IMTS BBA (Foundation course on humainites and social science)

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CONTENTS UNIT – 01 01-09 PROSE: STUDENTS AND THEIR DUTIES - GOPALAKRISHNA GOKHALE - LOST MOMENTS OF CHILDHOOD - FROM "THE HINDU".

UNIT-02

10-15

Origin and Development of Social Sciences - Meaning and Definition of social sciences - Historical Development of Social Sciences - Social Science Studies - Criticism of Social Sciences UNIT-03

16-24

Branches of Social Sciences – Anthropology – History – Geography – Economics Sociology - Political science - Public Administration – Law – Education – Psychology Social Work UNIT-04

25-31

History and Its Importance - Meaning of History - Definitions - Sources of History Scope and Importance of History - History and other Social Sciences

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UNIT- 1 PROSE STRUCTURE: 1.0 Learning objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Lesson: 1 1.2.1 Duty to Yourselves 1.2.2 Importance of character 1.2.3 Duty to fellow students 1.2.4 Duty to parents and teachers 1.2.5 Reverence towards Teachers 1.2.6 Duty to Wider World 1.3 Lesson : 2 1.4 Summary 1.5 Key words 1.6 Answer to check your progress questions 1.7 Terminal Questions 1.8 Further readings

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1.0 Learning objectives After reading this chapter the students should able to 

Know the importance of student’s character.



Understand student’s duty to others



Analyse the sufferings of children.



Write about childhood sufferings.

.

1.1 Introduction Students and their Duties – Gopalakrishna Gokhale It is imperative that students possess a sense of direction in order to take on the challenges of the day. The following passages are extracts from Gopala Krishna Gokhale’s reply to the address presented to him by students of Madras (now Chennai) on 25 July, 1911. Gokhale’s advice will, no doubt, find it a stepping stone to success.

Lost Moments of childhood – The Hindu Childhood is precious. It is unfair to exploit innocent childhood for selfish ends. The abuse of children as labourers is an obnoxious practice prevalent in India and elsewhere. Child labour is a social injustice and it is our duty to end it.

The following article entitled ‘Lost moments of childhood,’ written by Lata Ramaseshan, appeared in The Hindu on Children’s Day, 1997. The essay presents the pitiable condition of the poor, illiterate children with a view to create awareness in us. Let us join together to fight child labour and uphold social justice.

1.2 Lesson : 1 When I was a young man and a student like yourself, I often heard elderly men saying that the days of student life were in some respects the happiest days of one’s life. I confess that I was not in those days quite able to understand where happiness lay, - whether in the exacting demand which the teachers made on the student or in the succession of examinations or other hardships with which you all and every student elsewhere is familiar. However, since I began what may be called my later life and saw now I understand more and more every day the deep significance and the meaning of that observation. The life of a student is, comparatively speaking, a sheltered life. Gentlemen, because this is the happy part of your life, there are therefore certain responsibilities attached to it which must be well discharged by you, because no privilege in life is worth having, unless it is attended by corresponding duties and there are certain duties, which those who placed you in your present position expect you to perform.

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1.2.1 Duty to Yourselves I will consider these duties under four heads. First of all, the duty you owe to yourselves; then there is the duty which you owe to your fellow students; the third duty is the duty which you owe to those in authority over you, and the last duty is a duty which you owe to those who are around you, no students, but people of the wider world around you. If you consider these four duties on by one, and if you realize what is exactly expected of those duties, if you do the best that lies in your power to perform these duties properly, then you may well say for yourself that you can give a good account of your student days.

First, as regards the duty to yourselves; the duty is twofold. You have first of all to lay by a stock of knowledge that will suffice you not merely for your examinations but will be helpful to you in later life.

Those who have to attend to their studies at a school or a college often try to acquire knowledge as they get along, but they have to struggle with the fact of the performance of other duties and it is no always possible to acquire knowledge while you have to give much of your time to the performance of these duties. Knowledge is an exacting mistress; she needs devotion, whole – hearted devotion is possible only in the days of studenthood. Therefore, the first part of the duty towards yourselves is to take the almost advantage of your present position, to lay by a stock of knowledge that will be useful to you in later life.

Check your progress question 1. Why are students days considered to be the happiest days of one’s life?

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.2.2 Importance of character But it is not merely knowledge that will help you or help any class of human beings by itself.

Along with that knowledge there is another requisite that you must secure, and that is character. It is almost a truism to say that more depends for success in life on character than on knowledge. This character must show itself in earnestness, in energy of action and in high and generous sentiments being brought to bear upon the discharge of your duties and in recognizing what is due to others and what is due to yourselves. You have to acquire a character which will raise the whole life of the people amidst whom you move and for whom you are expected to work.

1.2.3 Duty to fellow students Your duty to your fellow students will teach you in later life and will secure for you the habit of co – operation. The foundation of the habit of co – operation is really to be laid in our student days. This habit of co – operation you can acquire and acquire in a very marked manner, during your school or college days because you are trained to be together in your class, and you cannot have it all your own way if you want to get on with your class. Therefore, if you use your opportunities properly, you will know exactly how to get on with them by sometimes giving in to them and sometimes standing out for your own

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view, being regardful of the feelings and considerations of other people. This habit of co – operation once acquired will continue with you all your life. It is not easy to acquire it in later life if you have not already acquired it in your students days.

Check your progress question 2. What is the result of acquiring good character?

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1.2.4 Duty to parents and teachers Your third duty is towards those in authority over you. There are, in the first place, parents and guardians, and in the second place, teachers to whose care you are committed and, lastly, the authorities under whose rule you have to live. You must carefully realize what your duties are in regard to these authorities and not transgress these duties while you are in the stage of studenthood. Two of the finest traditions of the East which have been universally recognized are obedience to parents and reverence to teachers. This is a recognition made not only by the people of the East, but also by the people of the West and I should be extremely sorry, and I should consider that it would be nothing less than a national calamity, if either the one or the other of the two traditions is seriously weakened in the land. Obedience to parents, especially during the time of the studenthood and reverence for teachers while you are studying under them, these are two of the most essential conditions necessary for acquiring knowledge and for taking the fullest advantage of those opportunities which are placed within your reach while you are students. While you are young men and students, while parents have to find means wherewith to enable you to prosecute your studies, while they have to take care of you, it is necessary that their wishes should prevail with you in all matters, but when once your education is completed and the struggle of life commences and when you are able to stand on your own legs, you owe it to yourselves and to your country, that you should use your own judgement as to what line you should adopt and what work you should do.

1.2.5 Reverence towards Teachers In the same way you owe reverence to your teacher while you are at school or college. I do not think that any student is justified in doing anything to which a teacher takes exception….Unless your whole attitude in the college and the school is founded upon a proper feeling of reverence for the teacher, you will miss one of the principal lessons of the school or college life, viz, the appreciation of discipline.

Remember that in later life, along with the spirit of co – operation, what you will need most and what we need most in public life is a true spirit of discipline – the true spirit of that discipline which voluntarily subordinates your judgement, your convenience and personal gain to common good. Unless you acquire this habit at school or college, it will not be possible for you to acquire it in later life. Besides the want of

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co – operation, the great cause of the disruption of many of our movements is the lack of discipline in our ranks, different people pulling in different ways.

You must realize that there is great dignity in restraint which is voluntarily endured. Restraint which you have to endure, because you must, may be galling; there is not much dignity in it. But restraint which you voluntarily endure out of reverence for the person from whom it comes, because for the moment, dignity to your nature, certainly strengthens your nature and there is nothing humiliating in such restraint. Whatever your teacher objects to, you must not persist in doing.

1.2.6 Duty to Wider World The last duty that you owe to those who are in the wider world is to acquire a knowledge of their needs, observe their condition and observe their struggle, and to acquire an attitude of mind, so as to sympathise with those who are struggling, even though you are not immediately able to give them redress. There is a great deal of injustice and suffering in the wider world which requires to be remedied, and when it comes to you to play the part of grown – up men, it is expected you will contribute your share to remove these things. In the meantime you must not enter the justified but bound to study the condition of things around you, observe and study but not take any active part in movements intended for setting things right. Observe and study the conditions carefully, as you are bound to do.

Check your progress question 3. What is a young man expected to do to the wider world?

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.3 Lesson : 2 Lost moments of childhood – The Hindu Children’s day. The day Jawaharlal Nehru was born. A holiday for all schools. A holyday of exhibitions and cultural programmes. A day for fun and games. But is it so for all children?

