. This water accounts for 2.15% of the total global water.

Fresh liquid water is found both on top of and beneath the earth’s land surfaces. Water occupying opening in soil and rock is called subsurface water. Most of it is held in deep storage as ground water, at a level where plant roots canto reach. Ground water makes up 0.63% of the hydrosphere. The little remaining portion of the earth’s water is very important because it includes the water available for plants, animals and human use. Soil water which is held in the soil within the reach of plant roots comprises 0.005% of the global total. Water held in streams, Lakes, marshes and swamps is called surface water lakes and saline lakes. An extremely small proportion is held in the streams and rivers that flow toward the sea or in land lakes.

The quantity of water held as vapor and cloud water droplets in the atmosphere is also very small - 0.001% of the hydrosphere. Though little this water is very important. It provides water source for precipitation that replenishes all fresh water stocks on land. Moreover the flow the water vapour from tropical oceans to cooler regions provides a global flow of heat form low to high latitudes.

The movement of water among the great global reservoirs constitute the hydrological cycle. In this cycle, water moves from land and ocean to the atmosphere as water vapor and returns as precipitation rounds to oceans.

The hydrological cycle begins with evaporation form water or land surfaces, in which water changes from liquid to vapour and enters the atmosphere. Evaporation is greater over oceans than inland because oceans than on land because oceans cover most of the planet.

Water vapour in the atmosphere can condense to form precipitation which falls to earth as rain, snow, or hail. Precipitation over oceans is greater than over land.

Upon reaching the land surface, precipitation has three fates. 

It can evaporate and return to the atmosphere as water vapour.

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It can sink into the soil and then into the surface rock layers below.

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Precipitation can run off the land concentrating in streams and rivers.

The only source of surface water is precipitation. In some rivers the water flow is due to the melting of snow (e.g.) Ganges. The source regions for these rivers are snow covered mountains.

Some rivers originate form lower altitudes (e.g.) Cauvery: Rainfall is the only source for these rivers. Rainfall is the source of all lakes and ponds on the earth’s surface. These rivers and lakes

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING will become dry if the rainfall fails. Because of lack of rainfall, many rivers have become dear especially in Tamilnadu.

The surface water of the rivers and the lakes is the source of ground water. The use of surface water is as follows.

Irrigation Industries and Domestic uses Developed countries use more water for their industries. More water is used in agriculture in the developing counties, 97% of surface water is used for agriculture in India.

There is not control in the utilization of water, such as how to utilize the river water, how much has to be used for agriculture, and when we should not use the river water etc.

The industrial and the domestic waster are allowed to flow into the rivers. the encroachment and pollution of water bodies is limitless. The old ponds in the cities have disappeared due to encroachment and the construction of multistoried building and shopping complexes. The ponds are not only the natural rainfall harvesting tanks, but also the source of ground water. The low lying areas are inundated by flood water during the rainy days because, the roads, the payments and the surroundings areas of the houses are made unto of nonporous cement surfaces.

The sandy river beds allow the water to go deep into the ground and help to increase the found water. Nowadays and is remove dorm the river beds with consequent depletion of the ground water. The natural surface water is not utilized properly.

Ground Water Water derived form precipitation can continue to flow downward beyond the soil water belt. Thus slow, downward flow under the influence of gravity is trend percolation. Their percolating water reaches into the ground as ground water. Groundwater is the part of the subsurface water.

Ground water is used for domestic water supply and for irrigation. The spectacular geysers of Yellow Stone National Park have thrilled the tourist. Springs in the high mountains help to generate hydroelectric power. Ice lenders use volcanically warmed water for space heating.

Groundwater is the source of life in many regions of the world. It is very pure and potable until no polluted by man. Even though the water tab level diminishes during the dry seasons it fulfils the needs of the people.

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Contamination of ground water Another major environmental problem

related to ground water withdrawal is

contamination of wells by pollutants. Disposal of solid wastes poses a major environmental problem. In sanitary land fill method, layers of waster are continually buried, usually by sand or clay. It can reacts with the rainwater that infiltrates the ground surface. This water picks up a wide variety of chemical compounds form the waster body and carries them down to the water table.

Intrusion of salt water Another source of contamination in coastal wells is salt water intrusion. /since fresh water is less dense then salt water, a coastal aquifer can be underlain by a layer of saltwater form the ocean. When the aquifer is depleted, the level of saltwater rises and eventually reaches the well form below, rendering the well unusable.

Loss of Vegetation Depletion of the water table causes the destruction of vegetation in the world. The water table level gets reduced to a depth where the roots of the vegetation cannot reach. So they dry up without getting water.

Management of ground water Management of water means controlled use in accord with some plan. Most uses of groundwater are simple exploitation as a free good, and the water is generally considered to be self renewing. But the recharge of some aquifers is small or slow. So the renewal will not occur naturally within time. There are relevant to current planning and management.

Porosity and recharge space can be determined by collecting data form rainfall, topographic, structure, and waste supply of eh wells in use. The information of surface water should be collected and the hydrologist can identify aquifers and recharge areas. On the basis of these data, the quantity of water that can be increased and pumping of water should be reduced.

Recycled waster water or surface water can be recharged.

Extraction of water should be less during rainy season. Groundwater can be recharged naturally by rain water. This will equalize the extraction of excess water in dry season. The recharge area should be porous and with out any waste. Quantity of water used should be reduced. This awareness has to e spread among the people.

The following are the types of artificial recharge.

Construction of percolating trenches and ponds.

Induction by streams and rivers.

Infiltration in the river bed should be maintained.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING Maintaining the continuous flow of water in the rivers and infiltration through canals and ponds.

Recharge of water is the main factor for the stable ground water.

Dams Man has stored water for irrigation purposes form the beginnings of civilization. Many traces of earlier civilizations are the remains of their dams and irrigation channels e.g. (Kallanai across Cauvery). With the development of hydroelectric power artificial lakes grow larger. the boulder dam in the U.S.A., the Kariba Dam in Central Africa, and the High Dam at Aswan on the Nile, the Tennessee Valley Authority in the U.S.A., the snowy Mountains Scheme in Australia and Damodhar Valley Project in India have efficient reservoirs.

Uses of dams 1. Prevention of floods 2. Irrigation 3. Hydroelectric power generation 4. Fishing 5. Development of Tourism 6. Interbasin water transferences 7. Regional and inter regional water resource schemes.

Dams should be constructed and used for flood control in the lower part of the rivers. It can e used for irrigation also. Construction of large dams should be avoided in the early stage of the river. But small dams can be constructed.

The harmful impacts of dams 1. The yield is less in these large dams even though the expenditure is more.

2. The loss is more when the electricity produced in the large dams is distributed to distant places.

3. More siltation in the large dams causes rapid reduction in water capacity.

4. The life time of Their Dam is estimated to be 100 years, but it might be within 30 to 40 years.

5. Dams affect environment and destroy many organisms. The silent Valley Project in Kerala may destroy 500 million years old flora and fauna.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING 6. Soil erosion due to Kali river project in Karnataka produces wasteland.

7. Large scale deforestation is found in the catchments areas.

8. Causes evacuation of native people and adhivasis form their areas: their fields and settlement are destroyed.

9. Mosquitoes form the stagnation of away cause diseases like malaria and brain fever.

10. Agricultural lands near the dam are affected by the stagnation of water.

11. Increase in the ground water causes dilution of calcium and the people are affected by floralysis.

12. Dams are an important factor in causing earthquakes.

Small scale projects should be increased. The loss and the impacts are less in these projects. Small hydel power projects produce more profit. In China 87,000 small power projects produce one third of its total production. The canals should be lined.

Flood Water has become essential to modern civilization. People have chosen to settle and to farm where they find an abundance of water. From time to time meter logic and hydrologic conditions combine to produce huge floods. These are natural phenomena.

To some people floods may be only a source of inconvenience, to others they may be an immediate danger to life and property. To farmers they mean erosion and loss of top soil on barren or newly planted hill side fields, and inundation and flooding of valley bottoms or flood plain lands. To engineers floods mean measurements of stages and discharges under the worst possible conditions, the study of ways to reduce damage, and the design and construction of dikes, flood walls, channels, dams and reservoirs.

In hydrologic terms, a flood exists when the level of a stream is such that is overflows its normal channel and spreads out on its flood plain.

Flood damage Floods are the most costly of all natural hazards world wide, in terms of loss of life, property and land. There has also been more money spend for various projects of flood control.

Floods can destroy millions of dollars (or rupees) worth of property, and take many lives. Damage is primarily the result of the crosive capacity of flood waters, the impact of the water itself on structures, the deposition of sediment and debris as flood waters recede, and the contamination of water systems. Floods damage commercial, industrial, residential buildings, agricultural land and transportation systems The indirect type of damage includes loses of life, businesses or services, decline in property values, and aesthetic damage.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING Flood hazards occur in two distinct zones: Coastal areas and areas bisected by rivers.

Coastal flooding follows above average sea levels caused by (a) unusual atmospheric conditions (e.g the high seas created by on shore hurricane or tornado (b) earth tremors or volcanic eruptions that set up huge tidal surges.

River flooding is a more frequent hazard and is related to hereby precipitation, rapidly melting snow, and dam failure.

Reducing flood damage: The efforts to reduce flood damage have been expended in two different directions.

1. Water control includes any attempt to limit erosion and run off in drainage basins, or in stream channels through various structural modifications, as well as projects to store flood waters in reservoirs.

2. Flood plain management is based on the recognition of flood hazards. In includes such non structural or administrative measures as the initiation of flood plain zoning and appropriate land use restrictions in combination with flood forecasting and emergency protection measures.

The water control measures are given below.

1. Watershed management.

2. Construction of dams and reservoirs.

3. Channel alterations 4. Channel clearing and dredging 5. Diversion of flood water 6. Channel stabilization 7. Dikes and levees.

8. Flood plain planning and management Drought Drought differs form other types of natural hazards in terms of its variable duration and indefinite beginning or end. Its conception also varies depending on geographical location. Past experiences and effects. For a meteorologist it is a deviation form normal precipitation. For a hydrologist a al in stream flow, lake level or ground water table. For an economist a famine condition. Fro an urbanite shortage of tap water supply may be called a drought.

Drought are one of the most serious natural hazards to mankind. They have been the root causes of famine in many parts of the world. Droughts are usually defined as periods of

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING

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dryness due to lack o rain. The concept varies form place to place depending upon the normal climatic conditions, available water resources, land use, agricultural practices and various other economic activities of the region. But drought is a relative term.

Droughts have been recognized by Thormth Waite (1947) as of three kinds.

1. The permanent droughts of the driest climates. Al the deserts of the world are under this condition. They are located in the subtropical high pressure belt. Atacama desert, the driest lace in the world has experienced rainfall for several years.

2. The seasonal droughts in climates having well defined wet and dry seasons.

3. The contingent droughts resulting from irregular and variable occurrence of rain fall.

Contingent droughts occur mostly in sub humid climates. They are most treacherous in view of their great intensity and critical time of incidence. The most severe doughty of the twentieth century in the world is the African sahel drought. The central and western states of America experienced drought during 1933-35. The Native Americans in the south western parts of America left places due to severe forget conditions during sixth and seventh centuries.

Drought hazards increases due to 1. Increase of population 2. Monocrop cultivation 3. Soil erosion 4. Non availability of timely help Aridity Index (la) is a very convenient parameter for studying the various aspects of droughts.

Categorization of droughts one yearly basis can be made as per the following scheme.

Departure of la form the Median

Drought category

Less than ½ S

Moderate

Between ½ S and S

Large

Between S and 2S

Severe

Greater than 2S

Disastrous

The duration of a drought spell is an important as it’s intensive. This combined effect determines the ultimate impact of water shortage on the economic conditions. The droughts have origin, intensification, spread as well as decay.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING To solve the problems of drought prone areas it is necessary to approach the problem in a scientific manner. For the successful implementation of the drought prone area programme, it is necessary to accomplish the following tasks.

1. Identification of drought parameters.

2. Measuring Intensity.

3. Employing suitable technology to mitigate the drought conditions.

Some of the important elements which may constitute the strategy for ecologically integrated development are listed below: 1. Development and management of irrigation resources.

2. Soil and moisture conservation and at forestation.

3. Restructuring of cropping pattern and pasture development.

4. Change in agronomic practices.

5. Livestock development.

6. Development of small marginal farmers and agricultural labour.

Satellite remote sensing can be used to detect drought conditions on the basis of the spectral manifestation of reduced photosynthetic capacity of vegetation associated with precipitation shortfalls.

1:6 MINERAL RESOURCES Mining and dereliction Dereliction, like accelerated soil erosion, deforestation, over fishing and air and water pollution results form the ruthless exploitation of natural resources without consideration for the future. Most dereliction is the result of thoughtless and uncontrolled mineral extraction and processing.

Derelict land It is land which has been abandoned as useless or as too badly damaged. They are ugly, denuded of vegetation, laced with stagnant pools of water or covered with mine tailing or slag.

Almost every country suffers form dereliction. Although it is associated mainly with industrialized countries in Europe and North America, it affects the developing countries also. For example, tin mining is a major industry in Malaysia and as a result thousand of hectares of alluvial and have been worked, leaving piles of tailings, dangerous pools and a sort of ‘moonscape’ with little vegetation. In Sierra Leone, large areas of land have been despoiled by illicit diamond

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING miners. It is pitted with the holes dug by small scale operators, so that the land it is useless both for large scale mineral extraction and for agriculture.

Some people may argue tat the damage caused by mining and similar activities is inevitable. It is a natural consequent of the modern way of life, which consumes many natural resources, especially minerals. But this is a short sighted view because the harm and waste caused by dereliction often outweigh the monetary gains.

Harmful effects of dereliction Waste of agriculture land: Mines or their associated tip heaps may occupy land otherwise suitable for farming. While returns from the mine may be greater during its operation, once the mineral reserves have been depleted the land is left as waste.

Waste of industrial land: Where derelict land is near the cities it forces the city to expand it their directions – sometimes at eh expense of the agricultural land. The ugliness of a city dominated by it heaps and derelictions a deterrent to modern development.

Health and accident hazards: Depending on the type of mining carried out, mineral exploitation can create a variety of hazards. Land over the mines may subside, causing houses to collapse of creating hummocky ground unsuitable for nay sue and often full of pools of water. Shafts that are not filled in may lead to accidents and old quarries and open cast pits may also be dangerous.

Open cast miens such as alluvial tin mines and gravel pits are often very deep and therefore are dangerous because they afterwards are flooded with water. Accidents, especially to children, are very common such areas. Tip heaps, tote, cause special hazards. The worst disaster of recent years was the Aberfan disaster, when an unexpected tip-heap avalanche buried 116 children in the school of a South Wales mining village. Tip heaps of smoldering slag are also dangerous and tips of waster materials may contain large amounts of toxic materials which could be harmful to health.

Ugliness and permanent damage to his landscape: Minerals often occur in mountainous areas or other areas of greater natural beauty. For example (a) Heaps of rejected slate form quarries have ruined the landscape in many beautiful valleys of North Wales. (b) In Malaysia, the limestone hills form some of the most spectacular and beautiful scenery in the country, but in almost every limestone area the hills are being literally removed by quarrying. The destruction of natural beauty not only affects the aesthetic appeal of landscape but also damages its tourist potential.

Methods to combat dereliction Dereliction can be reduced by two methods: (1) Legislation and (2) Reclamation

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING Legislation Existing mining companies should be forced to rehabilitate the land after it becomes uneconomic to extract the mineral. Many local and national governments impose such restrictions, but they are often not stringent. Companies often evade such legislation by retaining the landing case it ever proves profitable eat reopen the mine. Time limits on mineral exploitation could overcome such evasion. License should be given only to those companies which do at least minimum amount of rehabilitation work.

The minimum amount of rehabilitation includes the leveling of land and planting of saplings of trees that suit the climatic conditions.

Another way of controlling they extend of derelictions to force companies to tip their wastes only in large, supervised tips, rather than in a multiplicity of small tips. In the long term, this reduces they are made derelict and also allows reclamation to be carried out more easily and economically because it is concentrated in a single area.

Reclamation: If the land has been completely abandoned or has been derelict of many years and nothing has been done, local or national government agencies should come forward to reclaim the land. Unfortunately, local authorities, who are usually responsible for such work, rarely have sufficient financial resources. This problem is usually overcome by grants form the central government, but these are often available only for certain types of dereliction and may be limited in amount.

Inspite of all the difficulties, reclamation of derelict land is possible and desirable. It can provide additional land for agriculture, for industry, for settlement or for other commercial purposes. Fro example old mining pools are often used for fish farming in Malaysia. Alternatively, the reclaimed land can be used to ad to the amenities of an area. Areas where there is much dereliction are one short of parks, sports fields and other facilities for outdoor recreation. Where pits are flooded with water they are ideal for water sports, and old pits can be stocked with fish for angling or used of routing or sailing. Lakes can also form the centre of parks and gardens as at taping Lake Gardens in Malaysia, where a very attractive park has been created on old mining land.

Where reclamation for the provision for sports facilities is expensive, entrance chares can be levied. Thus the reclamation costs will be met in a few years and day to day running will be profitable. The growing need for recreational facilities will make people more willing to pay entrance charges and this may make it more worthwhile to reclaim land for this purpose.

1:7 FOOD RESOURCES Agriculture is the most fundamental form of human activity. It includes not only the cultivation of crops but also the domestication of animals. Agricultural land is thus the most basic

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING of the world’s vast and varied resources. From this land the human masses are fed, clothed and sheltered. Primitive men must have begun as food gathers, eating whatever fruits, leaves and roots they could obtain. Naturally, as civilization became more and more advanced the demands upon the productivity of the environment became more exacting.

In an ever expanding community, ways and means had to be found to increase the agricultural productivity of the land. Canals were dug to bring in more water; better seeds and improved methods of tillage helped to increase the annual harvests. With the spread of agriculture as a global activity, tremendous progress was made in every aspect of crop production. The use of stream, oil, gas or hydroelectric power allowed farms to be mechanized.

This not only raised productivity per hectare, but also brought rapid expansion in the total land area farmed. Mechanization created large crop surpluses so that international trade in agricultural crops became possible. Many industrial nations today grow very little food and yet they are about to support large populations with the help of food imports.

Farming lands were spoiled by erosion and by becoming salaine as a result of the influx of sea water. When soils have once been eroded rehabilitation is not only very difficult but also very expensive. It takes many years for the soil to be used for cultivation again. Soil erosion is the actual removal of soil by running water, wind or other agents of erosion and transportation. It represents the physical loss of a mantle of good earth to the farmer. But very often, cultivation results in the deteriorating condition of the sil, which becomes very deficient in plant nutrients.

This is called soil improvement. Soil erosion and soil impoverishment can be caused or aggravated by numerous bad farming practices. There are as follows.

1. Overcropping Overcropping causes the soil to deteriorate when too many crops are grown on the same land without the farmer replacing the lost mineral and organic material. In natural conditions, the plants extract the valuable mineral and organic plant nutrients form the soil; when they die, they decay and release their nutrients, returning them to the soil which is thus enriched for other plants that come after them. But when men cultivate crops, they harvest them and carry the crops elsewhere to be sold or consume. There is not replacement at all. If the farmer, year after year, grows cotton and does not ad my manure or fertilizers, the soil becomes poorer until the farm has to be abandoned, overcropping may occur in several ways. a. Monoculture This is the growing of a single type of crop, yea after year, such as cotton or wheat. The crop constantly using up particular ropes of minerals form the soil as a result some minerals in the soil may be completely exhausted and fertility may decline. This happens what fallow periods, fertilizers or crop rotations are not used to balance soil properties.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING b. Multicropping This is the constant use of the land for several crops every year. If there is not a constant supply of fertilizer this quickly exhausts the soil and yields rapidly decline. c. Shifting cultivation This type of cultivation of forest clearings can be very harmful. The destruction of the tress by fire leaves the soil unprotected from the full force of heavy tropical rain. The soil is not consolidated and held together by plant roots. It is therefore quickly washed away. After the landings are abandoned the forest is allowed to grow again. If the plot is not cleared again for a long time (about 20 years) the rest or fallow period is long enough for the soil to regain its humus and mineral content. I the plots are re-cleared only after a few years or one plot is occupied for too many years, the soil cannot recuperate and becomes permanently infertile. It may, be eroded into deep gullies or invaded by grass and is thus made useless for farming or for forestry.

2. Overgrazing Animal grazing is dependent upon either natural or man sown grasses and herbs, which are eaten by the cattle, sheep, goats or hoses. The number of animals that can be grazed depends on eh carrying capacity of the pasturage, the number of animals which can graze on the pasture with out completely killing the grasses or other plants. If the number of animals is within the carrying capacity the grass is able to grow again. But if there are too many animals the grazing many not have sufficient time to recover and support them. If this happens the vegetative cover becomes too thin to protect the soil and rain and wind are able to erode the soil. This in turn reduces the amount of grass that can grow in eh area. In parts of Mediterranean Europe, West and East Africa and India, overgrazing by cattle or worse still by sheep goats which nibble down every bit of grass, has caused acute soil erosion.

