Meg Gunn - Cultural, Societal and Technological Impacts of Women's Fashion 1900-1950 by inspiredaub

Cultural, Societal and Technological Impacts of Womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Fashion 1900-1950 Meg Gunn

Contents Introduction……………………………………………………….………………...p.1-3 1900-09 Overview……………………………………………….……………………………….p.4 Suffragettes………………………………………………………..………………..p.5-12 Rise of the Middle Class…………………………………………..….…………..p.13-19 1910-19 Overview……………………………………………….………………………………p.20 ‘Orientalism’……………………………………………….…………...…………..p.20-25 Suffragettes reach their goal………………….………………………….………p.26-36 WWI……………………………………………….………………………………..p.36-44 1920-29 Overview….……………………………………………….……………………….p.45-46 Liberation of Women……………………………………………….……………..p.46-53 ‘Tutmania’……………………………………………….………………………….p.53-59 Evolution of the Technological Fashion Industry………………………………p.59-69 1930-39 Overview…………….……………………………………………….……………..p.69-70 Hollywood Wardrobe…….…………………………….…………………………..p.70-75 Great Economic Depression………………………………………………………p.75-91 1940-49 Overview……………………………………………….……………………………p.91-92 ‘Make Do and Mend’………………………………………………..….…………p.92-104 Utility Clothing.……………………………………………….…………………..p.104-111 ‘The New Look’…………………………………….………….…………………p.111-119 Conclusion……………………………………………….……………………..p.120-121 Appendix Reference List……………………………………………….……………………p.123-125 Bibliography……………………………………………….………………………p.126-131 Figure List……………………………………………….…………………………p.132-145

Introduction The scale of evolution within culture, society and technology in the first half of the twentieth century can be described as unprecedented due to the pace at which each of these effects changed. Visually, this can be seen represented in fashion, with women in particular having “[…] clothes present[ing] a bewildering variety in each decade.” (Cunnington and Mansfield, 1973, p.13). Each decade can be definitively segregated via fashion through analysing silhouette (and therefore undergarments to form the desired silhouette), fabric, cut, shape, embellishment, fastenings and colour. Culture, society and technology all possess an exceptional impact on each of these factors, ultimately contributing to what women had in their wardrobes. This could be something directly related to fashion itself, such as the development of man-made fibres, or something entirely unrelated, such as the archaeological discovery of King Tutankhamun in 1922. Liberating rights for women was arguably the most fast-paced within these fifty years, contributing to the scale of fluctuation of what was on a woman’s body. Women were given a voice, and this was not going to be let go of. Utilising their ‘voice’ was reflected in one’s wardrobe, expressing themselves and the mood of each decade via fashion. The body itself saw many a physical change within this period; morphing into the silhouette that society dictated each decade. It can be analysed that though women were now in the very early stages of challenging the patriarchal society, they still allowed society to dictate their wardrobes. It is important to define culture, society and technology, especially as a means to dictate fashion:

Culture can be defined as a person’s beliefs, attitudes and ideas. It essentially distinguishes each person from the next. (Study.com, n.d.) In terms of culture within fashion, fashion allows the physical and visual expression of one’s self. Culture can majorly be seen influencing the wardrobe through the rise of women’s rights throughout the first half of the twentieth century. Society can be defined as a characterised group of people who share a culture; the same beliefs, attitudes and ideas. (ibid.) Society can command fashion by declaring what is ‘fashionable’ and what is not; effectively dictating what cultures are wished to be seen, those that are not. People following this are known as conformers to society, however, ‘non-conformers’ within this period, such as designers like Poiret, Schiaparelli, Chanel and Dior, pioneered trends in fashion that are then followed by conformers. The scale of ‘non-conformers’ within this period contribute to the scale of fluctuation in fashion. Technology can be defined as the application of scientific or creative knowledge to practical purposes to extend human capabilities through machinery, advancing techniques and processes (Subhani, 2019). In terms of fashion, technology had major impacted on the fashion industry itself through advances in fabric, textiles and machinery. Impact also took heed indirectly, via advances in communication, media and transportation. Though not inherently connected, each of these factors had a severe impact in terms of communicating cultures, as well as physical impact on clothes themselves, for example, the growth of the automobile saw a rise in skirt hems so women could drive with ease. Throughout each decade culture, society and technology all impacted fashion in its own unique way. Each factor oversaw unparalleled change and evolution in the first

half of the twentieth century, which was directly reflected into women’s fashion. This therefore gives a reasonable argument as to why women’s fashion changed so dramatically in this period, with each decade having its own clear, defined ‘style’. This text will analyse major cultural, societal and technological events from each period and how each of them impacted fashion. There will be a particular focus throughout on the rise of women’s liberation throughout these five decades, and how this was then replicated through their clothes. Primary research of garments from this period will aid the research and analytical process by providing first hand evidence of the impacts created by society, culture and/or technology. Secondary research will develop an understanding for each of these periods and events as a whole, in addition to connecting with findings from primary references.

1900-1909 The dawn of a new century meant the dawn of a new age for culture, society and technology. Electricity was now part of the average home, the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) garnered more attention than ever and the death of the United Kingdom’s longest reigning monarch (up until then) meant a new age of royalty was on the throne. For centuries royalty had used fashion as a means to show power and superiority. Fashion periodicals were spreading the word on the latest fashions in addition to posters becoming the new form of advertisement. This in particular allowed the “[…] exclusivity of the Salon and the art establishment” (English, 2007, p.11) to be brought to those not able to attend due to societal standings. This coincided well with the sufficient rise of the middle class with mass manufacture providing for a new clientele. Technological developments within mass manufacture corresponded well with the rise of department stores. This new easy accessibility of the latest fashions led to the breakdown of social barriers which also led to the rise of the middle class (ibid., p.13). There was now a flavour for mass consumption of fashion due to its new found easy access. The S bend silhouette could now be advertised in posters and distributed in department stores. Technological advancements included that of new synthetic dyes which had properties resistant to washing (Sposito, 2016, p.151). There was an increased rise of the women’s suit which seemed appropriate concerning the serious message of the Women’s Social and Political Union. However, this still fell under the social guidelines of women’s fashion which extremely restricted the figure into the S silhouette. Towards the end of the decade there was a slight loosening of these restrictions, pioneered by designer Poiret and his abandoning of the corset altogether.

Suffragettes In order for their cause to be taken seriously, the Suffragettes dressed traditionally and conventionally, not challenging societal norms of fashion. This would arguably distract too much from the ultimate goal of obtaining the right to vote. In order to gain physically liberating fashion and for their voices to be heard, fashion ‘rules’ had to be followed. The Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU), led by prolific leader Emmeline Pankhurst, was pivotal in terms of obtaining rights for women. They became “aggressively militant” (Smith, 2017) in their fight which attracted both negative and positive attention. Either way, attention was gathered, and with this they wished to look ‘good’ doing so. Looking ‘good’ however, also meant being restricted physically. Conforming to fashion, particularly silhouette, consisted of a tightly cinched corset creating the desired ‘S-shape’ curve of the torso. More specifically this entailed a pointed ‘pigeon’ chest, a tiny cinched waist and the hips and pelvis being thrust back creating a “[…] strongly defined curve of the back” (Vigarello, 2016, p.107). The desired S-shape was then exaggerated via close fitting dress, bodices and skirts (ibid., p.107). Bodices could fit tightly to the body through darts and boning. The boning specifically contributed to defining the ‘pigeon’ chest as it strengthened the line from waist to bust.

Figures 1, 2 and 3: c.1900 bodice with a lace front opening alteration dated later (due to the synthetic fibre content of the fabric). The bodice opens at centre front (CF) and features hook and eye fastenings. There are small pin tucks along the collar and top of the front panels. A lace trim runs round the entirety of the bodice at low neckline level, with the same trim at the cuffs. There are a total of seven bones on the interior of the bodice, all sitting on a dart or seam. Some of the seam allowances are graded at certain point to help with the curvature of the darts. The bones are encased in a black cotton and are hand stitched on with flossing either end as a decorative touch. The sleeves are leg-of-mutton in shape and cuffed at the end. What is interesting about this bodice in particular is what can be found at the armpits: Figure 4: Blood can be found in the underarm area. This highlights the discomfort some women would go through when it came to their undergarments and conforming to the silhouette dictated by society. To create the desirable s-bend of the Edwardian period extreme body changing corsets were worn but this didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t come without its discomforts. This truly displays why the Suffragette movement was so pivotal in terms of allowing women to not be subjected to such restrictive clothing and build the path to physically liberating fashion.

Image was everything to the WSPU and they wished to […] avoid accusations of eccentricity or spinsterish masculinity. They recognised their best chance of winning the vote was to align themselves […] with Edwardian ideals of femininity, even if they were engaging in defiantly unladylike activities under the radar.” Blackman, 2018 Here, Blackman aptly recognises the way in which Suffragettes approached their wardrobes. It had to be a fine balance of smart, feminine and professional. “Dress is a powerful form of communication.” (ibid.) and the suffragettes utilised this for their message to be taken seriously, even if this still meant forcing their torsos into corsets. Politics and dress reform sometimes go hand in hand, but the Suffragettes made a point of retaining a conventional appearance in order not to damage their cause. Ribeiro and Blackman, 2015, p.200 Maintaining appearances was not exclusive to women within the suffragette movement, pregnant women also took heed:

Figures 5 and 6: Pair of ladies corsets c.1900. There is a possibility this a maternity corset due to the side lacing and breast gussets fastened with press studs. The side lacing allows for the corset to morph to the pregnant woman’s body and the gussets allow for feeding/adaptability for the enlarged breasts of a pregnant woman.

Figure 7: Detail of the press studs show diamond type shapes engraved to and the red trim along the top add a touch of femininity to the corset. The corset shape with this period can be further investigated in terms of the physical shape it created at the torso. For Edwardian modes the new straight-fronted corset was essential, supplying that ‘solidity of figure’ which was so admired. ‘It is the feature of these stays that while they flatten the figure below they lend fullness to the chest thereby immensely improving the charm of the silhouette. A good waistline is after all very much a matter of one’s corset Willet and Cunnington, 1992, p.211 The straight-fronted corset was essential in terms of creating and defining the S-shape silhouette. It straightened the torso while effectively pushing the rest of the body back.

While corsets were effective in creating the societal norms of the female silhouette, women began to adopt their own version of the more masculine style suit. This application of masculinity within the wardrobe resulted in some form of recognition from the patriarchal society; they now shared slight properties within fashion.

Figure 8: c.1900 womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s suit made from cotton. Shape wise, the waist is accentuated through curved panels and a pointed cropped hem of the bodice. These tailored lines provided great foundations for the suit to become an established part of the womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wardrobe.

Figure 9: c.1905 women’s suit made of silk, wool and cotton. From the fashion house Raudnitz and Co. This suit would have been appropriate for day wear and coined the term ‘walking costume’. This suit is more feminine due to its trimming embellishment and embroidered lapels.

