language by mit jaf

Lesson One

"Language is the dress of thought." ~Samuel Johnson

Language

Ni hao! Privyet! Aloha! Jambo! Hola! Do you know what these words mean? They are “hello” in five different languages: Mandarin Chinese, Russian, Hawaiian, Swahili, and Spanish. If you wanted to say hi to everyone in the world in their own language, you would have to learn thousands of different languages of this word! If you speak English, you have plenty of people to talk to. People use English language to communicate in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and other countries. It is spoken in more parts of the world than any other language. English is one of the great thieves. It is constantly borrowing. It started out taking words from Latin, Greek, French, and German. Then English went on to borrow words from more than 50 different languages. From Italian, it took violin, for example. From Spanish and Portuguese, it borrowed alligator. From Native Americans, it got raccoon .The Caribbean islands gave English barbecue. From Africa came chimpanzee and zebra, from India came curry and punch, and from Australia came kangaroo and boomerang. English language has been stealing words for more than 1,500 years. The most complete dictionary of the English language contains 600,000 words. There are many ways by which English expanded. One way to get new words is adding prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes, such as mis- or ex-, go onto the front of words and create misread, ex-president, and other words. Suffixes, such as -ness or –ist, attach to the end of words. English language is unusual in the way it borrows and grows. New words are constantly being introduced. The verb to google is a new word that means “to

do a fast Internet search.” It comes from the widely used Internet search engine, Google.

******* Understanding the Main Ideas • Decide which idea is true (T) and which idea is False (F). 1. We have to know all the languages if we want to speak to all of people. … 2. We may have more new words in English. … 3. You should learn English because you should travel to English speaking countries …. 4. Spelling is very difficult because of prefixes and suffixes. 5. A lot of people speak English because it borrowed so many words from other languages.

Understanding New Words ● Choose the best synonym or definition for each of the italic words or expression.

1. If you speak English, you have plenty of people to talk to.

a. Special b. different c. a lot of d. a few

2. English is one of the great thieves.

a. language b. borrower 3

c. importance d. dictionary

3. English is constantly borrowing words.

a. unusually b. continually c. sometimes d. usually

4. New words are being introduced.

a. made known b. learned c. borrowed d. communicated

5. The most complete dictionary of the English language contains 600,000

words. a. introduces b. has c. writes d. borrows

Discussion â&#x2014;? Discuss the following questions with your partner.

1. In your idea, what is the best way to improve your English? 2. What is the most difficult skill for you? (speaking, listening, reading,

writing) 3. Mention some English words that you use in your native language.

*******

Articles (a / an / the) We call the words a, an and the articles. 1) We use a before a noun whose first letter is a consonant: I want to read a book.

2) If the first letter of the noun or the word modifying that noun is a vowel, we use an before it: There is an apple on the plate. 3) We use 'a' or 'an' before a noun which is not known and not specified: There is a man by the car. Please give me a pen. There is an orange in the basket. 4) We use 'a' or 'an' when we are talking about jobs: Mr. Oral is a painter. Peter is an actor. 5) We use the definite article 'the' before the nouns which are familiar to the 5

speaker and listener: The meeting lasted only half an hour. English is spoken in more parts of the world than any other language. 6) We use 'the' before the objects already mentioned (because it is known now): There is a pen and a pencil on the desk. The pen is mine, the pencil is yours. Which bag do you want? - I want the black bag, please.

7) Before the ordinal numbers: January is the first month of the year.

8) Before the name of an object which is only one in the universe: the sun, the moon, the earth

9) Before some adjectives to express the whole class of people: The rich must help the poor. (= Rich people must help poor ones.)

10) After a preposition: on the right, on the left, in the box, at the table, etc

*******

A. Fill in the blanks with a, an, the or nothing.

1. There is ...................... salt-shaker on ...................... table. 2.

I need ...................... pair of shoes.

3. He has …………. my car today. 4. Can you tell me ...................... name of man standing at................. gate? 5. There is ...................... empty chair in ...................... room. 6. I went to …………. sea during my summer vacation. 7.

.............. old are more experienced than ...................... young.

B. Read the following paragraph and fill in the blanks with appropriate articles. I want ……… laptop computer, because …….. laptop computers can be very useful. ……laptop can do word processing, keep records, and compute numbers. ……….. laptop can also be used to send email and search the Internet. People who own ………. laptops say that they can save a lot of information.

*******

Cat got your tongue ‫ ﻣﻮش زﺑﺎﻧﺖ را ﺧﻮردﻩ‬:‫ﻣﻌﺎدل ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ‬

What's the matter? Why don’t you speak? Cat got your tongue?

*******

☺ Patient: Doctor, I have a pain in my eye whenever I drink tea. Doctor: Take the spoon out of the glass before you drink.

******* 8

•

communicate (v)

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constantly (adv)

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contain (v)

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expand (v)

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introduce (v)

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plenty (adv)

• thieve (n)

Lesson Two

"Nature's message was always there and for us to see. It was written on the wings of butterflies."

Kjell B. Sandved

Butterflies The butterfly is an insect. Butterflies are noted for their wings. They are often colorful and bright. Butterfly wings are a bit like bird wings. The wings are colored in many patterns. They are transparent; it means that you can see through it very clearly. Some butterfly wings are like rainbow. Butterflies have an interesting life. They start as eggs. Then they change into a cocoon. When the insect comes out of the cocoon, we call it a butterfly. This is the adult stage for the butterfly. Butterflies can be found almost all over the world. There may be about twenty thousand different kinds of butterflies. Butterflies usually eat flower nectar. Because of this, they are important to the life cycle of many flowers. Butterflies also need minerals, which they usually get from water found in dirt and sand. Some butterflies migrate. The King butterflies migrate about 3000 miles (4800 km) every year. They fly between Mexico and California. Butterflies are usually diurnal, which means that they are most active during the day. Some butterflies most active at dawn and dusk instead of during the heat of the day. Butterfly bodies are generally smooth. They are cold-blooded and will not fly if their body temperature is below 80 degrees. In cooler weather, butterflies spread their wings in the sun to warm their bodies. Some kinds of butterflies hibernate during the winter. Hibernation is a kind of deep sleep. The insects do not need to eat when they are hibernating. Colorful wings help butterflies find each other. Often male and female butterflies have different colors or patterns on their wings. Butterflies can see colors and patterns. 11

Colored wings help some butterflies hide from birds and other enemies. Some butterflies have spots on their wings that look like big eyes. The “eyes” scare enemies away. Butterflies can smell, but they do not have noses. They use two antennae on top of their heads for smelling. Butterflies can also taste. They taste food by standing on it. This is because their sense of taste comes from little hairs on their feet. Some kinds of butterflies can live up to a year, but others live anywhere from a few months to a few weeks to even a few hours.

******* Understanding the Main Ideas ● Decide which idea is true (T) and which idea is False (F).

1. Butterfly is a kind of bird. … 2. All the wings of butterflies are covered in the same pattern. … 3. Butterflies can be found almost all over the world. … 4. Butterflies can't fly in cold weather because their bodies are smooth. … 5. Butterflies stands on food to taste it. …

Understanding New Words

â&#x2014;? Choose the best synonym or definition for each of the italic words or expression.

1. Butterflies are noted for their wings. a. cold- blooded b. paid attention c. liked d. colored 2. Butterfly wings are a bit like bird wings. a. very much b. sometimes c. always d. a little 3. This is the adult stage for the butterfly. a. old b. grown c. migrate d. insect 4. Butterflies usually eat flower nectar. a. food b. sweet liquid c. leaf d. smooth 5. Some butterflies migrate.

a. fly b. change c. note d. travel

Discussion â&#x2014;? Discuss the following questions with your partner.

1. What do you think butterflies are beautiful for? 2. Are butterflies important in life circle? Why? 3. Why do butterflies have an interesting life?

*******

Simple Present - Use The Simple Present is frequently used in English. It is also called Present Simple. Read the following examples: 1) Repeated actions (every day, always, often, sometimes or never). When we are talking about habits and routines; things we do regularly: My friend often draws nice posters. I go to the cinema at least once a week. 14

2) Things in general: The sun rises in the East. Butterflies are often colorful and bright. 3) Fixed programs, scheduled events (e.g. timetable): The plane flies to London every Monday. All shops open at 9 o'clock. 4) Talking about feelings, thoughts and characteristics: I believe in Father Christmas. She doesn't like you. 5) Giving instructions: Open your books at page 34. Walk out the door and then turn left.

Present Continuous - Use The continuous tense refers to what is happening right now. What do you think? - I think you are wrong. What are you thinking? - I am thinking about our holiday. Put on your coat. It is raining.

Note:

Some verbs cannot be used in the Present Continuous tense. This is because they already suggest permanence. These include: Verbs of possession - own, have, belong. Verbs of the mind - believe, know, think, forget. Verbs of emotion - love, hate, detest. Verbs of the senses - see, hear, smell, taste.

*******

A. Complete the text below with the appropriate tenses. Use the words in parentheses.

1. Every Monday, Sally (drive) ………her kids to football practice.

2. Usually, I (work) ……..as a secretary, but this summer I (study) ……..French at a language school in Paris. So, I should be in Paris.

3. Be quiet! John (sleep)……….

4. Don't forget to take your umbrella. It (rain) ………..

5. I hate living in Seattle because it (rain, always) ………..

6. I'm sorry I can't hear what you (say) ………..because everybody (talk) ………so loudly.

B. Put in the correct verb forms into the gaps. 1) ….. you ……. in ghosts? (to believe) 2) …..Sarah and Linda ……..their pets all the time? (to feed) 3) …..your teacher …..your homework every session? (to check) 4) …….they …….in the old house? (to live) 5) …..the cat ……on the wall in the mornings? (to sit) 6) …...your parents …..TV in the afternoon? (to watch) 7) …..you …….the serial ? (to see)

*******

Get in someone's hair ‫ ﮐﺴﻲ را اذﻳﺖ ﮐﺮدن‬:‫ﻣﻌﺎدل ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ‬

- Listen, Jim. I can't stand it. The children are getting in my hair all the day.

*******

☺ Mother: "Did you enjoy your first day at school?" Girl: "First day? Do you mean I have to go back tomorrow?

*******

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a bit (adv)

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adult (n)

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cocoon (n)

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dawn (v)

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diurnal (adj)

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dusk (n)

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hibernate (v)

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insect (n)

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migrate (v)

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minerals (n)

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nectar (n)

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pattern (n)

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scare (v)

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smooth (adj)

• transparent (adj)

Lesson Three

The World is a book, and those who do not travel read only a page. ~St. Augustine

Marco Polo They called him “the man with a million stories.” People went to Marco Polo’s home to hear him tell exciting things about his travels in far lands. Marco Polo was famous for his journeys in Asia. He wrote a book about his travels that became one of the most famous travel guides in history. Marco Polo was born in 1254 to a family of merchants. His home was Venice, Italy. Venetian merchants bought and sold valuable Chinese goods, including expensive silk cloth. Marco’s mother died when he was a young boy. His family taught him to be a merchant. He learned how to read, write, calculate, and use foreign money. In 1269, Marco’s father and uncle, Niccolò and Maffeo, returned to Venice after visiting China. In China, they had met Kublai Khan. The khan invited the Polos to return. He asked them to bring Christian scholars to explain the Christian religion to him. In 1271, Niccolò and Maffeo went to China again. Marco, then 17 years old, joined his father and uncle for the trip. Two priests also traveled with the Polos. But the road was dangerous, and the priests soon turned back. It took the Polos four difficult years to reach China. There were a lot of high mountains and deserts. Finally they reached the summer palace of Kublai Khan at Shangdu.