3. Deforestation When man removes the natural forest cover of an area either for agriculture or for timber thus usually exposes the area to soil erosion. The soil is no longer protected by the leafy canopy of the forest form heavy rain or strong winds. The bad effects of deforestation are worst when all the trees are removed and when new seedlings are not planted to replace the felled timber.

4. Slope cultivation Soil erosion is always enhanced when the cleared area of land is on a steep slope, because this allows gully erosion to take place. The soil on sloes is easily moved by gravity when it is loosened. The effects of shifting cultivation, overgrazing and deforestation are all worse on sloping land. If cultivation is carried on steep slopes erosion is greatly aggravated. This practice

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING to slope wise cultivation produces ready made channels down which rain water can flow carrying away the top soil.

5. Cultivation of dry areas In semi arid areas the cultivation of marginal agricultural lands may lead to erosion because the removal of the natural vegetation and the ploughing of the land looses the soil and this enables the wind to blow it away. In marginal areas such as this, special dry farming techniques have to be adapted unless a ‘dust bow’’ situation is to arise.

Changes caused by agriculture and overgrazing The domestication of plants was started around 10,000 BC in the south-West Asia. Since then it has spread to all the continents substantially and has been intensified to meet the growing needs of the teeming millions of people. Agriculture has transformed the landscape and the application of modern agricultural biotechnology has resulted in considerable environmental changes. Many of these changes are the direct result of manipulating biochemical cycles and every glow and relate especially to the use of chemical fertilizers and crop protection chemicals.

While landscape changes are often rapid, many of the changes that have occurred and are continuing to occur are less easy to pinpoint. Significant environmental impacts have ensued inadvertent consequences of such high technology agriculture.

Soil erosion, salinization and desertification are some of the problems which are becoming increasingly alarming in the intensely cultivated cereal growing areas and in the semiarid regions of the world. Agricultural methods in the last two decades, aimed at more intensive food production, have also caused the destruction of natural habitats at a hitherto unprecedented rate. This process has

generated considerable acrimony between agriculturists and

conservationists. Moreover, the sue of crop protection chemical has had widespread iconological repercussion. It is not only the developed countries in which the environmental changes occurred, agriculture in the developing countries is also becoming more technologically, rather than traditionally based.

Effects of modern agriculture Green revolution is an example for modern agriculture. Due to green revolution, new varieties of wheat were first bred n Mexico in the 1950’s. New varieties of rice like 1R-8 were bred, at the International Rice Research Institute, Philippiness in the 1960s. The increase in yield from the new seeds has been spectacular. In some cases, the yield of High Yielding variety (HYV) is more that double the yield of traditional varieties.

At first, green revolution was introduced item plains of Sutlen Ganga and Cauvery delta in India. Because of high yielding, the problems of food shortage, poverty, hunger, malnutrition, undernourishment and economic inequities will be largely solved. To achieve the high yield of

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crops chemical fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, plant protection chemicals are applied in large scale. These created several environmental problems; especially, the soil is polluted. The soil is becoming either saline or alkaline in character which results in soil erosion. It is reported that there is a 25 to 30% decline in protein content when corn, maize, gram and wheat crops are gown on soils fertilized with NPK fertilizers. Potassium fertilizers in soil reduce the valuable nutrient ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) and carotene in vegetables and fruits which are more prone to pests, insects and diseases.

Excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers inlands leads to accumulation of nitrate in the soil which are transferred to man through plants. Nitrates being highly soluble go deep into the ground. As a result water becomes toxic when this concentration exceeds 90 ppm (parts per million), causing diarrhea and cyanosis (blue jaundice) in children. In human body these nitrates and nitrites are converted to nitrosamines and nitroso compounds which are suspected as agents of stomach cancer. Cereal crops like jawar, maize and pearl millet gown on alkaline soil absorb higher amounts of fluorides and or responsible for the spread of fluorosis. Fertilizers get contaminated with other synthetic organic chemicals thereby polluting the soil water. These fertilizers enter the water system contributing to eutrophication (excessive growth of alae and aquatic plants) producing evil odours.

As a same crop is practiced repeatedly in a region where the natural fertility of land is steadily declining and eth underground water table gets lowered. These dry up the moisture of the neighboring soil. In the modern agricultural technology, the application of tractors, tillers, harrows, threshers, crushers, harvesters, terraces and sprayers has however, distributed the rural tranquility and increased noise pollution. When these modern inputs apply to the developing countries the rural people are forced to migrate to the nearest towns and cites as a result of unemployment. The migration of people form one place to another brings a tangible transformation in the demographic characteristics.

The absolute number of population, its

density, growth, fertility, mortality, age, sex, literacy and occupational structure get transformed.

In brief, the total size of population will be large and an increase in the density of population brings more pressure on resources. People of that particular region face some problems such as food, housing, drinking water, sanitation and his kind of environment affects human health adversely.

Fertilizer-pesticide problems The high yielding varieties (HYV) of rice a wheat diffused in the developing countries require high energy inputs in the from of water, chemical fertilizers and crop protection chemicals.

Out of these, the crop protection chemicals being radical change in the chemical properties of soil and thus transform the environment.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING Crop protection chemicals are compounds that are artificially produced on a large scale to improve the efficiency of crop production. Chemicals are also used in apple, mango and orange orchards to protect the fruits form insects and pests. There are various groups of pesticides that are designated according to the target species.

Waterlogging and Salanity The problem associated with irrigation is waterlogging. In all the canal irrigated areas waterlogging is a serous ecological problem. The Indira Gandhi Canal command area is a recent example in which waterlogging is progressively acquiring a serious dimension. Several thousand acres of productive agricultural lands and pastures in the districts of Ganganagar, Bikaner and Jaisalmar in Rajasthan have become waterlogging putting them out of agricultural use. The ambitious cultivators of the Indira Gandhi Canal command area have changed their land use pattern as they are growing rice and wheat instead of pasters with the help of irrigation. Intensive irrigation of these crops is creating waterlogging and soil depletion problems.

Salanity is also an important problem, which confronts the cultivators. After the Industrial Revolution, there had been more use of chemical fertilizers in the developed countries and the developing countries are also applying fertilizers in substantial quantities mainly in the irrigated tracts. The application of nitrate, phosphate and potassic fertilizers after the Second World War ahs changed the soil chemistry. Although the production of cereals and others crops has enhanced, these fertilizers are detrimental to the health of the soil. The most significant of these is the cultural cutrophication of fresh water aquatic ecosystems that are in receipt of drainage form agricultural land. Consequently, many wetland habitats have suffered and their fauna and floara suffered a detrimental change. The ecosystem of Dal, Wular, Nageen and Anchar lakes of Kashmir have been impaired to such and extent that the very survivals of these lakes have become a matter of great concern for the planners and policy makers.

The high yielding varieties (HYV) of wheat rice require several watering. Many a time the farmers overirrigate their crops. The continuous supply of moisture to the soil during the summer and winter seasons have changed the soil chemistry. In the arid and semi-arid regions, under the impact of canal and tubewell irrigation, the soil is being adversely affected. Owing to the capillary action, the soils are becoming either saline or alkaline in character. The saline and alkaline affected tracts, lie locally known as Kaller in Punjab and Reh in UP, have explained and increased in area. According to one estimate about 50% of ht total arable land of Punjab has been harmed by soluble salts. If scientific transformation in the cropping patterns and irrigation practices are not made, more agricultural land may become unproductive.

The problem of salinity and alkalinity may be solved by use of manure and judicious selection of crops that may reduce the proportion of injurious salts. Cultivation of salt tolerant

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING crops like barely, sugarbeet, saltgrass, asparagus, spinach and tomato may improve the fertility of such lands.

Case Study General farming types can be described but in any country a continuous process of change, sometimes rapid and sometimes very gradual is taking place. By studying some examples, the problems facing farmers and also the government agencies responsible for farming policy become clearer.

Kenya In Kenya before independence, the overwhelming problem was of a division between the white settlers who produced cash crops on large estates and local farmers who produced subsistence cash crops on small farms. The first change, which took place in the 1950s, was to introduce cash crops to the African farmers and to reduce the reliance on food crops.

Coffee, tea and pyrethrum (used in making insecticides), sisal, pineapples, sugarcane, cotton and tobacco, were introduced and the people adopted the new crops with such eagerness that there was overproduction of coffee and pyrethrum by 1968. The change to the growing of cash crops has been accompanied by the introduction of mixed farming, use of new hybrid seeds with higher yields and the use of chemical fertilizers essential for the best use of such new varieties.

The second change occurred in the farmer White Highlands after independence when White farmers lift the country or sold their farms to African or Kenyan or Asian farmers. Some of the former extensive farms were take over as large going concerns and have continued to operate in this way, either under private ownership or under cooperative control. Others, especially where the land was of high quality and capable of supporting more intensive use were divided into small holdings which were settled by African farmers.

Kenya is fortunate in that its farmers are enterprising and have been able to adapt rapidly to the efficient production of a wide range of cash crops. But it has many agricultural problems still. About 80% of the population of the country is dependent on agriculture. The 1.5. million small holders in the country have on average, six dependents and three quarters of them have less then 2.6. hectares of land. Under these circumstances there is clearly a demand for more land, form existing farmers as well as form the many rural people without any land of their own.

Farmer’s income is very much lower than that of urban Kenyans but it cannot be easily increased.

Moreover there is a shortage of land of high quality enough to support subsistence or cash crop farming. Most of his land not year fully developed is only suitable for extensive grazing and where farmers have settled and cultivated it there have been problem of soil erosion. On the other hand the reaching of live stock has not developed as rapidly or as successfully as has crop

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production. This is partly due to the traditional attitudes of the Masai herders who gain prestige form the numbers of their cattle rather than form their quality and who are reluctant to slaughter their animals or to improve their stock and moreover, degrade the land by keeping too many beasts. Secondly, incentives for beef production have not been very attractive. Financial rewards can be adjusted to encourage various branches of agriculture but this will not overcome the land hunger of rural Kenyans who attach great importance to owning their own land. Increasing land ownership may lead to disastrous result if too much marginal land is overused.

1:8 ENERGY RESOURCES All activities in the world take place through the use of energy. The non-stop revolution of the planets, the human struggle to control the world and the universe, the roaming of animals in the forest, the flying of birds, the fish that swim, the turbulent sea, the live volcano, the powerful cyclone – all these activities are carried through the use of some form of energy.

It is a clear truth that nothing can function in the world today without energy. Energy is needed for fulfilling all basic needs and a comfortable life for human beings. The development of a country is estimated on the basis of the amount of energy produced and utilized by that country.

The primitive man discovered fire and used it as energy. Afterwards man discovered energy form various sources. Wood was used as a major fuel until coal was discovered. After the discovery of coal steam engine was invented and the seed was sown for industrial revolution in Western countries. Wood, animals, agricultural wastes, Coal, petroleum products, electricity and natural gas are some of the energy resources used by man.

There are different types of energy resources. They may be divided into two major types. They are renewable energy resources and non-renewable energy resources.

Energy Resources

Renewable energy resources

Nonrenewable energy resources

(Wood, solar energy, wind, wave, mini

(Coal, petroleum, natural gas,

hydroelectric power projects, biogas,

electricity, atomic energy)

agricultural wastes, geothermal energy) 1. Renewable energy resources Energy resources produced from nature without any interruptions in known as ‘Renewable energy’ resources. It is also called non exhaustible energy resources. The energy

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING received from the sun, waves, biogas, agricultural waste, mini hydroelectric power stations are renewable energy resources. These are produced continuously in nature.

2. Nonrenewable energy resources The energy resources which can not be reused are called non-renewable energy resources. Coal, petroleum, natural gas, electricity, atomic powers are examples of on nonrenewable energy resources. One the energies are used they cannot be reproduced or reused.

Energy resources any is divided into conventional energy resources and non conventional energy resources.

Conventional energy resources Energy resources that are used by man form ancient period to present day are called conventional energy resources. Wood, coal, petroleum, natural gas, thermal electricity, atomic power are some of the conventional energy resources. Of these energy resources coal, petroleum and natural gas are fossil fuels.

Nonconventional energy resources From the ancient period man is using solar energy in daily life for various activities. Till 1700 AD man depended only on solar energy available to him form nature. Plants produce energy through photosynthesis by using sunlight. Solar energy stored in plants is available after millions of years as fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, and natural gas. It will take millions of years to recreate coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Therefore these are called nonrenewable energy resources. The renewable energy such as solar energy, wind energy, ocean energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy, biogas energy and biomass hereby obtained form nature are called nonconvnentional energy.

Solar Energy At present we are using solar energy for various purposes due to modern scientific development. There are changes for using solar energy particularly in the equatorial and topical regions which receive more solar radiation. In general we can use solar energy in two systems.

Solar photo voltaic power system Solar thermal energy system Solar photo voltaic power system In this method the solar radiation is transformed into electricity through the solar cells mad e up of silicon. Required electricity can be produced by fixing silicon cells on roof top of houses and industries. We can us the electricity stored in silicon batteries to operate machines

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING and instruments in industries. The house lights, radio, television, pumpset and other electrical appliances can be operated with the electricity produced from solar radiation.

The remote villages which cannot get electricity can produce electricity for houses and street lightings by this method. This system is used to supply electricity for the electric fences which protect the crops form man and animals. Electricity needed to operate railways signals are generated by this method.

Electricity required for satellites in space is produced form the solar panels attached to them. Electricity produced form solar energy helps very much for operating communication systems, lighthouses, offshore platforms located in regions where electricity can not be easily supplied.

Solar thermal energy system By using solar thermal collectors, the hear received from the sun can be converted into thermal energy.. By concentrating solar radiation various solar thermal devices like solar cookers, water heaters, desalination systems, solar refrigerators, solar dryers and solar microorganism removers etc. can be operated.

Wind Energy Among the nonconventiaonal energy forms wind energy is also important one. Like sunlight wind blows throughout the world. This energy is also a renewable energy. We can obtain energy by operating windmills with the help of blowing wind. Windmills are installed and electricity is produced in high wind zones which have strong wind flow.

The specially designed blades mounted on top of the windmills rotate fast when the wind blows. Their rotation is coupled to a turbine and electricity is produced. Through windmills water can be pumped form wells by wind pumps.

In many countries windmills are used form ancient period. But only in recent period windmills get importance in electricity production. Windmills are seen in various countries which have high wind zone. In India electricity is produced by windmills in the coastal regions of Tamilnadu, Gujarat, Andhra, Maharashtra, kerala and Karnataka.

In India, Tamilnadu is leading in producing electricity by windmills followed by Gujarat. In Tamilnadu with the help of Danish International Agency (DIA) wind farms are established at Kayathar (Thuthukudi district). Muppandal and Mullaikadu (KAnyakumari District). In India the Ministry of Nonconventional energy encourages the development of wind energy. Import duty exemption is given for components required for windmills. The electricity produced form windmill gets exemption form excise duty and sales tax. After the commissioning of windmills gets

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING exemption from excise duty and sales tax. After the commissioning of windmills various incentives are give for the first five years.

Ocean Energy Today we can generate energy from sea. Energy is produced form waves, tides, currents can heat found in sea. Energy can be produced form sea by the following methods.

1. Energy production form sea waves Sea waves are in constant motion of waves is used for producing energy. By installing floating turbines against waves we can produce electricity. In shallow seas turbines fixed on platform are rotated by wave motion and electricity is produced. The incoming waves are diverted into a canal to produce electricity by rotating the turbines.

2. Energy production form tides Tides occur due to the gravitational forces of the sun and the moon. According to the position of the sun and the moon there is a rise and all in sea level. This is called high tide and low tide. Power can be produced if the difference between the high and low tide levels is more.

Seawater is allowed to flow into a reservoir on the sea shore during high tide. The water flow is used to rotate the turbines and electricity is generated. The stored water is allowed to return into the sea again through the same turbine during the low tied and here again electricity is generated.

Though out the world, coastal regions which have large amount of waves and tides produce electricity through this method. In Bay of Canada, Cambay and kutch (India), Severn estuary (Britain) and Le Rance estuary (France) electricity is produced with the help of tides.

3. Energy production form ocean currents A mass of water running like a river in the ocean is called ‘Ocean current’. We can produce electricity by installing turbine in the path of these currents. But only very less amount of electricity can be produced by this method.

4. Energy production form ocean thermal energy Turbines can be rotated with the help of thermal energy of ocean water. Vapour is produced by pumping ammonia or propane into a closed tube exposed to warm ocean water.

This vapor is allowed to pas through a turbine and electricity is produced.

In Kerala at Vizhinjam fishing harbour 150 mega watt electricity is produced every year.

In Andaman Nicobar islands also electricity is produced in this method.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING Geothermal energy In the interior of the earth rocks are in the from of liquid. Rocks are in a moltan stage due to very high temperature inside the earth. In regions wire volcanic activity is high, hot springs are found. These hot springs are found particularly in Iceland, Newzeland, Japan and Central America which have volcanic regions. The steam released form these springs is used as energy.

Water becomes vapor due to the very high temperature in the interior of the earth and escapes through the hot springs and cracks. This vapour is used to rotate the turbine and electricity is produced. In Java islands of Indonesia and in some to her regions water is artificially pumped into the earth and this water is converted into vapor due to the high temperature in the interior of the earth. This steam is used for generating electricity.

Biogas Energy When organic waster decays, methane gas is released and it is used as fuel. Human, animal and plant wastes are used to produce biogas energy. After producing methane the waste can be used as manure for plants. Burning of biogas causes no environmental pollution. In rural areas cow dung is used to produce gobar gas and this gas is utilized for cooking and lighting.

Biomass Energy Energy produced on the basis of organic matter is known as biomass energy.

Termination of starch in corn and tapioca produces alcohol. Two alcohols can be used to run automobiles. From particular type of plants petroleum like product is produced. Further we can produce various type of energy by using sawdust, straw, paddy husk, and rice bran, domestic and municipal wastes.

India’s development in Nonconventional energy In India separate ministry for nonconventioanl energy is functioning to utilize nonconventional energy. India’s major breakthrough in the field of nonconventional energy is give below.

1. Over 420 MW electricity is produced form wind, hydro, biomass and solar energy.

2. 3600 remote villages including those in Sunderbans, Baster, Ladakh and the North East are getting electricity through solar energy.

3. 7.5 lack solar photo voltaic systems are functioning for lighting and communication 4. 7 lakh sq. metre collector area solar water heating systems are installed.

5. The largest solar steam cooking system for 15000 persons/day is functioning at Tirupati Tirumala devasthanam.

6. 35 Lakh biogas plants are installed for cooking and lighting.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING 7. 350 Lakh improved chulahs (ovents) are used in rural homes.

8. Bangalore city is declared a solar thermal city and thane in is Mumbai to follow soon 9. 30 MW capacity solar photo voltaic products are exported.

10. Hydrogen energy board is constituted to use hydrogen at the national level.

11. 280 Educational Energy parks are set up for demonstration of renewable energy systems and devices.

12. Integrated rural Energy programme is implemented in 860 blocks.

13. Rs. 2500 crore direct subsidy was given to beneficiaries /users of renewable energy systems.

14. Rs. 3200 crore loan provided by Indian Renewable energy development Agency for1600 renewable energy projects.

15. Sardar Swaran Singh National Institute for Renewable energy is setup at Jalandhar in Punjab for research and development.

16. Centre for Wind energy technology is setup in Chennai.

17. Solar energy centre is functioning at Gurgaon in Haryana.

Major goals 1. Electrification of over 20000 remote and unelectrified villages through renewable energy by 2007.

2. Around 10% additional power generation capacity through renewable energy by 2012.

3. Research and development in new technology areas like hydrogen, fuel cells, hybrid vehicles, geothermal, tidal etc.

1:9 LAND RESOURCES Utilization of Land resources Land is one of the most important natural resources of the world. Land area accounts for nearly 29% (169 million sq. km) of the world total area which is about 510 million sq.km. Over the earth’s surface land is not equally distributed. It is distributed in the form of continents like Asia, Africa, Europe, North America, South America and Oceania. Nearly 600 crores of word population is sign over the land surface. Man utilizes their land resources as one of the most important natural resources for his welfare measures.

Land is highly useful to obtain necessities like food, clothing and shelter. By utilizing the land, mains able to do the most important occupations like agriculture, industries, transpiration,

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mining, cattle and sheep rearing. By engaging himself fin all these activities, man is able to fulfill his basic necessities. Hence, the role of land in the day to day affairs of man is said to be vital.

Based on the height variations, land over the surface of the earth is classified into a number of landforms like mountains, hills, plateaus, plains and valleys.

Distribution of landforms over the earth’s surface (given in percentage) Continents

Mountains

Plateaus

Plains

Asia

44%

24%`

32%

Europe

25%

8%

67%

Africa

4%

71%

25%

North America

24%

24%

52%

South America

20%

24%

56%

Australia

28%

24%

48%

Of these landforms, riverine plains and coastal plains play a vital role in the human life.