Twelve – year – old Beena is an acrobat in a touring circus. Every evening she climbs a rope ladder, stands on a small platform atop the arena and is on the tra – pezes for half – an hour. Sometimes she hangs upside down. She does not look down for fear she might fall. Beena has been working in the circus for two years upto standard IV in a school in her village. She was packed off with her aunt to earn so that her younger brother could study.

Mani’s hands are rough. The ten – year – old has been mixing chemicals in a match factory. He looks at his hands. The sores are raw, but he continues his work. Mani is thinking of the Rs. 10 he will get at the end of the day for his hard work. His mind is racing. His father promised to save Rs. 20 to buy him crackers. His eyes shine thinking and praying that he will be granted a holiday on such a special occasion.

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Nine – year – old Ameena stands on toes to reach the saree border which has been tightly nailed to a wooden frame for zari and pearl embroidery. She has been working on the saree for more than 10 hours at a stretch and has completed roughly half the hob. Ameena has been forced to work, since her mother had taken a loan of Rs. 500 from the owners of a textile shop. Ameena’s back hurts, but she continues to work afraid of the beatings and scoldings the owner will give on her.

Check your progress question: 4. Who is Beena?

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------There are more than 55 million children in India who work in glass factories, carpet manufacturing, lock making, beedi industry, textiles and crackers industry and they work in very unhygienic conditions. Besides, a lot of children work in several hotels, restaurants and automobile service shops. There are rag pickers who rummage through garbage dumps in the cities and towns looking for waste paper, broken plastic, anything that has resale value. There are maids who work at homes, scrubbing and cleaning floors and vessels, looking after children who may be just a year or two younger than them.

Such children have either not gone to, or have dropped out from school, just so as to earn a little to help the family. They do not go to school to learn, they make friends, do not have classmates to laugh and play with. They do not have the leisure to draw or paint, or to visit the zoo, to play hide and seek and cricket or simply curl up and read a story book. Instead they are forced to work, to earn so that they may at least get one square meal at night.

Check your progress question: 5. Why do the children go to work?

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------These unfortunate youngsters work under difficult circumstances, forgoing their precious childhood, often abused or beaten by the owners of the factory they work in. They are paid low wages, work for longer hours than adults. In most cases, the children come from poor families where the parents are unemployed. Child labour is cheap and easy and unscrupulous traders and proprietors employ them, to earn maximum profits.

Sometimes back, a group of Bangladesh children was rescued near Chennai. They were being taken to Saudi Arabia to participate in camel races. Camel racing is a dangerous game which requires a light rider to win the race. Children aged between eight and ten, and who are naturally very light are tied to a camel’s back. Once the race begins, the camel runs very fast, overthrowing the rider. Since these children are tied, they slide to the underbelly, and sometimes get caught between the camel’s legs. Such is the plight of these youngsters, not only in India, but in other countries too.

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Poverty is the root – cause of child labour. As a result, the child misses out on the learning process, which is a very important part in the growth stage. This Deepavali it was heartening to read that several school children had taken a pledge not to buy crackers since they were made by children of their own age. Yes, we could also help such children. If there is a mother working in out homes whose child is also working, we can teach it to read and write, to laugh and play along with us during our spare time. If there is a boy working in a shop near our house, we could persuade him to study and teach and guide him. Such small gestures go a long way in rehabilitating dis-advantaged children.

Check your progress question: 6. What is the root cause of child labour?

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1.4 Summary In the essay, “Students and their Duties” Gopala Krishna Gokhale advises the students how to get success both in the examination and life. He divides the duties of the students under four heads: The duties which students owe to themselves, the duties which they owe to their fellow students, the duties which they owe to those in authority over them and the duties which they owe to those who are around them. Regarding the duty to the students themselves they have to not only pass the examination bit also acquire knowledge and character. If the students help others, they will acquire the habit of co-operation.

If the students do their duties to parents and teachers, naturally they will acquire the spirit of voluntary subordination to their judgement and the authorities over them.

The students must understand the

sufferings of the people and fight against the injustice in the world.

The article, “ Lost moments of childhood” written by Ramaseshan which appeared in “The Hindu” on children’s Day in 1997 throws light on the sufferings of child labourers. For instance, twelve – year – old Beena is forced to be an acrobat in a touring circus. Mani, a ten – year – old boy is working in a match factory Nine – year – old Ameena is employed in pearl embroidery work. All these children are employed to eke out their livelihood. Further such children have to earn a little to help their families, poverty is the root – cause of child labour.

We must teach, guide and try to rehabilitation such

disadvantaged children.

1.5 Key words Students and their Duties Confess

: admit

Observation

: remark.

Exacting

: taxing, Arduous.

Succession of

: series of.

Discharged

: performed, fulfilled.

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: care and thought, to concentrate on.

To attend to

: care and thought, to concentrate on.deep,

Devotion

: deep, strong love. zeal.

To lay by

: to store up.

Secure

: get.

Truism

: statement that is obviously true.

Earnestness

: seriousness and determination.

Generous sentiments

: noble, tender feelings.

Go get on with

: to work or live sociably with

Giving in to them

: yielding to their views.

Committed

: entrusted.

In regard to

: with respect to, concerning.

Transgress

: violate.

Reverence

: great respect.

Calamity

: great, serious misfortune: disaster.

Prosecute

: carry on, complete.

Prevail with

: to have a compelling influence.

Takes exception to

: objects to.

Appreciation of discipline

: giving more importance to discipline.

Subordinates your judgement : considers your views less important.

Disruption

: breaking up.

Restraint

: keeping under control.

Galling Redress

: irritating. : to set right, to remedy. Here, relief, remedy.

Lost moments of childhood – The Hindu Acrobat

: person who entertains people by carrying out difficult and Skilful physical actions.

Arena

: large, flat enclosed area used for sports or entertainment.

Trapezes

: short bars hanging high up in the air – used by acrobats For demonstrating their skills.

Packed off

: sent away.

Calloused

: hardened by rough work.

His mind is racing

: his mind is working faster than usual.

At a stretch

: continuously, without any interruption.

Heap on

: give in excess.

Rummage

: searching for something by moving things around in a

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Hurried way.

Forgoing

: giving up.

Unscrupulous

: dishonest and immoral.

Gestures

: something done to convey a friendly intention.

Rehabilitating

: bringing back to normal life by special treatment.

1.6 Answer to check your progress questions 1. Comparatively speaking student days are sheltered ones. So, they are the happiest days in ones’s life 2. The result of acquiring good character will raise the whole life of the people.

3. A young man has to set right the injustice and sufferings in the world.

4. Beena is an acrobat in a touring circus.

5. The children go to work to earn a little to help their families.

6. Poverty is the root – cause of child labour 1.7 Terminal Questions Section – A 1. According to Gopala Krishna Gokhale what are the four duties of students?

2. What is necessary for students to acquire knowledge?

3. Mention the two authorities under whom the students have to live?

4. How long has Beena been working in a circus?

5. Why do proprietors employ children?

Section – B 1. What are the duties of students to themselves?

2. Explain the duties of students to parents and teachers?

3. Write a paragraph about the duties of the students to the world?

Section - C 1. According to Gopala Krishna Gokhale what are the duties of students.

2. As per Lata Ramaseshan what are the sufferings of child – labourers?

1.8 Further readings 1. Engine Trouble

-

R.K. Narayanan.

2. Nuggets of Gold

-

An Authology of English Prose.

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UNIT-2 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT STRUCTURE 2.1. Introduction 2.2. Learning Objectives 2.3. Social Sciences: Meaning and Definition 2.4. Historical Development of Social Sciences 2.5. Social Science Studies 2.6. Criticism of Social Sciences 2.7. Summary 2.8. Exercises and Questions 2.9. Further Reading

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2.1. INTRODCTION In this chapter you are going to study the origin and development of social sciences. It is very important to understand man’s relation to social, economic and political institutions since the genesis of civilizations. Modern society is very complex as well as knowledge based. Apart from natural institutions, men create new organizations and institutions now and then for the betterment of every day life. The complexity of society also needs efficiency in governance. Apart from regulation, development is also on the forefront which becomes an essential function of the government. Hence, social sciences become an essential part of the study right form the dawn of civilizations. This chapter discusses all these issues.

2.2. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter you will be able to • • • •

Explain what social science is Describe the historical development of social sciences Examine the basic principles of social science subjects Bring out the growth of social science studies

2.3. SOCIAL SCIENCES: MEANING AND DEFINITION Social science is the ambitious concept to define the set of disciplines of scholarship which deal with aspects of human society. As commonly understood, the social sciences include economics, sociology and political science. At their boundaries, the social sciences reach into the study of the individual and of nature. In terms of university departments, the social sciences have split up into numerous areas of teaching and research, including not only the central disciplies, but also such subjects as public administration, industrial relations, international relations and business studies.