The khan welcomed the Polos warmly. He offered Marco a job. Marco accepted, and the Polos lived in China for the next 17 years. Marco traveled on many special missions and traveled to very far lands. When Marco returned from his missions, he told the khan interesting stories about the people and lands he visited. In 1292, Kublai Khan asked Marco to escort a Mongol princess to Persia. The Polos traveled by ship from China to the Persian Gulf. Then the Polos went to Venice, finally reached home in 1295. Marco had been away so long that nobody recognized him. We know about Marco’s travels because, in 1298, he became a prisoner of war. He shared his cell with a writer named Rustichello, who helped Marco turn his stories into a book. Rustichello added some details of his own. But much of Marco’s book seems to be true! Marco Polo returned to Venice after his release from prison. He died in 1324. But his books are popular for centuries. Merchants, mapmakers, and explorers all looked to the book for information about Asian lands. Even the navigator Christopher Columbus owned a copy!

******* Understanding the Main Ideas ● Decide which idea is true (T) and which idea is False (F). 1. Marco polo traveled a lot because he loved traveling. … 2. Marco polo started his career as a merchant. … 22

3. Kublai Khan was a man who made Marco polo travel around the world. … 4. Nobody recognized Marco Polo after arriving home because he was away for a long time. … 5. We can not trust on Marco Polo's book at all. …

Understanding New Words ● Choose the best synonym or definition for each of the italic words or expression.

1. People went to Marco Polo’s home to hear him tell exciting things. a. funny b. surprising c. natural d. happy

2. Marco Polo was born in 1254 to a family of merchants. a. teachers b. businessmen c. travelers d. shopkeepers

3. Kublai Khan asked Marco to escort a Mongol princess. a. help b. take c. guard 23

d. bring

4. Marco Polo returned to Venice after his release from prison. a. freedom b. travel c. memory d. mission

5. Even Christopher Columbus owned a copy. a. saw b. bought c. had d. took

Discussion â&#x2014;? Discuss the following questions with your partner.

1. What was the main reason for Marco's traveling? 2. Why did Khan invite the Polos to return to China? 3. What is the advantage of traveling a lot?

*******

Countable and Non-Countable Nouns There are two main groups of nouns in English. It is important to know the difference between these two groups because there are different grammar rules for each. These groups are known as countable and non-countable. A countable noun has two forms: singular and plural. We use the singular form when we talk about one object (or concept), and we use the plural form when we talk about more than one object (or concept). We can say: There is one book on the table, and three books on the chair. I have one house, but the Queen has fifteen houses.

Some objects (or concepts) cannot be counted. We cannot stand on the beach and count: * four sands and three waters sand and water are examples of non-countable nouns and they only have a singular form: The sand is hot. The water is cold. My money is in my wallet. Milk is very good for babies. This butter has melted. To express quantity with a non-countable noun, we cannot use a number and a plural form:

* There are three rices in the bowl. * Can you give me four informations? Instead, we must use some, any, much, little and a singular form: Here is some sugar. There isn't much wine in the bottle.

Common non-countable nouns include: Liquids: cola, juice, lemonade, milk, tea, water, Foodstuffs: butter, cheese, grain, meat, pepper, rice, salt, sugar, wheat Abstract nouns: advice, time, peace, knowledge, love, work, news, anger,

culture, research, education, progress, furniture

Note: Students often make mistakes with these non-countable nouns: furniture, hair, money, news, research, spaghetti

*******

A. Fill in the blanks with the following words and form meaningful phrases. advice, chocolate, jam, lemonade, meat, milk, oil, rice, tea, tennis

1. a piece of ………. 2. a packet of …….. 3. a bar of …….. 4. a glass of …….. 5. a cup of …….. 6. a bottle of …….. 7. a slice of …….. 8. a barrel of …….. 9. a game of …….. 10. a jar of …….. B. Fill in the blanks using the following words. equipment- people- problem- cigarettes- information- advice- food 1. He did not need much ………….. He was able to decide himself. 2. How many …………does he smoke a day? 3. There isn't much …………. left. We will have a light dinner. 4. They don't have much …………..in their new flat. They have only a bed and a carpet. 27

5. He hasn't got much …………….about economics. In fact, he knows nothing. 6. There weren't many …………….at the meeting on Friday. 7. We haven't had many ………….this week. It was really an easy week.

*******

All thumbs ‫ دﺳﺖ و ﭘﺎ ﭼﻠﻔﺘﻲ‬،‫ ﺑﻲ دﺳﺖ و ﭘﺎ‬:‫ﻣﻌﺎدل ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ‬

Jack is really all thumb today. He drops everything he picks up!

*******

☺ A teenage girl had been talking on the phone for about half an hour, and then she hung up. "Wow!," said her father, "That was short. You usually talk for two hours. What happened?" "Wrong number," replied the girl.

*******

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detail (n)

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explorer (n)

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goods (n)

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journey (n)

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merchant (n)

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mission (n)

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navigator (n)

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offer (v)

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priest (n)

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recognize (v)

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release (v)

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religion (n) 29

â&#x20AC;˘ scholar (n)

Lesson Four

Those who think they have not time for bodily exercise will sooner or later have to find time for illness. ~Edward Stanley

Exercise People exercise to be healthy. They exercise to lose weight or to stay fit. They exercise to make their muscles bigger and stronger. Maybe you play football or some other sport for exercise. Exercise can be fun and can make you feel good. Exercise is a big part of staying physically fit. People who are physically fit are full of energy. Exercise can also help people control their stress. Exercise is especially good for children, teens, and older persons. There are two main types of exercise: aerobic and anaerobic. Aerobic exercise works big muscles in your arms and legs. Aerobic exercise makes your muscles use oxygen faster than usual. It makes your heart and lungs work harder to fill your muscles with oxygen. Running, walking, jogging, and swimming are kinds of aerobic exercise. Anaerobic exercise works just a few muscles at a time. Weightlifting is a kind of anaerobic exercise. Weightlifting and other kinds of anaerobic exercise make your muscles bigger and stronger. Doctors say that regular aerobic exercise makes a healthier heart. Jogging, walking, riding a bicycle, and other aerobic exercises lower the risk of heart disease. In one kind of heart disease, fatty stuff builds up in blood vessels going to the heart. Aerobic exercise helps prevent this problem. Aerobic exercise also makes the heart and lungs stronger. Doctors say you should do 20 to 30 minutes of aerobic exercise at least three times a week. You need to exercise hard enough to get your heart beating faster than normal. You can feel your heart beating. Use two fingers to feel a beat, or pulse, in your wrist or neck. 31

Aerobic exercise can help you lose weight. It can help you stay at a healthy weight. Aerobic exercise burns calories. A calorie is a unit of measurement. It measures the amount of energy in foods. It measures the amount of energy your body uses. When you take in the same number of calories that you burn every day, your weight stays the same. If you take in more calories than you burn, you put on weight. If you take in fewer calories than you burn, you lose weight. Regular exercise helps you burn calories. Stretching exercises can make your body more flexible. You can stretch your arms, legs, neck regularly. Many people do slow exercises and stretches called yoga to make their bodies more flexible. A physical education teacher can show you how to do stretch. You should do warm-up stretches before you do aerobic or anaerobic exercises. You should do cool-down stretches when you are finished exercising. Warm-up and cool-down stretches can help prevent muscle problems.

******* Understanding the Main Ideas ● Decide which idea is true (T) and which idea is False (F).

1. People exercise for fun. … 2. Both aerobic and anaerobic are the same. … 3. Anaerobic exercise makes the heart and lungs stronger. … 4. A good exercise should make our heart beating faster than normal. … 32

5. Warm-up and cool-down stretches are used in yoga. …

Understanding New Words ● Choose the best synonym or definition for each of the italic words or expression.

1. Jogging is a kind of aerobic exercise.

a. fast running b. fast walking c. slow running d. b & c

2. Fatty stuff builds up in blood vessels going to the heart. a. food b. oxygen c. thing d. weight

3. If you take in more calories than you burn, you put on weight. a. gain b. lose c. change d. finish

4. Warm-up and cool-down stretches can help prevent muscle problems. a. fasten 33

b. educate c. create d. stop 5. Aerobic exercise also makes the heart and lungs strong. a. beautiful b. useful c. powerful d. heavy

Discussion â&#x2014;? Discuss the following questions with your partner.

1. How often and how long do you exercise? 2. What is the difference between aerobic and anaerobic? 3. How can yoga help us?

*******

Prepositions A preposition describes a relationship between other words in a sentence. 34

Prepositions of Time: at, on, and in 1) We use at to talk about specific times. The train is due at 12:15 p.m. 2) We use on to talk about days and dates. My brother is coming on Monday. We're having a party on the Fourth of July. 3) We use in for nonspecific times during a day, a month, a season, or a year. She likes to jog in the morning. It's too cold in winter to run outside. He started the job in 1971. He's going to quit in August. Prepositions of Place: at, on, and in 1) We use at for specific addresses. Grammar English lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham. 2) We use on to talk about the names of streets, avenues, etc. Her house is on Boretz Road. 3) We use in for the names of land-areas (towns, counties, states, countries, and continents). She lives in Durham. Durham is in Windham County. Windham County is in Connecticut. 35

Prepositions of Location: in, at, and on and No Preposition IN

(the) bed*

class*

the bed*

PREPOSITION

the

home

the ceiling

downstairs

bedroom

the library* the floor

the car

the office

downtown

the horse

inside

(the) class* school*

the plane

outside

the library* work

the train

upstairs uptown

school*

*******

A. Choose the correct preposition to complete each of the following sentences. 1. He lives (on, at) 1243 Pomona Street. 2. My best friend lives ……Boretz Road. 3. I think she spent the entire afternoon…… the phone. 4. My brother and his wife lives ……downstairs. 5. Please pick up your clothes. They are …. the floor. 6. We always take a trip …. the summer. 7. I am going …….home after class. 36

B. Put About, At, To or For to fill the gaps.

1. How much does he charge ……. a haircut? 2. First you have to send an application …….the personnel manager. 3. I'm thinking……. my trip to Canada. 4. They used to laugh …….. her manners. 5. John's mother is looking…….. him. 6. I'm looking…………my car keys. I can't find them. C. Put At, In and On to fill the gaps.

1. My husband is …….his way home now. 2. Lina was born …...1954. 3. Do your parents live …… Mexico? 4. Her grandmother will arrive there……. half-past seven in the morning. 5. I am …….. bed by eleven o'clock in the evening. 6. ……what year were you born?