Nearly two third of world population is concentrated in the plain regions, mainly because of the favourable living conditions. Historical evidences prove that civilizations developed only in the plain regions. The best example is the Indo genetic civilization, developed in the subcontinent.

Land is also responsible for the development of other resources like forests, pastures, minerals, underground water and soil. In this way, land paves the foundation for fulfilling the basic necessities of human beings.

Factors influencing the land resources Land is a par to nature. Due to various factors like erosion and misuse, land could not be properly utilised in several parts of the world. Land is eroded by natural agents like rivers, glaciers, sea waves and winds. Apart from these, land is also influenced by the earthquakes, volcanio eruption, landslides and avalanches. Because of these factors, the foot hill zones, coastal and riverines plains are highly affected in different parts of the world.

In addition to the natural forces, man is also responsible for the destruction of land. It is the most important duty of mankind to protect the land resource in a proper way, mainly because the development of future generations depends on the proper utilization of land. The greedy nature and selfish attitude of the present man lead to the over-utilization of natural resources and finally to her total destruction. In the course of time, the natural resources may charge to

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING unusable form for the human society. As such, the present man has the responsibility to utilize the resources with proper planning.

When the land is utilized for various purposes like mining operational, location of industry, lying of roads and canals, construction of dams and formation of settlements, man has to plan properly in such a way land is not destroyed to a greater extent. The greedy nature of man as led to the destruction of land in several parts of world for example mining regions of coal; iron ore, bauxite, gypsum and limestone are found to be not in a usable form in several parts of the world.

Deforestation over the mountains leads to soil erosion and landslides. Landslides affect the agricultural operations, development of transportation and settlements. Soil erosion influences the fertility of soil and finally leading to the loss of agricultural operations, development of transportation and settlements. Soil erosion influences the fertility of soil and finally leading to eh loss of agricultural production.

Hence, it is the duty of mankind to take proper measures for preventing landslides, avalanches and soil erosion. By in the developing world, especially in most of the countries of Asia, Africa and South America, this problem has become acute and is able to influence the day to day affairs of human beings.

Protection of land resources Man has to find proper measures to protect the land resource by utilizing the advancement in science and technology. Landslides, soil erosion and avalanches are to be prevented by taking proper measures. Mining areas are to be developed in such a way that they are in a reusable form after exploiting the mineral resources. It is also essential to prevent soil erosion and deforestation especially in the mountainous regions. So that agricultural production will not be affected in course of time. Developing world should follow the technologies that are used in the developed world for the protection of land resources.

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UNIT – II ECO SYSTEM 2:0 CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM All the organisms are interdependent primarily for food. The food is the source of all metabolic energy of the organism and is a mixture of complex organic compounds synthesized form simple molecules. Only the green plants and some autotrophic bacteria are capable of synthesizing their own food. They utilize solar radian energy (light) to bind simple molecules of Co2 and water. Other elements as nitrogen, phosphorus. Calcium, potassium, magnesium, sulphur etc., play important role. These substances are derived form their physical surroundings.

These plants are eaten directly by some animals and other animals feed on animals which eat plants.

An ecosystem can be of any size ranging from a laboratory ecosystem an aquarium to the whole earth. When the whole earth is considered as an ecosystem the term ‘biosphere’ is used. Most of the ecosystems are natural but some of them are also non-made. Ex. Crop field’s gardens, parks and aquarium.

2:1 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM The ecosystem consists of two major components: (1) the abiotic component which includes the physical (non-living) environment and (2) the biotic component comprising of all the living organisms.

Abiotic component: The physical environment with its several interacting variables constitutes the abiotic component of the ecosystem. Basically it consists of 1. The solid mineral mater on the earth (lithosphere) 2. The water in the oceans, lakes, rivers and ice caps etc. (hydrosphere) 3. The gaseous mixture in the air (atmosphere) and 4. The radiant solar energy.

The position and movement of the earth and its gravitational forces are additional components of the environment. The energy interacts with the rocks, water and gases and with the organisms to produce the complex environment. This consists of identifiable variables such as heat, light, rain, snow, mist, fog, wind, dust, storm, fire etc., the environment thus crated and maintained by the interactions of these factors, function as a whole unit. Any of these factors cannot be removed or altered without affecting the other factors. Therefore the environment is called holistic.

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The Abiotic component in a particular area determines the type of organisms (biotic component) which will be found in that part of the ecosystem.

2:3 PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS AND DECOMPOSERS Biotic component – The organisms of ecosystems are usually divided into two categories. a. The producers: The autotrophs produce their own food. These are green plants and certain bacteria. Since these organisms produce food fro all the other organisms they are also known as producers. b. Consumers: The heterotopy are organisms which depend on the producers for the food. they depend directly or indirectly upon the autotrophs for their food. These are again divided into tow kinds. Consumers and decomposers.

The consumers are of three kinds. They are Primary Consumers. Secondary Consumers and Tertiary Consumers. i.

Primary consumers: A herbivore is a Primary Consumer that derives its nutrition direct form plants (e.g. cattles).

ii.

Secondary consumers: A carnivore is a secondary consumer driving its energy entirely form the producers (plants) by way of the herbivore. (e.g. snake)

iii.

Tertiary consumers: Tertiary consumers are carnivores that feed on other carnivores (e.g. Lion, tiger) Omnivores are consumers that derive their energy from both producers and herbivores (e.g birds, human beings).

Decomposers: In addition to herbivores and carnivores there is another major group of

heterotrophs in the ecosystem. This group of organism collectively referred to as decomposers, consists chiefly of bacteria and fungi. Decomposers produce enzymes within their bodies. They act on dead plant and animal material and some of the degraded and digested products are then absorbed. The decomposers perform an invaluable service to the ecosystem by the mineralization of organic matter and thereby made available for reuse.

Such a division of organism based on food gives rise to the trophic structure of the ecosystem. The process of eating and being eaten forms a chain. The food chain can always be traced back to producers.

Producer

herbivore

carnivore

carnivore

The position of the organism in the food chain is indicated by trophic levels. A trophic level may defined as the number of links by which it is separated form the producer. The

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING producers are at the base or the first trophic level, the herbivores at the second trophic level and a carnivore feeding on the herbivore at third trophy level and so on. The same organism may operate in the ecosystem at more then one trophic level i.e. deriving its food form more than one ource. An organism may be eaten by several organisms of a high trophic level or an organism at a lower trophic level may feed upon several different organisms. Thus we obtain several food chains linked together and intersecting each other to form a network known as food web.

2:4 ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM In any ecosystem,. The living organisms of rather structural development and functioning obtain energy forma group of organism that are already present in a particular system. This is called as ‘energy flow’. (1) Energy travels only through single way (2) There is a reduction of energy in each trophic level. The energy level in constant for every ecosystem. One cannot increase or decrease the energy level. But it can be converted form one state to another state to certain extent. A portion of energy remains unused during the conversion of energy. After conversion its reaction capacity gets reduced. Because of this, there if flow of energy form higher trophic level to the lower trophic level.

A part of the radiant energy of the sunlight is converted into chemical energy by the producers and is stored in the organic compounds. The rest of the radiant energy is converted into heat energy.

2:5 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION Plant Succession

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING The formation of climax vegetation by a particular plant community replacing another plant community is known as plant succession. It is classified into kinds.

1. Hydrosere plant succession: When plant succession starts on a wet area it is called Hydrosere.

1. Xerosere plant succession: When plant succession starts on a dry area it is called xerosere.

2. Hydrosere: This kind of plant succession a starts form lake, pond and pools. It is formed through different stages.

Submerged aquatic stage At this initial stage the water medium contains poor nutrients. In this medium higher organisms do not grow. Microorganisms like bacteria, blue-green algae, diatoms first appear. In due course the number of these organisms increases.

Submerged aquatic stage At this initial stage the water medium contains poor nutrients. In this medium higher organisms do not grow. Microorganisms like bacteria, blue-green algae, diatoms first appear. In due course the number of these organisms increases.

Submerged rooted plants Most of the microorganisms perish away leaving ‘humus’. Along with the humus the dust particles and sand combine together forming ‘clay’. Due to the formation of clay at the substratum, the depth of water decreases. Submerged rooted like vallisneria. Hydrilla and Chara being to grow. They increase number and later on perish away. The level of the substratum rises up. The height of water level tests lowered. New plants appear in this substratum.

Floating stage When the water level is two to five feet in height the floating plants being to grow. They are lotus, lilly, water hyacinth, salvia and pistia. They increase in number since the sunlight is obstructed by the enlarged leaf surface of floating plants. The submerged plants die for want of light. The humus increases in quantity and the substratum level increase. As result, the gloating plants are unable to float and in the course of time they perish.

Reed swamp stage Since the depth of water is very low, the plants that grow in this area are partially submerged and partially floating, Scripus, Polygonum, Sagittaria and Typha are examples of this type. They increase in number and later on they die due to deficiency to deficiency of light. The dept of water greatly decreases due to the deposition of humus and sand on the substratum.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING Sedge meadow stage Due to the deficiency of water plants like Crex, Cyperus and Juncus start growing. These plants increase in number. The rate of transpiration is very high due to which an intermediate state is formed making the disappearance of the marshy condition. The plants which appeared at this sage begin to dapper leaving a dry land which later on is occupied by grasses and xerophytes. When moist condition returns many trees appear making a forest.

Woodland stage At this stage few shrubs and small trees like Salix, comes being to grow. The land becomes fertile due to the increase of humus.

Climax forest New trees begin to grow at this fertile land. Thus a forest full of trees is formed in a place which was at one time occupied by water.

1. Xerosere plant succession This kind of plant succession takes place in dry condition. This includes various stages.

Crustose – Lichen Stage Initially there is only bare rock. Later pioneers like Rhizocarpon, Lecidia, Rindodina occupy this bare rock. They reproduce by means of soredia. These soredia fall on the rocky substratum and grow into a thalus. The plant body is very soft and sponge like. It absorbs moisture. Due to respiration that thallus forms certain acids like carbonic acids which lead to the withering of the rock by corrosion. On this substratum other plants grow and later on perish away.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING

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Foliose Lichen stage Foliose lichens such as Parmelia and Umplicaria begin to grow at this stage. They absorb moisture and store food material. During respiration they produce carbonic acids due to the action of which the rocks further disintegrate. This makes other plant communities grow.

Herbaccous Stage At first, small herbaceous annual plants make their appearance. The roots of these herbs grow deeper into the cervices of rocks thereby making the rock wither away. In due course soil is formed; small herbs begin to perish and humus accumulates in the soil. Biennial or perennial herbs such as Eleucine and soliadago grow.

Shrub stage Xerophytic plants like Rhus, Phyocarpus begin to grow and later they die. It increase the humus in the soil. This intern increases the soil fertility.

Climax Forest At first small trees make there appearance. These are drought resistant plants. the rock further undergoes withering and the amount of soil increases. Finally a climax forest full of trees is formed. Thus once a rocky substratum is new occupied by xerphytic plnats resulting in climax forest. It is to be noted that whether the paint succession begins form water or bare rock the final result is the climax forest.

2:6 FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS Food chains The transfer of food energy form producers (plants) through a series of organisms, i.e.

Herbivores

Carnivores

Top carnivores Decomposers

With repeated eating and being eaten is known as a food chain. The food chain is otherwise called trophic level.

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A grass land ecosystem is taken as an example. In this ecosystem the food chain starts form grasses and goes through the grasshopper, collates, snake and the eagle or hawking an orderly sequence.

Food webs Though many food chains can be traced in an ecosystem they never operate as isolated sequences. But they are interconnected with each other forming some interlocking pattern. This is known as food web.

Ecological pyramids The interrelation between numbers, biomass and energy content of consumers of the first order, second order and up to the top carnivores in any ecosystem is represented in

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING diagrammatic ways. They are called as ecological pyramids. The ecological pyramids are of three types, namely.

3. Pyramid of numbers 4. Pyramid of biomass 5. Pyramid of energy 1. Pyramid of numbers The relationship between the number of producers and the primary, secondary and tertiary consumers constitutes the pyramid of numbers.

In the grassland ecosystem the wide base of the pyramid represents the large number of primary producers. The primary consumers like the rabbit and the grasshopper form the second large number. The top carnivores like the tiger is present in the least number and occupy the peak of the pyramid. So in this way the numbers are represented in a diagrammatic way and an upright pyramid is formed.

2. Pyramid of biomass Biomass is the amount of living organisms and living matter present in a particular ecosystem.

In an ecosystem like grassland the biomass of the producers is the highest of all the trophic levels. In the grassland not only the number decreases but the biomass also continue to decrease form the primary producers to the top carnivores.

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This relationship between the biomass of the producers and the consumers of the ecosystem mentioned above can again be represented in the form of upright pyramids.

3. Pyramid of energy In an ecosystem the primary producers trap the sunlight energy and convert into chemical energy through the unique process of photosynthesis. The energy traped in the food materials flow in the food chain from the producers to the herbivores and then to

carnivores and finally to top carnivores. Here we have also learnt that the energy flow is always unidirectional and at successive trophic levels it decreases. Therefore the pyramid of energy is always vertical.

2:7 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM Ecology is broadly the study of ecosystem (Odum). A pond, a lake, a river, an estuary, a sea, a desert, a forest, grassland, or fields are same components i.e

autotrophic and

heterotrophic organism. They interact upon each other and they being about circulation of materials. But the organism constituting these components vary in different ecosystems. For

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING example, in a pond the algae and phytoplankton are the producers. On land trees, shrubs and herbs are the producers. The various ecological systems are: Forest ecosystem About 40% of our land is occupied by forests. Wherever moisture is sufficient and temperature is not too low, that area of land is occupied by forests. The forests in India occupy an area little more than on tenth of the total land. Depending upon temperature, available water and soil condition, the forests are classified into 5 major types, each having its won flora and fauna.

They are: 1. Tropical forests 2. Subtropical forests 3. Temperate forests 4. Alpine forests 5. Scrub jungle The first four types occur in the Himalayas The components of a forest ecosystem are as follows Abiotic components The organic and inorganic matter present in the land and atmosphere are called abiotic components. These are based on the available nutrients, dead organic matter and litter and available sunlight strategic layers of vegetation formed.

Biotic components The living flora and fauna are the living components of a forest. They are recognized as producers, consumers and decomposers.

Producers: In a forest, trees are the primary producers. The angiosperm and gymnosperm and gymnosperm trees grow in different heights. The trees in the tropical evergreen forests are broad leaved and leaf fall in irregular. Whereas in temperature forests and in deciduous forests, pines with needle like leaves, fall off during dry seasons. In tropical forest the broad leaved trees obstruct the light from reaching the ground. So, only the shade tolerant species such as bamboos, ferns and shrubs grow at the lower level of the forest. Vines and epiphytes are the two other characteristic forms of an evergreen forest. In India tropical evergreen forests are found along the Western Ghats and the NEFA.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING The consumers The macro consumers (animals) in different forests are well adapted for the conditions prevailing there. Foliage arthropods such as ants, flies, beetles, leaf hoppers, bugs and spiders are found. Moles, squirrels, fruit bats (flying foxes), mongooses are also present.

The decomposers The soil organisms found in the forest are protozoan, flat worms, nematodes, annelids, snails, millipedes, centipedes, spiders, spring tails, termites, trips and ants. Some of the soil organisms and soil bacteria play the role of decomposes.

Productivity Different types of forests also vary in their gross productivity. The plants and other autotrophic organisms store some dry mater by their photosynthetic activity. The rate at which dry matter is stored in the ecosystem is called the primary productivity.

In a forest ecosystem the productivity is the highest in the tropical evergreen forests due to the stable environment, large availability of water and high constant temperature.

Grassland ecosystem According to Shantz (1954) approximately 24% of the vegetation cover is grassland.

Abiotic components: It shows standing state, bio chemical structures and climate regime.

Phosphorus, sulphur, carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, potassium, magnesium and iron are the mineral elements proteins, carbohydrates and fats are generally call bio chemical structures. It increases the weight of the ecosystem. Climatic factors like heat and light are responsible for changes in the life activities of an ecosystem.

Biotic components: It shows the following components 1. Producers: They prepare the organic food material of high energy level E.g. Digitaria, Cyanodon Dactylon, Arundinella, Aristida, Cenehrus, Cymbogon. These are also called as autotrophs.

2. Consumers: They consume the producers and other organisms. They re divided into two types.

Macro consumers: Grassland shows worms, termites and insects. Gras provides shelter and food for them. Cattle and deer graze the grassland. This type of herbivores are called primary consumers. The snakes, lizards and birds are called secondary consumers. They depend mainly on the primary consumers for food. Birds and men are the tertiary consumers.

Ecological Pyramids

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING The producers occupy the lower level of the ecological pyramid. This is followed by the other tropic levels. The pyramid is straight for a grassland ecosystem. The tope layer of the pyramid shows least number of consumers. The producers and consumers are responsible for the stability of an ecosystem.

Energy flow: The living organisms for their structural development and functioning obtain energy form a group of organism that is previously present in an ecosystem. A par to the energy stored up and the rest is used for respiration.

Desert Ecosystem Definition: an ecosystem comprising sparse vegetation in dry, sandy and dry atmospheres, strong winds and temperature extremes.

Life is difficult in deserts because of the very little soil moisture, dry atmosphere, strong winds and temperature extremes.

Characteristics of vegetation in desert ecosystem 1. Trees and bushes are scatterly distributed 2. Trees grow up to 30 m in height.

3. The plants are with spines.

4. The plants spared their root system near the top soil.

5. The stems and leaves show succulence 6. The vegetation is of open canopy type.

Animals found in the desert ecosystem Desert fauna is sparse. The research animals are additionally subjected with reduced availability of water and high temperature during the day time. Therefore, most of the animals live in burrows. They include lizards, snakes, rats and mice. Other animals are insects, insectivorous birds, hawks, foxes etc., amongst higher animals, camel is known to survive desert conditions.

Characteristics features of desert plants The phenomenon of organism having similar modifications in different geographical areas in response to similar conditions is known as ‘ecological equivalence’.

I. Morphological characteristics 1. Deep roots.

2. Presence of rot buds for vegetative reproduction

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3. Dark green leaves to reflect excessive sunlight.

4. Hard and leathery leaves 5. Succulent stems and leaves 6. Presence of phylloclade 7. Modification of stem and leaves into thorns /spines.

II. Internal characteristics 1. Wax-coated leaves with thick outside 2. Secretions of latex, resins and gums 3. Presence of hairs in leaves and stems 4. Presence of sunken stomata III.

Physiological Characteristics 1. Reduced rate of transpiration 2. Temporary wilting 3. High metabolic rate 4. High osmotic pressure in the cells.

Productivity of desert ecosystem 2

Primary productivity for desert is low (30-200 gm/m yr) Algae grow abundantly where moisture is available as in oasis. Blue green algae increase nitrogen fertility through nitrogen fixation.

Aquatic Ecosystem Various types of ecosystems operate as self sufficient interacting system in the biosphere. Ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans and estuaries are the constituents of aquatic ecosystem.

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The pond ecosystem (Fresh Water) Ponds are small bodies of shallow standing water and are generally characterized by relatively quite waters and abundant vegetation. A pond serves as a god example for a fresh water ecosystem. The pond ecosystem consists of abiotic and biotic components.

The chief substances of abiotic components are heat, light,

pH

value, organic and

inorganic compounds namely carbon di oxide, oxygen, calcium, nitrogen, phosphates, aminoacids, humic acids etc. The amounts of these components are estimated for biomas determination.

The various organisms of the biotic component are producers, consumers and decomposers. Producers include large hydrophytes (eg. Typha, Numphaea, Chara, Hydrilla, Marsilea, nelumbium) and phytoplankton’s (eg.

Volvox, Chlamydomonas) which are minute

floating plants.

The decomposers are the microbes such as bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi. They bring about the decomposition of complex dead organic matter to simple forms. Thus they play an important role in the return of the mineral elements again to the pond.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING Stream and river ecosystem Continuously moving water is the outstanding feature of the stream s and rivers. Water current influences the life and ways of the organism inhabiting the flowing water. Flowing water transports nutrients to aquatic organisms and carries waste products away form them. In streams and rivers, because of small depth and large surface exposed to constant motion, there is abundance of oxygen. The streams and rivers offer a rich flora and fauna. The diatoms, blue green algae, fish, green algae, insects, worms and snails are common in this habitat.

Lake ecosystem A lake can be defined as an inland depression on the surface of the earth ranging in depth form a few metres to about 1800 metres and containing standing water. In lades the environmental conditions are very stable. Lakes may be classified into three types.

1. Oligotrophic lakes Lakes which do not produce abundant organisms (little producing lakes).

2. Eutrophic lakes: These lakes sustain a rich plant and animal life.

3. Dystrophic lakes These are “bad producing lakes” and have plants and animals of certain types only.

The flora and fauna of lakes resemble very much those of the ponds. Algae, hydrophytes, phytoplankton’s, zooplanktons, aquatic animals and certain plants and animals characteristic of the sea are present in the lakes. Grass like vegetation, large trees and shrubs develop during the late fill – in lake succession.