Figure 10: c.1908 Golf costume by designer Frederick Bosworth. The wool tweed jacket is based on a menâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Norfolk jacket with a matching skirt. Designers were now bearing in mind the popularity of sport among women. The suit included a matching belt which exaggerates the extremely cinched waist. The cuffs and panel in the lapel match in a contrasting leather.

Figure 11: c.1905 jacket part of ‘tailor-made’, appropriate fashion for travelling or the country. This jacket in particular possesses many traditional men’s tailoring techniques which for female fashion originated in the 1890s riding-habits. Instead of being for sports purposes, this jacket was exclusively made for fashion with decorative black piping and a soft dark green wool. The black piping down the front panels exaggerates the feminine figure through its curved path. There are five black fabric covered buttons to match the black piping. – Taken at the Bath Fashion Museum Conclusively, the fluctuation of masculinity and femininity within walking costumes and tailor-mades can be interpreted as women beginning to challenge gender boundaries within society. The combination of masculine tailoring techniques and feminine shape and silhouette resulted in the suffragettes claiming a look that was serious enough to convey the importance of their message, yet not too radical to be renounced by patriarchal society altogether.

Rise of the Middle Class The rise of the middle class derived from the success of large corporations during the industrial revolution in the previous century. This new rising class within society needed outlets to spend this new found wealth. Consequently, the increase in prolific fashion advertisement resulted in tailored fashion no longer being exclusive to the upper class. By promoting to a wider clientele, fashion designers and department stores increased the variety of avenues to share their designs with society. This included posters and magazine advertisements which was accessible to an even wider clientele. […] the emergence of the poster as an art form by 1900 led to a cultural shift in the visual arts […] In a similar way to haute couture fashion, this struck a fatal blow to exclusivity of the Salon and the art establishment” English, 2007, p.11 Fashion becoming more wide-spread resulted in a more fashion-conscious society. The economic boost the middle class provided to the fashion industry […] improved production systems, mass manufacture, indenture advertising and marketing techniques – including visual display and merchandising. Ibid., p.12 It can therefore be determined the rise of the middle class resulted fashion technology to be improved significantly. In terms of subjects within the advertisements, designers tended to rely on “[…] society and royal women to create an aura of high society and prestige” (Tortora, 2015, p.194) to associate their brand with affluence and prosperity.

Figure 12: G-D Justrite Corset advert in fashion magazine. The woman shown is the epitome of Edwardian fashion showing an S-bend silhouette and adopting a traditional hairstyle.

Figure 13: Shaw & Co. advertisement in fashion magazine. It includes details on the variety of colours as well as pricing

details. The illustration provides visual information of the garment available for sale.

Figure 14: c.1907 ‘Tonhalle Zurich Masked Ball.’ The design of the poster is in the Art Nouveau style. The dress itself is arguably ahead of its time, showing a lot of skin around the shoulders. Another result of an economy boost within the fashion industry resulted in the popularisation of ready to wear garments. These were stocked in department stores which was a prevalent source of the middle class wardrobe. Ready to wear was sometimes met with opposition due to its removal of exclusivity however, the rise of physical advertisements meant fashion had to fulfil those needs of a wider audience. At this moment in time it did not have the recourses or technology to bodily tailor to the entirety of the upper and middle classes. However, ready to wear was viewed with some prejudice; […] early mass-produced goods, especially ready-made clothing, were viewed with suspicion and were purchased out of 15

necessity rather than choice. For the working class, clothing had nothing whatsoever to do with ‘dress’ or signalling one’s position in life, but purely served functional purpose. English, 2007, p.12 English analyses that perhaps those more wealthy within the middle class would limit access to ready to wear as much as possible as tailored garments would effectively show of their social status and wealth. Those perhaps in the lower middle class would have to rely on ready to wear to be able to adhere the expanse of the middle class wardrobe but at a slightly lower cost.

Figure 15: c.1900 cream coutil corset with straight front basque, lace trimming and blue ribbon decoration. There sixteen bones in total with a basque front and corset lacing back. There are two gussets at the bust for each breast – taken at Hampshire Wardrobe.

Figure 16: ‘Grande Magasins de Louvre – PARIS’. This is an embroidered label found on the cotton tape tracing the waistline in the interior of the corset. Grande Magasins de Louvre was a major department store in the centre of Paris and supplied to the upper and middle classes.

Figure 17: A further inscription is found along the eyelet bone channels reading ‘Garanti véritable Baleine newve’ which roughly translates to ‘Guaranteed genuine new whalebone’. Whalebone was frequently used as boning due to its rigidity yet slight flexibility. It was important department stores still supplied the very best materials. It is important to acknowledge that lack of technology meant that whalebones were often susceptible to rusting when moisture was applied. Due to the corset being so tight on the form, the body tended to sweat causing significant rusting to the bones, which in some cases could spread to the top fabric.

Figure 18: c.1900 corset made of white/cream coutil with detachable elastic suspenders and light blue flossing and the ends of bone channels. There is a straight front basque and eyelets at CB, where they are closer together in the waist area to cinch the waist further. It is important to acknowledge the rusting has only occurred on four of the bones; bones that are wider than the rest and potentially have more of a metallic composition therefore causing more rusting.

Figure 19: The bone channels either side of the rusting bones are thinner but placed in a group of three for added support. Wider, more metallic (therefore more rigid) bones are needed either side of the back to aid in creating the S-curve shape and support the movement of thrusting the hips backwards.

Figure 20: In this case the rusting has travelled through to the top fabric. Technological advancements concerning boning in the next decade prohibited this happening and arguably contributed to the continued use of the corset. It was until after WWI they were abandoned completely. In conclusion, it can be argued that this decade was the pivotal catalyst in terms of setting off the era of technology. Though culture and society did have a significant impact on fashion in this decade, it was technology that caused profound advancements that truly represented the dawn of a new century. The rise of department stores was a result of the technological advancements during the industrial revolution. The industrial revolution also gave rise to the middle class; a serious social impact on fashion now appealing to a far wider clientele. Henceforth, the rise of the middle class was significant in producing educated women who began to challenge patriarchal society. The WPSU was tactical by using a formal image to represent there seriousness of their message. This was taken to the next level in the 1910s as the a slight masculine silhouette began to be incorporated also. The 1900 was the stepping

stone women needed to gain more social and political consciousness and primarily began to show this in their wardrobes. 1910-19 This decade opened its doors to the international world which saw many replications through fashion. The physical amount of international culture seen within fashion was more unprecedented than any other decade within this period, with pivotal designer Poiret pioneering the operation. After over 50 years in the battle for equality, the suffrage movement reached its ultimate goal of obtaining the vote for women in 1918. This marked a key moment in history for women and this was reflectively celebrated through their wardrobes. Arguably the most dramatic impact in terms of culture, society and technology during this decade was World War I, then known as ‘The Great War’. All materials became restricted, having a severe impact on women’s fashion. As men headed to war women were required to fulfil men’s usual work which required practical clothing. Never before had women been seen in clothes such as these however, this change was crucial in terms of pathing the way to a liberated, non-corseted silhouette. ‘Orientalism’ Seeing an abandonment of the whalebone corset by the end of 1910 was arguably a result in looking to international cultures, especially Far Eastern, for influencing silhouette, cut, shape, fabric and embellishment within fashion. Defining the origins of ‘orientalism’ finding its way into Western culture is seen “[…] in Paris after the debut of the Ballets Russes in 1909.” (Koga, 2015, in Fukai, 2015, p.308). Director of the production; Serge Pavlovich Diaghilev, was able to utilise

[…] bejewelled colours, swirling Art Nouveau elements and sense of the erotic re-envisioned dance productions as total works of art. (V&A Museum, 2010) The cultural impact this had on the fashion world could not have been predicted and inspired many designers to employ ‘exoticism’ and specifically ‘orientalism’ within their work. Paul Poiret saw fashion as a form of art and allowed many different factors to influence this; international cultures being of the foremost importance. He commends himself with liberating “[…] women from the need to wear corsets.” (Parkins, 2012, p.47) and as a result, changed the silhouette dramatically. From the S-bend shape favoured in the previous decade, Poiret looked to much less fitted fabrics and used the fabric itself to create shapes on the body rather than emphasising the body shape itself. Cole and Deihl analyse “The decade’s taste for orientalism encompassed a wide range of influences including […] Far Eastern. […] Draped shawls, brocaded fabrics, beads and fringes all contributed to a world exotic fantasy.” 2015, p.107 ‘Orientalism’ had direct impact on silhouette, cut, shape, fabric and embellishment, to name but a few. A clear example of this impact on Western fashion is this 1912 evening dress at the Kimono: Kyoto to Catwalk exhibition at the Victoria and Albert Museum.

Figures 21 and 22: c.1912 Evening dress designed by Lady Lucy Duff Gordon; a prolific designer of this period who survived the Titanic sinking wearing a mauve silk kimono and squirrel fur coat. The dress itself resembles that of the kimono through its wide, high waisted sash to create an empire waistline and the crossover front at the neckline. The cylindrical shape also bears a similar resemblance to that of the kimono; creating a dominating silhouette seen continued throughout the decade. It shows the transition towards the raised waist of the Empire line promoted by Poiret, combined with the rich colours and layers of the tunic style, with a sash and tassel suggesting an opulence inspired by ideas of oriental dress. Davies-Strodder, Lister and Taylor, 2015, p.75

Here, specific dress characteristics are analysed in more detail with a focus on the blend of the Parisian haute couture culture and the tradtional Japanese culture. This argaubly paved the way for extreme changes in the female wardrobe as the introduction of a whole other culture into fashion would inevitably lead to change. It should be stressed, Poiret was a leading designer in Parisian haute couture, the epitome of fashion for the western woman that built the foundations of their wardrobes. Bringing these ‘exotic costumes’ into the light transformed them to symbols of high status; symbols there were to be replicated throughout society and the fashion world.

Figure 23: c.1913 Paul Poiret mantle; Here Poiret’s desperate diassociation with the corseted body and his love affair with the natural drape of fabric can be seen. He relied on the fabric itself creating the silhouette, instead of relying on the curves and undulations created by constrictive corsets. This mantle in particular is “constructed from two rectangular panels, each forming one half, which hang from the shoulders and join at the side.” (V&A Musuem, 2020a) The crossover neckline on the mantle also bears resemblence of that of a Japanese kimono [see figure 24].

Figure 24: An informal yet, highly sophisticated kimono from Japan c.1925-35 made from figured crêpe silk and the pattern on the fabric created by stencil dyeing of warp threads. Western and Eastern kimonos were distinguished in the way they were worn; in Western culture the right side was worn on top whereas in Eastern culture, the left side was worn on top. This allowed identification of those kimonos made for export, and those original to the East, specifically Japan. Socialites were key in this period for spreading these new concepts within fashion, in this period ‘exoticism’ and ‘orientalism’ being the new and exciting. This could sometimes mean slightly altering the original garment to suit a westernised outlook/fashion normalities. As mentioned previously this could consist of putting the right over left when it came to the cross-over neckline.