*******

Drive somebody up the wall 37

‫ ﮐﺴﯽ را ﻋﺼﺒﺎﻧﯽ ﮐﺮدن‬:‫ﻣﻌﺎدل ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ‬

- Please be quiet! That noise is driving me up the wall.

*******

☺ Teacher: Why are you late? Student: There was a man who lost a hundred dollar bill. Teacher: That's nice. Were you helping him look for it? Student: No. I was standing on it.

*******

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aerobics (adj)

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anaerobic (adj)

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beat (n)

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cool-down (v)

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flexible (adj)

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jogging (n)

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muscle (n)

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prevent (v)

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stretch (v)

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stuff (n)

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vessel (n)

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warm-up (n)

• wrist (n)

Lesson Five

Music is well said to be the speech of angels. ~Thomas Carlyle, Essays, "The Opera"

Music Music is part of every culture on Earth. Many people feel that music makes life worth living. We can make music ourselves if we play an instrument or sing. We can hear music on CDs and on radio or television. Music gives us joy. It can excite or soothe us. Music can be happy, sad, romantic, sleepy, healing. In fact, music can be all kinds of things. But what is music itself? Some people say that music is an artful arrangement of sounds. The sounds need to continue for a time in some sort of pattern to become music. Music, like language, is a human form of communication. Like language, there are many different kinds of music. In North America, people listen to jazz, rock, classical, folk, country, and many other kinds of music. Each kind of music has its own rules and â&#x20AC;&#x153;speaksâ&#x20AC;? to us in its own way. No one knows for sure when music began. Perhaps when people were working, they began to chant to make the work go faster. People who were repeating movements, for example, picking crops could sing in time to the work. Many cultures developed work songs. Over time, people developed musical instruments. They started by clapping their hands and tapping their feet. Sticks and objects that created sound were early instruments. Both instruments and music became more complex with time. Melody and rhythm are two basic elements of music. Melody is a series of notes. We know it as the tune.

Melody is based on notes that are high or low. When several notes sound together, it’s called harmony. Rhythm is the pattern of the notes. When notes are grouped together, they have a rhythm, or beat. Rock music is known for its strong beat. Classical music is the art music of Europe and North America. When we call it art music, we are distinguishing classical music from popular music and folk music. Art music generally needs more training to write and perform than the other two kinds. Symphony orchestras play classical music, such as the Symphony No. 3 by Ludwig van Beethoven. Listening to all the musicians in an orchestra play together can be a wonderful experience. Music goes along with many of our activities. We dance to music. We sing songs at school. Many of us exercise to music. Bands play at football games. We hear music in cars and stores. We have music in many important occasions. Music is heard in Christian churches, Islamic mosques, and other places of worship. We hear music as the background in movies. Perhaps we go to the theater to see a musical—a movie or play with music, singing, and often with dancing. Music is part of our lives.

******* Understanding the Main Ideas ● Decide which idea is true (T) and which idea is False (F). 1. Everybody can play music by an instrument. … 42

2. Music started when people were working. … 3. Melody and rhythm are two basic instruments. … 4. Art music takes more time to be written and performed. … 5. Life is mixed with music. …

Understanding New Words ● Choose the best synonym or definition for each of the italic words or expression. 1. It can excite or soothe us. a. interest b. calm c. happy d. enjoy

2. The sounds need to continue for a time in some sort of pattern to become music. a. kind b. special c. way d. voice

3. Objects that created sound were early instruments. a. things b. sticks c. music d. notes

4. Melody and rhythm are two basic elements of music. 43

a. instruments b. notes c. parts d. methods

5. We have music in many important occasions. a. special time b. special place c. special instrument d. special bands

Discussion â&#x2014;? Discuss the following questions with your partner.

1. What is the role of music on people's lives? 2. What is classical music? 3. When do you like listening to music?

*******

Conditionals

If... 44

A Conditional is a kind of sentence which uses a word such as if. It talks about situations which are not real. There are 3 main types of conditional sentences.

First Conditional We use the first conditional to talk about possible situations in the future. These could easily happen. If you go out in the rain, you will get wet. If you lift that heavy weight alone, you will hurt your back. To make the first conditional we use two clauses. The if-clause is in the present tense, the conditional clause uses will and the infinitive: {if} + {present} | {will} + {infinitive}

Second Conditional We use the second conditional to talk about possible but unlikely situations in the future and whether they will happen or not, or we can use it to describe imaginary present situations: If you met the President, what would you say? If you had a million pounds, what would you do with it? To make the second conditional we use two clauses. The if-clause is in the past the conditional clause uses would and the infinitive: {if} + {past} | {would} + {infinitive} Note: We use I were instead of I was:

If I were you, I would help him

Third Conditional We use the third conditional to talk about situations in the past which cannot be changed; we talk about how the results might be different: If Beckham had scored, Real Madrid would have won the match. (But Beckham did not score and Real Madrid lost.) To make the third conditional we use two clauses. The if-clause is in the past perfect tense and the conditional clause uses would have and the past participle: {if} + {past perfect} | {would} + {have} + {past participle}

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A. Complete the following sentences. 1. If it rains,…………………………… 2. If you promise to do it,……………………………. 3. If she calls me,……………………………………. 4. If he had studied,………………………………………..

5. If Jane were here,………………………………………...

6. If he hadn't eaten so much,…………………………………..

7. If I were you,…………………………………………………

B. Write the correct form of the verbs in the blanks below.

1. If the question…………. difficult, we can ask the teacher. (to be) 2. Lee will go to Disneyland if he ………….. enough money. (to save) 3. If I……… a lottery ticket, I might win the lottery. (to buy) 4. My friend usually walks to school if he………….. enough time. (to have) 5. If the movie ………….. at eight, we will be late! (to start) 14. If it …………… tomorrow, we can't go skiing. (not snow) 15. My dad will paint the garage if it ………….on Saturday. (not rain)

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Jump out of the frying pan and into the fire ‫ از ﭼﺎﻟﻪ درﺁﻣﺪن و در ﭼﺎﻩ اﻓﺘﺎدن‬: ‫ﻣﻌﺎدل ﻓﺎرﺳﯽ‬

- I know that you thought this part of the program was difficult, but wait until you sea the next part. You're jumping out of the frying pan and into the fire.

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â&#x2DC;ş A: Look at your face I know what you had for breakfast B: What was it? A: Eggs. B: No, that was yesterday!

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•

arrangement (n)

•

chant (v)

•

clap (v)

•

crop (n)

•

culture

•

developed (adj)

•

distinguish (v)

•

folk (n)

•

go along (v)

•

healing (adj)

•

instrument (n)

•

occasion (n)

•

soothe (v)

•

tap (v)

• worship (v)

Lesson Six

The most important thing in illness is never to lose heart. ~Nikolai Lenin

Cancer Cancer! It is a scary word, and a scary disease. Cancer kills a lot of people all over the world. Most of the time, cancer affects older people. Not many kids get cancer, but when they do, they can usually be treated and cured. But there’s good news too. Millions of people who have had cancer are still alive. Doctors have learned a lot about treating and preventing cancer. Cancer is not a single disease. It includes more than 100 different diseases. They may affect any part of the body. But they have one thing in common. They are all caused by cells that are out of control. All living things are made up of cells. An adult human body has about 30 trillion cells—that’s 30,000,000,000,000! Cells reproduce by dividing in half. In an adult body, about 25 million cells divide every second. In this way the body heals itself. Sometimes a cell goes out of control and divides over and over. That is cancer. It means unhealthy cells, growing and reproducing out of control. These cells are called cancerous cells. When cancerous cells group together, they form tumors (say: too-mers). A growing tumor changes to cancer cells that can destroy the normal cells around the tumor and damage the body's healthy tissues. This can make someone very sick.

Tumors can interfere with important body processes. Cancer of the lungs, for instance, interferes with breathing. Cancer of the stomach interferes with digesting food. Cancerous cells can also spread to other parts of the body. When cancer attacks several parts of the body, it is hard to stop. The best weapon against cancer is detecting it at an early stage before it grows very much. Regular checkups by a doctor can detect cancer before it grows and spreads. People whose cancers are discovered early usually survive. Some cancerous tumors can be removed by surgery. Doctors must remove some healthy cells around them, too. They have to be sure that there is no more cancerous cells. Radiation, such as X rays, can also kill cancer cells. So can treatment with powerful drugs, called chemotherapy. Unfortunately these treatments destroy healthy cells too. They can make people very sick. There is no sure way to avoid cancer. But there are things people can do to reduce the risk of getting cancer. Smoking causes cancer. People who smoke get lung cancer 20 times more often than people who don’t smoke. Don’t smoke! Doctors say that eating certain foods can also increase the chances of getting cancer. Eating lots of red meat and other foods high in fat may make people more likely to develop cancer. Most skin cancer is caused by too much Sun. Avoid getting sunburned. If everyone wore sunscreen or stayed out of the Sun, most cases of skin cancer would be prevented.

*******

Understanding the Main Ideas ● Decide which idea is true (T) and which idea is False (F). 1. Cancer does not affect children. … 2. The main reason of cancer is the large number of cells in our body. … 3. Tumors include cancerous cells. … 4. It is dangerous to remove healthy cells around he cancerous ones. … 5. 20 percent of smoking people get lung cancer. …

Understanding New Words ● Choose the best synonym or definition for each of the italic words or expression.

1. Cancer is a scary word, and a scary disease. a. dangerous b. frightening c. interesting d. surprising

2. Cells reproduce by dividing in half. a. make more cells b. make healthy cells c. make few cells

d. make active cells

3. In this way the body heals itself. a. activates b. cures c. reproduce d. produce

4. When cancer attacks several parts of the body, it is hard to stop. a. closes b. heals c. affects d. spreads

5. There is no sure way to avoid cancer. a. cure b. risk c. reduce d. prevent

Discussion â&#x2014;? Discuss the following questions with your partner.

1. What is the main reason of cancer? 2. How can we detect cancer? 3. In your opinion, what is the most frightening cancer?

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Modals To show degrees of ability, we can use modal verbs. 1) ability or opportunity in the present She can play the piano. She is able to play the piano. 2) ability or opportunity in the past She could play the piano. She was able to play the piano. 3) ability in the future: He could easily do your job given the opportunity. I will never be able to lift that cupboard alone. 4) Far Removed Possibility (imagining things) That would be nice. I wouldn't dream of it! 5) Certainty (based on logical assumptions)

He will be in Rome by now. He must be in Rome by now.

6) Degrees of Possibility (in the present and future) He may be upstairs. (likely) He might be upstairs. (less likely) He could be upstairs. (least likely)

7) Prediction She will win. (certainty) She may win. She might win. She could win.

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A. Complete each question or sentence with a modal verb and a main verb. Modal verbs: can / may / should / must / will / might / could (use more than once) Main verbs: see / eat / help / play / pay / rain (use only once) 1. You really _________ __________ a doctor about your illness. 2. __________ I ___________ you? 3. Tom ________ __________ the piano really well. 4. We __________ ____________ our taxes before April 15. 5. The weatherman said that it __________ __________ later tonight. 6. You _________ ___________ less meat because it's not good for your health to eat too much.