Ocean ecosystem The oceans are the oldest and largest ecosystem on earth. According to the report of The National Committee of Science and Technology, the fits of the ocean, if tapped properly, can yield “Significant breakthrough in our national economy”. The study of the oceans is called oceanography. The psycho chemical factors of the marine environment include currents, tides, light temperature and nutrients.

There are two major environments in the sea.

1. Pelagic (open sea) 2. Benthic (deep sea)

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING Pelagic environment comprises the entire water mass up to 40-50 feet. The pelagic regions are dominated by phytoplankton’s. Phytoplankton flora provides the chief food supply for most of the qautic life in the oceanic region. The fauna include Zooplankton, protizoans, jelly fishes, crustaceans, prawns and fishes.

Benthic environment consists of ocean floor form the edge of the sea down to it steepest depth. The sandy shore or beach, Rocky shore and muddy shore provide various types of flora and fauna. Algae, grasses, worms, mollusks, echinoderms, crabs, protectorates and fishes are very common.

The deep sea has some unique ecological characteristics and is the largest of Biological environments. In deep sea no light penetration, on wave action and no temperature variations are unique features. No photosynthetic organisms are present and life depends upon the organic matter available there. Bacteria inhabit the mud of the sea floor. Sea cucumbers, prawns, marine sponges and tallest fishes are important deep sea animals. The deep sea is a desert but with the o

temperature at 4 C. However, in the deep sea waters there is enough dissolved oxygen to support life.

Estuarine ecosystem An estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body of water which has a free connection with the open sea. So the sea water mixes with fresh water. Thus, estuaries may be considered as transitional zones between the freshwater and marine habitats. Estuaries are equivalent to tropical rain forests and coral reefs as natural productive ecosystems. Estuaries have all the types of producers such as macrophytes, mocrophytes and phytoplanktons. The consumers are more or les similar to those present in marine environment.

Like and water are inseparable with the advancement of industrial civilization. Our needs for water are increasing day by day. Yet fresh water environments, though relatively small in size, are of the greatest interest to man. Our limited water resources have been much abused and reversing the damaged ecology will require superhuman efforts.

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UNIT – III BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION 3:0 INTRODUCTION Living things, as they evolved on the earth, have produced a bewildering diversity. There are millions of plants and animals but even within a species, there exists enormous diversity. This massive diversity or ‘gene pool’ is a common heritage of all human beings. It is also their insurance for future survival. Increasingly, as new varieties of plants and animals useful to human beings are bred, this massive gene bank provided by nature becomes important.

3:1 DEFINITION Biological diversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity with species, between species and of ecosystems.

3:2 GENETIC It refers to the variation of genes within species. This constitutes distinct population of the same species or genetic variation within population or varieties within a species. The most basic level of biological diversity is that found within a species and is known as genetic diversity.

Genetic diversity encompasses the variation among individuals within a population in their genetic make up and the genetic variation among populations. Each species consists of on or more populations of individuals. A population is usually defined as a group of individuals that can interbreed and, if sexually reproducing, can interchange genetic material. Different populations tend to diverge genetically due to their limited genetic mixing or maturations, natural selection, genetic drift and the accumulation of selectively neutral mutations. Thus there are genetic differences both among individuals and among populations. Populations with higher genetic diversity are more likely to have some individuals that can withstand environmental change and thereby pass on their genes to the next generation.

India is considered one of the 12 centres of genetic diversity in the world. The total Indian flora consists of about 45,000 species of which about 3,000 are non flowering plants like algae and fungi which are usually inconspicuous and small. The flowering plants of India consist of about 15,000 species. About 7,000 endemic species are found in India.

3:3 SPECIES AND ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY The most common usage of diversity is the number of species found in a given area, species diversity. Most ecologists would regard a community comprising of 50 individuals of species A and 50 of species B as more dives that a community comprising 99 individuals of

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING species A and I individual of B. Thus, in addition to the number of species in a give area diversity indices have been proposed that take into account the distribution of individuals among species.

The number of species currently described on earth is between 1.4. and 1.7 million both the Global Diversity Assessment suggests a conservative estimate of 1.75 million. On land there are more species kwon than in the sea. This is largely due to the extraordinary diversity of beetles (Coleoptera); 400,000 species are described. An important aspect of species diversity is endemism, (that is, the species occurring in a restricted locality). The Antarctic has a higher degree of endemism than the Arctic.

ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY When biodiversity is measured quantitatively, usually as the number of species or the value of a diversity index for a given community or area of habitat, it is known as ecosystem diversity. Ecosystem is defined as dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit�. Habitat diversity is a more useful term than the of ecosystem diversity since habitats are easy to envisage (e.g. a forest, a coral reef, an estuary).

All species are presumed to interact with each the rand to be competing for similar resources. Ecologists have called the within habitat (or alpha) diversity. At slightly larger scales habitat and /or community boundaries are crossed and sampling covers more than one habitat or community. This scale has been called between habitat (or beta) diversity. At an even larger scale (regional scale) where evolutionary rather than ecological processes operate the pattern has been called gamma diversity or more recently landscape diversity. Landscape diversity can be defined as the mosaic of habitats over larger scales often hundreds of km.

Biodiversity assessments need to be made at the community habits and landscape levels if we are to predict changes over time. It is primarily the losses of habitats that leads to both genetic and species diversity.

3:4 BIOGEOGRAPHICALLY CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA Introduction Historical Biogeography Ecological Biogeography Phytogeography Zoogeography Phytogeography a. Floristic regions of India

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b. Vegetation of India c.

Forests of India

Zoogeography Diverse fauna of India Classification of Indian region Characteristics of this region Biosphere reserve Soils of India Alluvial soils Black soils Red soils Desert soils Laterite soils Climate of India Climate regions of India Wet Zone Intermediate Zone Dry zone Arid zone Since India is a mega diversity country, the biogeographers feels, it is essential to know the biogeographically classification of India to understand the geographical distribution of organisms.

Biogeographical Classification

Historical

Ecological

Phytogeography

Zoogeography 1. Plaleoarctic

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Descriptive

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Dynamic

2. Ethiopian 3. Australian 4. Neoarctic 5. Neotropical 6. Oriental (Indian)

Historical Biogeography It is concerned primarily with the evolutionary histories of organisms.

Ecological biogeography It concentrates on current interactions of organisms with physical environment and with one another.

Phytogeography It is the study of origin, environmental relationship and distribution of plants both in time and space. This is again classified as descriptive phytogeography and dynamic or interpretive phytogeography.

Descriptive phytogeography describes the actual distribution of plants in different parts of the world. Dynamic phytogeography explains the reasons for such distribution.

3:5 VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY India is one of the top 12mege diversity countries. Diversity in genes, species and ecosystems provides the raw materials with which human communities adapt to change. Thus the loss of each additional species, gene and ecosystem reduces the ability of nature and people to adapt to the changing environment.

The Food and agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United National has defined “the sustainable development in forestry, wildlife, agriculture, and fishery is to conserves lad, water, plant and animal genetic resources. It is environmentally none degrading technically appropriate economically viable and socially accepted�. This four biological pillar of global economy are croplands, grasslands, forests and fisheries. They continue to give valuable substances for human life.

The main approaches have been used to determine the value of biological resources viz. consumptive use, productive use, social, ethical, aesthetic and option values.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING 3:6 CONSUPTIVE USE Nearly 99% of the human food supply comes from the land. In India, the present per capita availability of land is les than 0.20 ha. Globally, about one third of agricultural land is devoted to crops and the remaining two-third is devoted to pastures of livestock grazing. In India pastures and grazing lands hardly occupy 40 percent of the world’s cattle, buffalo, sheep and goat population.

A much larger number of plants provide food, oil, vegetable, fruits, fodder, and other needs such as spices, beverages, medicines, ornamental and industrial raw materials Today the world’s main food supply is determined by only 20 crop species; 8 forest species provide most of eth world’s wood and timber. Similarly about 20 animal species provide most of eth world’s mil, wool, hide and draught power.

The consumptive use valuation involves assessing the value of resource, such as firewood, fodder and game meat that reach consumer directly without passing through a market.

3:7 PRODUCTIVE USE Noncomsumptive use valuation involves assess in the value of products that are commercially harvested and marketed such as timber, is, game meta, ivory and medicinal plants.

The Ayrvedic system of India gave the world reserving, a tranquilizer and treatment of hypertension, anxiety and schizophrenia. Resrpine is a therapeutic agent extracted form a herb, Ravwolfia serpentine. In India, at lest 2,500 plants are used for medicinal purposes.

Policy makers often appreciate productive use values more that consumptive use values which relate to large industries, such as forestry and fishing and which are connected to markets and therefore reflected in national income accounts.

Wild species of plants and animals provide many valuable substances such as wood and other plant products like fibers. Meat and other valuable products like feathers, crocodile and snake skin, ivory, rhinoceros horn, and musk form must deer attract international market. The financial value of wild species is important to the economics of many nations.

3:8 SOCIAL VALUE Agriculture and plantation work was labour intensive and required a considerable labour force. They derive a wild variety of biological resources form their environment as well and utilize a technology including cultivars that are specifically adapted to their environment. Rural sociologists and anthropologists are mainly interested in technological changes on the lives of individual farmers and the identity of rural communities.

In India the human group have been highly mobile, moving form one area to another looking for resources and livelihood. In a recent survey of the anthropological survey of India over

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING 80% of the human communities have reported migrational histories. That the Nilgiris area along the Western Ghats in Tamilnadu is no exception ahs been proved by waves of immigrants right through the historical period. This resulted in the expansion and intensification of agriculture and horticulture. These attracted waves of immigrants form the surrounding in plains who come into the area in search of livelihood.

The ecosystem people are those living close to the earth in their traditional habits, meeting most of their needs by gathering natural resources or producing them and subsist on agriculture or animal husbandry form their own environments. Tribals, artisinal fisher folk, subsistence agriculturists and herders have lived in this fashion for generations, in the process evolving cultural traditions of prudent resources use.

3:9 ETHICAL VALUE Environmental ethics includes the relationship between man and environment in which people are living and the views of different religions on nature.

Hinduism expresses the firm belief that the natural environment in which people are living is a manifestation of divine nature itself. Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and other scriptures of this Religion give a detailed description of tres, plnats and wildlife and thei importance to the communicyt. Various tress and plans are usd in religious ceremonies and worship. Killign birds and animals was strictly prohibited in ancient Hindu scriptures. Man is the trustee of the universe and he is authorized to use natural resources, but he has no power to control and dominate nature and its laments. Hence form the perspective of Hinduism the biodiversity of our nation should be protected and improper exploitation of nature I unjust and irreligious.

Similarly various religions like Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, Taoism, Islam have insisted that the mind is supreme and environment results form a proper moral and spiritual life style.

3:10 AESTHETIC VALUE Every kind of animal and plant differs form each other and contribute in a special way to the beauty of nature. It also heightens the enjoyment of camping and other forms of outdoor recreation. Forests are not only valued for their products but they support butterflies, grasshoppers, beetles and other animal and plants that have aesthetic beauty.

In India we have sanctuaries, national parks, zoos, closed areas which are protected.

They comprise reserve forest and territorial waters which are of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance. Tourism related to wildlife sanctuaries a national park is also a source of revenue for our nation.

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3:11 OPTION VALUES Option value is the national value, economic, cultural or scientific that a site or a species might have in future, but which is not yet recognized. The biodiversity of plants and animals is useful in several forms and suitable for culture or production. Many wild species can be reared naturally or cultured and the annual income can be increased.

It has been forecast that biodiversity based industrial activities like pharmaceuticals cosmetics, seeds, food processing and waste treatment would come to account for the 21

st

century. It is to be hoped that India would seize the opportunities that have opened up with the recognition of national sovereignty over genetic resource to nurture vigorous growth of biodiversity based enterprises in the coming years.

Although indirect values of biological resources are the most difficult to estimate they actually may foroutweigh direct values. Species without consumptive or productive use values may play important roles in the ecosystem and support species that are valued for their productive of consumptive uses. Protection of wetlands provides an annual savings in flood protection of wetlands provides an annual savings in flood protection and sediment reduction.

Conservation of biodiversity include carbon, sink, climate and hydraulic regulation, seed bank, soil and oxygen replenishment functions.

All biodiversity based commercial products like drugs and seeds, income form royalties form industry using Indian genetic resources and central and state government allocations for conservation programmes. An open transparent process of monitoring biodiversity levels, perhaps through the post-literacy mission activities in collaboration with schools, colleges and research institutions could map the levels of biodiversity thus being maintained.

3:12 BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL LEVEL Life originated on the earth about three billion years ago. Life occurs in almost all diverse habitats ranging form high mountain peaks more than 20,000feet to deepest sea bottom up to the depth of about 10,000 meters. Living organisms have been reported form ponds, ditches, pools, hot springs in the devastation cold of Polar Regions, in desert, in dense tropical forests and wherever existence of life is possible. Different organisms inhabit different ecological areas. That is why all living organisms do not occupy all the life supporting areas. Some organisms flourish in one type of areas while other in other type of area. This is known as range. Thus the range represents the area of distribution of species.

The first person to suggest that the continents had very different positions in the past was a German meteorologist, Alfred Wagener. He based his ideas partly on evidence of the distributions of plants and animals, which were hard to explain if one assumed that the continents has always occupied their present positions. By the close of the Mesozoic, approximately million

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING years ago, most of the continents had broken apart and were drifting away form each other. North America and Eurasia are still joined through Greenland. Australia and Antarctica area still united.

South America and Africa had got separated only recently and the gap between them slowly widened during the Mesozoic.

The continents have been separated long enough to each continent. Australia has had the longest separation and is the most distinct of all the continents it its biota. South America is the next most distinct, having been isolated from all other continents for nearly 60 million years.

North America and Eurasia have been united over much of earth’s history, and their biotas are very similar.

Differences between continents are also maintained by climatic and topographic barriers, even when no large water gap exists. Africa is isolated form both Europe and Asia by broad expanses of deserts India and other parts of South Asia are isolated form northern Asia by the Himalayan Mountains. In North America, castern and western forests are separated by extensive grasslands and have been for long enough that many woodland animals are represented by different, but closely related species in the two regions.

The long term histories of the continents with respect to one another has resulted in the evolution of district biotas on each. These biotas form the basis for dividing the world into the major biogeographical regions. With the exception of Australia, these regions today are not separated by water gaps. Their distinctiveness is mostly due to past separations, maintained in part today by topographical and climatic barriers.

Despite barriers to dispersal, there have been major exchange of organisms among the continents. Some are evident form current distributions of taxa, but others are revealed only because some members spread to other are revealed only because of fossil evidence. For example horses and camels both evolved in North America but became extinct there. These groups survive only because some members spread to other continents. Horses in the will survive today in Africa and Asia, and camels survive in south America, Africa and Asia.

The basic reason for expecting convergent evolution to occur is that all organisms have a limited amount of energy to be allocated to activities that enhance their survival and reproductive successes. If climates among competing life functions any also be similar. To detect convergence, as opposed to parallel evolution of organisms that were originally very similar and have been major difference among the organisms at sometime in the past. Second, there must have been enough time far convergence to take place evolutionary changes occur, as well have seen, relatively slowly, especially when major change occur, as well have been, relatively slowly, especially when major changes in body form and functioning are involved. Convergent evaluation is reassured in terms of millions of years.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING Convergences among reptiles and mammals are remote form are another in time, and they began with very dissimilar standing points. The island of St, Helena, located mid way between Africa and south America was colonized initially be low growing, herbaceous plant of the sunflower family (Composite). Some of these early form evolved subsequently with tree. Today, St. Helena has forests, but they are unlike those of any other place of Earth.

Animals also undergo unusual adaptive radiations when colonists reach remote islands where very few species are present. The Hawaiian honey creepers (Dreopanidea) probably originated form a single finch like bird that colonized the islands long ago. Hawaii then lacked as it does today, finches, parrots, wood peekers and humming birds and the ancestral drepanids radiated tin species that function ecologically as members of diverse group.

The ‘Wood pecker’ Hemignathus Wilsoni Chisels opens dead wood with its stiff lower mandibles and picks out insects with its sharp, curbed upper bill. Psendonestar Xenophrys tears open deadwood with its parrot like beak, extracting beetle larvae in much the same way that some parrots do in Australia - also a region tat lacks woodpeckers. Unfortunately, as a result of forest destruction and of the introduction of foreign species, a number of the original Hawaiian honeycreepers have been exterminated and many of the remaining ones are very rare.

It is useful to have some simple terms to describe changes in biotos over space. The number of species present in a small, local, homogenous area is known as alpha richness. The rate at which new species are added to a biota when different habitats in the same area are added is known as beta richness. Addition of species on a broad geographical scale is known as gamma richness. If the species are weighted by some measure of their size of abundance, the same changes are referred to as alpha, beta and gamma different visits, respectively. Two regions may have similar richnesses on one scale but quire different ones one another. For example bird communities in Mediterranean vegetation in California, Chile and South Africa have very similar alpha diversities but different beta and gamma diversities.

Changes in bird species along vegetation gradients occur most rapidly in Africa and most slowly in Chile, probably because Chile is well isolated form the rest of South America by the lofty Andes Mountains along the entire eastern border and by the extremely dry atcama desert to the north and is consequently rather poor in bird species.

The living organisms are distributed unevenly in space including earth’s surface.

Geological distribution deals with the distribution of animals in the past earth history. This could be studied only through the fossils. Animals are found distributed everywhere in the atmosphere.

But this distribution is not uniform. Actually there is no such place where the animals or plants are not found. The dense tropical forest, the highest mountain, the desert and the polar regions, each has its won fauna and flora.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING The first European botanist to travel around the world in the middle of the nineteenth century was struck by the fact that areas with similar climates in different parts of the world had similar vegetation. This is why the name Mediterranean vegetation is applied to the communities of evergreen shrubs with tough leaves that occur in the five regions of the world with mild, well winters and to dry summers.

3:13 BIODIVERSITY AT NATIONAL LEVEL India is the seventh larges country in the world. Asia’s second larges nation with an area of 3,287,263 sq. km. It has a land frontier of some 15,200 km and a coastline of 7,516 km (Government of India, 1985). Physically the massive country is divided into for relatively well defined regions. The Himalayan Mountains, the Gangetic river plains, the Southern (Deccan) plateau and the islands of Lakshdweep. Andaman and Nicobar.

Forests Indian possesses a distinct identity, not only because of its geography, history and culture but also because of the great diversity of its natural ecosystems. The panorama of Indian forests ranges form evergreen topical rain forests in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Western Ghats and the North Eastern stages, to dry alpine scrub high in the Himalayas to the north. Between the two extremes, the country has semi-evergreen rain forests, deciduous monsoon forests, thorn forests, subtropical pine forests in the lower montane zone and temperate montane forests (Lal, 1989).

The main areas of tropical forest are found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands; the Western Ghats, which fringe the Arabians coastline of Peninsular India; and the greater Assam regions the north east. Small remnants of rain forest are found in Orisa state. Semi-evergreen rain forest in more extensive than the evergreen with human interference.

There are substantial differences in both the flora and fauna between the three major rain forest regions (IUCN, 1986; Rodges and Panwar, 1988) Indian coral reefs have a wide range of resources, which are of commercial value. Exploitation of corals, coral debris and coral sands, is widespread on the Gulf of Kutuch reefs, wild ornamental shells, chanks and pearl oysters are the basis of unimportance reef industry in the south of India. Sea fans and seaweeds are exported for decorative purposes, and there is a spiny lobster fishing industry along the south cast cost, notably at Tuticorin. Madras and Mandampam. Commercial exploitation of aquarium fishers form Indian coral reefs ahs gained importance only recently as yet no organized effort has been made to exploit these resources. Reef fisheries are generally at the subsistence level and yields are unrecorded.

Five species of marine turtle occur in Indian waters: Green turtle chelonian mydas, logger head Caretta, Olive Ridley Lepidochelys Olivacia, Hawksbill Eretmochelys imbricate and

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING Leather back Dermochelys Cariacea. Most of the marine turtle populations found in the region are in decline. The principal reason for the decrease in number is deliberate human predation.

Species Diversity India contains a great wealth of biological diversity in its forest its wetlands and in its marine areas. This richness in shown in absolute numbers of species and the proportion they represent of the world total.

India has a great many scientific institutes and university departments interested in various aspects of biodiversity. A large number of scientists and technicians have been engaged in inventory, research and monitoring. The general state of knowledge about the distribution and richness of the country’s biological resources is therefore fairly good.

Inventories of birds, mammals, trees, fish and reptiles are moderately complete.

Endemic Species India has many endemic plants and vertebrate species. Among plants, species endemism is estimated at 33% with about 140 endemic general but no endemic families (Botanical survey of India, 1983). Areas rich in endemism are north – East India, the Western Ghats and the north - Western and Eastern Himalayas. A small pocket of local endemism also

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING occurs in the Eastern Ghats (Makinnon &Mackinnon, 1986). The gangetic plains are generally poor in endemics, while the Andaman and Nicobar Islands contribute at least 220 species to the endemic flora of India (Botanical survey of India 1983).