Figure 25: c.1905-15 ‘Kimono for export’; this kimono would have been designed and made especially for wealthy American socialite Emily Grigsby. She was known for her tastes in European fashion, adopting the favoured silhouette of Poiret. This kimono in particular differs itself from any other through its large scale embroidery and peach satin ground. The absence on a crossover neckline/opening down the front is also quite unusual. (V&A Museum, 2020b) By introducing new worlds and ‘foreign lands’ into women’s wardrobes, this laid the foundations of new worlds of fashion itself and the exploration of new silhouette, cut, shape, fabric and embellishment. Though needing the support of prolific designer Poiret; society soon acceptant of this style. Poiret’s move to disassociate himself completely with the styles seen in the previous decade can be described as risky however, simultaneously pioneering. He contributed to the increasing mood of change within this period, especially for women, and therefore this arguably attributed to his popularity. Women were fighting for change, in culture, society and it was now being offered in their wardrobes. 25

Suffragettes reach their goal This decade oversaw the pivotal moment in female history where the woman finally obtained the right to vote. After many years of fighting physically, mentally and even through their own wardrobes, women were finally given the opportunity to be represented within democracy in 1918. Furthermore, the first woman MP, Lady Astor, was elected in 1919, symbolising a definitive turning point against patriarchal society. As this took place in the latter part of the decade, the eight years of fighting the cause can be analysed, though their fight did become diminished with the presence of World War I (1914-18). A sense of unification was abundant in this period as the taste for fair representation was in the air. This was represented in fashion via smart professional tailor-mades. Though these were seen in the previous decade, this garment now epitomised professionalism as well as superiority within society. This was significant as the suit had been traditionally associated to being a male garment and it was now being accepted as part of the female wardrobe. Having patriarchal associations is arguably the reason tailor-mades were adopted by women in the first place; if men could be taken seriously in a suit, the same thing could be replicated for women. However, it should be acknowledged these suits still somewhat conformed to societyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s dictations of the old-fashioned female wardrobe.

Figures 26 and 27: c.1910 walking costume owned by London socialite Heather Firbank. The suit itself is made from navy wool serge and beige striped blanket wool and from London department store â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Woolland Brothersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. The embellishment, details and tailoring within this suit are of the highest quality which attribute to its exemplary condition presently. The asymmetric centre front opening is fastened with four silk fabric covered toggle buttons. The button holes are hand stitched in a navy thread. There are six further smaller silk fabric covered toggle buttons at the cuff which is finished off with a decorative triangular opening of the contrasting striped fabric. There are a total of eight panels making up the main body of the jacket; shaping itself somewhat to the female form. The lapels of the jacket are of the contrasting blanket wool with the stripes accentuating the direction of the lapels. The lapels at the back form a large triangle lengthening down 1/3 of the jacket. The jacket in fully lined with silk. The skirt matches the asymmetric feature of the jacket with a diagonal line from the waistline to the

hem. In the top 2/3rds of this line, it is traced with fourteen silk fabric covered toggle buttons. At the bottom third a triangular slit is filled in, from the hem up, with the beige striped blanket wool creating a chevron effect filled into the slit.

Figure 28: Sleeve detail exaggerated the quality of craftsmanship within this suit jacket. This was made for renowned London socialite Heather Firbank; a young lady in this period known for her keen interest in fashion.

Figure 29: Label and lapel detail of the jacket. The only imperfection of the entire suit can be found on the lapel a small hope on the RHS. The label will read â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Woolland Brothers Londonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;.

Figure 30: A wide waistband is found in the inner waistline of the skirt with three hook and eye fastenings at the back. These fastenings are for the waistband alone with skirt a separate fastening. The waistband has a total of four small, fabric-covered bones to add rigidity to the waistband. The seam allowances, including the pocket facings, have a bias bound edge which is machine stitched in place.

Figure 31: Full walking costume on mannequin with historically accurate shirt on underneath. The overall silhouette is effectively seen here with a slightly nipped in waist but from the hips down a straight line is established all the way down to the hem.

This suit is an accurate representation of walking costume at the beginning of this decade, as it still wished to hold onto a structured silhouette and for this to be defined with tailored suits. During my experience at Clothworkers I was told this walking costume would have been worn with a corset. This serves as evidence to support the theory that women were still reluctant to let go of the rigid underpinnings that had supported the silhouette in the previous decade. Having physical bones in the skirt waistband itself solidify this theory, as this would have cinched the waist in further as well as adding structure.

Figure 32: â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;c. Around 1910â&#x20AC;&#x2122; Walking suit made from wool. The suit is made up of an elongated jacket and ankle-length skirt; there is a contrasting, embroidered panel at the back of the lapel. The suit jacket is shaped to the figure through tailored panels to exaggerate the waist. Photo taken at the V&A Museum.

Here, another example is shown of the suit forming to the figure, particularly at the waistline. Here, this is achieved through the tailored curves of the panels in the jacket to shape to the figure, most likely created through a corset.

Figure 33: c.1912 ivory corset made from herringboned coutil fabric, consisting of ten panels. The long line basque just about reaches the bust line and reaches down to hug the lower part of the hips. There are a total of 26 bones within the corset in addition to two gussets for the breasts. â&#x20AC;&#x153;There is a waist tape of India cotton sewn into the waist, possibly to define the waist but to also add strength.â&#x20AC;? (AUB Archive, 2020) It is important to investigate the corsets from this period as it can then be established how the silhouette was created. This corset dating from 1912 is a prime example of straight-fronted, long-lined basque corsets typical of this time. The basque and bones transformed the body by exaggerating the waist through tailored panels and smoothing a convex curve on the waist to a smooth concave curve on the hips. The corset travelling lower on the body meant the focus of transformation on the silhouette was now centred around the waist and hips; not the s-shape silhouette, as seen in the

previous decade. The bust was now to just be supported and uplifted, but the waist still cinched, especially in this example with addition of the waist tape. 1912 in particular was a significant year in terms of progressive corset technology; Though whalebone was still in use, an improved method of rustproof boning was introduced; in 1912 clock-spring steel covered with hard rubber or celluloid was adopted and ‘the whalebone industry never recovered from the blow.’ Cunnington and Willet, 1992, p.227

Figure 34: c.1912 white coutil corset with attached elastic suspenders, adjustable straps and decorative white flossing – Taken at Hampshire Wardrobe.

Figure 35: Along the bone channels a label is printed reading ‘ELLGEECEE CORSET; Rustless Steels. This is an example of

the move away from whalebones to this new technology of rustless steels. This new technology was arguably the reason corsets were still in abundance at the beginning of the decade, where women wished to take advantage of this new technology and therefore have their corsets last much longer. Corsets decline was disputably due to the need of technology and natural resources to be focussed on the war effort in World War I (1914-18). The progressive and ever-changing silhouette must be acknowledged, as towards the end of the decade, while womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s suits still peaked in popularity, the silhouette, especially around the waist area, had changed significantly.

This was arguably

influenced by designer Paul Poiret, with his passion of fabric itself creating a silhouette and unmistakably, the roles women had taken on during World War I. Towards the end of the decade the silhouette centred around a lean, tall and straightened figure and this was then replicated into the womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s suit, which was in turn prolifically used by the suffragette movement.

Figure 36: c.1919 natural raw silk suit with a straight skirt and straight, unstructured jacket. There are two patch pockets on each side of the jacket, a reverse collar and no fastenings. Suit from the Blandford Fashion Museum. This suit is a great example of displaying the transformation of the figure from the beginning to the end of the decade. There is little to no structure in the jacket and skirt in addition to no curved seam lines or darts shaping the suits to the body. The addition of zero fastenings on the jacket exaggerate the straightened, non-interrupted silhouette as this usually would add form. The use of natural raw silk also suggests the influence of international cultures as this type of fabric would be usually worn in hotter climates due its breathability. It is important to highlight the end of this period saw the culmination of the suffragette movement; this being women obtaining the right to vote in 1918.

Figure 37: The culmination of the suffragette movement was when a woman was able to vote for the first time, taking the first step into equal representation within democracy. She is wearing a tailor-made suit looking professional and proud to be casting her vote. It is important to note this suit is loose fitting to her figure; coinciding with the desired silhouette at this end of the decade.

Figure 38: In the year following the momentous event of women obtaining the vote, Lady Astor was elected as a member of parliament. This truly signified a point in history where the patriarchy within government was beginning to be broken down. The implications this had for the female wardrobe would prove to be major.

Conclusively, the tailor-mades and walking costumes throughout this period represent a cohesive pattern on the dramatic rise in the liberation of women within politics. Arguably the most dramatic change in these suits in this period was the silhouette, with each year relying less and less on undergarments to create a silhouette. This role was now given to fabric itself; to elongate the body and to not exaggerate any outward/inward forms, for example, the bust, hips and waist. The original reliance on structured underpinnings may stem from a reluctance of change however, all means of society, culture and technology was thrown into flux with the arrival of World War I. Though this war was majorly devasting in so many ways, by the end, it allowed women to be well respected and appreciated within society. Ultimately, it took a major, fouryear long, violent war for women to be finally recognised as politically conscious beings. World War I World War I had a devastating impact generally on all those it touched, bringing hardship and adversity into many corners of the world. However, in terms of the impact it had on womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fashion, this can be described as poignant, liberating and emancipating. The war allowed for women to be physically stripped of any restrictive clothing and adopt fashion under practical needs. Aesthetic was no longer favoured; instead practicality, especially within manual labour, was amplified to increase the rate at which articles were produced, which in turn contributed to the war effort. The return to constricting fashion after the destructive war had ended seemed unlikely, women now had a taste for the comfort of traditional, comfortable, masculine dress, and this was not going to be relinquished easily. (Sposito, 2016, p.166)

The war effort needed to be fought on two offences in order to be successful; the men fighting on the front line, and the people running the war effort back home producing materials, products, machines, technology, artillery etc. this was mostly women. The introduction of women into the workplace was possibly met with hostility due to the traditional view against women partaking in manual labour. However, if the war was to be won, prejudiced views needed to be put aside and the ideal of women in ‘masculine’, practical clothes needed to accepted.

Figure 39: “For the Ministry of Munitions a uniform for female munition workers added to the ‘smartness and neatness, and so to the general appearance of the factory. It also aids discipline’ The sight of large numbers of women wearing practical trousers and overalls was something quite new.” (Imperial War Museum, 2020a) 37

Figure 40: The physical construction of the uniform had to fall under war regulations. There are only three buttons to fasten the CF and the collar is topstitched on; arguably to prolong wear around the neck area. The top of the two patch pockets can be seen here which would have served exclusively for practicality. Tools and materials could be stored here.