B. Choose the correct modal verb and main verb to complete each sentence. 1. The doctor told me that I ______________ smoking. A. will like

B. should stop

C. must try

2. My girlfriend ______________ to the party this weekend because she is scheduled to work. A. can't go

B. will go

C. shouldn't drive

3. This computer ______________ better if it has more memory. A. can't move

B. should go C. will work

4. If I don't stop at a gas station soon, I ____________ out of gas. A. might run

B. can be

C. will do

5. The young woman called her boss to tell him that she _____________ late to work this morning. A. can be

B. must be

C. will be

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A piece of cake ‫ﻣﺜﻞ ﺁب ﺧﻮردن‬: ‫ﻣﻌﺎدل ﻓﺎرﺳﯽ‬

- I really prepared for that exam. It should be a piece of cake.

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â&#x2DC;ş A: Why are all those people running? B: They are running a race to get a cup. A: Who will get the cup? B: The person who wins. A: Then why are all the others running?

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• affect (v) •

attack (v)

•

avoid (v)

•

certain (adj)

•

cure (v)

•

destroy (v)

•

detect (v)

•

digest (v)

•

disease (v)

•

interfere (v)

•

reproduce (v)

•

scary (adj)

•

spread (v)

•

survive (v)

• treat (v)

Lesson Seven

These blessed candles of the night. ~William Shakespeare, referring to stars, Merchant of Venice

Stars Go outdoors at night and look up at the sky. There are twinkling points of light everywhere. You are seeing thousands of stars that are millions of miles away. The stars look tiny because they are so far. But if you could see those stars nearer, you would see big balls of fire. The closest star to you on Earth is the Sun. The Sun is about 4.6 billion years old. There are stars that are older or younger than our Sun. There are stars that are much bigger. There are stars that have exploded and stars that are just born. A star is a big ball of hot, glowing gas. The gas is mostly hydrogen and helium. Stars give heat, light, and other kinds of energy. A star has several layers. The central of a star is called its core. A star shines because of its core. The core is so hot. Atoms in the star are too small to be seen. Hydrogen atoms crunch together and become helium atoms. This is called nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion gives off enough energy to make the stars shine. Stars are part of groups called galaxies. Our Sun is in the Milky Way Galaxy. Stars have different colors. They can be deep red, orange, yellow, white, or even blue. The color of a star depends on how hot the star is. The coolest stars are reddish and the hottest stars are bluish. It is hard to imagine how hot a star can be. The temperature at the surface of red stars is about 5400° Fahrenheit (about 3000° Celsius). Yellow stars have surface temperatures about 11,000° Fahrenheit (about 6000° Celsius). Our Sun

is a yellow star. White stars are about 18,000° Fahrenheit (about 10,000° Celsius)! A star seems to be just one color. Starlight, however, is made up of many colors. Light from our Sun has all the colors of the rainbow. Astronomers study the light of other stars. The light can tell astronomers how hot the stars are. Stars are born from clouds of gas and dust. Gravity pulls the gas and dust together. The gas and dust form a spinning ball. As it spins, it gets hotter. The gas and dust get tightly packed. Finally, nuclear fusion begins and the star starts to shine. Stars beyond our solar system are hard to reach because they are too far. The closest star is more than 4 light-years from Earth. A light-year is the distance light travels in a year, about 9 trillion kilometers. No spaceship can travel fast enough to reach even the nearest star during an astronaut’s lifetime.

******* Understanding the Main Ideas ● Decide which idea is true (T) and which idea is False (F).

1. Stars are too small because they are balls of fire. … 2. The sun is the oldest star. … 3. The color of a star depends on the number of layers. … 4. White stars are the hottest stars. … 5. The nearest star has four colors. …

Understanding New Words â&#x2014;? Choose the best synonym or definition for each of the italic words or expression. 1. There are twinkling points of light everywhere. a. flickering b. shining c. lightening d. repeating

2. A star is a big ball of hot, glowing gas. a. shining b. light c. heavy d. colorful

3. Nuclear fusion gives off enough energy to make the stars shine. a. remove b. increase c. decrease d. produce

4. The gas and dust form a spinning ball. a. changing b. shining c. twinkling d. turning

5. The gas and dust get tightly packed. a. closely b. nearly c. slowly d. heavily

Discussion â&#x2014;? Discuss the following questions with your partner.

1. Explain the concept of 'nuclear fusion'. 2. How do the starts with different colors vary? 3. What do you like about the stars?

*******

Comparatives and Superlatives The Comparative is the form of an adjective or adverb used to compare two things. To create a comparative, remember that with short adjectives add -er to the end, and longer ones use more before the adjective:

The Nile is longer than the Amazon. - Long >> Longer

Many students find writing more difficult than reading. - Difficult >> More Difficult

The Superlative is the form of an adjective or adverb that shows which thing has that quality above or below the level of the others. There must be three or more to use the superlative. It takes the definite article and short adjectives add est and longer ones take 'most': Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world. It is the most expensive restaurant I've ever been to.

Comparative

Superlative

big

bigger

biggest

soon

sooner

soonest

early

earlier

earliest

Irregular adjectives:

Adjective

Comparative

Superlative

good

better

best

Bad

worse

worst

much

most

little

less

least

farther, further

farthest, furthest

older, elder

elder, eldest

far old

Irregular adverbs: Comparative

Superlative

worse

worst

farther

farthest

further

furthest

little

less

least

much

most

well

better

best

badly far

To compare two items, we use the comparative: I am big, he is bigger. She works carefully, he works more carefully.

We often use this form in this pattern: {comparative} + {than} He is taller than me. We are more efficient than you. To compare more than two items, we use the superlative: Jupiter is the biggest planet in the solar system. In the company, Sandra works the most carefully. Small words add -er and -est to make the comparative and superlative. Large words use the and more and most.

adjective

comparative

superlative

small

smaller

the smallest

extensive

more extensive

the most extensive

*******

A. Put the adjective in bold from the first sentence into the second sentence in its correct form (comparative or superlative). 1. This is a nice cat. It's much ……….. than my friend's cat. 2. Here is Emily. She's six years old. Her brother is nine, so he is………... 68

3. This is a difficult exercise. But tomorrow is the ………..exercise on the worksheet. 4. He has an interesting hobby, but my sister has the ……….hobby in the world. 5. In the last holidays I read a good book, but father gave me an even………….one last weekend. 6. School is boring, but homework is……….than school. 7. Yesterday John told me a funny joke. This joke was the………joke I've ever heard. 8. Skateboarding is a dangerous hobby. Bungee jumping is …………..than skateboarding.

B. The following sentences are mixed-up. Put the words in the correct order.

1. Toronto, the, is, in, city, Canada, biggest ………………………………………….. 2. the, province, most, is, in, Canada, BC, attractive ………………………………………………… 3. than, Ottawa, more, Jasper, is, beautiful ……………………………………………….. 4. Victoria, Vancouver, than, smaller, much, is ……………………………………………..

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Jump down someone's throat ‫ ﺑﺎ ﻋﺼﺒﺎﻧﻴﺖ ﺑﺎ ﮐﺴﻲ ﺑﺮﺧﻮرد ﮐﺮدن‬،‫ ﻳﻘﻪ ﮐﺴﯽ را ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻦ‬:‫ﻣﻌﺎدل ﻓﺎرﺳﯽ‬

You don't have to jump down my throat! I told you that I'd make it home around 11:50. I don't intend to be late!

*******

☺ Patient: Doctor, I think that I've been bitten by a vampire. Doctor: Drink this glass of water. Patient: Will it make me better? Doctor: No, I but I'll be able to see if your neck leaks.

*******

• astronomer (n) • crunch (v) • dust (n) • explode (v) • fusion (n) • glowing (adj) • gravity (adj) • packed (ad) • spinning (adj) • twinkling (adj)

Lesson Eight

Money is a headache, and money is the cure. ~Everett Memor

Money Why is a dollar bill valuable? You can’t eat it. You can’t wear it. It’s just a piece of paper. But you can trade dollars for things that you can eat or wear. The bills are valuable because everyone agrees that they have value. Most countries have their own unit of money. The money used by a country is called its currency. In the United States, the basic unit of money, or currency, is the dollar. Each dollar is divided into 100 cents. The value of anything you want to buy in the United States can be measured in dollars and cents. Other countries have their own currencies. In the United Kingdom, the value of things is measured in money units called pounds, not dollars. Algerians use neither pounds nor dollars, but dinars. Indians use rupees. Mexicans use pesos. Russians use rubles. Iranian use Rials. Money is more than just paper bills and metal coins. During history, many other things were used as money. Shells, beads, furs, salt—even the teeth of dogs were all used as money. But today we use coin or bills instead of them. No one person invented the idea of money. The idea developed slowly. Before money was invented, people traded goods by using the barter system. In the barter system, people trade things for other things directly. For example a man had a sheep and wanted clothes. He found someone with extra clothes who wanted a sheep.

But what if he only wanted a shirt? He didn’t want to trade his entire sheep for just one shirt. How could he get change for a sheep? Problems like this made bartering difficult. People invented money to make trading easier. Finally, people found they could use precious metals such as gold, silver, or copper to help them trade. Metals had other benefits, too. They were easy to store, lasted a long time, and could easily be divided into smaller pieces. If you wanted something small, you could give just a bit of your metal. When people started trading metals as money, coins were soon invented. A Turkish kingdom called Lydia made the first metal coins around 600

BC.

The coins were stamped with the king’s seal. About the same time, people in China began to use paper money. Today, paper money is very common, as these bills from different countries show. Most people keep their money in a bank. They can withdraw money when they need it, or use checks or debit cards to pay for things.

******* Understanding the Main Ideas ● Decide which idea is true (T) and which idea is False (F).

1. The bills are valuable because their price is written on them. … 2. In each country you should use its own currency. … 3. The barter system is not used today. … 74

4. People do not use metal for trade anymore. … 5. The only way to buy things today is the debit cards. …

Understanding New Words ● Choose the best synonym or definition for each of the italic words or expression. 1. But you can trade dollars for things that you can eat or wear. a. exchange b. buy c. sell d. give 2. The value of anything in the United States can be measured in dollars and cents. a. exchange b. size c. quantify d. qualify 3. Today we use coin or bills instead of beans and fur. a. Because of b. in place of c. made of d. that of

4. The idea developed slowly. a. removed b. grew c. changed d. accepted 5. People found they could use precious metals such as gold. a. light b. valuable c. easy d. silver

Discussion â&#x2014;? Discuss the following questions with your partner. 1. How did people trade goods by using barter system? 2. What is currency? 3. What are the problems with debit cards?

*******

"Don't have to" and "Mustn't"

"Have to" and "must" usually mean the same thing: there is no choice about something, and you are forced to do it. However, the negatives of these two modals mean different things. "Don't have to" is different from "mustn't": Don't have to means that something is not necessary, but you can do it if you want to â&#x20AC;&#x201C; you can decide: "You don't have to pass the test." means "It's OK if you pass the test, but it's also OK if you don't pass it." Mustn't means that something is not allowed; it is forbidden, and you definitely shouldn't do it: "You mustn't smoke in the classroom." means "Smoking is not allowed in the classroom."