Threatened Species India contains 172 species of animal considered globally threatened species (Groombridge, 1993). These include 53 species of mammals, 69 birds, 23 reptiles and 3 amphibians. India contains globally important population of Asia’s rarest animals, such as the Bengal Fox, Asiantic Cheetaah, Marbled cat, Asiatic Lion, Indian elephant, Asiatic Wild Ass, Indian Rhinoceros, Markhor, Gaur, Wild Asiatic Water Buffalo etc. The number for species in various taxa are listed under the different categories of endangerment is shown in below in Table2.

There are currently seven national parks in the Western Ghats with a total area of 2,073 sq.km. (equivalent to 1.3. % of the region) and 39 wildlife sanctuaries an area of about 13, 862 sq.km. (8.1%).

Source: Groombridge, B.(ed.) 1993. The 1994 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, lvi + 286 pp.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING The management status of the wildlife sanctuaries in this part of India varies enormously.

Tamil Nadu’s Nilgiri wildlife sanctuary, for example has no human inhabitants, small abandoned plantation areas and no produce exploitation, while the Parambikulam wildlife sanctuary in Kerala includes considerable areas of commercial plantations and privately owned estates with heavy resource exploitation.

3:13 BIODIVERSITY AT LOCAL LEVEL In India, nearly 200 sanctuaries and 19 national parks have been established for wild life management. Sanctuaries are places where the killing or capturing of any animal is prohibited except under orders of the authorizes concerned. They provide protection and optimum living conditions to wild animals. National Parks are set up for preserving flora, fauna, landscapes and historic objects of an area. Some well known wildlife sanctuaries and national parks of Tamilnadu are as follows.

Vadanthangal Bird Sanctuary It covers an area of 0.30 sq.km over a lake, about 85 k.m. south of Chennai. It is a bird sanctuary. Many migratory birds regularly visit this area during October and November. They bread here between October and March. When summer starts, the lakes become empty because the birds migrate to their homelands. Ibis, spoon bills, open billed stork, egret, cormorant darter, grey heron, pelican and dab chinch are some of the birds that visit this sanctuary.

Mudumalai Sanctuary This sanctuary is situated in Nilgiri district. It was established in, 1940. It covers an area of 321 sq.kms. It is characterized by dense forests and diversity of fauna. The common wild animals of this sanctuary are as follows: Wild elephant, Bison, Sambhar, Chital, Barking deer, Mouse deer, Tiger, Panther, bonnet Monkey, Giant squirrel, Flying squirrel, Wild dog,, Jackal, Wild cat, Porcupine, Pangolin, flying lizard, python, Rat snake, etc., Mudanthurai Sanctuary It is situated in Tiruenlveli district at Papanasam hills, the Tamaraparani river passes through this sanctuary. It was established in 1962. It encloses an area of 520 sq.km. It is formed of thick forests. The wild animals here include tiger, panther, sambhar and chital.

Anamalai Sanctuary This sanctuary is located in Coimbatore district. It was established in 1972. It covers an area of 968 sq.kms. The will animals of this sanctuary include elephants, bison, sambhar, spotted deer (chital), barking deer, Nilgai tahr, lion tailed monkey, tiger, panther, sloth bear, langur porcupine, pangolin etc.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING Point Calimere This sanctuary is situated in Tanjore district. It covers an area of 17 sq.kms. the backwater of this sanctuary is inhabited by flocks of flamingos and pelicans in winter. The nearby vedrayam forests are inhabited by a large number of black bucks, chital, wild boars, etc.

Mountradappu Sanctuary This sanctuary is situated along the National Highway between Nagercoil and Tirunelveli.

This sanctuary in inhabited by many migratory birds.

Guindy Deer Park It is situated near Chennai city and has mainly chital and black bucks. A few albinos of black are also found here.

The Plani Hills The Palni Hills Conservation Council was formed in 1985, an organisation devoted to promoting sustainable development. The consists of ecologists, environmentalists, botanist etc.

The Palni Hills in basically the eastern spur of the Western ghats range in the South India State of Tamilnadu. The hills start at 280 m sea level and raise up to 2300 mts. The wet temperate forests of these hills are known as ‘sholas’ in the meaning natural prime forests.

Kodaikanal Kodaikanal, one of his most beautiful hill towns is situated in the Palni Hills. It is an important eco-town threatened at the same time by two potential issues of eutrophication of the lake and pollution by tourist. The lake situated at Kodaikanal town at 2200 mts, above sea level is the main source of drinking water to may towns, the pilgrim tow of Palni in the plains. The lake I spread over an area of 22 ha and is fed by natural springs through marsh.

3:14 INDIA -A MEGA DIVERSITY ZONE India is one of the world’s mega diversity zones where almost all the biogeography zone in the world is represented here. India constitutes only 2% of the total and mass of the world but it represents 5% of the fauna and flora of the world. The Indian subcontinent present the most varied physiographic and climatic conditions preset anywhere in the world in area of similar size.

This ecological diversity has resulted in the aggregation of one of the riches floral species in our country. India is gifted with the cold desert vegetation of Tibet plateau, the alphine meadows of the upper Himalayas, pine and deodar forests of lower Himalayas, pine and deodar forests of lower Himalayas, tropical rain forests of Assam, Meghalaya and Western ghats, sal forests of the gangetic plains and trees of the marshy areas of Sunderbans in West Bengal. All these vegetational zones have been found to contain hundreds of useful plant species.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING As the Indian subcontinent is characterized with a variety of climatic types, flora of the country is also correspondingly of different types in different parts. The secret of this richness of biodiversity lies in the country’s varied relief, land forms, terrain, soil, range of daily and annual temperature and varying amount of rainfall and duration of regime. Briefly our flora range form one found in tropical zone to that of the Arctic Zone.

The Zoological Survey of India, the Botanical Survey India and the Forest survey of India have been studying and documenting plant and animal diversity of the country. Of the country. Of the estimated 54,000 plant species, about 15,000 species are flowering plants and 30,000 are non-flowering plants. The number 15,000 of the flowering plant species should not be taken as the final figure as several areas in the country remain unexplored and under explored. From a very small area, Silent Valley in Kerala, covering less than 9,000 hectares the Botanical Survey in India recently discovered nine species new to science and a new genus of plants.

Of the estimated 30,000 non-flowering plant s5,000 species are algae, 16,000 lichens, 20,000 fungi, 2,700 bryophytes and 600 pteriodophytes. Nearly 7,000 of the 45,000 plat species are found exclusively in India or they are endemic. These endemic species are found largely in Himalayas and Western Ghats of Peninsular India.

There are about 75,000 species of animals including 5,000 insects, 4,000 molluss, 2,000 fishes, 140 amphibians, 420 reptiles, 1200 birds and 340 mammals and other invertebrates. IT is estimated hat further exploration many increase the total to about 1,50,000 animal species. Thus India is home to about 2,00,000 species of living organisms.

Of the total animal species described, several are endemic to India. Among the larger animals, 79 species of the mammals, 44 of birds, 15 of reptiles and 3 species of amphibians are today endangered. In addition 1500 plant species are considered endangered. The main strategy for the conservation of species is the protection of viable habitats in representative ecosystem.

Biological diversity includes the flowing two related concepts.

1. Genetic diversity: This is the amount of variability among individuals of a single species and between species.

2. Ecological diversity: (Species richness) These is the number or species sin community organisms. Maintaining both types of diversity is fundamental to the functioning of ecosystems and hence to human welfare.

The Indian region (8-30°N and 60°-97.5°E) with a total area of 32 million hectares is very rich in biological diversity. In fact India is one of the 12 centers of diversity and is origin of several cultivated plants in the world.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING 3:15 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY India has 2.5 % of the earth’s surface and one seventh of its population. An estimated 20% of the population lives in towns and cities and approximately 80% in the rural areas. In proportion to the population, India uses only a small fraction of the world’s resources. India’s problems revolve around high population density, low availability and utilization of natural resources, poor standard of living high percentage of illiteracy and low level of environmental awareness.

India’s population density in inhabited areas in 178 persons per sq.km and at place it reaches 2,738 persons per sq.km. It is one of the highest in the world. About 80% of the propel live in rural areas whereas 20% in towns and cites. Although the pattern of rural –urban population has remained almost steady during the last 100 years, the density of population has remained almost steady during the last 100 years; the density of population has increase tremendously, particularly in the last few decades. About 3,000 million liters of sewage flows out of the cites and towns of India everyday. It is applied as irrigation water, mostly without treatment and in some cases is discharged into nearest river as stream. These kinds of damage that man has done and are doing his environment are some of the ways in which the lessening of environmental quality threatens the existence of earth’s organisms.

India has a uniquely rich diversity of plant and animal life, which constitute in no small l measure to the human economy. Expending human population resulted in the expending needs to man. With the scientific progress and technological development men started utilizing natural resources at a much larger scale. We would now consider is in detail each of the natural resources, and the possible away of its conservation, particularly in Indian context.

3:16 ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA As many as 500 million kinds of plants, animals and micro organisms have made this planet home since life began over 3.5. Billion years ago, Today, there are only 5 million to 10 million species above, we do not know exactly how many; because there are many biologically uncharted areas such as the tropical rain forests where some estimate over 90% of the living organisms remain unclassified. Thus, since life began, about 490 million species have become extinct.

If the world’s population continues to grow and nation continue to destroy wildlife habitat by expanding agriculture and other activities at the current pace, the extinction rate could reach 20,000 species a year. A t this rate, 4,00,000 species of plant and animals could be wipe out in 20 years., World wildlife expert Norman Myers argues that we could loose 1 million species by the first decade of 2000. Although such high rates of extinction are probably exaggerated,

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING extinction will undoubtedly increase unless we make conscious efforts to curb population growth and properly mange our renewable and nonrenewable resources.

In India, animals, particularly large ones, seem in greater danger of exterminating than plants. About 340 species constitute the mammalian fauna of India of which 81 are greatly endangered. The primates are represented by 19 species, of which the small and slender loris, is respected to the tropical rain forests and open woodland forests of south India, while the slow loris inhabits the denser forests of north east India. The lion tail and monkey (Macaca silenurs) living in evergreen forests of the Western Ghats of South India is one of the World’s while the ear beating monkey ((M.fascicularis) is restricted to a few islands in the Nicobar group. In the langur group, the Niligiri langur (Presbulis johni) is a multi habitat species occurring in shoals and in temperate evergreen forests above 1700 mt. in the Western Ghats.

The only ape found in India is the Hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock) in the hilly forests of north-eastern India.

The Himalayan Bear (Rusus artos) occurs in the upper reaches of the Himalaya form Kashmir to sikim, occasionally coming down to low reaches in severe winter. The malayam sun bear (Helarchtors Malayans) inhabits the hilly terrains of North – Easter India, south of Brahmpurtra, and the sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus) in the well wooded forest all over India.

The striped hyanea (Hyaenia hyaena) is common in the open country with low hills and ravines throughout India.

There are 15 Indian tiger species of which the tiger (Panthera tigrish) is a multi habitat species found all over India except in the desert region, even up to 3050 mt. height in the Himalays. The Indian lion (Panthera leo) is restricted to the Gir forest in Gujarat. The leopard (p.pardus) and the slow leopard (P.uncial0 are two other big cats, distributed in wooded forests and Himalays respecitvey. Among the lesser cats, the desert cat (Felis silverstris) the lynx (F.lynx), and the caracal (F.Caracal) are found in the arid and semi-arid tracts of western and north eastern India. The jungle cat (F.Cahus) and the leopard cat (f.Bengalensis) are found throughout India in small numbers. The cheetah hunting leopard (Acinonyx jubatus) which once occurred in the plains and in the hilly regions of northern, central and peninsular India, south of Karnataka, is already extinct form India.

The dugong (dugong dugong) occurs in the Gulf of Kutch, on the coast of Malabar, Gulf of Mannar and the Andamanand Nicbar Islans. Once an important dugong ‘fishery’ existed in eth Gulf of Mannar, but the species are scarce there.

The Great Indian one-honed rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) was once extensively distributed in the Gangetic plains, but is not restricted to North Bengal and the plains of Assam. It was on the verge of extinction in the beginning of this century. The Indian wild ass (Asinus

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fiemionous) is restricted to the saline flats of the Rann of Kutch. Its population has dwindled greatly.

The Lagomorpha is represented by four species, of which the hispid hare of Assam rabbit (Caprologus hispidus) is a rare and elusive species found in the grassland of the Tarai and the Duars and also in the Brahmputra valley.

As many as 25 species of cetacean (Whales and dophis) are known form the Indian territorial limits and are all endangered. The gangetic dophin (Platanista gangetica0 is found in the river sytem of the ganga and Brahmputra. Toerh are marine forms. The baleen Whales (Balaenoptera sp; Megaptera sp.) and other whales and dolphin species (Kogia sp; Stenella sp; Sotalia sp; Steno sp; Tursiops sp; Lagenorphynethrus sp; Orchaella sp; Pseduorea sp; Globicephal sp; Physeter sp; ziphius sp; Neomeris sp; and Delphinus sp; are indiscriminately exploited.

3:17 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY Conservation strategies currently in vogue, or the new methods and technologies being integrated mainly keep in view the holistic approach of biodiversity conservation an attempt at the continuance, survival and perpetuation of reservoir of variation, for discovering new ends of gene recombination required for plant breeding and crop improvement. The needs are further accentuated on account of finding new sources of wider ecological situations and stress conditions. Currently different strategies employed the world over include both in situ and ex situ conservation methods.

In situ conservation In situ conservation primarily deals with wild and weedy species, their survival, perpetuation and evaluation in their natural habitat without there displacement. It involves preservation of cohabits which permit uninterrupted speciation through gene exchange, introgression and through the forces of natural selection such as disruptive selection which might occur over time and space. Thus the equilibrium and its dynamism continues to function due to energy flow which sustains the environmental balance meeting the requirement of its dependents.

Ex-situ Conservation Ex-situ

conservation

strategy

involves

maintenance

of

germ

plants,

elite

strains/trees/clones in the field, orchards, plantations, botanical and herbal garden’s clonal repositioned, in the green banks (seed banks) or in plant tissue culture repositories. In the past, in several countries, botanical gardens have played a very conspicuous and predominant role in the introduction and dissemination of new plant species/accessions from one region to another. This

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING process has significantly contributed to eth world economy and all nations have derived enormous benefits. The famous botanical gardens such as Kew Botanical Gardens, London, Shivpur Botnaicla garden, Calcutta, Bogar Botanical Garden, Zakarta or Peredenia Botanical Garden, Colombo and Several others in Europe and America provide illustrious examples.

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UNIT - IV ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND PROTECTION 4:0 DEFINITION, CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF AIR POLLUTION, WATER POLLUTION, SOIL POLLUTION, MARINE POLLUTION, NOISE POLLUTION, THERMAL POLLUTION, NUCLEAR POLLUTION. DEFINITIONS Pollution has been defined as the deliberate or accidental contamination of the environment with man’s wastes. Pollution is matter in the wrong place. Pollution is anything that is released into the environment which degrades it. Pollution is presence of matter or energy in an unusual or unintended place.

Holister and Porteous in their Dictionary of the Environment give a very comprehensive definition - A pollutant is a substance or effect which adversely alters the environment by changing the growth rate of species, interferes with the food-chain, is toxic or interferes with health, comfort, amenities or property values of people.

Certain common pollutants of well developed and developing countries are: 

Deposited matter such as sot, smoke, tar, dust and grit.



Gases like sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, by hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, fluorine, chloride, etc.



Chemical compounds such as aldehydes, arsenes, hydrogen, fluorides, detergents, etc.



Metals like lead, iron, zinc, mercury, etc.



Economic poisons like herbicides, fungicides, pesticides, nematocide, insecticides, rodenticides and other biocides.



Fertilizers



Sewage



Radioactive substances



Noise and heat.

EFFECTS The damage caused by pollution can be briefly summaries as 1. Damage to human health by specific chemical substances present in air, food, water, and radioactivity.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING 2. Damage to the natural environment which affects vegetation, animals, crops, soil and water.

3. Damage to the aesthetic quality of the environment caused by smoke, chemicals, fumes, dust, noise, wastes, rubbish and dereliction.

4. Damage caused by long-term pollution effects such as absorption of carcinogenic substances, radioactivity and excessive noise.

AIR POLLUTION Air pollution is described as any change in the composition of air either by physical or chemical methods so as to cause injurious effects to health.

Sources of air pollution The primary sources which cause air pollutions are coal and oil combustion refineries, blast furnaces, fumigation explosives, fertilizer plants.

The main sources of air pollution are 1. Fertilizer industries 2. Cement factories 3. Sulphuric acid industry 4. Aeroplanes 5. Fluoride industry

Control of air pollution 1. Hydrocarbons form exhaust ca be controlled by controlled by techniques like absorption, incineration adsorption and combustion.

2. Particulate emission can be controlled by (a) electrostatic separators (b) filters and (c) cyclone collector 3. Environment protection Act and air pollution act should be applied effectively to industries.

4. Industries should be compelled to install treatment pans to check air pollution.

5. Instead of chemical pesticides, biopesticides can be used in agricultural fields.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING 6. Radioactive explosions should be banned.

7. Developments of forests to get pure air can be given importance.

WATER POLLUTION Water pollution can be defined as the presence of any toxic substance in water which affects temporarily or permanently its quality. The presence of and foreign material which changes either physical or chemical properties of water is called water pollution.

Water pollution can be divided into the following types.

1. Physical pollution 2. Organic pollution 3. Inorganic pollution 4. Oil pollution 5. Biological pollution 6. Garbage pollution 7. Pesticide pollution 8. Radioactive pollution.

Sources of Water Pollution 1. Paper industry 2. distillery 3. Electroplating plants Water Pollution Control 1. The urban sewage, sullage etc. may be recycled to generate electricity, fuel and fertilizer instead let into the rivers.

2. The industrial wastes may be purified by reverse osmosis before mixing with rivers.

3. Solar energy may be employed to kill microorganisms by using suitable catalysts.

SOIL POLLUTION Now days industrial wastes, metals oxides, acids, alkalies, aromatic compounds, phenols and pesticides etc have made the soil infertile. This phenomenon is called soil pollution.

Sources of soil pollution The following are the main sources of soil pollution.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING 1. Chemical pollutants 2. Metallic pollutants 3. Industrial effluents 4. Agricultural wastes 5. Detergents 6. Pesticides

Control of Soil Pollution 1. The garbage and night soil can be converted into compost manure by cobalt and nickel techniques.

2. In villages, most of the drug is used as fuel. This practice has to be stopped because this fuel on burning releases benzophyrene which can cause cancer. But this biomanure can be used in fields to increase crop production.

3. Solid wastes may be treated by pyrolysis method.

4. The soluble slats present in the industrial effluents should not be allowed to mix with soil.

5. Domestic garbage and industrial wastes can be collected is small ponds and subject to proper treatment like solar oxidation and then they can be mixed with soil.

MARINE POLLUTION Marine pollution is define has the discharge of waste substances into the sea resulting in harm to living resources, hazards to human health, hindrance to fishery and impairment of quality of sea water for use. Marine pollution is associated with eh change in physical, chemical and biological properties of the sea water. This water is also unfit for human consumption and industrial purposes because of its high salt content. It is a solutions containing traces of all conceivable matter in the universe.

One of the commonest pollutants of the sea is raw or treated sewage. It is interesting to note that in reasonable quantities sewage can be harmless or even beneficial. But, overburdening with nutrients leads to rise to eutrophication.

Other rich sources of pollutants are the synthetic detergents which have widely been used not as a replacement of soap. Sodium triployphos phate makes water alkaline.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING Serious pollution occurs when sewage contains man made chemicals such as pesticides, fertilizers or heavy metals. DDT, banned in the developed countries are still used in the developing counties.

Chlorinated and hydrogenated hydrocarbons and heavy metals like nickel are also dangers and are major health hazards. Oil is also a potential hazard and is highly inflammable.

Crude oil is a mixture of hundreds of different chemicals, ranging form the highly volatile petrol with a low flashpoint to the viscous, tarry, high boiling point components. The volatile petrol quickly evaporates form the sea water leaving other hydrocarbons that are difficult to burn.

Effect of oil pollution in marine water 1. Oil spilling causes lethal toxicity on aquatic flora.

2. Fishes could not respire due to clogging of their gills by oil.

3. Inhalation of aromatics results in acute intoxication. Benzene, even in minute traces is particularly toxic. Its long exposure may cause anemia and leucopenia in man.

4. Hydrocarbons in oil get incorporated in body tissues of marine animals. These are quite stable like heavy metals and pesticides.

5. Paraffins, like methane and ethane are asphyxiants i.e. They cause acute suffocation.

Liquid paraffins can remove oil form exposed skin causing dermatitis and pneumonia in living tissues.