Figure 41: There are no darts or curved seams within this garment. This uniform wished to completely disassociate itself with aesthetic and serve solely for the physical labour of contributing to the munitions sector. The lack of fit to the body also meant this uniform could fit many different sized women which could reduce production costs of the uniform. Every penny counted when it came to the war effort. 38

Figure 42: A group of female workers from the Munition factory in Dublin taking their lunch break. Their uniforms have similar resemblances to the one seen if figures 26, 27 and 28. […] in work such as munitions manufacture […] for safety reasons [work] could not be undertaken without the use of practical utilitarian garments. Edwards, 2107, p.118 Having uniforms within the factory allowed a sense of unification for all the women who worked there. It disregarded social and economic backgrounds to be shown through fashion in the workplace which in turn enhanced productivity. Working at the munitions factory was not the only factor these women now has in common, wearing trousers and loose fitted clothing had allowed them to experience physical liberation within fashion. The general look of these uniforms can be considered not quintessentially ‘pretty’ but the ideas they put into women’s head revolutionised the general silhouette. Colour and fabric wise, the very basics were used although, durability needed to be considered. It is also vital to acknowledge there was a “[…] lack of synthetic dyes [as these were] previously exported from Germany” (Cole and Deihl, 2015, p.123). Synthetic dyes had provided many vibrant colours seen in years leading up to the war [see figure 23], coinciding with the Eastern assimilation in the West.

Women fulfilled much of the workforce on the home-front and the amount of variety in jobs was on an unprecedented scale:

Figure 43: This blue overall belonged to women who worked at the War Office. The overalls protected clothes from ink stains. Prior to the war, women had frequented jobs in offices however,

with the loss of the majority of the male workforce, office jobs for women tripled. Figure 44: Another ‘trouser-wearing’ job for women was being a van driver for the Midland Railway. The trousers come with gaiters and these gorgeous black boots with buckles are placed over. The bag is used by the first women tram conductors in Britain who were employed by the Glasgow Tram Company.

Figure 45: This pale khaki hat and overall belonged to those women who were a part of the Women’s Land Army (WLA). These were farm labourers who took over the exhausting and dirty work the male farmers had left for the front line. It is important to note this work in particular was badly paid and the workforce generally consisted of the working class. “WLA organisers advised Land Girls that ‘you should take care to behave like an English girl.’ But many farming communities suspected women of loose morals.” (Imperial War Museum, 2020b)

Figure 46: Khaki hat with the ‘WAAC’ logo and khaki coat was the uniform for the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps, established in May 1917. This unit of women was Britain’s first women soldiers in the army who took over duties such as bakers, cooks, clerks and driving men to the front line. The acceptance of women into the British army was a step in the direction towards equal rights for women. The uniform itself once again serves a generally practical purpose, with no unnecessary or decorative embellishment. There are no lapels on the coat which conserved fabric.

Figure 47: A poster from wartime women to join the war effort by entering the traditional ‘masculine’ workforce; it read ‘TRAMWAYS DEPARTMENT; Good Work AND Good Wages FOR Good Women; Call at 46 BATH ST.; 10 A.M. OR 4 P.M.

Figure 48: Quote from Lord Shelbourne, 1916 residing at the Imperial War Museum which reads; ‘Every woman who helps in agriculture during the war is as truly serving her country as the man who is fighting in the trenches, on the sea, or in the air.’ A male member of parliament recognising women’s contribution to the war effort as equal to the men was very progressive for its time. These five different examples of uniform giving a flavour of the range of jobs women partook in. Similarity wise, they all are very practical in construction, being mindful of wartime shortages, in addition to physically practical for the work place. A woman could not produce work of the highest quality and at speed if her body was being physically restrained by undergarments. The abandonment of this would speed processes up on top of women being able to match up to the male workforce; they were beginning to be viewed as equal. Women having a larger role on the job sector had major impacts on culture, society and even technology. Culture-wise, women were given an opportunity to liberate themselves in several aspects by taking over masculine jobs within the industry. Taking on a ‘masculine job role’ allowed them to gain ‘masculine attention’ and therefore patriarchal society was now willing to listen.

[…] the progression of women into the workforce encouraged the popularity of more practical clothing influenced by men’s tailoring. Two-piece suits composed of a jacket and skirt, worn with a blouse (often known as a shirtwaist) including a stiff collar and sometimes a tie, made up the wardrobe of this new, more independent woman. Even for those who maintained more traditional gender distinctions, a far more varied wardrobe was at last possible, and the wearing of separate skirts and blouses became common for nearly all women regardless of their educational or career ambitions. Edwards, 2017, p.118 Edwards concisely analyses the specific details that had now changed in fashion due to the woman’s role in the war and their new role within society. As a result to this “[…] their participation in the war effort aided the cause of women’s voting rights.” (Cole and Deihl, 2015, p.99). The everchanging political climate around this time was spirited by the radical deviations within the female wardrobe. Never before had such radical change be seen and was overall representative of “[…] a move away from rigid social conventions towards a new simplicity.” (Cole and Deihl, 2015, p.99). The next chapter of the female wardrobe would oversee the refinement of the transformed female silhouette and making ‘masculine’ that bit more ‘feminine’.

1920-1929 Often dubbed with the name ‘the Roaring Twenties’; this decade can be described as kaleidoscope of vibrance, opulence and magnificence. The world was technologically advancing at an incredible rate, having significant influence on culture and society’s beliefs and ideas. Presently, one of the most recognisable features of this period is the fashion. Known for its ‘flapper dresses’ and ‘beaded embroidery’, fashion in this period actually goes a lot further in terms of what it had been influenced by and the shapes and silhouettes of the decade. It must be highlighted that there was a clear continuation of philosophies and ideals concerning female emancipation bought forward from the previous decade. This continuation was signalled particularly through fashion, where the dawn of equal rights within democracy for women was now to be celebrated with huge passion. Radical decisions were made concerning hemlines, silhouette, undergarments and embellishment. Females were finally allowed to express themselves politically and liberate themselves physically. Historically, female expression had been undertaken principally through ones wardrobe, as previously other means of expression, such as diplomatic, had been disregarded by patriarchy. Now diplomatic rights had been acknowledged, women still utilised their wardrobe as a means to communicate the celebration of this epoch-making event. The decade of celebration was also met with technology advances within textiles itself, with the newly evolved synthetic fabric rayon being rolled into enhanced production. Other synthetic fabrics such as lamé provided “glitter and flexibility” (Koga, 2015, in Fukai, 2015, p.364) which fitted in well with the mood of the decade. This also coincided well with the major archaeological discovery of the century. The unearthing of the tomb of King Tutankhamen in 1922 unleashed a international phenomenon, bringing along with it rich culture that influenced art, design and in particular, fashion. The fascination was

labelled as ‘Tut-mania’, with Egyptian themed wardrobes seen from haute couture down to replications in home sew patterns. Being inspired from an Egyptian Pharaoh, the theme represented sumptuousness, opulence and extravagance. This was met well with new fabric discoveries like lamé. Towards the end of the decade there was a slight return of definition within the female figure exaggerated through clothing however, the emphasis was on the natural curves of the woman, not those created falsely by undergarments. Celebration of Liberation The celebrations that ensued post war were those of victory and triumph, but especially for women as their political rights were granted just one month after the war had officially ended. This was seen represented in society where Speakeasies, nightclubs that illicitly served alcoholic beverages, contributed to the celebratory spirit of these years, placing women in a previously male-only drinking environment. Cole and Deihl, 2015, p.129 This recognised that there was now a societal acceptance of women and that gender equality was now being imbedded into popular culture. From the professional, business-like persona seen to promote their equality message, it can be argued the extreme change in fashion “[…] could be read as a reaction to the seriousness of the suffragettes.” (ibid., p.135). This extreme change concerned hem lines rising from midcalf or just below the knee, extravagant, often beaded, embellishment, and complete loss of shape within the figure. This move towards a more androgynous state concerning silhouette caused the illusion of women become, taller, slender and leaner. (Vigarello, 2016, pp.107-109).

Figure 49: c.1925 brassiere made of black ribbed silk with elastic gussets from V&A Clothworkers. Here the front view shows the lack of shape within the brassiere. The front is made up of three separate panels all sewn together with fell seams. At the bottom of the CF point forms a tab with an eye attachment, this would be for attachment to cami-knickers or bloomers.

Figure 50: The back view of the brassiere does not follow the pattern of the front, being rectangular in shape. There are again three panel, with slim straps of the same fabric both attached in

the centre panel. Here the elastic gussets are seen; they are triangular in shape and stitched in via a machine.

Figure 51: Hook and eye fastenings can be found along the left side opening. There are a total of five metal black fastenings. Hand stitching can be found along the seams of the attachment of the fastenings.

Figure 52: The interior of the brassiere is seen here. The fell seams are seen and the edge of the brassiere is bound with binding and topstitched, stopping at the two gusset point at the back. The majority of construction is done with a machine with some hand-sewing for certain finishes. This 1925 brassiere represent the epitome of underwear at this time. With little to no support, this brassiere highlighted the transition towards the androgynous silhouette. With no support the bust was no longer uplifted and/or shaped, as seen throughout history prior to this time, the bust was accentuated for its natural beauty and form.

However, the wearing of a brassiere does suggest a hint of shaping due to the elastic gussets. The androgynous silhouette suggests little to no curvature within the woman’s body consequently, proposing the oppression of the often curvaceous features on the woman’s body; the bust. The elastic gussets placement either side at the back of the brassiere would result in a tightening of the front; flattening the woman’s chest slightly. This would not be a dramatic change due to the size of the gussets but would alter the shape in some way. It is important to note this brassiere in particular would have been a lot more comfortable to wear than the corsets seen just 10 years previously [see figure 33]. Now women were beginning to win the political battle, they were now winning the right to be comfortable in their own clothing.

Figure 53: c.1920 ‘bust flattener’. This undergarment is a complete rectangle with zero curves or darts to fit to the body. Instead the function of the garment is to flatten the bust slightly; this would have been achieved when worn by a lady who found the undergarment tight across her bust. There is a CB opening where 6 fabric covered button can be found. Taken at Hampshire wardrobe.

Figure 54: This shows the extent to which this undergarment is truly one long rectangle. There are no side seams, with the pattern piece finishing and ending at the same fastening at CB. The button stand and hem is machine stitched.

Figure 55: Though the silhouette was now more â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;masculineâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; women still wished to express their femininity. During the decade this was seen majorly through embellishment and here is an example of it making its way to undergarments. This pretty leaf embroidery adds a delicate feminine touch to something that ironically makes the figure more masculine in shape.

Figure 56: c.1920s womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s girdle. Other undesired female curves existed around the hip area. In turn, the stretchy material of this girdle would have tubulated the bottom of the torso making a cylindrical silhouette. The girdle itself has hook and eye fastenings with four elasticated suspender attached at them hem.

Figure 57: c.1920s bust bodice; once again the bodice is made up of three panels at the front with a wider centre panel in the middle. This arguably flattens the chest more. There are ribbon straps attached as well as a lace trim to once again add a touch of femininity.

Figure 58: c.1920-30 silk bloomers. The elongation of bloomers was arguably required due to the shortening of skirts. These bloomers are very pretty in colour and include a small embroidered wreath of flowers on each leg. The bottoms of the bloomers are gathered with elastic.