*******

A. Decide whether "don't have to" or "mustn't" is appropriate in each sentence. 1. You ………… smoke in a gas station. 2. You ………….pass a test to ride a bicycle. 3. You …………. open up the computer while it is plugged in. 4. This bus is free! You ……………buy a ticket. 5. You ………….. buy the text book for this course .You can borrow mine. 6. Canadians……………… get a visa to travel to the US. B. Read the following paragraph and for each space, decide whether "don't have to" or "mustn't" is best.

Making an omelet is easy. You ……………be a great chef to do it. Here are some basic instructions: 1. First, break some eggs into a bowl. Break them carefully. You ………..let any of the shell get into the omelet! 2. Next, mix up the eggs. You ……………use a special thing. You can mix them with a fork. 3. Then, heat some oil in a pan. Olive oil is best, but you …………….use olive oil. You can use ordinary corn oil if you want. You …………let the oil get too hot, or it will start to burn. 4. Pour the egg mixture into the pan, and mix it a little. 5. After some minutes, turn the omelet over. Be careful! You 78

…………break it. 7. When the omelet is cooked, serve it immediately. You ………..let it go cold, or it will taste horrible.

*******

Shoot off one's mouth ‫ ﻏﻠﻮ ﮐﺮدن‬،‫ ﻻف زدن‬:‫ﻣﻌﺎدل ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ‬ Jim doesn't play tennis very much, but he's always shooting off his mouth about how good he is. Yet he's fooling nobody. Jim is somewhat

*******

☺ 79

A teacher asked a student to write 55. Student asked: How? Teacher: Write 5 and beside it another 5! The student wrote 5 and stopped. Teacher: What are you waiting for? Student: I don't know which side to write the other 5!

*******

•

barter (v)

• bead (n) •

common (adj)

•

currency (n)

•

entire (adj)

•

extra (adj)

• fur (n) •

last (v)

•

precious (adj)

•

shell (n)

•

stamp (n)

•

trade (v)

• withdraw (v)

Lesson Nine

He was not of an age, but for all time! Ben Jonson Quote (1573 - 1637)

Shakespeare No author is quoted more often than William Shakespeare. His is the most famous name in all of English literature. He was perhaps the greatest writer in the history of the English language. He wrote many famous plays and poems in the late 1500s and early 1600s. Shakespeare was born in 1564, in Stratford-upon-Avon, a town in England. The whole family was Anglican. The family's financial situation was well off. He was educated in the local school, and he studied Latin and Greek, among other subjects. His school days often lasted from morning to evening, and it had a difficult program. At age 18, he married Anne Hathaway. They had a daughter, Susanna, and twinsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;Hamnet and Judith. Tragically, Hamnet Shakespeare died of unknown causes in August 1596, at the age of eleven. Shakespeare left Stratford for London, to work in the theater. He became famous with 38 wonderful plays. He wrote about two plays a year, while living in London. He never published the plays, but he saw that they were performed at the Globe and other London theaters. Every person loved Shakespeare's plays. But we know little about his life in London. Later, he retired in Stratford as an important citizen. He died in 1616. He was buried in the chancel of Holy Trinity Church in his hometown of Stratford. A collection of his plays called the First Folio came out seven years after his death. Shakespeare was a great storyteller. His plays were enjoyable for people.

He thought a lot about the characters in his stories. He created a lot of true-to-life characters in his plays. These characters seem real because Shakespeare presented them so well. His language is one of the richest ones. He even invented many words and phrases that are now common, including leapfrog, lonely, and watchdog. Shakespeare’s plays reflect human life. He wrote interesting comedies, such as A Midsummer Night’s Dream. He wrote plays about England’s kings that teach history in an interesting way. There are great tragedies among his works, too. These plays include Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth. In his free time, he wrote poetry. His 154 sonnets are among the most famous love poems of all time. In addition to his popularity as both an actor and playwright, Shakespeare became joint owner of the famous Globe Theater when it opened in 1599. Many of Shakespeare’s plays were first performed there during his lifetime. Although the original theater was destroyed hundreds years ago, a new theater modeled on the old Globe opened in 1996.

******* Understanding the Main Ideas ● Decide which idea is true (T) and which idea is False (F).

1. Shakespeare wad born in a rich family. … 2. Shakespeare started his career in a theatre. … 3. His plays were published when he was alive. … 4. He died at the age of 52. … 83

5. Most of his plays included real characters. …

Understanding New Words ● Choose the best synonym or definition for each of the italic words or expression.

1. The family's financial situation was well off. a. high b. fine c. poor d. rich

2. Hamnet Shakespeare died of unknown causes. a. sickness b. reason c. accident d. problem

3. He created a lot of true-to-life characters in his plays. a. real b. positive c. believable d. important

4. Shakespeare’s plays reflect human life. a. write b. include 84

c. show d. seem

5. In addition to his popularity, Shakespeare became owner of the Globe Theater. a. playwright b. poem c. fame d. story

Discussion â&#x2014;? Discuss the following questions with your partner. 1. What was Shakespeare's early school like? 2. Why are Shakespeare's plays so popular? 3. What is your favorite Shakespeare's play?

*******

Adjective or Adverb

Adjectives are words we use to describe a noun. They usually come before it: a big, red, boring book 85

The noun is book here and the adjectives tell us what size it is (big), what colour it is (red) and what we think of it (boring). Adjectives never change their form; they are always the same: the ugly woman and the ugly man the ugly football team and the ugly goalkeeper the ugly dog and the ugly scenery However, the adjective order is important and also the position, too. example of adjective order: opinion+ size+ age+ shape+ color+ origin A clever fat young white Italian boy We use adverbs to give us more information about: an adjective: The only red bike. a verb: She swam beautifully. a sentence as a whole: Unfortunately it is raining so I cannot visit the zoo

Form Many, but not all, adverbs end in -ly. These adverbs are commonly called Regular Adverbs as they are formed by following the rule of adding -ly to the end of the adjective (spelling rules apply in some cases): He is a bad driver; he drove badly. It is a clear day; she can see clearly. Adverbs which do not end in -ly are called Irregular Adverbs. 86

Adverbs of Degree Adverbs of Degree tell us how much. They usually come before the adjective or adverb they qualify. Is there enough wine? She can hardly sing. Adverbs of Frequency Adverbs of Frequency tell us how often something happened. Usually they occur before the main verb. I rarely eat meat. I often go to the cinema. Many of these adverbs do not have any special form. A typical list from always to never: 1. always , often , frequently, usually, normally, sometimes, occasionally, seldom, rarely, never Adverbs of Time We use adverbs of time to tell us when something happened. They usually happen at the end of the sentence. I saw him last Sunday. They met me here yesterday.

Adverbs of Manner

We use adverbs of manner to tell us how something happened. They usually occur at the end of the sentence though sometimes they're placed before the main verb. You can dance well. She sang that song badly.

Adverbs of Place We use adverbs of manner to tell us where something happened. They usually occur at the end of the sentence. I saw him at the cinema. They met me here yesterday.

*******

A. Make the right choice from the word in parentheses in each sentence. 1. My old car broke down yesterday. I hope it can be mended ………….(cheap) 2. Sting's a …………..singer. (famous) 3. I am a fan of France Gall. She not only sings…………. , she's got …………..songs as well. (beautiful) 4. There was a …………….increase in sales. (sudden) 88

5. My dog is very ……………(silent) . He …………….barks. (rare) 6. My father drives …………..(slow) He ………….exceeds 40 mph. (seldom)

B. Write the correct noun phrase, putting the adjectives in order. 1. round / small / reading / lamp

…………………………………… 2. wooden / huge / sailing / ship

………………………………….. 3. slim / Canadian / handsome / snowboarder

………………………………………………… 4. sugar / blue / round / bowl

……………………………………………………….. C. Choose from the list of adverb phrases below and fill in the gaps. along the cliffs - every weekend - last Saturday - to look at the whale with a rolling motion I go running …………..with my friends from the jogging club. …………….., we ran for five-kilometer from downtown Victoria through Beacon Park. As we were running ………….at the edge of the sea, someone shouted "Look!" There was a grey whale out in the ocean, about a hundred meters from the shore. We all stopped running 89

……………... It was swimming ……………, its tail flipping out of the water every few seconds.

*******

When pigs can fly ‫ وﻗﺖ ﮔﻞ ﻧﯽ‬،‫ ﺑﻪ هﻤﻴﻦ ﺧﻴﺎل ﺑﺎش‬:‫ﻣﻌﺎدل ﻓﺎرﺳﯽ‬

- I'm going to buy a big car by the end of the year. - Yes, when pigs can fly!

*******

☺ 90

Teacher: Tell me a sentence that starts with an "I". Student: I is the.... Teacher: Stop! Never put 'is' after an "I". Always put 'am' after an "I". Student: OK. I am the ninth letter of the alphabet.

*******

•

bury (v)

•

chancel (n)

•

create (v)

•

financial situation (n)

•

joint (n)

•

literature (n)

•

perform (v)

•

playwright (n)

•

poem (n)

•

popularity (n)

•

quoted (adj)

•

reflect (v)

•

retire (v)

•

sonnet(n)

• well off (adj)

Lesson Ten

"This ground is hot enough to cook the Sunday roast!" John Seach (Volcanologist)

Volcano Suddenly, the top of a mountain blows off. A ball of fire goes up into the air. Dark clouds of dust and ash cover the sky. Rivers of fire pour down the sides of the mountain. This can happen when a volcano erupts. Erupting volcanoes have killed thousands of people. The dust and ash have buried the towns completely. No human can control them. Hot, melted rock makes a volcano. The melted rock is called magma. The magma comes from deep inside Earth. It is very hot deep inside Earth. The magma pushes up through solid rock. The hot magma melts a tube in the rock up to the surface. Suddenly it blasts up the tube and comes out of the ground. When the magma comes out, it is called an eruption. Sometimes the magma makes a big explosion. Sometimes the magma pours out like a river of fire. Rocks, dust, ash, steam, and other hot gases can also blow out of a volcano. Once magma erupts from a volcano, it is called lava. The lava cools and hardens into rock. A volcano can erupt many times. The lava can make a mountain. There are different kinds of volcanoes. Volcanoes can be different shapes and sizes. Some volcanoes do not even look like mountains. Mount Fuji in Japan is among the most famous volcanoes. Mount Saint Helens is also another example.

Some volcanoes are on land. Many volcanoes are under the ocean. Some of these volcanoes are underwater mountains. There are many volcanoes around the Pacific Ocean. Volcanoes form only in some special places on earth. Scientists have found volcanoes on Mars and other planets, too. They have even found volcanoes on moons of Jupiter and Neptune. In May 1980, a volcano in Washington State called Mount Saint Helens blew up in a massive eruption. It was one of the hugest volcano eruptions. The blast sent large clouds of ash into the air and all over the mountain. The eruption killed more than 50 people. Some volcanoes are always erupting. These are called active volcanoes. Mount Etna in Italy is an active volcano. Scientists try to predict when volcanoes will erupt. Studying volcanoes is hard and dangerous work. Scientists go into volcanoes. They make maps of the inside of the volcano. They use satellites to study volcanoes from space. Scientists could be able to predict a few eruptions. But it is not easy to tell what a volcano might do.