6. Breathing higher concentrations of unsaturated cycloparaffins can result in irritation and anesthesia.

7. Crude oil contains sulphur compounds, small mounts of nitrogen, nickel etc. These are extremely lethal.

8. Birds are specially vulnerable to damage form oil spill. The spilled oil breaks down their natural coating of oils and waxes which shield the birds form marine water. Ultimately they lost their insulation, start shivering and may freeze to death in winter.

9. Oil spilling in sea water causes abnormally low body temperature in birds resulting in hypothermia.

Control of oil pollution in sea water The National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) and the Central Marine Fishers Research Institute (CIFRI) have carried extensive studies in investigating the aspects of marine pollution and its effects on living beings. Knowledge of he distribution of oil and the location of its concentration in necessary to confine, control and clean up of the oilskins.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING Accidental discharge oil can be cleaned up by several methods. But the best effective method of controlling oil contamination of the aquatic environment is the prevention of avoidable oil spills and their release. Mechanical containment and removal of oil appear ideal form the point of view of avoiding long term biological damage and protecting sea water form pollution hazard.

Recently, scientists have initiated the testing of petroleum hydrocarbons in Indian oceans. The Indian coast guard organization will also tackle accidental oil spill. The Oil Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) will take aid from the United Nations Development Programme to control accident oil spills and blow outs at their offshore installations.

NOISE POLLUTION Modern life has given rise to a new form of pollution, called noise pollution. It is potentially a serious signal and a grave threat to the environmental health. The word “Noise” is derived form the Latin ”Nausea” meaning a feeling of sickness at the stomach with an urge to vomit.

Noise is defined in a number of ways. For example, Noise pollution may also be defined in a number of ways. For example, 1. Noise pollution is the unwanted sound dumped into the environment without regard to the adverse effect it may have 2. Hell created by Bel (undesirable sound) is referred to as noise pollution.

Source of noise pollution Broadly speaking, noise may be classified as: a. Industrial noise b. Transport noise c.

Neighborhood noise

Effects of noise pollution 1. Noise pollution affects human health, comfort and efficiency. It causes contraction of blood vessels and makes the skin pale. It also leads to excessive of adrenalin hormone into blood stream which is responsible for high blood pressure.

2. It causes muscles to contract leading to nervous break down, tension and eve insanity.

3. The effects of noise are anxiety, stress reactions and fright. These adverse relations are coupled with a change in hormone content of blood. It in turn produces increased rate of heart beat, constriction of blood vessels, digestive spasms and dilation of pupil of eye.

4. It affects health efficiently and behaviour. It may cause damage to heart, brain kidney, liver and may also produce emotional disturbances. The most immediate and acute effect

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING of noise is the impairment of hearing which diminishes by the damage of some part of the auditory system. When exposed to very loud and sudden noise acute damage occurs to the ear drum.

5. The most immediate and acute effect of noise is the impairment of hearing which diminishes by the damage of some part of the auditory system. When exposed to very loud and sudden noise acute damage occurs to the ear drum.

6. In addition to serious loss lf hearing due to excessive noise, impulsive noise also causes psychological and pathological disorders.

7. Ultrasonic sound can affect the digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular systems and the semicircular canals of the internal ear.

8. Brain is also adversely affected by loud and sudden noise such as that of jet and aero plane. People are subject to psychiatric illness. It is also injurious to the health of pregnant woman and fetus.

9. It is quite surprising that our optical system also falls prey for noise pollution.

10. Buildings undergo physical damage like cracks, broken windows, door, glasses etc. by sudden and explosive sound.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF NOISE POLUTION It is, however, impossible to have a total elimination of annoying sounds. Noise pollution can however be minimized.

The following measures may be taken for an effective control on noise pollution. 

The workers in factories having noisy machineries should be provided with the ear protection aids such as soft plastic and rubber ear plugs, headphones etc.



Proper designing of doors and windows of a rook can help in reducing the noise to a much greater extent.



The best method of controlling noise pollution is to reduce or suppress noise at the source itself. For example, welding should be given preference dot riveting.



It has been found that plantation of trees like neem, coconut etc. Near public places like schools, hospitals, public offices, libraries etc. can reduce the noise



Providing enclosures, shields and barriers is an effective and efficient method of reducing noise pollution.



A rational town planning can help in reducing outdoor noise pollution

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING 

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The noise from ducts, exhaust or convey systems etc. can be controlled by making use of sound absorptio9n silencers.



Administrative measures, taken especially during the marriage functions and festivals can prevent noise pollution.

Noise pollution control in India Central pollution Control Board (CPCB) has conducted noise pollution surveys in Delhi, Madras, Calcutta, Bangalore, Bombay, Hyderabad Kanpur and Jaipur in 1989. Its report reveals fact that the noise levels in all these eight major metropolitan cities in residential, commercial and silence zones are much above the prescribed standards both during they day as well as night time.

THERMAL POLLUTION The term thermal pollution has been used to indicate the detrimental effects of heated effluents discharged by various power pants.

It denotes the impairment of quality and

deterioration of aquatic and terrestrial environment. Various industrial plants like thermal, atomic, coal fired plants, oil field generators, factories and mills utilize water for cooling purposes. The heated effluents are discharged at a temperature 8 to 10 C hither than the temperature of intake waters. The heated water discharged in rivers, lakes streams and ponds etc. have reduced concentration of dissolved oxygen which produces distance changes in aquatic biota and has deleterious effects on the ecosystem.

Sources of thermal pollution The accelerated pace of development, rapid industrialization and extensive population density have increased the demand for thermal power plants.

Human activities, today, are

constantly adding pollutants to air and water at an alarming rate. Following sources contribute to thermal pollution.

1. Nuclear power plants 2. Coal – fired power plants 3. Industrial effluents 4. Domestic sewage 5. Hydroelectric power

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Effects of thermal pollution 1. Reduction in Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Concentration of dissolved oxygen decreases with increase in temperature of water. For example, DO concentration is 14.6 ppm (parts per million) in water at a temperature of 32 °F and 6.6 ppm to 64° F . Thus the cold water fish which require about 6 ppm to survive could not tolerate the high water temperatures. They world die from oxygen starvation.

2. Change in water properties A rise in temperature changes the physical and chemical properties of water.

The

decrease in solubility of gases, viscosity and density increases the setting speed to suspended particles which seriously affect the food supplies of aquatic organisms.

3. Increase in toxicity The rising temperature increases the toxicity of the poison present in water. A 10° C rise in temperature doubles the toxic effect of potassium cyanide, while a 80°c rise in temperature triples the toxic effects O-Xylene causing massive mortality of fish.

4. Interference with biological activities Temperature is considered to be or vital significance to physiology, metabolism and biochemical process in controlling respiratory rates, digestion, excretion and the overall development of aquatic organisms. Changes in temperature totally disrupt the entire ecosystem.

5. Interference with reproduction In fishes, several activities like nest building, spawning, hatching, migration and reproduction etc. depend on an optimum temperature. For instance, the temperature at which Lake Front will spawn successfully is 8-9° C. The warm water not only disturbs spawning but also destroys the laid eggs.

6. Change in metabolic rate Fishes show a marked rise in the basal rate of metabolism with temperature to the lethal point. The respiratory rate, oxygen demand, food uptake and swimming speed in fishes increase.

7. Increased vulnerability to disease Activates of several pathogenic microorganisms are accelerated by high temperature.

Hot water causes bacterial disease in fishes.

8. Invasion of destructive organisms

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING Thermal pollutants may permit the invasion of organisms that are tolerant to warm water and highly destructive.

Invasion of ship worms into New Jersey’s Oyster Creek is the best

example. A few years ago ship worms were absent form Oyster Creek because they could not survive in low temperature water.

9. Changes in algae Excess nutrients from the washout waters from farm lands, combined with thermal pollution cause an excessive growth of algae like diatoms, green, blue green algae. These disrupt the aquatic food chain there by increase toxicity to fish.

10 Increasing the demand of oxygen Since higher temperature increases the rates of physiological processes and favors bacterial growth, the oxidation of oxygen demanding wastes will be speeded up, due to high rate of oxygen depletion. Thus the demand of dissolved oxygen content is aggravated further.

11. Longevity High temperature of water may induce increase in activity, which exhausts the organism and shorten its life. Generally the speed of chemical change is approximately doubled for every 10°C rise in temperature. Crustacean Daphnia survives for 108 days at 7.8 °C and for 29 days at 21°C.

12.Control of thermal pollution Control of thermal pollution is an extreme necessity since in further its detrimental effects on aquatic ecosystem may worsen. To reduce the magnitude of the pollution, the outlet water can be made to loose some of its heat to the environment and then may be discharged into the water course. The following methods can be adopted to control the high temperature caused by thermal discharges.

Cooling towers Cooling ponds Artificial lakes Prevention of thermal pollution With the tremendous increase in population the requirements for more and more and more electricity would also increase. It is thus obvious that thermal discharge problems will continue to grow alarmingly because of dramatic increase in the electric power production However; this can be alleviated by the following methods.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING 1) Prevention of thermal pollution in natural streams can be through plant sitting. Coupled with effective use of regulated river systems 2) Channeling of thermal effluents.

3) Using adequate cooling towers or ponds.

4) Efficient designing of outfalls to prevent thermal block from occurring.

5) By improving the efficiency of electric power generating.

NUCLEAR POLLUTION Today the vast and wonderful diversity of plant and animal kingdom that largely sustains the planets ecological equilibrium is seriously endangered due to chronic radiation pollution. The main radiation hazard in the environment comes from ultraviolet, visible, cosmic and gamma rays and microwave radiation which produce genetic mutations in man. The discovery of artificial radioactivity, particularly due to the development of atom bomb, hydrogen bomb and of techniques of harnessing nuclear energy is responsible for radioactive pollution.

The dangerous aspect of radiation pollution is that not only the individual but also his future generations are also affected by radioactive pollution. Release of energy from an atom is known as radiation X-rays, gamma rays, alpha rays and beta rays are examples for ionizing radiation.

The spontaneous disintegration of the substance resulting in the emission of radioactive rays 9 alpha; beta and gamma) is commonly referred to as radioactivity. The cosmic radiations emitted by these shot from outer space at high velocity, strike the earth continually and penetrate deep into the surface. This results in environmental pollution. Man-made radiations are produced by artificial disintegration of heavy radio nuclides. For example; large amount of heat energy is produced when enriched uranium and polonium are disintegrated. This heat energy is used for the production of electricity.

Many radioactive elements are produced during this nuclear fission reaction. As a result alpha, beta, gamma radiations are produced. There fore the employees working in the nuclear power plants must be very careful and should follow the preventive measures. They should wear the suits specially made for this purpose. Even through these radiations are kept safely in the power plant, due to some leakages or some unexpected accidents these radiations are introduced into the environment and cause pollution. This may kill the people. Radioactive wastes form nuclear plants; reactor etc. should be keeping in lead boxes for a long time so that land pollution is prevented.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING Nuclear devices (Atom bombs) can be exploding within one micro second (1Âľs). During this explosion (fission) large amount of energy is released. Of these 50% is converted as blast, 33% as heat and 17% as radiation.

The radioactive debris which settles down on the earth’s surface after a nuclear explosion is known as radioactive fallout. These radioactive materials are vapourished on earth surface and converted into hot gases. These minute particles spread in the atmosphere and mix with rain water to pollute water, plants, food materials, etc., since these mix in water reservoirs (resources_, plants, animals and man are also affected. Further, the heat produced (liberated) during and men are also affected. Further, the heat produced (liberated) during nuclear test completely burns that area and hence no possibility exists for the survival. People in that area are also killed when nuclear test are contacted.

During the Second World War atom bombs were exploded over Hiroshima and Nagasaki (Japan). At least 1,00,000 people were killed. Several thousands were seriously injured in Hiroshima alone. There the bomb virtually demolished all structures and buildings in about 15 square km. area. In Nagasaki 49,000 people were killed.

Therefore, to keep our environment healthy, we must dismantle all atom and hydrogen bomb stockpile and atomic power plants must be properly controlled and managed.

4:1 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT: CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WATER Recently pollution due to solid wastes dumped in the whole world has created a great fear. In particular, it has become a great worry to the leading courtiers America and Europe. The municipal solid waste generated in India cities has increased from 60 lakh tones in 1947 to 480 lakh tones in 1997. This is because of increase of urban population. Currently 10 crore toes of solid waste and 20 lakh tones of hazardous waste are generated by industry.

1. Domestic wastes 2. Construction wastes 3. Biomedical waste 4. Industrial wastes 5. Animal Wastes 6. Mining wastes 7. Agricultural wastes

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Effects of solid wastes In most urban localities there is an overflow of open garbage dumps in the bylines, parks and on the roadside.

Besides being eyesores, these garbage dumps are health and

environmental hazards for the millions of people living there. Crowds of rag pickers, pigs, cows, dogs and cats are seen wallowing in the garbage. This rotting biodegradable matter is a breeding ground for flies’ ad mosquitoes. Germs responsible for plague, tuberculosis, choler, dysentery, diarrhea, leprosy, eye infections, skin allergies and breathing problems multiply here. This is also where people often slip and fall.

An important and increasing component of domestic refuse has been plastic waste.

Plastics do not rot, like most other materials although they can be burnt. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is particularly objectionable in that it forms highly corrosive hydrochloric acid when burnt, which is an extreme nuisance in

the operation of refuse incinerators.

When an inadequately high

temperature is used in burning waste PVC, it is even possible for highly poisonous (COCI2) to be produced.

House construction solid wastes deposited in landfills degrade chemically and biologically to produce solid, liquid and gaseous substances like organic acids, carbon di-oxide, soleplates of iron and manganese and a substantial amount of methane. Moreover, the construction waste heaped along the road side creates traffic problems In a hospital, about one and a half kilogram of waste is produced per bed per day. Of the total waste produced in hospitals abut 47% is biomedical waste which is hazardous as it is contaminated with causing pathogens. The human and animal wastes along with items saturated or dripping with blood and body fluids, discarded medical equipments, soiled cotton, plasters, dressing and surgical and autopsy waster can become a major health hazard as they provide fertile environs for bacteria, virus and other microorganisms to multiply. The list of diseases caused due to improper disposal and treatment f hospital wastes is endless. The majority of them are deadly such as AIDS, viral hepatitis, tuberculosis, bronchitis, gastroenteritis and other skin and eye related disorders.

Industrial and mining wastes create environmental pollution and subsoil contamination.

Most of the discarded chemicals are poisonous and causing health hazard and diseases. For example, chromium and be neon are carcinogenic, cadmium can cause free radical damage to cells and accumulate in liver and kidney, caustic soda causes skin redhead carbon tetrachloride which is a liver toxicant damages optic and cranial nerves.

The handlers of solid waste- municipal workers and rags pickers are sections most likely to suffer because of exposure. It has been estimated that some 35,000 in Bangalore and 80,000 children in Delhi work as rag pickers.

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The approximate composition of city garbage is 50% organic matter, 25% plastic and 25% other matter.

The unlearned garbage stays in the city and year after year the heap

increases and hence cities are becoming more and unhygienic.

Solid waste management Some solid wastes are decomposed by microorganisms.

But wastes like plastics,

metals, nylon and polythene do not undergo decomposition. Glasses cannot be burnt, but they can be melted and subjected to recycling. Old papers, news paper boxes etc. Are recycled to produce news prints and paper boards or cellulose food for cattle. Moreover, trash are collected and from them sturdy blocks are produced which are used as substitute to bricks in house construction. From the fly ash or med from the industries strong and cheap bricks are produced.

There are many methods of solid waste management. Among them, four important methods are discussed below.

1. Removal of wastes to landfills The three steps of garbage management of a city corporation are:

Collection,

transportation and disposal. However, in most settlements dumping lines are absent. In many places where formal systems of garbage disposal have been introduced, garbage is transported to landfill sites. At these landfill sites, the garbage decays and settles down to fill up the sites.

The maximum expenditure in solid waste management is on transportation. If it not managed properly the accumulated garbage decays in the cities. This is what is happening in most of the Indian cities.

2. Composting Composting is the common practice for solid waste management In nature, all dead matter is gradually acted upon by the forces of nature such as the sun, wind, rain, and microbes which serve to break down complex materials onto simple molecules. If such material is left to decay on road sides it begins to decompose and stink and invites many diseases. Instead, the process of decomposition can be used to convert these organic wastes which we generate everyday to produce compost which can help us keep our surroundings clean and green.

Compost is used as manure to increase the fertility of the soil.

The various methods of

composting are as follows 1. Anaerobic composting is done in the absence of air. It takes a long time of 4-8 moths. It was in 1973 a sewage treatment plant employing anaerobic digestion process was setup in Bombay. This generated interest among the scientists and researchers in the field of

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anaerobic digestion of cattle dung for the production of combustible gas called biogas and rich organic manure in from of digested slurry. I kilo gram of dray animal dung gives about 160 liters of biogas.

2. Aerobic composting is done in the presence of air. It is completed in 2-3 weeks. It has very little do our. It must be properly covered and protected. A temperature of 55°C is maintained.

3. Vermicomposting is done in the presence of air and earthworms.

The reaction is

complete and the compost formed by this method is colorless and rich in macro and micro nutrients. It can be dried and stored easily for this method controlled conditions like moisture and temperature are necessary.

In India, composting for agricultural use is being practiced at several places like Baroda and Jaipur.

3. Incineration To get rid of solid wastes easily and immediately incineration plants are erected in many cities in India. These plants produce heat and electricity during incineration. In Delhi a plant is constructed to generate heat from solid waste.

Recently, a fluidized

This is a common use all over the world.

bed incinerator has been developed which burns solid wastes at high

pressure producing hot gases which power a trine and generate electricity Municipal solid wastes have a heating value (heat per unit mass) about one third that of coal. And a typical we will be able to obtain 10% of its electric power requirements by burning by the refuse.

All types of hospital wastes are burnt in controlled air incinerations. With their application in environment is made infection free.

Such incinerators must be installed outside the city

because when different types of garbage are burnt, the stench emanating will affect the nearby people and temperature of the environment will be increased.

4. Recycling It is very clear that the resources of the world have been indeed finite. To maintain as table economic growth and standard of living in the future, it is necessary that we use resource very carefully. For this we have to evolve technologies for cycling wastes and residues and thereby save both resources and energy.

It is now certain that a nation that will not be able to recycle used materials will not be able to sustain itself and there is global realization of the fact hat singles use of some of the important materials like metals. Glass and paper would lead to scarcity of such materials as their feed-stock would get exhausted�

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Papers, clothes, metals, glasses, rubber, plastics etc. are separated from the garbage and are subjected to recycling. Currently recycling of plastics has increased to a maximum.

Nonferrous metals like lead are recycled but during recycling environmental pollution is enhanced.

4:2 ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN PREVENTION OF POLLUTION It is said that Man is a civilized animal.

But if he cannot continue to love and be

affectionate to the beautiful earth on which he lives he can no more be called as a civilized animal or a social animal.

Man must respect nature learn to do away with things that are giants ‘nature’ and should try not to forget his aesthetic feelings.

If he does not care to understand the importance of protection and conservation of his environment and fails to realize the need to restrain his activities which lead to indiscriminate release of pollutants – he can very will be called as a !Dangerous Animal! even Disastrous Animal.

Rapid urbanization, modernization and increasing concentration of industries near cities have wreaked a have to the environment.

Air, water and soil have undergone tremendous

changes not only in cities but also in the far reaches of rural ecology.

Each and every citizen has a part to protest against the establishment of industries near domestic areas. Individuals who intend to start new factories capable of releasing hazardous gases, effluents, foul smell or causing ear stoning noise may start them in less populated and remote areas which are unfit for agriculture.

Lumps of garbage especially plastic waste should not be burnt in residential areas. They may produce highly toxic chemical vapors. They may produce highly toxic chemical vapors.

They may cause breathing trouble, TB lung cancer, chronic bronchitis, skin diseases, eye irritation etc. Instead of burning, garbages must be converted into natural fertilizers (compost) The use of fossil furls (petrol, diesel etc.) in vehicles may be reduced to the extent possible as they emit lot of

unburnt hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide and

carbon dioxide. Their emissions contain toxic substances like lead also. Individuals must have their vehicles often cheeked and serviced so that their emission is under control. gaseous fuels (LPG) and compressed natural

Liquefied

gas (CNG) may be used in the place of liquid

fuels. More of battery operated and solar driven motor vehicles and electric trains may be put into use. Wherever and whenever possible, common and public vehicles may be used to reduce that quantity of emission. Use of bicycles may be encouraged and one can even think of going back to the age of bullock carts and horse driven chariots, provided their excreta may not cause pollution in another form.

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If one can afford to give afford to give up the habit of cigarette smoking, that itself is a great contribution towards environmental protection.

The practice of migration to cities (from villages) in search of jibe must be contained.

Instead, more employment opportunities must be created in rural areas. This will take care of population explosion in urban areas. Which in turn helps in the process of solving water scarcity and water pollution? Hence young engineers and technologists must strive to establish industrial units in a geographically scattered manner avoiding already congested and overcrowded area.

Construction of rain water harvesters – is another important contribution expected from individuals.

This will help to maintain underground water table levels which in turn help in the

protection of forests.