Figure 59: c.1920-30 bloomers pointed yoke waistband cut on the bias. Cutting on the bias formed fabric more closely to figure and was a technique majorly popularised in the 1930s.

All these undergarments are a true representation of the looseness and freedom seen in fashion and ultimately was a reflection of society. Bones, curved pattern pieces and rigid materials were replaced by loose, aerated fabrics, straight pattern pieces and embellishment of the natural figure (however slight suppression of womanly curves). Ideas of duty, sacrifice and the greater good had been debunked by the recent war; for this generation, morality resided in being true to one’s self, not to a cause. Towards the end of the decade, some feminists would argue that women’s great achievement in the 20s was learning to value their individuality. Mackrell, 2018 This new founded individuality was no longer constricted and bound by undergarments. The physical liberation of women coming out of corsets allowed them to physically celebrate liberation in society in undergarments that accentuated them as they naturally were. Tutmania On the 4th November 1922 British archaeologist Howard Carter discovered the tomb of Tutankhamun filled with ‘”treasures of the Golden Pharaoh” (Saatchi Gallery, 2020) that would insinuate a cultural marvel internationally. The preservation of these treasures allowed for the replication of motifs, symbols, creatures and colours into many avenues including interior design, jewellery and, perhaps most prolifically, fashion. The opulence and extravagance of the objects belonging to the young Egyptian King harmonised well with the celebratory mood of the 20s. Images of the treasures found inside flooded the news media and a craze for Egyptian style – ‘Egyptomania’ – gripped popular culture […] The fashion industry exploited the trend, producing garments printed with Egyptian motifs. Egyptian-style jewellery and accessories were popular at all market levels.

Cole and Deihl, 2015, p.133

Figure 60: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Gold Inlaid Pectoral, Chain, and Counterpoise with Lapis Scarab Flanked by Uraeiâ&#x20AC;? (Saatchi Gallery, 2020) c.1336 B.C. to 1326 B.C. Made of gold, silver, carnelian, turquoise, lapis lazuli, green feldspar, glass.

Figure 61: Vintage Scarab necklace produced as a result of Tutmania. The beetle is a striking similarity with the chain seen in figure 60.

Figures 62 and 63: Pair of tapestry woven gloves; one folded c.1336 B.C. to 1326 B.C.; back of large Egyptian statue protecting King Tutankhamenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tomb c.1336 B.C. to 1326 B.C. Egyptian hieroglyphics adorn the back.

Figure 64: c.1920 gloves; similar in shape to those seen in figure 62, with Egyptian hieroglyphic at the cuff like those seen in figure 63. 55

Figure 65: c.1923 evening jacket made of gold lamĂŠ and embroidered with Egyptian motifs.

Figure 66: c.1927 Madeleine Vionnet evening dress made of black silk gauze with gold thread embroidery, tassels and Egyptian inspired patterns.

Figures 67 and 68: c.1336 B.C. to 1326 B.C. Golden statuette from the tomb showing a tall, long and lean figure; much like the silhouette to be desired in the 20s. c.1336 B.C. to 1326 B.C. Crook and flail of Tutankhamen made of gold leaf, carnelian, glass, wood and bronze. The flail arguably inspired the heightened use of tassels in this period as seen in figure 66.

Figure 69: c.1336 B.C. to 1326 B.C. These are the vertical side straps from the mummy of Tutankhamen made of gold, carnelian, glass and faience. The straps are covered in Egyptian hieroglyphics.

Figure 70: Large golden statue from Tutankhamen tomb. c.1336 B.C. to 1326 B.C. the geometric patterns on the seen here are often replicated into patterns on fabric during the Tut-mania craze.

Figure 71: A 1920s illustration from a French magazine â&#x20AC;&#x153;Why wouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t we have an Egyptian ball, where all the splendour of this era would be evokedâ&#x20AC;?. Through both primary and secondary research a clear link has been established between the genuine artefacts recovered from the tomb to how designers recreated 58

within fashion. This could be done through the print of fabric [see figure 65 and 66] where emblems and motifs were replicated, imitating objects such as the flail into the tassel [see figure 66] (this made sense as fringing was popular around this time) and even accessories were imitated such as jewellery and headwear [see figure 61 and 71]. Advancing technologies within media meant that the items discovered in the tomb were able were able to be distributed “faster than ever before.” (Masters, 2014). At this time, “exotic influences [were] easily discernible on fashion” (Koga, 2015, in Fukai, 2015, p.371) and Egyptian influences in particular was seen head to toe in terms of fashion from headwear to shoes. This cultural obsession with Egypt developed to become an integrated part of society and the visual representation of this was on a massive scale. Due to the celebratory spirit of the decade, it seemed appropriate to celebrate this ground-breaking discovery whether this was buying a sarcophagus shaped jewellery box covered in diamonds or a shapeless dress with an Egyptian style pattern. Evolution of the Technological Fashion Industry The celebratory spirit continued for those advances in technology also; the range of fabrics available was becoming far wider due to the development of man-made fibres. Rayon fibres were arguably the largest breakthrough of the decade now coming into popularised use. It became a great substitute for expensive, natural fabrics, especially silk as it had many similar properties. It also draped well for the desired ‘unfitted’ look. Rayon exploded in the 1920s as a popular fashion fibre, beginning with socks, lingerie and clothing. The variety of available fabrics and finishes meant that any women could now wear garment types once affordable only to women who could buy silk. Breeze and Kehoe, 2013

The subsequent equality the rayon fibre created meant that most women within society could adhere to the what was ‘fashionable’ within popular culture. This was generally simple day dresses as the elaborate embellishment on some more expensive garments could spike price dramatically.

Figure 72: c.1923 Green satin ‘flapper’ style dress embroidered with glass beads and cutwork. “The dress itself weighs two pounds which puts great strain on the narrow shoulders. This is why it is displayed flat.” (Blandford Museum, 2020)

Figure 73: c. 1920s top of dress; the bottom of the dress has been lost due to the weight of the glass beads. The fabric is a light silk or rayon chiffon. There long sleeves are adorned with clusters of small white glass beads.

Figures 74 and 75: Detail of the glass beading. Here the delicate nature of the fabric can be seen in addition to details in construction for example the herringbone stitching along the cuffs.

The popularity of bead embellishment derived from Coco Chanel’s introduction of illusion jewellery, later known as costume jewellery, at the start of the decade. This inexpensive fashion accessory coined affluence due to its extravagant appearance however could be bought at half the price of genuine jewels (Drowne and Huber, 2004, p.111). The age of technological innovations was boosted by introduction of lamé by French interior designer Jean Dunand. It was known for its “[…] lacquer-like texture [and] glitter and flexibility.” (Koga, 2015, in Fukai, 2015, p.364) which suited to the extravagance of dress in the decade.

Figure 76: c.1920-30 gold lamé evening jacket with double button fastening. The jacket is unlined and unstructured; giving it fluidity in movement. The shape curves slightly at the waist suggesting this to be from later in the decade where feminine curves were being exaggerated once more.

Figure 77: Here the detail of the fabric can be seen. LamĂŠ is constructed by having metallic threads woven into the main body of fabric (Tissura, n.d.). In this case, the metallic threads have been woven to make a specific pattern.

Figure 78: The reverse side of the fabric allows for a clearer view of the pattern to be seen. Having the jacket unlined suggests this may have been made from a home sewing pattern.

Figure 79: c.1920 evening dress made of silver lamĂŠ. This gives a very reflective quality to the gown and a touch of luxury. The dress was designed by Poiret who had seen huge popularity in the previous decade. He was now being overtaken by designers with new and exciting ideas. Fashion was now becoming so fastpaced styles within dress were only lasting around 5 years or so.

Rayon saw far more popularity as it cut silk prices in half and was suitable for both evening wear and daywear. It was cheap because it was made of wood pulp; an extremely cheap natural resource compared to silk worms. Once blended with cotton, the fabric became breathable, light and comfortable on the skin however, on its own rayon was coarse and scratchy next to the skin. Its popular properties included its variety of uses and moisture absorbability, which was needed in a decade where laundry was not common. (Vintage Dancer, 2013).

Figure 80: Rayon fibre crochet dress c.1924-28. Rayonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s variety of uses could consist of being spun into yarn to then be crocheted. The dress has the classic low waist with eight streamers with pendant bobbles attached at the end.

Pioneering designers did tend to stay faithful to more natural resources of fabric and provided to those socialites still striving for the finest quality of fabrics and craftsmanship. Though the maker of this dress is unknown, it undoubtedly would have sold for a high price due to quality of sewing being a credit of the condition it is in today.

Figure 81: c.1925 silk summer day dress owned by London socialite Heather Firbank. This dress demonstrates the loosefitting, low waisted style of the time, with the waistband sitting at the hips and the skirt being cut in a tubular shape. Taken at Clothworkers

Figure 82: The organdie vest is integrated into the dress with 24 small decorative white buttons down the CF opening which is fastened with small poppers. The dress is both machine and

hand stitched with majority of seams being done by machine but the skirtsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; pleats being done through hand-sewn cartridge pleats.

Figure 83: Detail of the hand sewn cartridge pleats

Figure 84: The day dress on the mannequin allows the tubular shape to be seen and the contrasting placement of stripes to be appreciated.

Dresses made of pure silk such as this began to decline severely in the next decade as rayon allowed the wardrobe to become larger for the same price. Silk tended to reside with those designers who could rely on clients spending a significant amount however, synthetic fibres had now found their way even into the high members of societyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wardrobes. Conclusively, culture, society and technology can be perhaps seen having the most dramatic impact on fashion in the twenties. The ability to share cultures from around the world through popular media proved a shared inspiration point for many designers who then reflected it in their work. Tut-mania becoming an international phenomenon spoke volume for technology within media at the time. For motifs, icons and patterns to be copied to high accuracy into fabrics and garments, displayed how the sharing and development of photography and illustrations was advancing at a dramatic rate. Technology was further boosted in this decade through the evolution of synthetic fibres, allowing for haute couture designs to be reproduced for half the price. High fashion was now available to a much wider crowd. People wished to be more extravagant and effervescent after the restrictions of the war and a popular way of expressing this was through ones wardrobe. The extreme changes in silhouette can be interpreted as a reaction to the woman finally obtaining the vote. From the extreme of tightly cinched corsets, women travelled to the next extreme of flattening their bust for an androgynous shape. This was in retaliation for it previously being accustomed to emphasise feminine curvatures within the body. There was now little to no curves within the body which was in turn boosted by the dropping of the waistline, typically on dresses, to the hips. This strengthened the desired look of looking tall, long and lean however, towards the end of the decade and entering into the thirties, the silhouette evolved to emphasise female curves once again. It must be acknowledged these