Science is the systematic study of an object or phenomenon based on observation, measurement and experimentation. Scientific knowledge is based on verifiable facts using certain methods. When the inquiry about social aspects applies this scientific approach, it assumes a scientific treatment of social studies. Hence the term ‘social science’ assumes significance. Science studies the aspects of material world. Social science studies the different aspects of human society. It also studies the interpersonal relationship among people in society.

It is difficult to frame a single definition of social science as the term is a conglomeration of different disciplines. On the aspects of methodological inquiry scholars adopted multiple and varied approaches. Auguste Comte, Dmile Durkheim, Charles Fourier, Vilfredo Pareto, Talcot Parsons, Karl Popper, Max Weber etc. differed in their approaches.

Durkheim held that social sciences necessarily study the social facts. Max Weber argued that the study of social sciences is what we gain between knowledge and values. Parsons has argued that the substance of social science is social action steming from social system. The social system has four subsystems: the economy, polity, culture and integrative systems.

2.4. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES In ancient philosophy, there was no difference between mathematics and the study of history, poetry or politics. Only with the development of mathematical proof did there gradually arise a perceived difference between "scientific" disciplines and others. Thus, Aristotle studied planetary motion and poetry with the same methods, and Plato mixes geometrical proofs with his demonstration on the state of intrinsic knowledge.

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Significant contributions to the social sciences were made by Muslim scientists in the Islamic civilization. Al-Biruni (973–1048) has been called the first anthropologist. He wrote detailed comparative studies on the anthropology of peoples, religions and cultures in the Middle East, Mediterranean and South Asia. Al-Biruni's anthropology of religion was only possible for a scholar deeply immersed in the lore of other nations. Biruni has also been praised by several scholars for his Islamic anthropology).

Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) is regarded as the father of demography, historiography, the philosophy of history, sociology, and the social sciences, and is viewed as one of the forerunners of modern economics.

After the fall of Rome, which did little in the way of science, theorizing was transferred to the priesthood and a group of scholars known as the scholastics. Prominent thinkers of the Dark Ages such as Abelard, Erigena, St. Anselm and John of Salisbury made few comments on economic analysis.

Thomas Aquinas of the 13th century expressed interest in political sociology and wrote on some economics. Near the Renaissance which began around the 14th century Buridanus and Oresmius wrote on money. In the 15th century St. Atonine of Florence wrote of a comprehensive economic process. In the 16th century Leonard de Leys, Juan de Lego, and particularly Luis Molina wrote on economic topics.

These writers focused on explaining property as something for public good.

Representative figures of the 17th century include David Hartley, Hugo Grotius, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Samuel von Putendorf. Thomas Hobbes argued that deductive reasoning from axioms created a scientific framework, and hence his Leviathan was a scientific description of a political commonwealth. In the eighteenth century social science was called moral philosophy, as contrasted from natural philosophy and mathematics, and included the study of natural theology, natural ethics, natural jurisprudence, and policy, which included economics and finance. Pure philosophy, logic, literature, and history were outside these two categories. Adam Smith was a professor of moral philosophy, and he was taught by Francis Hutcheson. Figures of the time included François Quesnay, Rousseau, Giambattista Vico, William Godwin, Gabriel Bonnet de Mably, and Andre Morellet. The Encyclopédie of the time contained various works on the social sciences.

The term ‘social science’ first appeared in the 1824 book An Inquiry into the Principles of the Distribution of Wealth Most Conducive to Human Happiness; applied to the Newly Proposed System of Voluntary Equality of Wealth by William Thompson (1775–1833). Auguste Comte (1797–1857) argued that ideas pass through three rising stages, theological, philosophical and scientific. He defined the difference as the first being rooted in assumption, the second in critical thinking, and the third in positive observation. This framework, still rejected by many, encapsulates the thinking which was to push economic study from being a descriptive to a mathematically based discipline. Karl Marx was one of the first writers to claim that his methods of research represented a scientific view of history in this model.

With the late 19th century, attempts to apply equations to statements about human behavior became increasingly common. Among the first were the Laws of philology, which attempted to map the change over time of sounds in a language.

It was with the work of Charles Darwin that the descriptive version of social theory received another shock. Biology had, seemingly, resisted mathematical study, and yet the theory of natural selection and the implied idea of genetic inheritance - later found to have been enunciated by Gregor Mendel, seemed to point in the direction of a scientific biology based, like physics and chemistry, on mathematical relationships.

In the first half of the 20th century, statistics became a free-standing discipline of applied mathematics. Statistical methods were used confidently, for example in an increasingly statistical view of biology.

The first thinkers to attempt to combine inquiry of the type they saw in Darwin with exploration of human relationships, which, evolutionary theory implied, would be based on selective forces, were Freud in Austria and William James in the United States. Freud's theory of the functioning of the mind, and

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James' work on experimental psychology would have enormous impact on those that followed. Freud, in particular, created a framework which would appeal not only to those studying psychology, but artists and writers as well.

One of the most persuasive advocates for the view of scientific treatment of philosophy would be John Dewey (1859–1952). He began, as Marx did, in an attempt to weld Hegelian idealism and logic to experimental science, for example in his Psychology of 1887. However, he abandoned Hegelian constructs. Influenced by both Charles Sanders Peirce and William James, he joined the movement in America called pragmatism. He then formulated his basic doctrine, enunciated in essays such as "The Influence of Darwin on Philosophy" (1910).

This idea, based on his theory of how organisms respond, states that there are three phases to the process of inquiry: With the rise of the idea of quantitative measurement in the physical sciences, for example Lord Rutherford's famous maxim that any knowledge that one cannot measure numerically is a poor sort of knowledge, the stage was set for the conception of the humanities as being precursors to social science.

This change was not, and is not, without its detractors, both inside of academia and outside. The range of critiques begin from those who believe that the physical sciences are qualitatively different from social sciences, through those who do not believe in statistical science of any kind, through those who disagree with the methodology and kinds of conclusion of social science, to those who believe the entire framework of scientificizing these disciplines is mostly from a desire for prestige.

Some social science subfields have become very quantitative in methodology. Conversely, the interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary nature of scientific inquiry into human behavior and social and environmental factors affecting it have made many of the natural sciences interested on some aspects of social science methodology.

In 1924, prominent social scientists established the Pi Gamma Mu honor society for the social sciences. Among its key objectives were to promote interdisciplinary cooperation and develop an integrated theory of human personality and organization. Toward these ends, a journal for interdisciplinary scholarship in the various social sciences and lectureship grants were established.

Theodore Porter argued in The Rise of Statistical Thinking that the effort to provide a synthetic social science is a matter of both administration and discovery combined, and that the rise of social science was, therefore, marked by both pragmatic needs as much as by theoretical purity. An example of this is the rise of the concept of Intelligence Quotient, or IQ. It is unclear precisely what is being measured, but the measurement is useful in that it predicts success in various endeavors.

The rise of industrialism had created a series of social, economic, and political problems, particularly in managing supply and demand in their political economy, the management of resources for military and developmental use, the creation of mass education systems to train individuals in symbolic reasoning and problems in managing the effects of industrialization itself. The perceived senselessness of the Great War as it was then called, of 1914–18, now called World War I, based in what were perceived to be emotional and irrational decisions, provided an immediate impetus for a form of decision making that was more scientific and easier to manage. Simply put, to manage the new multi-national enterprises, private and governmental, required more data. More data required a means of reducing it to information upon which to make decisions. Numbers and charts could be interpreted more quickly and moved more efficiently than long texts. Conversely, the interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary nature of scientific inquiry into human behavior and social and environmental factors affecting it have made many of the so-called hard sciences dependent on social science methodology. Increasingly, quantitative and qualitative methods are being integrated in the study of human action and its implications and consequences.

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In the 1930s this new model of managing decision making became cemented with the New Deal in the US, and in Europe with the increasing need to manage industrial production and governmental affairs. Institutions such as The New School for Social Research, International Institute of Social History, and departments of social research at prestigious universities were meant to fill the growing demand for individuals who could quantify human interactions and produce models for decision making on this basis.

Coupled with this pragmatic need was the belief that the clarity and simplicity of mathematical expression avoided systematic errors of holistic thinking and logic rooted in traditional argument. This trend, part of the larger movement known as modernism provided the rhetorical edge for the expansion of social sciences.

There continues to be little movement toward consensus on what methodology might have the power and refinement to connect a proposed grand theory with the various midrange theories which, with considerable success, continue to provide usable frameworks for massive, growing data banks.