******* Understanding the Main Ideas ● Decide which idea is true (T) and which idea is False (F).

1. There are some volcanoes that never erupt. … 2. Lava is another name for magma when it comes out. … 3. All mountains are made up of lava. … 4. Volcanoes under the oceans are not dangerous. … 94

5. Scientist can predict when volcanoes erupt. …

Understanding New Words ● Choose the best synonym or definition for each of the italic words or expression.

1. Suddenly, the top of a mountain blows off. a. explodes b. covers c. buries d. pushes

2. A volcano can erupt many times. a. come down b. burst out c. go up d. go down

3. Scientists try to predict when volcanoes will erupt. a. understand b. study c. foretell d. work out

4. A volcano in Washington State blew up in a massive eruption. a. melting b. huge c. dangerous 95

d. boiling

5. The blast sent large clouds of ash into the air. a. eruption b. lava c. powder d. magma

Discussion â&#x2014;? Discuss the following questions with your partner.

1. What makes volcanoes so scary? 2. What is the difference between magma and lava? 3. Make some examples of active volcanoes.

*******

Cause and Effect Linking Words There are three main types of linking words: conjunctions, transitions, and prepositions:

1. Conjunctions The most important conjunctions are because, as, since, and so. Because, as, and since introduce a cause; so introduces an effect. These are used to join two complete sentences (or independent clauses) together. They are often used like this: First sentence, conjunction second sentence

I stayed at home, because it was raining. You can also change the order of the sentences with because, as, and since: Because it was raining, I stayed at home. Note that this is not possible with so.

2. Transitions The most important conjunctions are therefore, consequently, and as a result. All of these introduce an effect. These are used to join two complete sentences (or independent clauses) together. They are often used like this: First sentence; transition, second sentence. It was raining; therefore, I stayed at home. First sentence. Transition, second sentence It was raining. Consequently, I stayed at home.

3.Prepositions 97

The most important prepositions are due to, and because of. Both of these introduce a cause in the form of a noun phrase. They are often used like this: Sentence, due to noun phrase. I stayed at home, due to the rain. Because of noun phrase, sentence. Because of the rain, I stayed at home.

*******

A. Use an appropriate linking word to complete each sentence.

1. Volcanoes are scary……………., nobody likes to live around them. 2. …………..I was badly sick, I had to stay at home. 3. Sally has a lot of friends …………her kind behavior and intelligence. 4. The air is being polluted ………… there are a lot of factories in the city. 5. Some students do not study during the semester……………., they have a lot of problems during examination days. B. Link the following two sentences using the words in parentheses.( Change the structure if it is necessary)

1. Volcanoes kill a lot of people. No human can control volcanoes. (as a result) …………………………………………………………………………….. 2. Everybody is trying to learn English. English is international language. (therefore) …………………………………………………………………………… 3. An earthquake happened. A lot of people lost their lives. (due to) ……………………………………………………………………………… 4. I had a little money at the end of the week. I spent all my money in the first days of the week. (so ) …………………………………………………………………………… 5. The train will arrive two hours later. The weather is very bad. …………………………………………………………………………..

*******

Pull someone's leg ‫ ﮐﺴﻲ را دﺳﺖ اﻧﺪاﺧﺘﻦ‬:‫ﻣﻌﺎدل ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ‬

- Hey, Al, I was invited to be a judge for the contest. - Oh, really? You're pulling my leg!

*******

☺ When I was young I didn't like going to weddings. My grandmother would tell me, "You're next" However; she stopped doing that after I started saying the same thing to her at funerals.

******* •

ash (n)

•

blast up (v)

•

blow off (v)

•

erupt (v)

•

explosion (n)

•

harden (v)

•

melt (v)

•

pour down (v)

• predict (v)

101

Lesson Eleven

Acting: An art which consists of keeping the audience from coughing. ~Ralph Richardson

102

Movie What is your favorite movie? Maybe you like cartoon-like movies. Maybe you like a movie that is full of action. Movies are a wonderful kind of make-believe. Many different people work on a movie. The producer finds money to pay for the film, hires people to make the movie, and gets the movie to theaters. The director imagines how the film should look and guides the actors and the crew when they make the movie. Assistants help the producer and the director. Screenwriters write an original story for the movie, or they work with a story told in a book. Actors play characters in the story. A music composer writes background music for the film. Most members of the movie crew work behind the scenes. Designers make the sets and clothes. The camera crew runs the cameras that film the movie. A lot of short scenes have to be put together after the filming. That is the job of the film editors. Sound editors add background noises, such as horns in a scene on a busy street. In action films, stuntmen and stuntwomen often perform dangerous moves instead of the real actors. The producer and director plan how and when they will film each scene. A movie is filmed scene by scene, and a scene is filmed shot by shot. The scenes are not usually filmed in the order that you see them in the movie. Sometimes the weather is bad and an outdoor scene cannot be filmed. These kinds of scenes are often shot later although you may see them at the beginning of the film.

103

The cameras roll. Each filmed shot is called a take. The director may ask for many takes before he or she is satisfied with the scene. Special effects include small models of huge scenes and computergenerated images. Moviemakers use these to film scenes and places that do not exist. Some sets for the movie Titanic (1997) looked like a sinking ocean liner. The moviemakers could not film the inside of a large ship. So the set designers used a huge tank that held 5 million gallons (19 million liters) of water. They lowered the sets into the water tank and we saw the rooms were sinking. Computers can even make images of actors. Many images in Titanic, including crowds of people on the ship, were actually made by computer. In The Matrix (1999), computers were used to make the actors look as if they were fighting while floating in the air.

******* Understanding the Main Ideas ● Decide which idea is true (T) and which idea is False (F).

1. You can see all crew members in a movie. … 2. Sound editors omit noises from the scenes. … 3. You don’t see the face of stuntmen in the film. … 4. Sometimes a shot is longer than a scene. … 5. All the films include some special effect. …

104

Understanding New Words â&#x2014;? Choose the best synonym or definition for each of the italic words or expression. 1. Movies are a wonderful kind of make-believe. a. unreality b. interesting c. amusing d. action 2. Most members of the movie crew work behind the scenes. a. players b. actors c. group d. designers 3. The director may ask for many takes before he or she is satisfied with the scene. a. agreed b. pleased c. finished d. continued 4. Special effects include small models of huge scenes. a. dangerous b. frightening 105

c. large d. real 5. Some sets for the movie Titanic looked like a sinking ocean liner. a. ship b. film c. story d. special effect

Discussion â&#x2014;? Discuss the following questions with your partner.

1. Why do some movies include special effect? 2. What is your favorite movie? Name its director and actors. 3. In your idea, who has the most difficult job in making a movie? Why?

*******

Passive voice

English sentence pattern is like (subject + verb + object). When the subject performs the action and comes first and before the verb we talk about sentences in the active voice 106

When we want to change the order of the information in a sentence we use the passive voice. In a passive sentence the doer is not the grammatical subject of the sentence. active Elsa ate the cake. passive The cake was eaten by Elsa.

The passive voice is used in writing much more often than in speech. It can be found in newspapers and magazines or articles, and it is very common in scientific and technical writing.

Passive Verb Formation The passive forms of a verb are created by combining a form of the "to be verb" with the past participle of the main verb. Other helping verbs are also sometimes present: Let's take a look at the passive forms of "design."

Tense

Present

Present perfect

Past

Subject

The car/cars The car/cars The car/cars

Auxiliary

Past

Singular

Plural

Participle

are

designed.

has been

have been

designed.

was

were

designed.

107

Past perfect

Future

Future perfect

The

had been

designed.

will be

designed.

The

will have

car/cars

been

is being

are being

designed.

was being

were being

designed.

car/cars The car/cars

Present

The

progressive

car/cars

Past progressive

The car/cars

designed.

*******

A. Put the following sentences into the passive voice or form. 1. They make shoes in that factory. Shoes ……..in that factory. 2. People must not leave bicycles in the driveway. Bicycles …………. in the driveway. 3. They are repairing the streets this month. The streets ………………………his month. 4. They were cooking dinner when I arrived.

108

Dinner ……………………when I arrived. 5. They are going to perform Beethoven's Fifth Symphony next weekend. Beethoven's Fifth Symphony ………………………………..next weekend. B. Put following passive sentences into the active voice 1. The test will be given at five o'clock this afternoon. The school ……………………….the test at five o'clock this afternoon. 2. This car was made in Japan by Toyota. Toyota ………………………. this car in Japan. 3. The methods have been changed. Someone ………………..the methods. 4. Dirty clothes must not be worn. You ………………..dirty clothes. 5. We were told to wait here. Someone ……………..us to wait here.

*******

109

Be in the same boat (‫ هﻤﻪ در ﻳﻚ وﺿﻊ ﺑﻮدن) در ﺷﺮاﻳﻂ ﺳﺨﺖ‬.‫ در ﺷﺮاﻳﻂ ﻳﻜﺴﺎن ﺑﻮدن‬:‫ﻣﻌﺎدل ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ‬

She and her classmates all have to prepare for an exam this week. They're all in the same boat.

*******

☺ Man receives a phone call from his doctor. The doctor says, "I have some good news and some bad news." The man says, "OK, give me the good news first." The doctor says, "The good news is, you have 24 hours to live." The man replies, "Oh no! If that's the good news, then what's the bad news?" The doctor says, "The bad news is, I forgot to call you yesterday."

******* 110

•

composer (n)

•

crew (n)

•

crowd (n)

•

favorite (adj)

•

float (v)

•

horn (n)

•

huge (adj)

•

imagine (v)

•

liner (n)

•

make-believe (n)

•

satisfied (adj)

•

scene (n)

• sink (v)

111

Lesson Twelve

The flag of our union forever.

~ George P. Morris

112

Flags Pieces of cloth in different colors, shapes, and patterns wave and move in the breeze. They usually hang from sticks. They stand as proud and happy symbols for countries, states, persons, or groups. Sometimes, they are waved as a signal to people. What is this high-flying public cloth? Flags, of course! The most important and best-known flags are national flags. A national flag stands for the people of a country. Every country has its own unique flag. For example, the national flag of Iran is famous for colors of red, white, and green and the arm of Allah in the middle. Every country has its own national flag. Different colors and designs make each national flag unique. Most countries, including the United States and Canada, have a number of official flags. Some flags represent smaller areas of countries. Every state in the United States and every province in Canada has its own flag. Many cities have their own flags, too. Most countries have special military flags. In the United States, different military units carry different flags. The U.S. Navy, Coast Guard, Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps all fly different flags. Navies fly flags on ships at sea. A national flag shows a shipâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s nationality. Other flags are used for signaling, or sending messages, to other ships. Flags are used for the other purposes, too. They are used in messaging, advertising, or for other decorative purposes. A lot of people are interested in studying flags.