curves were far more natural than those created through corsets pre-WW1. Overall, the 1920s can be described as the “[…] golden era of fashion” (Vintage Dancer, 2019), with clothes adorning the figures of free-spirited celebratory women. Arguably, for perhaps the first time in history, women’s clothes were fashionable but at the same time physically liberating and comfortable. 1930-39 The 1930s period can be characterised as a time for high sophistication and glamour coinciding with the rise of fashion on screen. The curvaceous silhouette had returned but with a higher level of sophistication using techniques on the outer garments to exaggerate natural curves. These techniques consisted of the lengthening of the hem to lengthen the body, the reintroduction of curved seams and darts, bias cut fabric that hugged the figure and flaring at the hem of the skirt. Femininity within fashion returned through feminine prints, ruffles and other dainty embellishment. As seen in the decade previous, thirties fashion sought inspiration from outlets within popular culture which in found in the expanding culture-rich establishment, Hollywood. Here, costume designers created characters through wardrobe and eventually transformed them into icons of the screen. These were icons to be followed in fashion therefore, costume designers within the period were known to have heavy influence on the fashion world itself. It allowed women to be transported to a world of prosperity and extravagance despite economic hard times rooted from the Wall Street Crash of 1929. Appearances are arguably deceiving in this period, with a look of affluence covering potential poverty and deprivation. Designers and high-street stores came up with savvy ways to provide a look of prosperity economically. This was arguably how fashion was kept up to such a glamourous standard. By the end of the decade, glamour and luxury was abandoned

in favour for supplying the war effort. The patriarchal society was once again thrown into flux, particularly challenging gender codes within fashion. Hollywood wardrobe With large budget and large screens, costume designers were able to create icons of cinema through their wardrobe. The idolism of movie stars became frequent, especially among women who could replicate styles into their own wardrobe. [â&#x20AC;Ś] the motion picture industry had developed as a style leader in both dress fashions and interior design by the 1930s. motion picture studios made sure leading ladies set a standard of beauty that women, who wanted to appear glamourous, could copy. Tortora, 2015, p.195 Costume designers often bared in mind the ability to replicate their work from haute couture to the high street. This fascination with Hollywood pioneered the fashion industry to transform into a world of glamour and fantasy; allowing regular women to transform into their favourite movie stars. The cinema itself was an easily accessible form of entertainment due to the reasonable cost. Attendance was boosted with the introduction of Technicolour in 1935 (Cole and Deihl, 2015, p.162) where vibrant fabrics could finally be appreciated and consequently replicated. Hollywood costume designers drew heavily from Paris and London, but were also innovators, creating gowns that were imitated the world over. Film stars embodied high style and their costumes were important to their appeal [â&#x20AC;Ś] Knock-offs of Hollywood styles were easily available, and references in advertisements, paper patterns, and catalogues promised the consumer would look like their favourite star. ibid., p.182

The principal incorporation of Parisian and London cultures into the Hollywood wardrobe provides validation of the major theme of glamour within fashion. They were renowned beacons of high quality and chic outlets of design and production. Another contributing factor for the popularisation of Hollywood fashion was the societal acceptance of the cinema. […] unlike dancing, ‘going to the pictures’ was an activity that retained a degree of respectability thus allowing married women to carry on their cinema attendance after marriage and children. Buckley and Clark, 2018, p.106 In the previous decade, the frivolous dancing actions of women were sometimes viewed as taboo, whereas the provision of the cinema allowed a more civilised avenue of entertainment, with the approval of society. Society’s acceptance ultimately boosted attendance and therefore the wider distribution of the Hollywood wardrobe. In summary there is a clear pattern regarding the ‘chain of inspiration’: firstly, the costume designer is inspired by Parisian/London haute couture and replicates this for the screen. This is then spread widely through cinema and consequently results in the popularisation of particular iconic costumes in film. Ginger Rogers’ ostrich feather dress from the film Top Hat (Sandrich, 1935) is used as an example to show this:

Figure 85: c.1928 Ostrich feather evening dress by French designer Louiseboulanger. The top is made of a light beige silk and the ostrich feathers are knotted together to form longer strands. This dress bears extremely similar resemblance to the bottom half of Bernard Newmanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s design for Ginger Rogers. It is likely this served as some form of inspiration.

Figure 86: Ginger Rogers in the film Top Hat (Sandrich, 1935). Costume designed by Bernard Newman. The dress is featured in a tap dance routine where the lavish ostrich feathers are seen moving in full motion. The dress is made from several layers of ostrich feathers and silk satin to make up the main body of the dress.

Figure 87: c.1935 White ostrich feather cape and white bias-cut evening dress by British designer Norman Hartnell. There is striking resemblance between this and the Newman design. Hartnell acknowledged the popularity of cinema and therefore realised the likeable increase in popularity of his brand if he were to introduce â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Hollywood wardrobeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; elements within his designs. Here, a clear link between all three stages has been established. The costume designer takes inspiration from generally Parisian and/or British culture and transforms it for the screen. In this case, Newman makes the costume far more period appropriate by cutting curved seamed panels on the bias on the top half of the dress to allow for a more figure hugging shape; the epitome of the thirties silhouette. Furthermore, the hem is lengthened to the floor which is seen across evening dresses of the period. At the end of the chain, designers re-interpret on-screen costumes to suit their own clientele. For Hartnell, a full maxi ostrich feather skirt would be expensive to make and sell, and would be impractical. By adopting just the ostrich feather cape he is appealing to a wider clientele therefore, successfully integrating the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Hollywood wardrobe into society. However, it must be highlighted Hartnell did provide for those more wealthy clients so a further step can be analysed of more accessible high-street stores garnering inspiration from Hartnell himself.

Figure 88: Vintage 1930s Ostrich feather cape. Though the original brand of this cape is unknown, it is made up of acetate and rayon, which would have been significantly cheaper than the alternative of silk. It is most likely silk was used by Hartnell as haute couture designers tended to prefer natural resources of fabric. This gave ordinary people the chance to look like their favourite movie stars, for a cheaper price. This ultimately demonstrates how film culture had a significant impact on fashion in the thirties. The Great Economic Depression From an aesthetic point of view, thirties fashion can be described as glamourous, chic and elegant however, economically this was not the case. Described as the “[…] longest and most severe depression ever experienced by the industrialised Western world […]” (Pells and Romer, 2020), the depression hit all aspects of culture, society and technology; especially that regarding fashion. Culturally, there was less of an international influence due to the decrease in international trade (Cole and Deihl, 2015, p.161). Therefore, culture that influenced fashion tended to be centred around the Western world, especially with designers being inspired by the ‘Hollywood wardrobe’.

Contentiously, costume designers often had a sense of affluence within their work, which was then recreated into everyday wear. Despite economic hard times, â&#x20AC;&#x153;[â&#x20AC;Ś] being attractively dressed was important for maintaining respectabilityâ&#x20AC;? (ibid., p.185) which demonstrates how people prioritised appearance in order to be accepted by society. The elaborate long dress came back into fashion in the 1930s, despite the serious social conditions caused by the Great Depression of 1929. Koga, 2015, in Fukai, 2015, p.415 Longer dresses meant more fabric and therefore more expense. Consequently, manmade fibres, such as rayon, were further popularised as cheap substitutes for expensive fabrics like silk. Other economic savings included replacing expensive and elaborate embellishment like beading and embroidery, seen prolifically in the twenties, with printed fabrics; a much cheaper form of decoration. Women could now express themselves through pattern which had now been made a lot easier thanks to dramatic technological improvements in textile printing. Previously, printing had been tricky and expensive to manufacture however, the introduction of screen printing meant that entire rolls of fabric could be printed with ease and allowed for repeated patterns in a variety of colours (The Vintage Pattern Shop, n.d.). In terms of prints themselves, this ranged from polka dots and florals to the more geometric and linear prints inspired by the art movements Surrealism and Dadaism. Renowned designer Elsa Schiaparelli was known for her use of these art movements within her work and included actual artwork within her pieces.

Figure 89: c.1937 Elsa Schiaparelli Dinner Dress, designed in collaboration with Salvador Dalí. The dress features a large lobster print from the Dalí artwork ‘Lobster Telephone.’ It is made from silk organza with synthetic horsehair underneath the skirt to give it body. The dress was originally designed for American socialite Wallis Simpson, soon to be the wife of the Duke of Windsor. The dress was featured on the soon to be Duchess in an 8 page spread in Vogue magazine, photographed by Cecil Beaton. The original intentions of the photoshoot were entirely innocent however; the placement of the lobster was viewed as erotic and controversial. This shows how sometimes the simple placement of prints could create societal mayhem. (Fazzare, 2017) Generally, popularised prints were simpler and more functional, in terms of they could be worn to several different occasions.

Figure 90: c.1938 green and white print organdie dress. There are pointed gores placed in skirt at the hipline, cut on the bias to create the slinky, flared bottom part of dresses popular in the thirties. The top is also cut on the bias to hug the torso well. Taken at Blandford Fashion Museum.

Figure 91: Print detail; further detail is added to the dress with ruching following the neckline.

Figure 92: c.1938 Charles James printed silk evening dress; print designed by Jean Cocteau, a renowned artist part of the Dada and Surrealist art movement. The fabric is cut on the bias with a CF seam running from the neckline to the hem. Triangular panels at the sides of the waist nicely conform the fabric to the body. The dress panels flare towards the bottom making the fabric appear slinky and light.

Figure 93: Detail of the Cocteau print; surrealist side profiles

Figure 94: c.1935 Mainbocher floral printed dress, jacket and belt made of crépe de chine. There is ruffle trim on the hem of the dress, which is then led up the slit finishing at the knee. The sleeves have petal like tabs coming of the capped sleeves on the shoulders. These dresses are perfect examples to show the range of clientele the printed maxi dress served. The dress seen in figure 90 is made from organdie, a cheap yet durable fabric, and was likely manufactured for a mass market. On the other end of the spectrum is American designer Charles James’ creation [seen in figure 94]. Made of silk and featuring an exclusive print design by a famous Surrealist artist, this was crafted for those more fortunate, even after economic hardship. Also contributing to the more luxury end of the spectrum, Mainbocher used crépe de chine. Known for his luxury goods this was most likely silk crépe de chine which would have increased price

dramatically. Despite this, print created a sense of unification across society. As this technique was cheaply produced it made it accessible to the masses and ultimately leading to the print phenomena of the thirties. Here are some more examples of the printed dress, demonstrating the true variety of this trend.

Figures 95 and 96: c.1930s American day dress made of cotton with a floral print design in a kaleidoscope of colours. The spaghetti straps are slightly unusual for the period as halter neck usually coincided with strappy styles. There is a section of ruching at the centre of the bust to exaggerate it as well as an upside U-shaped waistline with the skirt finely pleated in.

Figure 97 and 98: c.1936-38 Afternoon dress with leaf and floral print made of rayon chiffon. There are sash wraps, finished with a contrasting blue chiffon at the ends, attached in the side seams that would tie at the back or round the front to accentuate the natural waist. The sleeves are slightly puffed, there are pointed gores in the skirt which are cut on the bias.