2.5. SOCIAL SCIENCE STUDIES Universities throughout the world consider the study of the social sciences as vital for the future of society, and most cater for many degrees in the multiplicity of social science fields. In the United States, a degree candidate who has studied a field within the social sciences may earn a Bachelor of Arts degree, particularly if the field was within one of the traditional liberal arts - such as history - or may earn a Bachelor of Science degree, as the social sciences constitute one of the two main branches of science (the other being the natural sciences). In addition, beginning in the 20th century, specialized degrees have been created at some institutions specifically for a social science - such as Bachelor of Economics degree, though such specialized degrees are relatively rare in the United States.

The Bachelor of Social Science, is a degree targeted at the social sciences in particular, it is often more flexible and in-depth than other degrees which also include social science subjects. The Bachelor of Social Science can be studied at the University of Waikato (Hamilton, New Zealand), University of Sydney (Sydney, Australia), University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong, China), University of Manchester (Manchester, England), Lincoln University (Christchurch, New Zealand), National University of Malaysia (Bangi, Malaysia), and University of Queensland (Brisbane, Australia).

2.6. CRITICISM OF SOCIAL SCIENCES The social sciences are sometimes criticized as being less scientific than the natural sciences, in that they are seen as being less rigorous or empirical in their methods. This claim has been made in the so-called Science Wars and is most commonly made when comparing social sciences to fields such as physics, chemistry or biology in which corroboration of the hypothesis is far more incisive with regard to data observed from specifically designed experiments. Social sciences can thus be deemed to be largely observational, in that explanations for cause-effect relationships are largely subjective. A limited degree of freedom is available in designing the factor setting for a particular observational study. Social scientists however, argue against such claims by pointing to the use of a rich variety of scientific processes, mathematical proofs, and other methods in their professional literature. Flyvbjerg (2001) has argued that the discussion of whether natural science is more scientific than social science is futile; social science is best practiced as phronesis, whereas natural science is best practiced as episteme, in the classical Greek meaning of the terms, and both have important if different roles to play in the production of knowledge in society.

It has been argued that the social world is much too complex to be studied as one would study static molecules. The actions or reactions of a molecule or chemical substance are always the same when placed in certain situations. Humans, on the other hand, are much too complex for these traditional scientific methodologies. Humans and society do not have certain rules that always have the same outcome and they cannot guarantee to react the same way to certain situations.

A third criticism is that social sciences tend to be compromised more frequently by politics, since results from social science may threaten certain centers of power in a society, particularly ones which

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fund the research institutions. Further, complexity exacerbates the problems, since observed social data may be the result of factors which are hard to evaluate in isolation.

Not all institutions recognize some fields listed above as social sciences or as being only social scientific. Some disciplines have characteristics of both the humanities, social and natural sciences: for example some subfields of anthropology, such as biological anthropology, are closely related to the natural sciences whereas archaeology and linguistics are social sciences, while cultural anthropology is very much linked with the humanities. Note that social science methodologies are being incorporated into so-called hard science fields like medicine, where a three-legged stool to the understanding of physical well-being is now emphasized in the medical curriculum: biological, socio-psychological, and environmental.

2.7. SUMMARY In this chapter you have learned about the meaning and historical development of social sciences. Modern society is very complex as well as knowledge based. Apart from natural institutions, men create new organizations and institutions now and then for the betterment of every day life. The complexity of society also needs efficiency in governance. Apart from regulation, development is also on the forefront which becomes an essential function of the government. Hence, social sciences become an essential part of the study right form the dawn of civilizations. This chapter has also explained the academic aspects of social science studies and the criticism of its methods and approaches.

2.8. EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS SECTION-A 1. What is science?

2. What do you understand by social science?

3. List out the founders of social science.

4. What are the four subsystems of social system?

5. Distinguish between social science and natural science?

SECTION-B 1. Write a note on the development of social science.

2. Bring out the contributions of Comte and Weber to social sciences.

3. Explain the status of social science studies at universities 4. What are the major criticisms against social sciences?

5. Briefly describe the historical development of social sciences.

SECTION-C 1. Write an essay on the origin and development of social sciences.

2. Bring out the modern trends in the study of social sciences in universities.

3. Briefly dicuss on criticism of social sciences.

2.9. FURTHER READING 1. Adam Kuper and Jessica Kuper eds. The Social Science Encyclopedia, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1985 2. IGNOU, Preparatory Course in Social Sciences, New Delhi, 2008 3. NCERT, Text Book of Social Science for Class X, New Delhi, 2009.

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UNIT-03 BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCES STRUCTURE 3.1. Introduction 3.2. Learning Objectives 3.3. Anthropology 3.4. History 3.5. Geography 3.6. Economics 3.7. Sociology 3.8. Political science 3.9. Public Administration 3.10. Law 3.11. Education 3.12. Psychology 3.13. Social Work 3.14. Summary 3.15. Exercises and Question 3.16. Further Reading

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3.1. INTRODUCTION In this chapter you are going to study the different branches of social sciences. Mankind has been interaction with different social, economic and political institutions since the dawn of civilizations. In odern sense, respective academic disciplines address this issue. For instance, anthropology, history, political science, sociology, economics, public administration, etc. concern with man’s relations with respective issues. This chapter covers the social science subjects in wider sense.

3.2. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter you will be able to • • • •

Bring out the different disciplines of social sciences Explain the discipline of history as a social science Examine the basic principles of economics as a social science Describe the discipline of sociology

3.3. ANTHROPOLOGY Anthropology is the holistic discipline that deals with the integration of different aspects of the Social Sciences, Humanities, and Human Biology. It includes Archaeology, Prehistory, Physical or Biological Anthropology, Anthropological Linguistics, Social and Cultural Anthropology, Ethnology and Ethnography. It is an area that is offered at most undergraduate institutions. The word anthropos is from the Greek for human being or person. Eric Wolf described sociocultural anthropology as the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the sciences.

3.4. HISTORY History is the continuous, systematic narrative and research of past events as relating to the human species; as well as the study of all events in time, in relation to humanity. There is much debate over history's classification of academe, for instance in the United States the National Endowment for the Humanities includes history in its definition of Humanities. However the National Research Council classifies History as a Social science. History can be seen as the sum total of many things taken together and the spectrum of events occurring in action following in order leading from the past to the present and into the future. The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history.

3.5. GEOGRAPHY Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main sub fields: human geography and physical geography. The former focuses largely on the built environment and how space is created, viewed and managed by humans as well as the influence humans have on the space they occupy. The latter examines the natural environment and how the climate, vegetation, soil, water and landforms are produced and interact. As a result of the two subfields using different approaches a third field has emerged, which is environmental geography. Environmental geography combines physical and human geography and looks at the interactions between the environment and humans.

Geographers attempt to understand the earth in terms of physical and spatial relationships. The first geographers focused on the science of mapmaking and finding ways to precisely project the surface of the earth. In this sense, geography bridges some gaps between the natural sciences and social sciences. Historical geography is often taught in a college in a unified Department of Geography.

Modern geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks to understand how the world has changed in terms of human settlement and natural patterns. The fields of Urban Planning, Regional

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Science, and Planetology are closely related to geography. Practitioners of geography use many technologies and methods to collect data such as remote sensing, aerial photography, statistics, and global positioning systems (GPS).

The field of geography is generally split into two distinct branches: physical and human. Physical geography examines phenomena related to climate, oceans, soils, and the measurement of earth.

Human geography focuses on fields as diverse as Cultural geography, transportation, health, military operations, and cities. Other branches of geography include Social geography, regional geography, geomatics, and environmental geography.

3.6. ECONOMICS Economics is a social science which deals with human wants and their satisfaction. It is mainly concerned with the way in which a society chooses to employ its scarce resources which have alternative uses, for the production of goods for present and future consumption. Political economy is another name for economics. “Polis” in Greek means a State. The early writers used the term “Political Economy” for the management of the State. A person who runs a family is expected to make the best use of the income of the household. Similarly, the State is expected to get the maximum benefit for the society. The existence of human wants is the starting point of all economic activity in the world. Unless we make efforts, we cannot satisfy wants. Hence, wants, efforts and satisfaction form the circle of economics.

We may say economics is the science of wants. But in the real world, the means which satisfy our wants are limited, that is, there is scarcity of the means which satisfy our wants. Time and money are limited. And land, labour and capital which are used in production are limited. Though science has increased our resources, our wants have also increased. We may satisfy some wants now. But soon, new wants appear. But all our wants cannot be satisfied because means are limited. We study economics because there is scarcity of many goods we want. This problem is common to the individual as well as the State. That is why we say Economics is the science of scarcity. And scarcity is the basic fact of life. Our wants are unlimited but means are limited. This leads to choicemaking. If there is unlimited supply of goods which satisfy our wants, the problem of choice will not arise. It is true that we have many wants.