113

According to history, flags were invented by Indians or Chinese. The usage of flags spread from India and china to the neighbors, including south of Asia. Flags are usually in shape of rectangle, but may be of any shape or size that is possible for flying. One of the most unusual flag shape is that of the flag of Nepal. It is not rectangle or square in shape. It is in the shape of two triangles, one on top of another. During the middle ages, Flags were used during war to identify leaders: in Europe the knights, in Japan the Samurai, and in China the generals under imperial army. Before there were national flags, kings and nobles flew their own flags. They decorated their flags with their family picture. The largest flag, called a standard, marked the presence of a king. Other nobles flew flags of different sizes and shapes based on their rank. As kings shaped their lands into nations, national flags grew in importance. Today, we recognize countries all around the world by their unique flags, called national standards. But most royal families still fly their own special flags.

******* Understanding the Main Ideas ● Decide which idea is true (T) and which idea is False (F). 1. Flags should always hang from a stick. … 2. It is impossible that two countries have similar national flags. … 3. Every country has a special military flag. …

114

4. The flag of Nepal is unusual because of its shape. … 5. Flag of each country was determined by its leader. …

Understanding New Words ● Choose the best synonym or definition for each of the italic words or expression.

1. The most important and best-known flags are national flags. a. expensive b. large c. famous d. beautiful

2. Some flags represent smaller areas of countries. a. made b. show c. appear d. belong

3. In the United States, different military units carry different flags. a. have b. show c. make d. advertise

4. Every country has its own unique flag. a. province

115

b. navy c. country d. special

5. Other nobles flew flags of different sizes and shapes based on their rank. a. position b. nationality c. family d. country

Discussion ● Discuss the following questions with your partner.

1. Why is flag necessary for each country? 2. What do colors of Iran flag represent? 3. What is your favorite flag like?

*******

Impersonal ″It″ and ″There″

116

In many kinds of English sentence, you will find the word "it" or the word "there" in the subject position. These are usually "impersonal" sentences -- sentences where there is no natural subject. This introduction will help you to understand when to use "it" and when to use "there".

We use It when: 1) Talking about weather It's raining. It's cold. It was sunny yesterday 2) Identifying something "Who is it?" "It's me." "What is it?" "It's a cat." 3) Talking about time "What time is it?" "It's five o'clock." "What day is it?" "It's Thursday." 4) Talking about distance "How far is it to Toronto?" "It's 4000 kilometers."

117

Impersonal "there" is used to say that something exists in a particular place: Singular: There is a book on the table. Plural: There are three men in the car.

*******

A. Fill in the blanks using it is, there is, and there are. 1…………….five miles from the station to my house. 2. How long did …………….take you to do your homework? 3. ……………… any ice cream in the fridge? 4. Somebody ate my apple! Who was …………….? 5. This is crazy! ……………. August, and the weather is still cold! 6. Don't cry! …………… no reason to be sad. 7. Who is that man? ………….. the movie star, Tom Hanks?

118

B. Read the following paragraph and fill in the blanks using “it is”, “there is”, and “there are”. My favorite time of the year in Victoria is the summer. Right now, ………..July, and ………flowers everywhere. ………….hot enough to wear shorts all the time, but not too hot. Downtown, ……..……hundreds of tourists, but if you don't like crowds, ……………..easy to get away. ………………a beautiful park called Beaconhill Park on the seashore, and …………….only about half a mile from downtown. From the park, ……………..a lovely view out to sea, and sometimes …………….whales passing by.

*******

Shake a Leg ‫ ﻋﺠﻠﻪ ﮐﺮدن‬،‫ﺷﺘﺎب ﮐﺮدن‬: ‫ﻣﻌﺎدل ﻓﺎرﺳﻲ‬

119

- Mary, you always take such a long time to put on your makeup. Come on, shake a leg! - I'll be finished in a minute. Be patient. - You've got to hurry or else we won't arrive on time to see the last show.

*******

☺ A: Just look at that young person with the short hair and blue jeans. Is it a boy or a girl? B: It's a girl. She's my daughter. A: Oh, I'm sorry, sir. I didn't know that you were her father. B: I'm not. I'm her mother.

*******

•

advertise (v)

•

breeze (n) 120

•

imperial (adj)

•

knight (n)

•

noble (adj)

•

official (adj)

•

pattern (n)

•

proud (adj)

•

province (n)

•

represent (v)

•

stands for (v)

•

unique (adj)

• usage (n)

121

Lesson Thirteen

For athletes, the Olympics are the ultimate test of their worth. Mary Lou Retton, American gymnast

122

Olympic Opening Ceremony The Olympic Opening Ceremony was held in Sydney, Australia on September 15, 2000. It was an international event and the whole world was watching! The event was held in a stadium designed to seat a large group of people. The athletes entered the stadium in a special order. The athletes from Greece entered first in honor of the original Olympics held in Greece. Then, the other athletes followed by nation in the alphabetical order of the host country’s language. The host country’s athletes came last. So for this Olympics, the athletes from Australia entered the stadium last. The chief of state of the host country declared the games open, followed by the raising of the Olympic Flag. Music was played and fireworks were set off. Then, doves were released into the air as a symbol of peace. Runners in cross-country groups brought in the Olympic torch. The running of the torch began four weeks before the Olympic ceremony and thousands of runners took part in this. Planes and ships transported the Olympic torch to each country that lies between Greece and the host country. The most exciting moment of the Olympic ceremony was when the torch entered the stadium and lit the Olympic Flame. The Flame was kept burning until the end of the Olympic games.

******* Understanding the Main Ideas ● Decide which idea is true (T) and which idea is False (F). 123

1. Every country has its own Olympic games. … 2. Athletes come in the order of alphabets.

…

3. The athletes from Greece declare the game open. … 4. Running of the torch stars in the opening day. … 5. Runners are not from the same country. …

Understanding New Words ● Choose the best synonym or definition for each of the italic words or expression.

1. It was an international event. a. accident b. match c. happening d. sport 2. The athletes entered the stadium in a special order. a. sport men b. runners c. people d. torches

3. Doves were released into the air. a. flown b. become free 124

c. killed d. started to sing

4. The chief of state of the host country declared the games open. a. said b. announced c. started d. finished

5. The athletes from Greece entered first in honor of the original Olympics. a. place b. respect c. time d. form

Discussion â&#x2014;? Discuss the following questions with your partner.

1. When was the first Olympic games held? 2. Why is Olympic so important to athletes? 3. What is the role of Olympic torch?

*******

125

The Future with "Be Going To" In English, there are many ways of expressing future time. One of the most common is the "be going to" structure. You should know how to form the future with "be going to", and what the main meaning of this construction is. To make a verb form with "be going to", you first put "be" into the correct form to agree with the subject, and then add "going to" + the simple form of the verb. Note also that "be" is often shortened. This table lists the main forms:

Examples:

Statement:

I am going to leave. I'm going to leave.

Question:

Am I going to leave?

Negative:

I am not going to leave. I'm not going to leave.

The meaning of "be going to" future forms "Be going to" is usually used when something is already planned or definite. Look at the difference between these sentences: I'll make the supper. (Making a decision/volunteering to do something.)

I'm going to make the supper. (This is already planned and organized.) 126

Using "will" and "shall" with verbs "Will" and "shall", like all modal verbs in English, do not change their form, and they are followed by the simple form of the main verb. An important thing about "will" and "shall" is that "shall" is not usually used in statements. It only appears in the first person (with I and we) in questions. "Will" is NOT usually used in first person questions. Note also that "will" is often shortened to "'ll".

Examples:

Statement:

You will stop smoking. You'll stop smoking.

Question:

Will you stop smoking?

The meaning of "will" future forms Â

"Will" is usually used in three situations: 1. Volunteering to do something "Will someone open the window for me?" "I'll do it!" 2. Deciding to do something "I've made up my mind. I'll go to Whistler for my vacation." 3. Forcing someone to do something.

127

"Dad, I don't want to clean my room!" "You'll do it, and you'll do it NOW!"

Note: "Will" is NOT usually used for fixed plans or scheduled events.

*******

A. In each question, you will see a sentence using the "will" future form. Change the sentence into a "be going to" form.

1. The cougar will not attack you. ……………………………….. 2. We'll buy him a pen for his birthday. ……………………………………… 3. I won't win the race. ………………………………………... 4. She won't buy any more chocolate. ……………………………………………… 5. Shall we buy some bacon? ……………………………………………………. B. Write the correct form of the verb in brackets in each gap. You must decide whether the verb should be in the simple present tense, or if WILL or SHALL should be used.

128

Junko: ………………(help) me with my homework tonight? Mary: Sure! I always ……………..(watch) Seinfeld at seven. I…………….(come) over after it's finished. ………….(bring) my dictionary? Junko: No need. I have (have) a good dictionary at home. …………….(pick) you up in the car? Mary: I ………….(not know). Do you think it ……………(rain)? Junko: I ……………..(not think) so. Mary: I………….. (walk) then. Junko: OK. I………….. you later! Mary: Bye!

in(s) and out(s) ‫ ﻣﺜﻞ ﮐﻒ دﺳﺖ‬:‫ﻣﻌﺎدل ﻓﺎرﺳﯽ‬

years. I know it

-I've been in this business for 30 years and I know it in and out.

******* 129

☺ A: I have the perfect son. B: Does he smoke? A: No, he doesn't. B: Does he drink whiskey? A: No, he doesn't. B: Does he ever come home late? A: No, he doesn't. B: I guess you really do have the perfect son. How old is he? A: He will be six months old next Wednesday.

*******

•

athlete (n)

•

chief (adj)

•

cross-country (adv)

•

declare (v)

•

dove (n)

•

event (n)

130

•

firework (n)

•

hold (v)

•

honor (n)

•

host (n)

•

release (v)

•

set off (v)

• torch (n)

131

Lesson Fourteen

Nature is full of genius, full of the divinity; so that not a snowflake escapes its fashioning hand. Henry David Thoreau

132

The snowflake man

Have you ever tried to find two snowflakes exactly alike? If you have, you know it’s impossible. No two snowflakes are ever identical. The reason for this is a mystery that excited Wilson Bentley enough to spend his life to “save” every snowflake he could. Born on February 9, 1865 in Jericho, Vermont, Wilson Bentley loved snow. He was fascinated by the complex forms and designs of each snowflake. If only he could find a way to save them so that others could enjoy their beauty, too. He tried drawing snowflakes but they always melted before he finished. When he was 17, his parents took all their savings to buy him a special camera with a microscope. Now he could photograph snowflakes! Willie spent a whole winter in a small room in his backyard, catching snowflakes on a black tray. His first tries at photographing snow all failed. He experimented that winter and the next, and finally he succeeded. Now everyone could see the beauty of each snow crystal, unique designs that would never happen again. When he was sixty-four, his book, Snow Crystals, was published. Wilson Bentley, the Snowflake Man, had given a great gift to the world. In Willie’s hometown of Jericho, Vermont, you can still see the monument of “Snowflake” Bentley, Jericho’s world famous snowflake authority.

*******

133

Understanding the Main Ideas ● Decide which idea is true (T) and which idea is False (F).