Everyone of us must plant as many trees as possible and contribute to the process of a forestation. Felling and logging of forest trees must be minimized. A tree may be cut down only after planting ten saplings. This is the only and overcrowded area.

The use of synthetic chemical pesticides and fertilizers pollute the soil as well as ground water to an alarming detent. Farmers should switchover to natural biofertilizers and biopesticides which will do little or no harm to the surroundings. In doing so, they cannot only protect the environment but also the health of human and animals.

Good garbage culture must be inculcated in each and every citizen right from the childhood garbage should not be scattered no road sides and vacant lands indiscriminately.

Imagine even a piece of banana skin thrown carelessly on the road may turn to be a treat danger to passersby.

Garbage must be separated into different categories like bio waste, non-

biodegradable but recyclable waste and non-biodegradable and non-recyclable

waste etc. And

safely deposited into the containers provided for the same by the local authorities. Use of nonrecyclable carry bags must be avoided. Instead paper bags must be avoided Instead paper bags and paper cups may be used.

‘Toilet culture’ must also be taught to young people Indiscriminate urination in public places and use of open area latrines must be discouraged and the violators punished.

Small family norms and prevention of population explosion will also help in a long run. To control pollution and to conserve the available natural resources.

Individuals must keep their vehicles fit on the roads to reduce noise pollution Noise reducing mechanisms of vehicles must be periodic ally checked. Use of public address systems.

Loud speakers. High decibel crackers etc. may be done in sell controlled manner so that no nuisance is caused to others. Even talking and

chatting with your friends may be done in the

lowest possible voice.

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Youth associations and welfare associations can do a lot in educating and creating awareness to the common public about pollution and protection of environment. They can also protest and agitate against any type of violation of environmental safety rules.

Corruption and malpractices play an indirect but key role in sabotaging the environmental safety investigations have proved that the Bhopal – union carbide - disaster was due to the poor quality of alloy used in the manufacturing of chemical tanks. One must be honest self-content and self conscious. He should avoid bribing avoid accepting bribes. These characteristics will certainly help to build foolproof environmental safety. Non Governmental Organizations (NGOS) can play a greater role in making an area clean and green. EXNORA is doing a tremendous job in major cities by periodical cleaning of the streets and roads.

4:3 POLLUTION – CASE STUDIES One of the Seven Wonders of the World, TAJMAHAL the spectacular white monument on the banks of yamuna, is gradually loosing its white color, a direct consequence of pollution. Huge volues of corrosive gases emitted by the oil refinery of Mathura is the culprit.

Deforestation, construction of roads and dams in hills, population explosion and increase of chemical factories have disrupted the water balance badly. Take for example, Cherapungi in Meghalaya, which was once known for heavy rains, is now called a thirsty city, where people stand in queues with canes in their hands for hours together to quench their thirst. For the past ten years not only Meghalaya but many other states of the country including Tami land are also facing decrease in rainfall and sever drought.

The streets of important cities like Delhi, Kolkotta, Mumbai and Chennai are covered by ubiquitous heaps of garbage, filth, stagnate puddles of water or the traditional squalor and stench of human and animal excretes. In many lance there is no provision for lighting of garbage or way out for excreta. The stagnant puddles of water and human and animal exercta have become an integral part of many towns and cities. They have become centers of pathogens, infections and breeding grounds for carriers of plague and other communicable discases. th

th

The Gulf war which lasted for 42 days from 16 January to 26 February 1994 destroyed the environments of lraq and Kuwait Cities and roads can be rebuilt but the environment cannot be rebuilt immediately. It may take decades together to recover the environment. About 700 oil wells were burning in Kuwait for over 10 month 80 million tons of co and 36 million tons SO2 went the atmosphere daily as black smoke. The dust cloud from bombs and black smoke and soot from burning oil wells shot up at great speed to high attitudes reaching the stratosphere.

A total of 6-8 million barrels of oil was dumped into the Persian Gulf. This had disastrous effect on the marine ecosystems – coral reefs. Fish and turtle breeding grounds, sea grass beds and mangrove swamps.

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The Bhopal disaster – Dec. 3 1984 – The gas leakage from the chemical tanks of Union Carbide! Pesticide factory killed more than ten thousand people in the nearby area. The deadly poisonous gas methyl Isocyanides (MIC) diffused into many parts of the capital city of Madhyapradesh; hundreds of people lost their eyesight.

More then one lakh people were

affected seriously and it is going to affect the successive generations too.

The nuclear accident which took place in 1986 in Chernobyl (USSR is another example.

More than two thousand people were killed and thousands were seriously affected. The worst consequence of this accident will con tuner to affect the people and environment for many hundred years to come.

4:4 DISASTER MANAGEMENT FLOOD Floods are a state of higher water level along a river channel or a coast leading to inundation of land that is not normally submerged. Of the country’s total geographical area of 40 mha (Million hectare) is prone to floods. Out of which 32 mha can be protected. So far an area of 14.4 mha has been provided reasonable degree of flood protection measures such as construction of embankments, darning channels, town protection works and by raising villages. 

Flood

results from an unfavorable combination of

meteorological

conditions and

the physical conditions on the drainage basin. 

Flood are totally unpredictable and the magnitude of the maximum probable flood in a river basin is an intelligent question of the hydrologist.



It is impossible to design flood protective works against the maximum probable flood. As the magnitude of flood increases, the cost of flood protection increases enormously. At the same time the benefits from a higher level of flood protection are not commensurate with the disproportionately high cost.



The ultimate objective of all measures of flood control is the mitigation of flood damage, this objective can be served either by flood protection works

or other

measures to avoid flood damage.

Causes of flood 

Heavy rainfall as a result of monsoons causes greater run off.



Cloud bursts unusually high amount of rainfall within a short time.

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Cyclones, accompanied by strong winds and tidal waves cause exceptionally High amount of rainfall.



Deforestation causes



Situation of the river channel that raises the bed of the river.



Raising of the riverbed due to salutation

the acceleration of runoff while lowering of the infiltration.

by river channels leads to inundation

and flooding. 

Faulty

irrigation practices raises the water table and lead to water logging

because surface water is not absorbed.

EARTH QUAKES The sudden violent shaking of the earth is called an earthquake. Earthquakes are those movements of hearth’s curst which make the ground vibrate and shake backwards and forwards. The vibration or shaking of ht earth’s curst proceeds in form of waves from the centre of disturbance.

All the earth quakes, happen due to the fracturing of rocks in the outer par o f the earth, as a result of the gradual accumulation of station. As the place of origin of earthquakes in called as focus. The point on the earth’s surface vertically above the focus is the epicenter. the intercity of vibration is at the maximum near the epicenter.

Causes of Earthquake 1. Earthquakes are caused by tectonic forces.

2. Some earthquakes are generally due to the sudden movement of the crystal blocks or rock stata, along faults or fractures in the earth’s curst.

3. Earthquakes are also caused by bolcanic eruptions.

4. Sometimes water percolates so deep it not hearth that it turns into steam. Their steam tries to force its way out. This produces earth tremor.

5. Earth tremors may also be produced by man by disturbing the balance in the earth’s crust (e.g.) dam construction (earthquake at Koynangar township) and underground explosions.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING Effects of Earthquake Earthquakes bring about changes on the surface of the earth which are very harmful to man.

1. Many towns are destroyed and there is considerable loss of life and property.

2. Some places are submerged under the sea.

3. Big cracks and fissures are formed on the surface of the earth which interrupt communication.

4. Rives disappear or change their courses leading flood.

5. Railway lines are twisted.

Usefulness to man 1. Precious metals and mineral com up to the surface 2. New springs are formed which help irrigation 3. The submerged coastal land comes out for water and makes fertile plain.

4. If coastal area is submerged due to the earthquakes, favourable conditions to construct good harbor and pots are created.

5. When there is eruption due to earthquake it causes lava to flow out. This lava enriches the fertility of the soil.

6. Violent earthquakes have led to the formation of hills and mountains which help in causing rainfall.

7. Many lakes, plateaus and islands are formed due to earthquakes. These land forms help man to make his life fruitful.

VOLCANOES The explosion of volcanoes is term as volcanism or volcanic activity. Like earthquakes, volcanoes are sudden and abrupt explosions of smoke, dust an lava which astound human understanding. The volcano was known as a mountain of fire.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING The molten rocks, boiling lava and hot gases penetrate out of that part of the surface which is comparatively weak. When this material comes out of these spots, an explosion results.

It rocks the area around the spot; with thunderous noise molten rocks, lava and gaseous clouds rise up towards the sky. It has solid stones which are red hot resembling smoldering coal pieces.

All these present a show similar to that of fireworks. The burning stones fall down as they are cooled and being about destruction in a large area.

The destructive role of volcanoes A sudden eruption of volcano causes a great loss of life and property such as 

Lava flowing down a volcano destroys the human settlements.



Poisonous gases harm the human beings in various way.



Ashes and dust puffed out by volcano may be useful both they also bury the villages and towns near the volcano.

Constructive role of volcanoes Volcanoes are not only destructive in nature but they are also useful to man in the following manner.

1. They make soil fertile.

2. They bring up minerals and other valuable materials from the interior of the earth.

3. They are responsible for changes in the relief features of earth.

LANDSLIDES Whenever rock and solid lie at a high angel on a steep slope there is a possibility that a segment of such material will break away in a landslide or rockslide. the difference between landslides and the previously discussed mass movements is the speed with which the slide occurs. Landslides move much faster than flows and sometimes roar down slope with that thunderous sound and great force Water plays a lesson role, although it does help in the weathering and loosening that has gone before. A landslide is in effect a collapse and no lubricants are necessary, although the Wright of water saturation certainly does contribute. Many of southern California’s feared landslides are triggered by heavy rains that overload slopes that

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING are already near collapse. Landslides is a common feature during rainy season on the Mettupalaysm – Ooty ghat road.

Earthquakes and earth tremors sometimes provide the vibrations necessary to set the downward slide in motion. A river cutting into thesis of its valley an overstepped the slope and initiate collapse.

In a landslide everything goes down – bedrock as well as overburden. Weathering loosens pieces of bedrock by attacking along joint planes and fracture zones. Any step slope caries within it the parallel planes of wakens that may eventually fail and yield. As soon as the landslide has occurred, exposing a fresh scarp or slope, the cycle beings again. New joints and fractures are attacked and gradually the slide threat return.

4:5 POPULATION GROWTH AND VARIATIONS AMONG NATIONS Though there is an overall increase in world population, the rate of increase arises greatly between developed countries and less developed or developing countries. The world population is now growing by 1.7 % annually where it is 0.6 % in developed countries. Several developed countries have stabilized their population and in some cases, there are indications of declining population. Family planning and wise parenthood have made most of the developed countries to reduce their growth rate. On the other hand, the less developed countries have three fourths of the world population. Due to this faster rate for growth, it is expected that by the turn of this century, the less developed countries will account for about 80% of the world’s population.

The growth –rate even among the developing countries is not uniform. Indian, the ‘population giant’ with nearly 102.7 crores, has higher birth rate as well as death rate. In India the average rate of increase is about 2.1.% per annum. China, the ‘demographic colossus’ of the world having more than 110 crores, has acted aggressively to curb the birth rate. As a conspicuous decline in growth rate form 2% just a decade ago. The population Pakistan with more than 112 million people, increases at the rate of 3.1 % per annum. Bangladesh, with more than 106 million, is increasing at a rate of 2.3.% Sri Lanka with a population of 17 million, is increasing at the rate of 3.1 % per annum. Latin Amerca’s average growth rate in 2.34% per annum. In the case of Africa, the increase in population is 3% a year.

4:6 POPULATION EXPLOSION-FAMILY WELFARE PROGRAMME Demographers say that most of the developing countries are passing through the second stage of demographic transition in which there will be more of births and less of deaths. In the first stage, with poor economic development and little or no advance in medicine and science and also due to lack of medical care, more deaths are common. In the second stage. The people share the benefits of development in science and technology and wonderful advancements in

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING medicine and surgery. The longevity of human beings has sharply increased and the death rate has been conspicuously reduced. The health rate being appreciably curtailed. Without proper reduction of birth rate, the population increases in leaps and bounds.

Only in the third stage of demographic transition, as most of the developed countries have reached, the birth rate will be curtailed by 1. Adopting birth control measures 2. limited family norms 3. Wise parenthood concepts to enjoy the benefits of economic development to the optimum level.

Reaching the third stage of demographic transition with less birth and less deaths to keep the population level more or less stable, will be rather slow and also difficult. This requires education of the masses, particularly women, in the less developed countries. Apart form the low level of educational facilities and lack of resources for development, the birth rate could not be controlled effectively in the less developed countries.

Another significant factor is the present day concept of democracy. Most of the countries of the Third World attained independence only recently, after the Second War. Most of the nations have chosen democratic governments in some form or the other. Capturing political power is easy in democracy by means of mere number. Some of the nations think that they can dominate the political arena by means of large numbers. This soon of the political reasons for the ever increasing population is some countries of the third world. These countries do not understand the gross political and economic mistakes they are committing.

Enormous increase in population results in 1. Increased consumption of ensures available in the environment and depletion of the same very quickly.

2. Due to over consumption of natural resources. The environment gets deteriorated and polluted.

3. There will be desertification, deforestation, soil erosion, loss of fertility and poor productivity.

4. Mass poverty, poor perception availability of food of consumption and prevalence of disease as a large scale.

5. Rapid urbanization resulting in growth of slums in cities and towns.

6. Improper handling of the natural resources resulting in their wastage depletion and damage.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING 4:7 ENVIRONMENTAL AND HUMAN HEALTH 

Future impact assessment of all development projects must include health aspects as well. In fact, medical experts must be an integral component of all our environmental impact assessments.



Habitat management is very vital as this can lead to breeding grounds for mosquitoes: increased salivation and water logging lead to formation of wet deserts.



Disease control cannot be taken up successfully in isolation. This has to be a corporate effort of doctors, health educators, social anthropologist, media men, engineers, socioeconomists and others. It also involves habitual change and population migration, water supply, sanitation, human settlements, socio-economic conditions and eth level of education, particularly of women.



Health care is biased towards the cities over the villages, as there are nearly 5,100 hospitals for 109 million urban people whereas only 5,400 health centers for 439 million rural people. In short, the root cause of many diseases is the demographic pressure.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING

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UNIT – V SOCIAL ISSUES OF THE ENVIRONMENT 5:0 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT The concept of sustainable development had its origins in the world conservation strategy (SCS) report, published in 1980. It says, Conservation is the management of human use of the biosphere so that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefits to present generations, while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations”. Sustainable Development was formally defined for the first time in the Brundtland Report, published in 1987. It said, “Sustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. “According to this definition the following is implied” The concept of ‘needs’, in particular the essential needs of world’s poor, which should be given overriding priority, (poverty focus) and The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organizations on the ability of the environment to meet present and future needs (future focus).

Sustainable Development aims at creating chains of mutual. Social, economic and environmental benefits any local, social, economic and environmental benefits by local, intermediate and global level. Benefits of Sustainable Development at the local level should include the provision of basic needs such as food, water, shelter and health. According to Agenda 21. Chapter 15, urgent and decisive action is needed to conserve and maintain genes, species, and ecosystems, with a view on Sustainable Development and use of biological resources…….

The participation and support of local communities are elements essential to the successes of such as approached.

Sustainable Development suggests that meeting the needs of the future depends on how well we balance the social, economic and environmental objective or needs, when decisions are made. Many of these objective may seem to conflict with one another Prior clearance of projects requiring diversion of forests for non-forest purpose under the forest (Conservation) act, 1990.

Formulation of environmental guidelines for projects in various sectors.

Others activities of the government that contribute to sustainable development are: Eco-task forces of ex-servicemen for ecological restoration through forestation and soil conservation.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING National Environment Awareness campaign for crating environmental awareness through non-governmental organizations.

Surveys and research studies.

Training programmes, workshops and seminars for building up professional competence and for creation of awareness.

According to Brundtland Report the World Commission on Environment (our common future, 1987, also called Brundtlnad Report). “Sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. This concept of sustainable development has linked environmental care with development. The idea underlying this concept is ‘to improve the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of ht supportive ecosystem’. Man has to practice sustainable utilization of natural resources.

What should be done to achieve sustainable development without affecting the environment? 

Monitoring the climatic changes, biodiversity, disposal of hazardous and toxic wastes and disposal of pollution – generating industrial effluents, is required.



According to Dr,M.S. Swaminanthan, the following nine elements/aspects should be taken care of to promote ecologically sound agriculture. i.

land

ii.

water

iii.

energy

iv.

nutrient supply

v.

genetic diversity

vi.

pest management

vii.

post-harvest sytem

viii.

systems approach; and

ix.

Location – specific research and development.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING 

A production – efficiency era o minimum environmental damage costs through energy transition should be commenced.



For a stable world population a demographic transition should be attempted.



There should be a clear shift in resource transition form non-renewable to renewable.

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There should also be political transition fro global, mutually agreed objectives among developed and Developing Nations.

5:1 URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY The problems arising out of urbanization of proliferation of slams call for effective remedial action on two fronts. One relates to the management of urban services and the other to sitting of new townships and industrial projects. According to an estimate made by the National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) in 1983, an investment of Rs. 810 errors per annum would be required to provide basic services, such as water supply, sewerage and sewage disposal, roads and parks, education, medical and health services in urban areas at the essential level. The gap between the investment required and te resources available financial resources. As a part of this exercise, the NIUA made a case-study of nine cities out of 3294 cities and towns of various sizes.

The findings were are follows. 

Large section of the population in cities did not have any access to safe water supply and many remained unnerved by the municipal water supply system. Further, the available water was not put to efficient use.. The installed capacities were informally underutilized, besides the losses and leakages in the range of 30 to 40 percent. The water treatment in most municipal town received little attention.

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On environmental sanitation and waste disposal, the position was to different. The average solid waste (excluding human excreta) generated by cities worked out to 250 grams per capita daily. Of this, 30 percent remained uncleared.



Collection of wastes and garbage poses lot of problems. According to the survey on collection of urban wastes, there should be on an average 2.8. Persons to do this ob, for every 1000 population. There is substantial shortage in the staff strength in waste collection. Municipal bodies found it very difficult to enforce work discipline or to bring any kind of work ethics among sanitary workers resulting in poor service.

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Municipal bodies also found it difficult to recruit sanitary workers because of the changed socio-economic scenario in the country.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING 5:2 WATER CONSERVATION Water conservation is generally accepted to mean “the minimization of loss or waste, the preservation, care and protection of water resources and the efficient and effective use of water.

The following 

economic efficiency

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social development

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social equity

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environmental protection

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sustainability of water supply and services

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Political acceptability.

Many water conservation and demand management strategies applied around the world today can be grouped into four categories based on the approach employed: economic, institutional, technological and behavioral. In the urban sector, specific examples include: escalating block – rate tariffs, promotion of water-wise industries, water auditing, water loss management, retrofitting with water – saving devise, informative billing and water – wise gardening. In the agricultural water sector, water conservation techniques can include: reduction/removal of pricing subsides, selecting crops with high yielding per unit water consumed, retrofitting efficient irrigation devices/technologies, land leveling, water-wise tilling /field preparation and efficient irrigation scheduling.

5:3 RAIN WATER HARVESTING Rainwater is a valuable resource. By adopting an appropriate rainwater harvesting technology, it is possible to utilize the rainwater for many purposes, in islands where limited source of freshwater is available. This method is suitable for use in all areas as a means of augmenting the amount of water available. It is recommmeded in arid and semi-arid areas where other sources of water are scarce. Rainwater harvesting has been in practice for more than 4000 years. Owing to the temporal and spatial variation of rainfall, in most developing countries and also islands, rainwater harvesting is becoming essential. This conservation method can be employed in areas having significant rainfall but lacking some kind of conventional, centralized government supply system and also in areas where god quality fresh surface water or groundwater is lacking. It has been reported that for more then three centuries, rooftop

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING catchments and cistern storage have been the basis of domestic water supply on many small islands. During World War II, several airfields were also turned into catchments. Although the use of rooftop catchments systems has declined in some counties, it is estimated that more than 500,000 people in the Caribbean islands depend at least in par on such supplies. Rainwater conservation techniques include the following approaches: roof top rain water harvesting, landscaping, road structures, dams flow diversions - dykes and traps and others.

5:4 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT A watershed is the land area drained by a river/stream system. Rain falls and snow melting fields, forests, rooftops, lawns, parking lots, and streets flows toward a lake or river and forms a watershed. Smaller drainage areas – the component parts of a watershed – are called subwatesheds. Watersheds are separated form each other by high land elevations called the watershed divide. The common point to which the water flows is called the outlet of the watershed. A watershed may be nearly felt or it may include hills or mountains. It may only be a few hectares as in the case of small ponds, or hundreds of square kilometers as in the case of rivers. In agricultural terms, a watershed may be identified as ‘rainefed lands’. Areas around the outlet are ‘irrigated lands’.