Figures 99 and 100: c.1934 Elsa Schiaparelli bias cut polka dot net dress. this skirt has less volume towards the bottom as its cut straight however, the double folded triangle at the back forms a draped panel at CB. The backless style was a popular characteristic of evening dress in the thirties

Figure 101: c.1930 Surrealist printed, gold lamĂŠ, bias cut evening gown. There is also and asymmetric neckline and a waistline seam between the natural waistline and hipline. This shows that the use of the synthetic fabric lamĂŠ was not just restricted to the 1920s, it suited 1930s eveningwear well due to its lustrous appearance. Other inexpensive forms of decoration was embroidery and decorative smocking.

Figure 102: c.1930s bias cut day ivory dress made of crepe. The skirt is made up of eight gored panels with a yoked waistband. decorative smocking covers both shoulders creating pleats on the top. The sleeves are pleated at the elbow shaping them inwards â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Taken at Blandford Fashion Museum.

Figure 103: Detail of the embroidery; white, beige peach and baby blue threads make up Fleur de Lis type design.

Figure 104: Side sashes are attached in the side seams to emphasise the waist. The CB opening is fastened with small poppers and decorated with eighteen loop, fabric-covered buttons along the opening from the neckline to the waist.

Cheaper forms of decoration was not the only way to cut economic corners when it came to fashion. There was encouragement of sewing one’s own wardrobe to save money. The phenomenon of ‘finish at home’ and ‘semi-made’ dresses […] offered mainstream customers slightly more custom-made clothing than normal retail goods. (Cole and Deihl, 2015, p.185) The advertisement of ‘custom-made’ appealed to many as this was traditionally associated with the more wealthy within society. This ranged from day dresses all the way to wedding dresses, where semi-made dresses could be made to look beautiful or even old wedding dresses bought back to life.

Figure 105: c.1930s wedding dress with a combination of machine and hand sewing, strongly suggesting the original garment had been upcycled in some way. The fabric is an ivory

satin/sateen. The dress is cut on the bias with a built in cape round the neck.

Figure 106: The gorgeous bride and groom on their happy day. The dress fall just off of the floor and is paired with a long veil and large bouquet of flowers.

Figure 107: These fabric covered buttons are arguably added after the original purchase of the gown due to the home-sewn quality. Hand sewing can also be found at the hem of the cuff.

Figure 108: The side sash has a popper fastening to allow easier putting on of the dress. the seam allowance is hand whip stitched.

Figure 109: The cotton tape is hand sewn around the neckline potentially suggesting the cape was a later addition or altered in some way.

Wedding dresses were affected by the historic modes of the day, with the long lines, high waists and puffy sleeves of Empire especially typical in white and ivory satin and charmeuse […] Bridesmaids dresses typically followed the style lines of the bride’s […] Ibid., p.167 To summarise, the thirties can be viewed as a period that from the outside looked rich and extravagant however underneath the surface, economic hardships were extremely prominent. Culture wise, there were less international influences within Western fashion due to the decrease in international trade. This was as a result of the economic depression present throughout the majority of the decade. Fashion took more inspiration from art movements such as Dadaism and Surrealism, especially used by designer Elsa Schiaparelli. This was seen prolifically in prints which was another technological advancement of the decade. The popularisation and development of screen printing saw a wide range of prints from the couture houses in Paris to fabric being sewn at the working home. Less effervescence in embellishment coincided appropriately with the upcoming war however, further restrictions were set to be put in place. Many would miss the ‘Hollywood wardrobe’ era of the thirties that inspired many to look like their favourite leading ladies on screen. Women like Ginger Rogers and Joan Crawford became beacons of inspiration for many designers and this was replicated through to department stores. Costume designers could ultimately be described as designing fashion due to the large influence they had in the regular woman’s wardrobe, not just the screen. The end of the decade was met with World

War II, once again putting a huge strain on resources, technology and livelihood. Life was going to change dramatically and fashion, as a result, would change intensely in appearance, material and quality. Hems were to be shortened, repurposed goods were encouraged more than ever and rationing came into play. The thirties was the last hurrah before once again the women’s wardrobe became restricted by culture, society and technology. 1940-49 The forties period can be defined as having two major defining impacts of fashion; World War II (1939-1945) and ‘The New Look’ of 1947. WWII inhibited the expression of fashion immensely however; still enabled women to be individuals via their wardrobes through schemes such as ‘Made Do and Mend’ and the introduction of ‘Mrs Sew and Sew’. In terms of society, everyone was impacted, no matter their social standing. Rationing was spread equally across most Western societies to ultimately conserve natural resources needed for the war effort. The notion of making-over ones existing wardrobe was prominent for those upholding hope through fashion. This could range from turning ones husband’s trousers into a skirt or creating a wedding dress with disused parachute silk. The maintenance of appearance mattered to many in order to keep up morale among devastating circumstances. Culturally this created a real sense of unification within nations despite the situation. Any excuse for celebration was done so passionately however, still within rationing guidelines. Printed textiles, a popular form of decoration in the previous decade, was prevalent in the wardrobe due to the inexpensive manufacture. For increased patriotism propaganda was printed to increase the positive war spirit. The introduction of Utility Wear was an extremely effective way of monitoring regulation within the fashion industry. Consequently, the

Utility Suit became an icon of fashion as women could look professional and stylish yet, were simultaneously staying within wartime guidelines. The suit itself had to be made of Utility regulation cloth which was hard wearing and longer lasting than those seen before its introduction in 1942. This ensured disposable fashion and fragile fabrics were gradually eradicated (Clouting and Mason, 2018). The recovery of the fashion industry after war ended in 1945 took some time however, this changed in 1947 when French designer Christian Dior introduced ‘The New Look’. The look itself was in reaction to the frivolous restrictions on the woman’s wardrobe so the utilisation of a mass of fabric once again added a sense of luxury and expensiveness. Masses of fabric were attached to a waistband to create a full skirt and the illusion of a cinched waist. The silhouette phenomenon took up admiration at fast pace and ultimately created a silhouette that would last for over a decade. Interpretations of the look ranged from haute couture designers to more commonly women recreating the look themselves at home through the sewing skills they had learnt during WWII. The intense return to an extremely feminine silhouette put women slightly under patriarchal society’s thumb once again. Make Do and Mend In the summer of 1942 the British Board of Trade launched a campaign entitled ‘Make do and Mend’ encouraging home sewing and repurposed old clothes (Walford, 2019, p.124). This was in reaction to the desperate need for raw materials such as silk, in addition to textile factories having a severe downfall in the workforce due to men leaving for the front line. Though women were re-introduced to the scheme of replacing men in the workplace, as seen in WWI, other factories were also prioritised for the manufacture of munitions and medicine. Initially there was slight reluctance to adopt

to the scheme as the general public felt strained physically and mentally as it was (ibid., p.124). Curtains became wedding gowns; cut skirts became children’s clothing, shawls and turbans,; undergarments were made with linens. If a coat was worn out it was turned inside out. […] The wool from sweaters was recycled at home where leftover materials were used to make knitted clothes. Sposito, 2016, p.182 These are just some of the examples the scheme encouraged. The avenues of making economic savings varied widely from using unrationed curtain fabric to make gowns or giving something old a new life. This became a part of integrated culture and society; culture being women being able to express themselves by altering old clothes to suit the period. society being, the scheme breaking down class barriers. Though those more fortunate would have had more clothes and more luxurious fabric prior to the war starting, repurposed fashion was still encouraged. Socialites and film stars could inspire those who look up to the to follow suit so it was important the entirety of society took part. Articles in popular British women’s magazines helped with the cause of making do. Scarlet O’Hara, the Civil War heroine of Gone With the Wind […] made a dress from faded green curtains […] Op. cit., p.126 This is a good example showing how communications of popular culture, such as the cinema and the magazine, were able to encourage women to act more consciously when it came to their wardrobe.

Figure 110: c.1943 Make Do and Mend pamphlet. Giving helpful tip and tricks to new home sewers. Resourcefulness and rationing was at the forefront.

Figure 111: c.1945 Party dress; a long striped skirt made from black-out curtains and worn with a velvet bolero jacket. Blackout curtains was a popular fabric for clothes as it was unrationed therefore no restrictions to an amount was placed – taken at the Bath Fashion Museum.

Figure 112: c.1940s homemade dress ‘possibly’ remade from an older dress due to the print being typical of the thirties. The fabric is rayon which would have additionally reduced costs – Taken at Blandford Fashion Museum.

Figure 113: c.1940s hand knitted waistcoat with six small yellow buttons down the CF opening. It is shown with its original pattern. Patterns such as these could be made from resourceful materials such as pulled wool; wool recycled from old jumpers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Taken at Blandford Fashion Museum.

Figure 114: c.1940 copper silk/rayon tailored top. There are five fabric covered buttons down the CF opening, a peter pan collar and scalloped hem. There are two curved seams tracing from bust to waist and short sleeves with pleating detail at the shoulder to add volume â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Taken at Hampshire Wardrobe.

Figure 115: In the side seams of the top there is evidence they have been unpicked and a new seam line added to fit a larger size. This has been done in a green coloured thread suggesting when it came to Make Do and Mend colour matched thread did not matter.

Figure 116: Matching copper skirt to the top seen in figure 114. The skirt is made of six flared panels and would have suited a formal occasion or celebration.

Figure 117: The seams have been let out with the original seam line seen. Once again this would have been to fit a larger size. The fabric is sturdy in its make-up and is suitable for the ‘Make Do and Mend’ scheme.

Figure 118: At skirts placket the fastenings have been moved to fit a different size. This is seen in the thread viewable of ‘inner’ poppers on the LHS.

Figure 119 and 120: c.1946 Parachute silk wedding dress. At the end of the war there was a surplus of parachute consequently leading to many dresses being made out of the material. In 1941, when the Americans joined the war, Nylon was used as parachute silk which was one of the most sort after materials by women in the war. Some even risked criminality when using fallen parachutes while the war was still being fought (Walford, 2019, p.106) â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Taken at Blandford Fashion Museum.

Figure 121: The original 1946 wedding invite between Ina May and Mr G. Buckby in Poole on the 17th August 1946.

Figure 122: The parachute wedding dress being worn by Ms Ina May and her new husband Mr G. Buckby. The dress transforms when itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s on the right figure and with the correct undergarments. She is carrying a silver horseshoe which symbolised luck on

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ones wedding day, wearing white gloves, a floor length veil and jewelled headband.

Figure 123: The waistband is smocked in a V-shape and topped with a decorative white trim. The dress is free of any extravagant embellishment demonstrating the poor state of the economy post-war

Figure 124: Headband of the bride made of small pearly beads in the shape of flowers and leaves made with net and wire.

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Figure 125: â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Suggestions for using Weldons Patterns on Parachute Panelsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;; here is a newspaper spread demonstrating how pattern pieces could be laid then cut out of the triangular shape parachute panels; it is likely something like this was looked at when the dress in figure 119 was made.