But all wants are not of equal importance. So we choose the more important and the more urgent wants.

So choice is the essence of economic activity.

We may also say that economics is the science of choice. Of course, all goods we want are not scarce. There are certain things like air and sunshine which are available in abundance. Though they are very essential for our life, we do not pay any price for them. They are free goods and they are not very important for our study. But many things we want are scarce and we have to pay a price for them. So, in economics, we study how prices of different things are determined. We may also say that economics is a science that deals with pricing process.

Modern economy is a monetary economy. Prices are paid in money. So money plays an important role in the economic life of a society. It is used for buying and selling of goods, for payment of rent, wages, interest and so on. In economics, we study about the role of money in the affairs of mankind.

We shall now sum up our discussion about the nature of economics. Economics is a social science which studies about human wants and their satisfaction. Human wants are unlimited. So scarcity is the fundamental fact of life. As all wants are not of equal importance, this leads to choice. Economics is the science of choice. As there is scarcity of goods, we have to pay a price for them. So, economics studies about the pricing process. And, as prices are paid in money, we study about the part played by money in the economic life of a society. We study how people get and spend money, how they earn a living and how it affects their way of life and so on. All the scarce goods which satisfy our wants are known as wealth. So, in economics, we study about the production of wealth, exchange of wealth, distribution of wealth and consumption of wealth. As wealth is produced to promote human welfare, we study the relationship between wealth and welfare.

Economic theory can be broadly divided into micro economics and macroeconomics. The term micro means small and macro means large. In microeconomics, we deal with problems such as the

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output of a single firm or industry, price of a single commodity and spending on goods by a single household. Macroeconomics studies the economic system as a whole. In it, we get a complete picture of the working of the economy. It is a study of the relations between broad economic aggregates such as totalemployment, saving and investment. We may also say that macro economics is the theory of income, employment, prices and money.

Economics has two broad branches: microeconomics, where the unit of analysis is the individual agent, such as a household, firm and macroeconomics, where the unit of analysis is an economy as a whole. Another division of the subject distinguishes positive economics, which seeks to predict and explain economic phenomena, from normative economics, which orders choices and actions by some criterion; such orderings necessarily involve subjective value judgments. Since the early part of the 20th century, economics has focused largely on measurable quantities, employing both theoretical models and empirical analysis. Quantitative models, however, can be traced as far back as the physiocratic school.

Economic reasoning has been increasingly applied in recent decades to social situations where there is no monetary consideration, such as politics, law, psychology, history, religion, marriage and family life, and other social interactions.

This paradigm crucially assumes that resources are scarce because they are not sufficient to satisfy all wants, and that economic value is willingness to pay as revealed for instance by market (arms' length) transactions. Rival schools of thought, such as heterodox economics, institutional economics, Marxist economics, socialism, green economics, and economic sociology, make other grounding assumptions, such as that economics primarily deals with the exchange of value, and that labor (human effort) is the source of all value. The expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism.

The subject of economics is criticized on certain grounds. The dismal science is a derogatory alternative name for economics devised by the Victorian historian Thomas Carlyle in the 19th century. It is often stated that Carlyle gave economics the nickname dismal science as a response to the late 18th century writings of The Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus, who grimly predicted that starvation would result, as projected population growth exceeded the rate of increase in the food supply. The teachings of Malthus eventually became known under the umbrella phrase "Malthus' Dismal Theorem". His predictions were forestalled by unanticipated dramatic improvements in the efficiency of food production in the 20th century; yet the bleak end he proposed remains as a disputed future possibility, assuming human innovation fails to keep up with population growth.

Some economists, like John Stuart Mill or Leon Walras, have maintained that the production of wealth should not be tied to its distribution. The former is in the field of applied economics while the latter belongs to social economics and is largely a matter of power and politics.

In The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith addressed many issues that are currently also the subject of debate and dispute. Smith repeatedly attacks groups of politically aligned individuals who attempt to use their collective influence to manipulate a government into doing their bidding. In Smiths day, these were referred to as factions, but are now more commonly called special interests, a term which can comprise international bankers, corporate conglomerations, outright oligopolies, monopolies, trade unions and other groups.

Despite these concerns, mainstream graduate programs have become increasingly technical and mathematical. Although much of the most groundbreaking economic research in history involved concepts rather than math, today it is nearly impossible to publish a non-mathematical paper in top economic journals. Disillusionment on the part of some students with the abstract and technical focus of economics led to the post-autistic economics movement, which began in France in 2000.

In his 1974 Nobel Prize lecture, Friedrich Hayek, known for his close association to the heterodox school of Austrian economics, attributed policy failures in economic advising to an uncritical and unscientific propensity to imitate mathematical procedures used in the physical sciences. He argued that even much-studied economic phenomena, such as labor-market unemployment, are inherently more

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complex than their counterparts in the physical sciences where such methods were earlier formed.

Similarly, theory and data are often very imprecise and lend themselves only to the direction of a change needed, not its size. In part because of criticism, economics has undergone a thorough cumulative formalization and elaboration of concepts and methods since the 1940s, some of which have been toward application of the hypothetico-deductive method to explain real-world phenomena.

3.7. SOCIOLOGY Sociology is the study of society and human social action. It generally concerns itself with the social rules and processes that bind and separate people not only as individuals, but as members of associations, groups, communities and institutions, and includes the examination of the organization and development of human social life. The sociological field of interest ranges from the analysis of short contacts between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of global social processes. Most sociologists work in one or more subfields.

The meaning of the word comes from the suffix "-ology" which means "study of," derived from Greek, and the stem "soci-" which is from the Latin word socius, meaning member, friend, or ally, thus referring to people in general. It is a social science involving the application of social theory and research methods to the study of the social lives of people, groups, and societies, sometimes defined as the study of social interactions. It is a relatively new academic discipline which evolved in the early 19th century.

Because sociology is such a broad discipline, it can be difficult to define, even for professional sociologists. One useful way to describe the discipline is as a cluster of sub-fields that examine different dimensions of society. For example, social stratification studies inequality and class structure; demography studies changes in a population size or type; criminology examines criminal behavior and deviance; political sociology studies government and laws; and the sociology of race and sociology of gender examine society's racial and gender cleavages.

Sociological methods, theories, and concepts may inspire sociologists to explore the origins of commonly accepted conventions. Sociology offers insights about the social world that extend beyond explanations that rely on individual quirks and personalities. Sociologist may find general social patterns in studying the behaviour of particular individuals and groups. This specific approach to social reality is sometimes called the sociological perspective.

Sociologists use a diversity of research methods, including case studies, historical research, interviewing, participant observation, social network analysis, survey research, statistical analysis, and model building, among other approaches. Since the late 1970s, many sociologists have tried to make the discipline useful for non-academic purposes. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, developers, and others interested in resolving social problems and formulating public policy, through subdisciplinary areas such as evaluation research, methodological assessment, and public sociology. New sociological sub-fields continue to appear - such as community studies, computational sociology, network analysis, actor-network theory and a growing list, many of which are cross-disciplinary in nature.

3.8. POLITICAL SCIENCE The word ‘politics’ is derived from the Greek word ‘polis’, which means a city-state that implies all th the elements of state, though geographically small. Political inquiry was begun as early in 5 Century B.C. In Greece, the sophists were the first to think about the knowledge on politics and expound a political theory. Later, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle provided a systematic study of state with its philosophical roots and moral foundations. Socrates is considered as the initiator of the political inquiry and its relevance. Plato is considered as the father of political philosophy. Aristotle is regarded as the father of political science. Political science is the study of State and its relations with citizens.

In India Manu is regarded as the first law giver as well as political thinker. However, Kautilya’s Arthashastra is considered as the first systematic treatise on statecraft in India. In the south India

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Thiruvalluvar in his Thirukkural significantly contributed his political ideas with moral foundations. As the Greek political theory is embedded in the concept of goodness and morality, the ancient Indian political theory is also tied with ideal of goodness and ethics.

In fact the western tradition provides a wider and systematic treatise on political theory. Aristotle in his book Politics stated, ‘Man is by nature a political animal and he who by nature and not by mere accident is without state is either above humanity or below it.’ He further stated, ‘he who is unable to live in society or who has no need because he is sufficient for himself must be either a beast or God.’ Politics is a continuous, ever-changing and universal activity having its key manifestations in the making of a decision to face and solve a predicament. It flows from a special kind of activity, a form of human behaviour. It refers to the making or taking a decision in which some political action is involved. The political action may be a conservative, traditionalist or a modernist.