1. Wilson Bently spent his life to save the beauty of winter. … 2. He preserved snowflakes by freezing them. … 3. The complex forms of snowflakes interested him. … 4. He spent a short time before he succeeded. 5. It is impossible to find two snowflakes that are exactly similar. …

******* Understanding New Words ● Choose the best synonym or definition for each of the italic words or expression.

1. No two snowflakes are ever identical. a. similar b. the same c. different d. mystery

2. He was fascinated by the complex forms and designs of each snowflake. 134

a. shocked b. tired c. interested d. experimented

3. Now everyone could see the beauty of each unique design. a. similar b. different c. beautiful d. special

4. You can still see the monument of “Snowflake” Bentley. a. statue b. sign c. place d. result

5. He finally succeeded. a. failed b. won c. died d. published

Discussion ● Discuss the following questions with your partner. 135

1. Why was Wilson so interested in snowflakes? 2. What was the mystery about the snowflakes? 3. H could Wilson finally succeed?

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Reported speech Saying exactly what someone has said is called Direct Speech (sometimes also called Quoted Speech) 1) If the sentence starts in the present, there is no backshift of tenses in Reported speech: Susan: "I work in an office." Susan says that she works in an office. 2) If the sentence starts in the past, there is often backshift of tenses in Reported speech: Susan: "I work in an office." Susan said that she worked in an office.

Backshift of tenses

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from

Simple Present

Simple Past

Simple Past Present Perfect

Past Perfect

Past Perfect will

would

Progressive forms am/are/is

was/were

was/were has been

had been

Backshift of tenses from

to Peter said that he worked in the

Peter: "I work in the garden."

garden.

Peter: "I worked in the garden." Peter: "I have worked in the garden."

Peter said that he had worked in the garden.

Peter: "I had worked in the garden." Peter: "I will work in the garden." Peter: "I can work in the garden."

Peter said that he would work in the garden. Peter said that he could work in the

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garden. Peter said that he might work in the

Peter: "I may work in the garden."

garden. Peter said that he would work in the

Peter: "I would work in the garden."

garden.

(could, might, should, ought to)

Progressive forms Peter said that he was working in the

Peter: "I'm working in the garden."

garden.

Peter: "I was working in the garden." Peter: "I have been working in the garden."

Peter said that he had been working in the garden.

Peter: "I had been working in the garden." Shifting of expressions of time this (evening) today/this day

that (evening)

that day

these (days) those (days) now

then

(a week) ago (a week) before

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last weekend

the weekend before / the previous weekend

here

there

next (week)

the following (week)

tomorrow

the next/following day

Note: In some cases the backshift of tenses is not necessary, e.g. when statements are still true: John: "My brother is at Leipzig university." John said that his brother was at Leipzig university. or John said that his brother is at Leipzig university. or Mandy: "The sun rises in the East." Mandy said that the sun rose in the East. or Mandy said that the sun rises in the East.

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A. Complete the sentences using Reported speech. Change the tense, although it is sometimes not necessary.

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1) Emily: "Our teacher will go to Leipzig tomorrow." Emily said that ……………………………………………………………… 2) Helen: "I was writing a letter yesterday." Helen told me that ……………………………………………………………….. 3) Robert: "My father flew to Dallas last year." Robert told me that ……………………………………………………………………... 4) Lisa: "Tim went to the stadium an hour ago." Lisa said that …………………………………………………………………………………... 5) Patricia: "My mother will celebrate her birthday next weekend." Patricia said that ………………………………………………………………………………... 6) Michael: "I am going to read a book this week." Michael said to me that …………………………………………………………………………... 7) Jason and Victoria: "We will do our best in the exams tomorrow." Jason and Victoria told me that ……………………………………………………………………... 8) Andrew: "We didn't eat fish two days ago." Andrew remarked that ……………………………………………………………………………. 9) Alice: "I spent all my pocket money on Monday." Alice complained that …………………………………………………………………………. 10) David: "John had already gone at six."

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David said that ………………………………………………………………………………………..

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The apple of your eye ‫ ﻧﻮر ﭼﺸﻤﯽ‬:‫ﻣﻌﺎدل ﻓﺎرﺳﯽ‬

-You are the apple of my eye. That's why I'll always be with you.

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☺ Two boys were arguing when the teacher entered the room. The teacher says, "Why are you arguing?" One boy answers, "We found a ten dollar bill and decided to give it to whoever tells the biggest lie." "You should be ashamed of yourselves," said the teacher, "When I was your age I didn't even know what a lie was." gave the ten dollars to the teacher.

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•

authority (n)

•

experiment (v)

•

fascinated (adj)

•

identical (adj)

•

melt (v)

•

monument (n)

•

mystery (n)

•

succeed (v)

•

tray (v)

• unique (adj) 142

Lesson Fifteen

If you want to live and thrive, let the spider run alive.

~American Quaker Saying

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SPIDERS

Spiders are not insects as many people believe. They belong to a class of animals called arachnids. Spiders have eight eyes, four pairs of segmented legs, and can grow a new leg if they lose one. They do not have antenna or wings. A spider’s body can be divided into two sections. The sections are the abdomen and the cephalothoraxes. The legs, eyes, and mouthparts are in the cephalothorax section. Most spiders have poison glands in their jaws, which they use to inject poison into insects. This poison is called venom. Venom can paralyze an insect allowing the spider to eat the insect as food. Spiders can live almost anywhere in the world. Some like very wet or hot temperatures and some like places that are very dry. Some spiders prefer to live under ground and others live in trees. We have all seen spiders that prefer to live in our houses. These interesting animals usually have six fingerlike silk glands located under their abdomen. The silk comes from inside the spider’s body as a liquid that is thicker than water. A spider uses this silk to make a web by squeezing the silk out of two small holes at the back of its body. At the time the silk hits the air, the silk dries into a line that looks like a long string of hair. Spiders use this silk and they hang onto this line when the wind blows. The spider can crawl up or down on the line if the wind takes it somewhere it doesn’t want to be. Young spiders and adult male spiders like ballooning and can produce long silken lines that float or ride in the wind to new areas. Scientists know about 30,000 different types of spiders. Most of them are very tiny animals that help us by eating insects. The next time you are out in 144

the yard and see a spider, take a few minutes to watch this most interesting animal.

******* Understanding the Main Ideas ● Decide which idea is true (T) and which idea is False (F).

1. Spiders' poison glands are in its eyes. … 2. Spiders prefer to live on trees. … 3. Some spiders have antenna and wings. … 4. Spiders help us by eating insects. … 5. Spiders can live almost anywhere in the world.

Understanding New Words Choose the best synonym or definition for each of the italic words or expression. 1. Spiders have eight eyes, four pairs of segmented legs. a. marked b. divided c. long d. injected

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2. Venom can paralyze an insect allowing the spider to eat the insect as food. a. strengthen b. disable c. enable d. break

3. We have all seen spiders that prefer to live in our houses. a. like better b. donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t like c. come to d. have to

4. A spider uses silk to make a web by squeezing the silk out of two small holes. a. drinking b. pressing c. shaking d. making

5. Most of them are very tiny animals that help us by eating insects. a. big b. small c. fast d. slow

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Discussion â&#x2014;? Discuss the following questions with your partner. 1. What is the advantage of spiders? 2. How do spiders hunt other insects? 3. What is the most interesting fact about spiders?

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Commas The comma is one of the most important punctuation marks in English, but it is often used wrongly. There are two most common uses of the comma: the conjoining use, and the listing use.

The listing use When you write a sentence containing a list of items, you will need to use a comma to separate the items. For example: He brought coffee, sandwiches, cheese and soda. This sentence contains a list of four items. There are commas after coffee and sandwiches, to separate the items. After cheese, the word and is used instead. You can also include a comma BEFORE and if you like: He brought coffee, sandwiches, cheese, and soda. 147

This comma is optional. However, you MUST include the word and. The items in our example are all nouns, but almost anything can form a list in this way. Here are some more examples:

Type of list

Example sentence

item Noun

He brought coffee, sandwiches, cheese and soda.

Verb

She caught, cleaned, cooked and served the fish.

Adjective

The weather today is cool, dry and windy.

Verb phrase

I closed the door, started the car, pulled out of the

Clause

Mayuki made the sushi, Yung-Hee cooked the meat,

driveway, and switched on the radio.

and Izabella chopped the vegetables.

The conjoining use

When you join two clauses together with “and”, “but”, “so”, and “or”, a comma is usually placed before the conjunction: It was raining, so I took my umbrella. Here are examples using the most important coordinating conjunctions: 148

Conjunction

Example

and

He lives in Italy, and he studies in Rome.

but

John is Canadian, but Sally is English.

I could cook some supper, or we could order a pizza.

She was sick, so she went to the doctor.

Changing the order of clauses With the sentences start with “because”, “as”, “since”, “while”, and “though”, a comma can be used to join the two clauses together. Here are some examples:

Conjunction

because

since

Normal order

Reversed order

He doesn't need a car,

Because he lives

because he lives

downtown, he doesn't

downtown.

need a car.

She went to the art

Since the museum was

gallery, since the

closed, she went to the art

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while

museum was closed.

gallery.

Gerry is married, while

While Cam is single,

Cam is single.

Gerry is married.

A. Choose the WRONG sentence among each group. 1. a. Mary has a car, a motorbike and a bicycle. b. Mary has a car, a motorbike, a bicycle. c. Mary has a car, a motorbike and a bicycle. 2. a. I like plants, I want a large garden. b. Because I like plants, I want a large garden. c. I want a large garden, because I like plants. 3. a. I switched on computer, started up Netscape, and went to my favorite Web site. b. I switched on computer, started up Netscape and went to my favorite Web site. c. I switched on computer started up Netscape, and went to my favorite

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Web site. 4. a. I cancelled the class because, only three students came. b. Because only three students came, I cancelled the class. c. I cancelled the class, because only three students came. 5. a. We must have more money, time, workers and equipment to complete the project. b. We must have more money time, workers and equipment to complete the project c. We must have more money, time, workers, and equipment to complete the project. B. Add commas to each sentence 1. It was wet cold and dark in the cave. 2. Because she comes from Singapore she understands English very well. 3. Jamie broke his leg in the crash but Sue wasn't hurt. 4. She ordered a meal ate it and paid for it with her credit card. 5. Because I was so hungry I ate a hamburger some fries and two donuts.

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Letting the cat out of the bag ‫ ﻟﻮ دادن‬،‫ ﻓﺎش ﮐﺮدن‬:‫ﻣﻌﺎدل ﻓﺎرﺳﯽ‬

We were going to keep our plans to get married a family secret, but my mother let the cat out of the bag.

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☺ Father: What did you do today to help your mother? Son: I dried the dishes Daughter: And I helped pick up the pieces.

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•

abdomen (n)

•

adult (n)

•

arachnid (n)

•

cephalothoraxes (n)

•

float (v)

•

gland (n)

•

inject (v)

•

locate (v)

•

paralyze (v)

•

segmented (adj)

•

squeeze (v)

•

tiny (adj)

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