A watershed can affect the life of farmers in various ways, often more far-reaching than one would imagine. A watershed management programme ensures sustained productivity of food, fuel, forage, fibre, fruit, etc., by managing vital resources like water, soil and vegetation, and phenomena like droughts and floods. Watershed management means the rational use of land and water resources for optimum production with minimum risk to natural resources. The objective of watershed management is to control damaging runoff, as well as mange and utilize it for useful purposes. Watershed management programmes commonly deal with the fallowing factors; 

Soil conservation: proper utilization of land and protection for land and protection of land including from soil erosion.

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Water conservation: Utilisation of a water for agricultures, proper management of water for drainage, flood protection and sediment reduction, and building and maintaining soil fertility.

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Appropriate use of land resources of develop forest and fodder resources

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Conservation farming practices to improve agricultures.

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Controlled grazing to keep pasture productive

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Development of common land or wasteland.

Therefore, watersheds different problems good watershed management programme must be focused according to the unique needs of the particular watershed.

From a practical standpoint, many areas of the world rely on water taken form lakes or rivers for water supply for domestic consumption. It is important to understand the effects of activities that take place in a watershed to protect the water needed for human uses like drinking and bathing as well as the water needs of plants and animals.

Since all the water that falls over thereat of a watershed flows to wards a common point, a watershed makes a convenient unit for examination the effect of land management on water quality and quantity.

Watershed management involves the practice of balancing different uses of a watershed, such as agricultures, urban uses, grazing, logging and recreation to make sure that they do not degrade water quantity or quality below a certain standard. This standard depends on the type of use the water is intended for further downstream.

Therefore, watershed management includes practices such as prevention soil loss from agricultural fields, proper disposal of wastes, determining the number of animals that can graze on an area without causing a large extent of damage, and managing recreational activities to prevent loss vegetation and erosion.

Human activities on land bring up a direct and cumulative impact on water and other natural resources within a watershed. Upstream activities influence river flows and water quality down-stream. Channelizing rives, removing riparian vegetation along watercourses, paving recharge areas, filling in wetlands, and consuming groundwater at rates faster then it can be replenished can have severe, an din some cases, irreversible effects on natural systems. These effects in turn usually impair water quality, degrade aquatic and terrestrial habitat, contribute to a loss of biodiversity, contaminate underground aquifers, and increase risks on flooding and erosion damage.

At the heart of watershed management is the underlying philosophy “Everything is connected to everything else�. Watershed components are interrelated and interdependent, like the links of a chain or the spokes of a wheel. Damage to any one watershed component runs the risk of damage to all. The health of upstream components directly determines the health and function of areas downstream.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING 5:5 RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION OF PEOPLE; PROBLEMS AND CONCERNED Crop production is one of the most important components of agricultural development.

The goal of increasing agricultural production is a long-term goal and with the given pressure of population it would continue to dominate the sectoral plan for agricultural. Since the area constraints are being reached fast, intensification of agriculture is the only way to attain higher productivity.

After a brief discussion of some of the complex problems and issues affecting the ecosystem in Canal Command areas, it may be appropriate to reflect on and few plausible policy issues to tackle environmental problems. It is true that irrigation is a necessary evil irrespective of the ecological problems it creates. Thus, how best those problems could be managed or prevented is the main question. There is an imperative need for a comprehensive strategy to tackle bio-physical, socioeconomic and cultural problems arising out of the construction of an irrigation project.

Management of the environmental problems in downstream of the reservoir (command area) depends to a great deal on integration and coordination of command area development processes conforming to project objectives. This calls for farmers participation in various programmes of command area development. Some attempts have been made in the recent past to ensure farmers participation in irrigation management. Successful strategies are, however, yet to be formulated and implemented. Non-governmental organization (NGOs) which play important oral in creating environmental awareness among masses, should educate farmers about the need for water management to avoid adverse effects. As already mentioned, the emphasis should be on hitherto neglected social problems.

The alignment of canals and roads should be in such a way that the natural drainage system is not affected. The government should acquire natural drainage to prevent farmers’ encroachment and maintain them through periodic desalting and weed clearance.

Conjective use of canal and ground-water has to be considered an integral part of design and execution of irrigation projects. These measures are necessary to prevent water-longing in the command areas Warabandi systems of irrigation, howsoever difficult to implement, is the only way to ensure equitable distribution of available water, in the absence of which income inequalities are bound to increase in irrigation.

There is need to organize habitat system in a majority of irrigation command areas. Small clusters within a radius of say, one kilometer may be planned concurrently with canal network.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING The area, required to accommodate farm jousts of all those farmers whose lands fall within that radius, may be acquired and earmarked for habitat building. It should be made obligatory village and stay on the farm. A central place may be identified to integrate all these clusters and may be developed into a growth centre with proper linkage of service facilities.

5:6 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS: ISSUES AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS Environmental ethics means the moral relationship of him beings with the environment. It is concerned with the dos and don’ts of the human beings to the environment.

There are two aspects of environmental ethics, instrumental value and intrinsic value.

The instrumental value pertains to value of things as means useful to some other ends. The intrinsic value is the value of things ends in themselves regardless of whether they are useful as means to other ends to not. We eat fruits for thirst or when hungry. This is instrumental value.

But, the fruit form the view point of the plant which produces it, is not meant to be useful to man, but propagation. This is intrinsic value. As long as man, in exploiting the instrumental value, justice is done to nature. This logic will apply to the environment as well.

Several ethical arguments can be made regardless of their economic value. The following assertions based on the intrinsic value of species are important for conservation of biodiversity. 

Each species had the right to exist. Each species has value for its own sake, an intrinsic value unrelated to human needs

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All species are interdependent. The loss of on species may have far reaching consequences on other member of the community.

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Man has to live within the same ecological limitations as other species do.

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People must take responsibility for their actions.

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People have a responsibility to future generation.

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Resources should not be wasted or overexploited.

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A respect for human life and human diversity is compatible with a respect of biodiversity.

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Nature has spiritual and aesthetic values that transcend economic value.

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Biodiversity is needed to maintain the intricate balance of nature.

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5:7 CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL WARMING; ACID RAIN OZONE LAYER DEPLETION, NUCLEAR AND HOLOCAUST CASE STUDIES GLOBAL WARMING Global warming refers to an average increase in the earth’s temperature, which in turn ceases changes in climate. A warmer earth may lead to changes in rainfall patterns, a rise in sea level, and a wide range of impacts on plants, wildlife, and human. When scientists talk about the issue of climate change, the concern is about global warming caused by human activities.

Our earth’s average temperatures stay almost the same from year to year. Sometime sit gets very cold in the winter and very hot in the summer. Some years may be little hotter normal where you like at the average temperate everywhere on the earth for a whole year, there is very little change. The current average global temperature in about.57ºF (14ºC) ACID RAIN “Acid rain” is a broad term used to describe several ways that acids fall out of the atmosphere. A more piracies term is acid deposition which has two parts; wet any dry.

Wet deposition refers to acidic rain, fog, and snow, as this acidic water flows over and through the ground; it affects a variety of plants and animals. The strength of the effects depends on any factors. Including how acidic the water is, the chemistry and buffering capacity of the soils involved and the types of fish, trees, and other living things that rely on the water.

Dry deposition refers to acidic gases and particles.

About half of the acidity in the

atmosphere falls back to earth through deposition. The wind blows these acidic particles and gases onto buildings. Cars, homes and trees. Dry deposited gases and particles can also be washed from trees and other surfaces by rainstorms. When that happens, the runoff water adds those acids to the acid rain, making the combination more acidic than the falling rain alone.

Prevailing winds blow the compounds that cause both wet and dry acid deposition across states and national borders, and sometimes over hundreds of miles. Scientists discovered, and have confirmed, that sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are the primary causes of acid rain. In the US, about 2/3 of all S1O2 and ¼ of all Nox come from electric power generation that relies on burning fossil fuels like coal.

MEASURING ACID RAIN Acid rain is measured suing a scale called “PH” The lower a substances PH, the more acidic it is. Pure water has a PH of 7.o (neutral) Normal rain is slightly acidic because carbon dioxide dissolves into it and it has a PH. of about 5.5. As of the year 2000 the most acidic rain falling in.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING Acid rain’s PH and the chemicals that cause acid rain, are monitored by two net works, both supported by EPA of USA. The National Atmospheric Deposition program of USA measures wet deposition and its website features maps of rainfall Ph and other important precipitin chemistry measurements.

The Clean Air Status and Trends Network (CASTNET) measures dry deposition. Its web site features information about the data it collects, sites, and the kinds of equipment it uses.

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION The sun emits ultraviolet rays in the form of sunlight, which are extremely harmful when they originate from sun due to their wavelength. But when they travel from sun to earth, their intensity somewhat decreases. As these rays enter the earth’s upper;atmosphere, a thin layer of ozone gas, acting as a protective shield, deflects back the harmful rays and allows only the beneficial rays to enter.

Over the decades of years, the thickness of the ozone layer has been depleted by dangerous chemical called CFC –Chlorl – Fluoro – Carbon – compound and to some extent by flying aircraft.

The thickness of the ozone layer has been reduced as well as ‘Ozone holes’ have appeared over different regions on earth. Like the sieve with over sized holes, the damaged ozone layer allows the ultraviolet rays to enter the lower atmosphere, which can affect all living things.

Ozone layer depletion also reduces crop yield, reduces forest growth, damages building, harms people and kills marine plants and fish.

Many people confuse the hoe lint the one layer with climate change. However, these two problems are not closely related. The one layer protects the earth form harmful ultraviolet light that can cause skin cancer and damage plants and animals. The main cause of the hole in the ozone layer is chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), gases that they are used in refrigerators, air conditioners, and industrial applications. While CFCs alone cause warming, their ozone destruction can cause cooling effect. Until these warming and cooling influences have approximately balanced. Prior to 1978 CFCFs were used as a propellant in aerosol spray cans, but that use has ended in the U.S. Under an international agreement most uses of CFCs are now being phased out to protect the ozone layer.

5:8 ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT THE ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION, ACT, 1986 Though there re several legislations in India aimed at protecting the environment from pollution and maintaining the ecological balance, the environmental has not been considered in it totality. The environment (Protection) Act, 1986 was expected to fill this lacuna. It provides an

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adequate overall Act to protect and preserve the ecosystem. This Act is a seminal enactment strengthening the hands of the Central Government in overseeing environmental protection.

The Act contains four chapters; Chapter I is the Preliminary chapter. It gives definition of Pollutions. But the verbose definition exhibits a lack of understanding of the modern concept of environmental pollution and the factors that lead to the imbalance in the ecosystem.

Chapter II of the Act gives details of the General Power of the Central Government regarding measures to protect and improve environment. It also tells about the appointment of Officers, their powers and functions and rules to regulate; environmental pollution.

Chapter III describes prevention, control and reduction of environmental pollution.

Section 7 makes it obligatory on the part of industrial units not to allow emission or discharge of pollutants in excess of the standards; and section 10 deals with powers of entry and inspection.

Section 1 tells the procedure to be followed to take samples of air, water, soil or other substances from any factory premises for analysis . Section 12 contemplates about the establishment of environmental laboratories and functions of laboratories.

Section 13 and 14 deal with the

appointment of Government analysts and the reports of the analysts as evidence of facts.

Section 15 deals with the penalty for contravention of the provisions of the Act and rules, orders and directions. Section 16 deals with offences by companies; and section 17 about offences committed by Government departments. But the penal provision of sections 16 and 17 get diluted by the loophole provided in these sections, namely, ‘lack of knowledge’.

It is unfortunate that the section 25 in Miscellaneous makes this act totally ineffective and completely destroys the purpose of Act. This section assumes that if an offence committed under this act is also an offence under any other act and the offender shall be punished only user the other acts. This is clearly a disappoints in the Act. AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT 1981 This Act was the outcome of the recommendation of the Stockholm conference 1972 Through this Act, all possible steps were taken to prevent air pollution by means of integrate measures with water pollution control boards. This Act was amended in 1987 by which noise pollution was also brought the definition of air pollution.

The Act gives power to the Central Board to plan comprehensive programme for improvement of the quality of air by laying down standards. The central Board has to coordinate with State Boards and also extend technical assistance and guidance. The state Boards can also lay down standards for emission from industrial unit’s automobiles or from any other source. On the basis of the standard laid down by the Central Board. The State Boards are empowered to inspect any factory premises. Check any control equipment

for reduction of pollution and set

right the defects, if any by means of suitable action. The State Boards are expected to collect

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING information and disseminate information regarding air pollution. Under section 21 of the Act. No one can start and industry mentioned in the schedule list, without obtaining the consent from the State Board.

Besides, the Section IV of the Act has given a lot of powers to the pollution Boards, the important powers are. a) The Board can regulate or check the burning of any fuel which has not been approved by the Board. b) The Board can prohibit using unapproved appliances by the units in the pollution control area. c) The Board can prohibit using unapproved appliances by the units in the pollution control area. d) The Board can inspect any place, check any equipment or manufacturing process or any related records or documents. e) The Board has power to obtain information regarding the pollutants emitted into the air by the industrial units. f)

The Board has power to set up one or more State Air Laboratories.

g) The Board has power to take samples of air or emission from any industry for purpose of testing.

The Act deals with procedures of penalties for the violators of the law. Accordingly, whoever fails to comply with the provisions of Section 21 (5) or Section 22 will be punished with imprisonment for a period or a fine of Rs.10,000 or both. Generally, it is stated the matter does not go to the extent of imprisonment, and the penalties are very nominal WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTORL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1976 Even though water is a state subject under the constitution, centre was requested by some of the states to pass this law. The Act comprises of 64 sections and covers almost every type of water pollution. The Water act provides for a Central Board and State Boards for prevention Boards by two or more States or Union Territories.

The act empowers the states to take emergency measures including issuing of orders restraining persons form causing pollution. The act empowers all the Boards to move the court of law for restraining an apprehended act of pollution. The act provides for penalties. For contravening the standards laid down by the Board, the act sanctions prison sentences (with or without fine) ranging for three months to six years.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING The Act provision in attributions of guilt requires special mention. Under section 47, every person in charge of an offending company and responsible of the conduct of business of the company can be found guilty of causing pollution in the absence of proof of due diligence.

Likewise, even a Head of Government Department can be held guilty, in the absence of due diligence.

The Water (Prevention and Control of pollution) Act was amended in 1988. The water act imposes the following condition amended: that no person shall, without the previous consent of the State Pollution Control Board, either 1. Establish or take steps to establish, any industry, which is likely to discharge sewage or trade effluent, 2. bring into use any new or altered outlet for the discharge of a sewage, or 3. Being to make any new discharge of sewage.

It also tells about the jail term and fine.

WILDLIFE PORTECTION ACT, 1972 The rapid decline in India’s Wild Life (animals and birds) one of the richest and mot varied in the world, has been a cause of concern it is really lamentable that some animals and bird species have already become extinct; some more species are under grave threats for their existence. The Wild Birds and Animals Protection At 1912 have almost become outmoded. The emphases of earlier acts were on control of hunting; other important aspects like taxidermy, and trade in wildlife were not attendee to. Need was felt for the enactment of a comprehensive legislation and the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 was brought into force.

The salient features of the act: The act contains 66 sections in seven chapters and six schedules. The definitions of the terms ‘Animals’ ‘Animal Article’, ‘Captive Animal’, ‘Hunting’, Wild Animal’, Wild Life’ etc. are exhaustive and aimed to provide a broader scope of operation for the law.

The Act provides for appointment of Authorities like Director of Wildlife Preservation, Asst. Directors at the centre, Chief Wildlife Warden and other officers in the States. Provision is there for the constitution of Wildlife Advisory board in each Stage.

The Act prohibits hunting of wild animals (specified in the schedule), protection for specified plants, establishment of sanctuaries, National parks, etc. The schedules in the act are important. Schedule I prohibits harming endangered species throughout India.

It is important to remember Art 51 (A) (g) of the Indian constitution which prescribes that it is the duly of every citizen ‘to protect and improve the natural environment including forest, lakes, rivers and wild life and to have compassion for all living species.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING In 1982 there was amendment to the act which introduces provision permitting the capture and transport of wild animals for scientific management of the animal populations”.

THE FOREST CONSERVATION ACT, 1980 The Central Government has been empowered since 1976 to take action against deforestation. The Forest Conservation Act was passed in 1980, consisting of just five sections.

The Act provides that reserved forest shall not be diverted or deserved without the prior permission of the Central Government, and the land that has been notified or registered and mentioned in Government records as forest land, may not be used for non-forest purpose.

The Act was amended in 1988, one of the two amendments forbids the forest department to assign any forest land “by way of lease or otherwise to any private person” or non-Government body, for forestation. IT also forbids clearance of any forest land of naturally grown trees for the purpose of reforestation.

The Second amendment turns diversion of forest land to non-forest use as a cognizable offense. It also provides that any one who contravenes this law is punishable either imprisonment for a period to include “Cultivation of tea, coffee, species, rubbers, palms, oil bearing plants, horticultural crops or medicinal plants”.

The definition of “non-forest uses” and amendment of the 1980 Act, goes against the rural poor who use the forest land to grow fruit, fuel and medicinal plants which they need for their survival. It is reported that the forest department yielding to industrial pressures, will be able to use the forest department yielding to industrial species that are to of any use to people. Hence the Act is criticized as being “pro-industry” at the cost of the interests of the rural poor, who require these lands for their very survival.

5:9 ISSUES INVOLVED IN ENFORCEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATIONS Environmental legislations are the creations caused by the concern over the state of environment world over. Since sixties their are more legislation covering different aspects pollution control, conservation of natural resources (like forests, wildlife), etc. There are existing laws dealing directly or indirectly with several environment matters butter but still it has been felt necessary to have special legislations for environment protection.

It is said that there are about 200 and odd legislations (central and state) in India covering different aspects of environment. The Supreme Court observed in 1993 - “if the mere enactment of the laws relating to the protection of environment was to ensure a clean and pollution –free environment, then India would perhaps be the least polluted country in the world But this is not so. This sums up the gap between eh legislations and their implementation.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING The court has observed that the major issue in implementation is the clash of personal interests. Where there is a conflict between the provision of law and personal interests, then it often happens that self-discipline and respect for law disappear (Supreme Court, 1993). Enacting a lows and tolerating its infringement is worse than not enacting the law at all. Political or industrial interests often come in the way of effective implementation of environmental legislation.

In some cases, the legislations themselves are ineffective pieces with loopholes or diluting provisions that make strict enforcement a distant dream. A number of public, interest litigations brought before Indian courts show how the legislations, the institutions or authorize is intended for implementing statutory provisions and even the courts themselves are ill equipped to implement the laws relating to environmental protection.

The satisfying aspect in that the Higher Courts in the country have consistently upheld peoples fundamental rights to clean and protected the environment. The courts were even ready to order closure of large number of industries polluting the environment. The Indian courts are convinced that economic development should not be allowed to take place at the cost of environmental degradation.

Foreign exchange earnings, cost of treatment / environmental pollution control plants, employment potential and availability of raw materials are often cited as points for continuance of certain polluting industries (Tanneries, paper mills, match – factories, etc). But the concept of sustainable development does not permit unbalanced growth and development.

5:10 PUBLIC AWARENESS No governmental programme – more particularly measures to protect eth environment can become successful without creating public awareness and enlisting their co-operation successful without creating public awareness and enlisting their co-operation. It is time that global level voices have been raised urging the public to develop ‘environment consciousnesses’. The results are far form satisfactory.

To achieve a ‘pollution-free environment’ and have a protected ‘green earth’, there should be should be spontaneous co-operation form the general public and their reactive participation.

Creation of awareness and provision of knowledge and skills required to meet the challenges of environmental pollution can not end up as short-lived efforts. People should develop an awareness of environment. Protection of environment should become the life-long mission of the public everywhere.

Only when solid basis of public awareness is created, we can hope to channel different talents of the people and embark upon a multi disciplinary approach to tackle the environmental problems that stand as grave threats to safe lives of all – human being and other living organisms.

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ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING Public awareness on current status of environment, causes of degradation of environment, measures to be undertaken for the protection and conservation of natural resources and biodiversity, etc, would go a long way in achieving suitable development World bodies like the United Nations, its systems like the UNEP and National Level efforts complimented by very active NGO and media participation are already one to create public awareness on environment. The levels are ringing loud; it is up to the public to wake up and act or else perish sooner.

REFERENCES 1. Environmental Studies. (2007). UGC Syllabus. Periyar EVR College. Tiruchirappalli – 23.

2. Panneeraselvam & et.al. (2004). Environmental Science Education. New Delhi. Sterling Publishers Private Limited.

3. Krishnamacharyulu & et.al. (2006). Environmental Education. Hyderabad. Neelkamal Publication Pvt. Ltd. 4. Mahajan, K. (1993). Environmental Protection- Challenges and Issues. Deep & Deep Pub. 5. Survey of the Environment. The Hindu. (1999)

Prepared by M.Vakkil, Lecturer, Department of Education, Periyar University, Salem, Tamil Nadu.

The students of B.A Education are requested to refer the reference books given in the syllabus also.

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