The scope of political science extends not only to the study of the state and government but also its relation with other social organizations. It studies the state as a politically organized society occupying a definite territory and the government acting and executing the will of the state. It studies the origin of the state with the help of various theories such as divine origin theory, social contract theory, force theory, historical or evolutionary theory, Marxian theory etc. It also studies the functions of the state from that of a limited sphere to its extended functions, that is, from police state, laissez fair to modern welfare state.

While dealing with these, various forms of government are also dealt with.

Political science is an academic and research discipline that deals with the theory and practice of politics and the description and analysis of political systems and political behavior. Fields and subfields of political science include political economy, political theory and philosophy, civics and comparative politics, theory of direct democracy, apolitical governance, participatory direct democracy, national systems, cross-national political analysis, political development, international relations, foreign policy, international law, politics, public administration, administrative behavior, public law, judicial behavior, and public policy.

Political science also studies power in international relations and the theory of Great powers and Superpowers.

Political science is methodologically diverse. Approaches to the discipline include classical political philosophy, interpretivism, structuralism, and behavioralism, realism, pluralism, and institutionalism. Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical documents and official records, secondary sources such as scholarly journal articles, survey research, statistical analysis, case studies, and model building. Herbert Baxter Adams is credited with coining the phrase ‘political science’ while teaching history at Johns Hopkins University.

3.9. PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION One of the main branches of political science, public administration can be broadly described as the development, implementation and study of branches of government policy. The pursuit of the public good by enhancing civil society and social justice is the ultimate goal of the field. Though public administration has historically referred to as government management, it increasingly encompasses nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) that also operate with a similar, primary dedication to the betterment of humanity.

Differentiating public administration from business administration, a closely related field, has become a popular method for defining the discipline. First, the goals of public administration are more closely related to those often cited as goals of the American founders and democratic people in general.

That is, public employees work to improve equality, justice, security, efficiency, effectiveness, and, at times, for profit. These values help to both differentiate the field from business administration, primarily concerned with profit, and define the discipline. Second, public administration is a relatively new, multidisciplinary field. Woodrow Wilson's The Study of Administration is frequently cited as the seminal work. Dr. Wilson advocated a more professional operation of public officials' daily activities. Further, the

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future president identified the necessity in the United States of a separation between party politics and good bureaucracy, which has also been a lasting theme.

The multidisciplinary nature of public administration is related to a third defining feature: administrative duties. Public administrators work in public agencies, at all levels of government, and perform a wide range of tasks. Public administrators collect and analyze data (statistics), monitor fiscal operations (budgets, accounts, and cash flow), organize large events and meetings, draft legislation, develop policy, and frequently execute legally mandated, government activities. Regarding this final facet, public administrators find themselves serving as parole officers, secretaries, note takers, paperwork processors, and record keepers, notaries of the public, cashiers, and managers. Indeed, the discipline couples well with many vocational fields such as information technology, finance, law, and engineering.

When it comes to the delivery and evaluation of public services, a public administrator is undoubtedly involved from the past to the present and into the future. The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history.

3.10. LAW Law in common parlance, means a rule which is capable of enforcement through institutions. The study of law crosses the boundaries between the social sciences and humanities, depending on one's view of research into its objectives and effects. Law is not always enforceable, especially in the international relations context. It has been defined as a system of rules, as an interpretive concept to achieve justice, as an authority to mediate people's interests, and even as the command of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction. However one likes to think of law, it is a completely central social institution. Legal policy incorporates the practical manifestation of thinking from almost every social sciences and humanity. Laws are politics, because politicians create them. Law is philosophy, because moral and ethical persuasions shape their ideas. Law tells many of history's stories, because statutes, case law and codifications build up over time. And law is economics, because any rule about contract, tort, property law, labour law, company law and many more can have long lasting effects on the distribution of wealth. The noun law derives from the late Old English lagu, meaning something laid down or fixed and the adjective legal comes from the Latin word lex.

3.11. EDUCATION Education encompasses teaching and learning specific skills, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge, positive judgement and well-developed wisdom.

Education has as one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of culture from generation to generation.

Education is an application of pedagogy, a body of theoretical and applied research relating to teaching and learning and draws on many disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, computer science, linguistics, neuroscience, sociology and anthropology.

The education of an individual human begins at birth and continues throughout life. Some believe that education begins even before birth, as evidenced by some parents' playing music or reading to the baby in the womb in the hope it will influence the child's development. For some, the struggles and triumphs of daily life provide far more instruction than does formal schooling. Family members may have a profound educational effect though family teaching may function very informally.

3.12. PSYCHOLOGY The word psychology comes from the ancient Greek, psyche and logy. Psychology is an academic and applied field involving the study of behavior and mental processes. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' daily lives and the treatment of mental illness. Psychology differs from anthropology, economics, political science, and sociology in seeking to capture explanatory generalizations about the mental function and overt behaviour of individuals, while the other disciplines focus on creating descriptive generalizations about the functioning of social groups or situation-specific human behavior. In

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practice, however, there is quite a lot of cross-fertilization that takes place among the various fields.

Psychology differs from biology and neuroscience in that it is primarily concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behavior, and of the overall processes of a system, and not simply the biological or neural processes themselves, though the subfield of neuropsychology combines the study of the actual neural processes with the study of the mental effects they have subjectively produced. Many people associate Psychology with Clinical Psychology which focuses on assessment and treatment of problems in living and psychopathology. In reality, Psychology has myriad specialties including: Social Psychology, Developmental Psychology, Cognitive Psychology, Industrial-Organizational Psychology, Mathematical psychology, Neuropsychology, and Quantitative Analysis of Behaviour to name only a few.

Psychology is a very broad science that is rarely tackled as a whole, major block. Although some subfields encompass a natural science base and a social science application, others can be clearly distinguished as having little to do with the social sciences or having a lot to do with the social sciences.

For example, biological psychology is considered a natural science with a social scientific application, social and occupational psychology are, generally speaking, purely social sciences, whereas neuropsychology is a natural science that lacks application out of the scientific tradition entirely. In British universities, emphasis on what tenet of psychology a student has studied and/or concentrated is communicated through the degree conferred. For instance, B.Psy Indicates a balance between natural and social sciences, B.Sc. indicates a strong scientific concentration, whereas B.A. underlines a majority of social science credits.

3.13. SOCIAL WORK Social Work is concerned with social problems, their causes, their solutions and their human impacts. Social workers work with individuals, families, groups, organizations and communities. Social Work is the profession committed to the pursuit of social justice, to the enhancement of the quality of life, and to the development of the full potential of each individual, group and community in society. It is a social science involving the application of social theory and research methods to the study and improves the lives of people, groups, and societies. Social work is unique in that it seeks to simultaneously navigate across and within micro, mezzo, and macro systems -in order to sufficiently address and resolve social issues at every level. Social work incorporates and utilizes all of the social sciences as a means to improve the human condition.

Social work bases its methodology on a systematic body of evidence-based knowledge derived from research and practice evaluation, including local and indigenous knowledge specific to its context. It recognizes the complexity of interactions between human beings and their environment, and the capacity of people both to be affected by and to alter the multiple influences upon them including bio-psychosocial factors. The social work profession draws on theories of human development and behaviour and social systems to analyse complex situations and to facilitate individual, organizational, social and cultural changes.

In social work research there is a great deal of traditional research, both qualitative and quantitative being carried out, primarily by university-based researchers, but also in different fields, by researchers based in institutes, foundations, or social service agencies. Meanwhile, the majority of social work practitioners continue to look elsewhere for knowledge. This is a state of affairs that has persisted since the outset of the profession in the first decade of the twentieth century. One reason for the practiceresearch gap is that practitioners deal with situations that are unique and idiosyncratic, while research deals with regularities and aggregates. The translation between the two is often imperfect. A hopeful development for bridging this gap is the compilation in many practice fields of collections of "best practices," largely taken from research findings, but also distilled from the experience of respected practitioners.

One of the most prominent organizations promoting social work research science is The Society for Social Work and Research which is a non-profit professional society incorporated in the State of New York in 1993. The Society is devoted to the involvement of social workers, other social work faculty, and

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social work students in research and to promotion of human welfare through research and research applications.

3.14. SUMMARY In this chapter you have learned about the different branches of social sciences. Mankind has been interaction with different social, economic and political institutions since the dawn of civilizations. In odern sense, respective academic disciplines address this issue. For instance, anthropology, history, political science, sociology, economics, public administration, etc. concern with man’s relations with respective issues.

3.15. EXERCISES AND QUESTION SECTION-A 1. Name any four social science disciplines.

2. What is anthropology?

3. What is meant by political economy?

4. Who wrote Arthasastra?

5. What is social work?

SECTION-B 1. Bring out the relevance of geography.

2. Discuss the scope of economics?

3. Bring out the importance of sociology.

4. Explain the importance of political science.

5. How do you justify psychology as a social science?

SECTION-C 1. Discuss the different social science displines.

2. Bring out the common aspects between political science and public administration.

3. Explain in detail the basic principles of economics as a social science.

3.16. FURTHER READING 1. Adam Kuper and Jessica Kuper eds. The Social Science Encyclopedia, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1985.

2. IGNOU, Preparatory Course in Social Sciences, New Delhi, 2008 3. NCERT, Text Book of Social Science for Class X, New Delhi, 2009.

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UNIT-4 HISTORY AND ITS IMPORTANCE STRUCTURE 4.1. Introduction 4.2. Learning Objectives 4.3. Meaning of History 4.4. Definitions 4.5. Sources of History 4.6. Scope and Importance of History 4.7. History and other Social Sciences 4.8. Summary 4.9. Exercises and Questions 4.10. Further Reading 4.1. INTRODUCTION History is an account of the unchanging past, as an unending dialogue between the past and the present. History the study of human experience through an analysis of the past actuality, has always fascinated mankind which has sought and found in it both drama and meaning. This chapter gives an overview of the study of history and its importance.

4.2. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you will be able to • • • •

Explain the idea of history Discuss various definitions of history Describe the scope of history Bring out the importance of history

4.3. MEANING OF HISTORY The term ‘history’ is derived from the Greek word ‘historia’ which means enquiry, research, exploration, information or learning. History is an enquiry into human events or learning based on ascertained facts. History can also be used to stand for the objects of these researches and writings, for what actually happened or what men actually did at certain particular times and places. In a limited sense, therefore, histories are confined to such past events as have been recorded or remembered or as can be inferred or recognized on the basis of partial records and memories. In understanding the present so as to foresee and present the future. The past is intelligible to us only in the light of the present and we can fully understand the present only in the light of the past. Herodotus is known as the father of history. His writings based on extensive use of evidence, scientific, humanistic, rationalistic and self revelatory. He studied the various details, analysis give single lecture and presented it in readable form.

4.4. DEFINITIONS According to E.H. Carr, ‘History is an unending dialogue between the present and the past and the chief function of the historian is to master and understand the past as a key to the understanding of the present.’

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According to Elton, ‘History is concerned with all those human sayings thoughts, deeds and sufferings which occurred in the past and have left present deposit, and it deals with them from the point of view of happening change and the particular.’

Lord Acton defined history as the ‘unfolding story of human freedom.’

According to A.L Rouse, ‘History is essentially the record of the life of men in their geographical and their physical environments.’

Aristotle defined history as ‘an account of the unchanging past.’ He considered history as unchanging because human nature is unchanging. The intentions, motives and expectations are constant. Hence the recurrence of war and peace, revolution and restoration, progress and regress, expansion and exploitation down the ages. As Aristotle himself said “even God can not change the past”.

Sir Francis Bacon defined history as ‘a discipline which makes men wise.’ According to him history is not a more collection or collation of facts nor a catalogue or chronology of event but a discipline which inculcates wisdom in its readers. Historical knowledge based on experience, refined by reflection, perfect by perception makes men wise.

Thomas Carlyle defined history as ‘the essence of innumerable biographies of great men.’ He explained the meaning and significance of history with reference to the movements and accomplishments of great men.

John R. Seeley defines, ‘history is past politics and present politics is future history.’

J.B. Bury defines, ‘History is simply a science, no less and no more.’

4.5. SOURCES OF HISTORY History is based on relevance sources. Without source it will be a fiction. Chronology helps to arrange the historical events in their time sequence and fixes the intervals that elapsed between them.

Chronology was probably invented in early ages for fixing dates for religious ceremonies and for timing agricultural operations. Location, Distance, duration and simultaneity are the four dimensions of chronology. In short, chronology is a strong string which binds the sequence of historical events, out if history will collapse into chaos. In the absence of dates, history would be not only blind but also spineless.

Archaeology is a scientific study of antiquity by analyzing the material remains of ancient human occupations. It embraces architecture, epigraphy, sculpture, paintings, ceramics etc. It is an empirical discipline concerned with the recovery, systematic Description and study of old artifacts. Archaeological studies are valuable for pre literate periods of human history. It also deals with the material remains of the historic past.

Epigraphy means any writing or inscription mostly on stone and copper plates. They may be classified into historical, religious, donatives or commemorative records. They either record donations to individuals and institutions. Commemorative foundations and endowments or announce the activities, political, religious etc of kings and other persons official and non-official endowments political the profited all kinds of information genealogical, geographical administrative economic and cultural.

Numismatics is the study of ancient coins. Coin legends are inscriptions on coins. Strictly speaking, the study of coin images and symbols comes under art. However the most distinctive field of numismatics is the metallurgy and meteorology of coins. The indo Greek, Sake, Kushan and Gupta coins are famous for their inscriptional value. The Roman coins found in south India are helpful to the study of Indian Roman commercial contacts in the early centuries of the Christian era.

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Paleography is the study of old handwriting. It describes the evolution of each letter in time and space. It also deals with the abbreviation used by the scribes. Paleography enables the historian to know the dates of old handwriting, content and the history of the characters used and the changes the under went over a period of time. It also helps us to understand the abbreviation used in manuscripts.

4.6. SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY The scope of history has been undergoing constant change. In the past the world was divided into a member of social political and cultural units, each considering itself superior to the rest, and possessing independent histories certain societies like Japan, china, India etc. Considered them as more civilized and did not study about other countries that they considered as barbarians. With the improved means of communication and changes effected by the industrial revolutions, the various countries of the world were brought closer to each other and a feeling of oneness grew among the people. This inevitably gave rise to a unified culture and economy and history assumed universal nature. No doubt, even at present trends of segregation are visible. Which have led to could war between the countries of the two blocs, which is clearly a part of habit of thinking and feeling? But history is assuming a universal character. Elton has also said, “All good historical writing is Universal history in the sense that it remembers the universal while dealing with part of it.

The scope of history has also widened because of the discovery of numerous ancient inscriptions, which opened up new treasures of ancient history. The knowledge of the ancient history was further widened in the middle of nineteenth century by geology and archaeology, which gare an account of the ancient man through the study of human remains and artifacts. The archeologists through their excavations in various parts of the world came to the conclusion that the human life could be traced back to the period much earlier that commonly held by the Christian monks. The monks of the medieval time had concluded on the basis of the fragmentary Biblical records that history began a few thousands years before the birth of Christ. As a result of these archaeological discoveries of the late nineteenth century the scope of the human history was pushed back by millions of years. Change in the scope of the study of history was also affected with the development of historiography. Till nineteenth century history was confined to the study of the political events and institutions. But at present even the social, economic, moral and literary life of the people is also included in the scope of history with a view to make history more interesting to the readers, greater attention is also paid to literary excellence. The other features of the present day study of history are emphasis on greater attention on systematic and exhaustive collection of source materials and adoption of a critical attitude in making their assessment.

Many importance were based there are it has the subject of study to know the past events incidence and guide the further. But it has not popular like the science Hegel was much correct when he observed, “the one thing one learn from history is that nobody ever learns any thing from history”. It does not repeat itself many notable events helps to the human for good judgement and guidance. It helps to understand the human behaviour and conduct. As an account of man’s progress from barbarism to civilization, it deals with the development of thought, ideas and unique ability to incorporate into his personal experiences is prepare himself face to the problems of the future.

G.E. Lessing who was a German explained how history as a record of man’s deeds was essential for man’s progress. He observed without history we shall be in hourly danger of being deceived by ignorant braggarts, who may hail as a new discovery what man know l000 s of years back and to know the beauty of cities and magnificence of monuments are appreciated better if the stories behind them.

History explains the preset in the light of the past by indication the ideals and forces which are at work around us. For example, the study of medieval trade guilds is useful to understand the present day industrial relations and marketing regulations.

The intellectual and educative value of history is understood from early times. It teaches the wisdom that had been acquired through the ages.

Knowledge of history is essential for an understanding of the subjects like biography, economics, politics, literature and anthropology.

The moral and ethical value of history persons with nobility and worth are admired and those with baseness and opportunism are condemned. In fact a study of the life of noble characters like great saints

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enlightened reformers and chivalrous heroics influence and inspire the individuals as well as societies.

Socrates was noted for his conviction in reasons Jesus Christ for concept of love Florence nightingale for devotion to service and M.K.Gandhi for the ideal of peace.

The value of history in Government and administration cannot be ignored. It guides them in undertaking reforms to the ruler, conquerors, diplomats and administrators it is of equal service. When historical studies are popular human rights are better understood and human dignity is better respected and where they are not, reverse is the case. In backward countries like India historical studies can promote the consolidation of democratic institutions against repeated threats wielded by totalitarian ideologies.

History promotes in us an insight into human nature. We witness in history the march of mankind with all its deeds and misdeeds. Justice and injustices, equality and inequality, truth and falsehood manifest themselves in the character and behaviour of the great actors in the kaleidoscopic drama of life.

It is not true that the wise learn from other’s experience whereas tools learn from their own?

History gives as an indelible insight into man’s vision and mission, words and deeds, ups and downs. It attempts to reveal the meaning of life and unravel the purpose of living. It is a soaring search into the reality of the past. Down the ages man had build institution developed cultures and discovered and invented thousand and one things and came out with ideas galore to make life worth living on this planet.

History helps us to understand the development of the human society with its entire ramification in arts, letters, religion philosophy, and administration, adventure of ideas, culture and way of life.

Through history alone one can know, understand and appreciate the world as it is. It is the hyphen that connects and the buckle that binds the present with the past and enables us to see how man has discovered better way of living and discounted bitter ways of discards and disputes. Is it not true that history is “An unending dialogue between the present and the past”.

Historical knowledge is imparted in educational institutions because is increases powers of memory, imagination, reasoning and insight. It gives students and scholars depth of thought, understanding and feeling. It inculcates in them moral and ethical value. Students of history can revel at the fountains of pleasures of reflection. The value of history is not scientific, its true value is educational says Trevelyan. A study of history, besides fetching a degree enables the holder to be usefully employed in various avenues of life.

History helps us to foresee the future. One of the perennial earnings of mankind is to know about its future. It of curse depends on what we are intending to foresee in the future on the basis of the past.

Historical project is the manifestation of aim setting. Since any plan of socio – political – economic transformation is related to something that does note exist its realisation calls for a clear picture of the future. History and history alone offers the ground for foreseeing the future. Since mankind is disillusioned with religion, mythology and oracle it seeks to find objective grounds for satisfying this over riding social urge. Historical similarity, repetition and pattern in the events of the past provide grounds for foreseeing the future.

4.7. HISTORY AND OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES History is composite in character and inclusive in its scope. It is a central and privotal social science. It is indeed a feeding ground for all social sciences and humanities. As H.C. Darby has pointed out history is basic to social sciences as mathematics is basic to natural science. Since history is a study of the different facets of human life and experience, all social sciences depend on and draw heavily from history.

4.7.1. History and Political Science

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Politics is the part of the whole history. Politics is concerned with one aspect of history, namely organized state and its governance. History provides necessary raw material for political science and historical knowledge is necessary for proper understanding of the evolution of political institution and exercise of political power. History provides innumerable examples of organized states like ancient Greece, Rome, India and china and the post – Renaissance nation states. Plato, Aristotle formulated truer political ideas from the study of political institutions of the Greek. Machiavelli studied his contemporary political systems of the different Italian states and wrote his The prince. Montesquieu, an admirer of British institutions, wrote his The spirit of laws on the basis of his study of the political systems of the countries of the west as well as the east. Proof Seelay says “history is “past politics and politics is present history”.

4.7.2. History and Geography Geography and chronology are still considered to be the right eye and left eye of History.

Geography emerged as a science in its own right since the days of Alexander von Humbuldt (1769 – 1859). History is in essence founded upon geography. Geography also plays an important role in the national character formation and influences the human behaviours. The impact of geographical climate on culture was recognized by Montesquieu, buckle and Humtington. The importance of the study of geography for a proper understanding history books contain an introductory chapter on the geography of the country and its impact on the history.

4.7.3. History and Economics History is also closely related to economics. The activities of man have a positive correlation with historical developments. History also deals with the economic experience of man from age to age. An understanding of history is a prerequisite for an appreciation of economic engagements of man, the development of economic institutions and formulation of economic theories source materials concerning matters economic, found in ancient and medieval documents and inscription, can be of great help to scholars of past economics. Similarly, present day historians can not afford to neglect the economic crisis of the thirties and the post – war economic developments all over the world. Karl Marx found unity of history in economic factors. He considered the developments in history are the result of economic configuration. But history is not all economics. All economically well developed affluent societies are not alike, nor do they behave in the same way. Economic explanation can not give a satisfactory answer to this phenomenon. Socio cultural, political philosophical factors are as important as economic forces in determining historica events.

4.7.4. History and Sociology Sociology is a scientific study of society. History and sociology were closely interlinked till Aguste Comte made the latter a separate science. And yet, the interaction between the two subjects remains intimate. Eminent sociologists like Emile Durkheim and Maxweber profoundly influenced history by their studies of social institutions. The sociologists worked on the same historical facts and tried to discover causal connection between them. In other words, sociologists thought scientifically about the same facts about which the historians thought empirically. Whereas the historians were busy discovering and stating the historical facts as they were the sociologist were engaged in interpreting those facts sociologically.

Both History and sociology are concerned with the causes and consequences of group life of man.

4.7.5. History and Literature The relationship between history and literature has been close and continuous. There was a time, when history itself was considered as a branch of literature. Literature depends on history for themes, plots and characters. Similarly, history relies on literature for evidences required for the reconstruction of the past. Literary style adds charm and grace to the writing of history. Literature serves as a sure means to make historical themes and characters immensely popular. Herodotus and Thucydides, Macaulay and Trevelyan distinguished themselves as captivating historians by their literary style. Gibbon’s History is

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Parthasarthi and Karunanithi familiarized

4.7.6. History and Psychology History is related to psychology in several ways. Both are concerned with the study and understanding of human behavior. Human behavior is human nature in action and character is habitual behaviour. The historians need to understand human behavior for the sake of explaining the behavior of men who lives in the past. An understanding of human behavior, conduct and character be acquired from literature, doctrines of psychology and through observation. Psychological insights will enable the historian to make a meaningful analysis of the motives and actions of men and societies. Mass psychology will explain mass hysteria which moves millions into mass action. Also, it will help us to understand better the charisma of heroes of history.

A psychoanalytical study of Budha, Christ, Mohammed, Alexander, Asoka, Hitler, Stalin, Mussolini, Mao, Gandhi, to name a few, may provide a clue for their immense popularity.

4.7.7. History and Ethics There is a close relationship between Ethics and history. Ethics deals with morals, and rules of conduct. Morality is the mainstay of ethics. Lord action defended a rigid code of morality in history. He expected the historians to pass sever moral judgement on historical persons and events. The historian can trace the evolution of ethics from the primitive stage to the post – industrial society. Relativist philosophy raises the ethical problem. Man’s recognition of the distinction between good and evil is one of the stable ingredients in human nature.

4.8. SUMMARY In this chapter you have learnt about the nature, scope and importance of history. It is an account of the unchanging past as an unending dialogue between the past and the present. It the process of transmission from one generation to another and from one age to the other, the oral traditions were subjected to modification so as suit charging test needs and interests of the people. The study of history th was also officiated with the development of historiography 19 history was confined to the study of the political, social, economic, moral and literary life of the people is also included in the scope of history.

History is a Social Science discussing Social relations, dealing with the condition of mankind living in social state it seeks to discover general laws which govern these conditions and bring about such developments like progress or decay of civilization and rise or fall of states.

4.9. EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS

SECTION-A 1. What is history according to Seeley?

2. Who said, ‘even God cannot change the past’?

3. What is epigraphy?

4. What is numismatics?

5. How is history benefited from political science?

SECTION-B 1. What is meant by cultural history?

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FOUNDATION COURSE ON HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCE 2. Bring out the importance of the study of history 3. How does archaeology help as a source of history?

4. Discuss the relationship between history and economics.

5. Examine the relationship between history and psychology.

SECTION-C 1. Bring out the various sources of history and its importance 2. Examine relationship of history with other social sciences.

3. Write the scope and importance of history in detail.

4.10. FURTHER READING E.H. Car, The Idea of History Sheik Ali, History: Its Theory and Method R.K. Majumdar and A.N. Srivasta, Historiography

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