Figure 126: Jacqmar, an English textile-printing company, printed some of the most memorable propaganda prints of WWII. Jacqmar utilised their renowned prints with the need for headscarves by female factory workers. Women could safely wrap their hair from dangerous machinery and hard labour. These scarves (c.1941) in particular were on the more expensive

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side so were more popular as gifts, especially among American soldiers sending gifts to their sweethearts. (Walford, 2019, p.54) (Imperial War Museum, 2020c) â&#x20AC;&#x201C; taken at the Imperial War Museum.

Figure 127: Patriotic propaganda within the prints boosted morale among society. Red, white and blue were popular colours to also boost this. This print in particular are letters being sent to loved ones on the front line. Through these figures, it has been demonstrated the variety of tips and tricks the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Make Do and Mendâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; promoted. This was largely aimed to the female population as the majority of the adult men population had been sent to the front line of the war effort. The scheme itself proved a large success and proved useful as it was not until the early 1950s that clothes were taken off of the rationing list. Society had now become a lot more conscious of recycling fashion and the female population had generally become more interested in sewing. A homemade feel formulated most of the forties

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wardrobe and even encouraged homemade versions of the haute couture ‘New Look’ in 1947. Utility Clothing At start of the decade, the ‘Utility scheme’ was introduced to Britain by Sir Thomas Barlow, the President of the Board of Trade. The initiative was to create clothing that was “fashionable yet functional, attractive but not so attractive that demand outstripped supply” (Edwards, 2017, p.156). To distinguish the Utility clothing from its competitors it was stamped with a ‘CC41’ (standing for ‘civilian clothing) label to brand its quality and ethos. The clothes themselves were generally stripped of purely decorative features and replaced by practical ones. Even practical items such as buttons were restricted: […] dresses could have no more than 2 pockets, 5 button, 6 seams in a skirt, 2 inverted or box pleats or 4 knife pleats and no more than 4 metres of stitching. No unnecessary decoration was allowed. Hull Museum, 2018 These physical restrictions on fashion put restrictions on how women could express themselves through fashion. However, it is seen the Utility suit became part of everyday fashion due to its wide functionality and durability. Suits were often made under the utility scheme due to its sturdy construction and fabrics. It allowed women to present themselves as smart and professional in society as well as presenting this image to rival nations. It was essential utility clothing was made from sturdy materials therefore, a strongly regulated cloth was introduced that would prevent flimsy fabrics

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entering production. While the cloth was durable it also “[…] needed to be composed of the lowest possible levels of fibre content […]” to preserve this for the war effort.

Figure 128: c.mid 1940s Utility lady’s suit made of light brown wool. The suit is the classic silhouette of the period with wide, strong shoulders, a slightly nipped waist and the hem finishing at the knee. There are four buttons at the CF opening, two pockets in jacket, and two kick pleats in the skirt. All these properties fall under CC41 regulations – Taken at Blandford Fashion Museum

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Figure 129: c.1941 Utility suit made of brown checked wool lined with rayon and cotton. there are two patch pockets sewn either side of the jacket fronts, four buttons down the CF opening and curved notch lapels. The skirt has 2 small pleats at the front seams. The peach coloured cotton shirt (c.1942-50) is also Utility scheme certified. The gas mask bag across the body is made of reptile skin which suggests this is a more upper class item â&#x20AC;&#x201C; taken at the V&A Museum Fashion Collection.

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Figure 130: c.1947 Utility suit made of tweed by British brand Jaegar. There is a slightly more defined waist on this suit suggesting influence of Diorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s New Look, bought about in the same year. The jacket is double breasted with six buttons and two pocket flaps. The use of six buttons technically goes against the Utility schemes restrictions however; restrictions may have loosened slightly after war had ended and the suit was sold by a renowned high-street designer, ensuing its popularity. The skirt has one high kick pleat in the centre â&#x20AC;&#x201C; taken at the Bath Fashion Museum.

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Figures 131 and 132: c.1941 Printed summer dress carrying the Utility mark. The Utility scheme was in no way exclusive to suits; it covered a large range of the men’s, woman’s and children’s wardrobe. This dress looks like it is made from a cotton, with a patriotic print of blue bows and red flowers, a skinny navy belt at the waist and four navy buttons travelling up the CF opening at the top. The sleeves are capped which would have reduced fabric wastage when cutting out separate sleeves. This dress would have easily been part of the ‘Make Do and Mend’ scheme with its versatile fabric and print – taken at Blandford Fashion Museum.

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Figures 133 and 134: c.1942 Utility suit by London designer Digby Morton. The suit is made of grey herringbone wool, fastened with metallic buttons and trimmed with a grosgrain bow. The buttons in this ensemble are particularly special. They are the CC41 logo, with three button down the jacket and three down the top.

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Figures 135 and 136: This suit is an example of the continued extravagance and purely decorative elements Parisian couturiers were still using within their work despite regulations. This beige-pink wool tweed suit (c.1940-44) is from designer Jeanne Lanvin. There are a total of seventeen buttons on the jacket fronts with only one of them serving as a fastening, the rest are simply decorative. This addition of quilting on the jacket and skirt further disregards the policy CC41 stood for. These figures show the strong silhouette the Utility suit created. Though at first the suit was worn for practicality reasons due to its durability, the suit soon became an icon of fashion and was being replicated in the couture houses in Paris [see figure 135]. The scheme was tactical in how it approached the fashion industry by supplying a style that would be liked however, not loved where supply would demand for more. Culturally, the utility scheme restricted individuality among a womanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wardrobe due to the limited forms of fashion it accepted. However, due to the improved home sewing

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skills, women could make the style more their own by doing this themselves with upcycled clothes. Sustainable fashion was now at the forefront of women’s minds. The New Look

Figure 137: The iconic and fashion revolutionising ‘New Look’ by Parisian designer Christian Dior The introduction of ‘New Look’ into women’s wardrobes in 1947 create two defining periods of fashion in this decade. This proved the pace at which fashion moved was now increasing speed more than ever. However, when Dior introduced his collection, he intended it stay, and stay it surely did. In reaction to the extreme restrain on

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resources and manufacture within the fashion industry Dior retaliated and jumped to the other end of the spectrum. This also included reinventing the silhouette from head to toe. The style was directed toward the wealthy, stately and sophisticated woman. It extolled the female shape, with soft shoulders, emphasis on the bust, a subtle wasp’s waist and a large skirt with fillings and godets that rounded the hips. The feminine and romantic look of Dior’s creations was emphasised with details such as gloves, high heels, a purse and a hat. Sposito, 2016, p.185

Figure 138: c.1947 Dior’s Bar Suit at the Dior: Designer of Dreams exhibition at the V&A Museum.

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Figure 139: c.1947 sketch of Dior Bar Suit

Figure 140: The ‘New Look’ wasn’t just limited to the bar suit. The same silhouette was created with this 1947 double breasted silk coat with pocket flaps to emphasise the rounded hips.

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Figure 141: c.1947 Dior ‘Maxim’ dress made of silk velvet and wool, ribbed silk, lined with silk and boned, gathered and ruched tulle, and paste. The large velvet bow on the bust exaggerates the desirable ample bosom, especially with the sweeping, ultralow neckline. The rounded hips are amplified through two darts either side at the front under the two built-in pockets – taken at the Dior: Designer of Dreams exhibition at the V&A Museum.

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Figure 142 and 143: c.1947 Dior day dress made of polka dot silk twill foulard. â&#x20AC;&#x153;This lightweight, unlined dress achieves volume through a draped skirt. Dior typically countered the close fitting bodice with Magyar sleeves, which gave ease of movement â&#x20AC;&#x201C;at the V&A Museums Fashion Collection

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Figure 144: The hips are rounded towards the back through a draped piece of silk and attached to the front of the hips. Societal impacts included what was the total recreation of the silhouette. Affluence and extravagance was once in style again despite rationing on clothing still existing. The existing trends segregated the societal barriers that were once blurred during the war. Those who could afford it adorned themselves in Parisian haute couture whereas the conventional woman relied on those â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Make Do and Mendâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; skills learnt in the first half of the decade. Advances and increased accessibility to fabrics like rayon and Nylon allowed some Dior looks to be recreated somewhat accurately, leading to the widespread of the New Look style and silhouette.

Figure 145: c.1948 Model wearing two piece dress by American designer Mollie Parnis, representing how the New Look had now stretched across the Atlantic. The peplum style jacket with a wasp waist and full skirt; key characteristics of the 1947 Dior collection.

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Figure 146: Pattern company McCall recognised the rise of the of popularity of the New Look therefore, incorporated it into their paper patterns which were highly accessible to a mainstream audience. Conventional women could now have a tailored New Look wardrobe for a fraction of the couturier price. the paper pattern industry garnered much success during the war and the desire for the New Look guaranteed this success to continue.

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Figure 147: Simplicity pattern flyer reading ‘softened with a rounded hip’ – this demonstrates how Dior had truly influenced the entire spectrum of the fashion industry from influencing fellow couturiers in Paris, such as Balenciaga, to this example of the paper pattern industry for the fashion conscious post-war woman.

In conclusion, the forties saw the return of the exaggerated feminine silhouette but the reason behind this went much further. WWII introduced a profound amount of restrictions on culture, society and technology; culturally the expression through fashion was limited in addition to influences being restricted. Designers were forced to favour practicality over artistic inspiration though arguably discovered savvy ways to stick to their brand vision. Technology wise, industries and development of technology itself was all channelled to the war effort. Factories originally dealing with textiles were introduced to munitions leading to the significant decrease in manufacture. The schemes ‘Make Do and Mend’ and Utility wear were extremely resourceful and were effective in creating a generation of home sewers. This coincided well Dior’s 118

introduction of the New Look in 1947 that spun the fashion world on its head. The retaliation of restrictions in the fashion industry during the war was evident; the voluminous skirt with structured underpinnings and the extremely tailored top half. The feminine silhouette had returned in big way and the new young generation of resourceful women were able to recreate this look in their own wardrobes. The new look was simple refined tailoring yet extravagant in silhouette; [the] story of marriage between freedom and constraint, a balance between the extremes of extravagance and minimalism â&#x20AC;&#x201C; between more and less Walford, 2019, p.202

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Conclusion From five decades of primary and secondary research, it can be acknowledged the scale in which culture, society and technology changed in the first half of the twentieth century was truly unprecedented, particularly when this concerned fashion, resulting in a kaleidoscope of style was seen throughout. Culture wise the twentieth century saw a wide range of rich cultures enter society, whether this was international influence or more patriotic to boost morale on war efforts. From the rich extravagance and opulence of the 1920s to the Hollywood era of the thirties, women were becoming more individual through their wardrobes which was abundantly inspired by culture. The specific decade was usually identifiable through fashion in this era, with each period having itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s major cultural influences of fashion. In terms of society, the twentieth century saw the rise of the female figure challenging and slowly overcoming patriarchy. A clear pattern in dress documents this journey well from the WPSU gaining momentum in the 1900s through to the return to feminine fashion in 1947 through Diorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s New Look. The blurring of societal lines fluctuated throughout the period with a desire for opulence within the wardrobe however, for this then to be restricted by WWI and WWII. Both post-war periods saw fashion retaliation to then show opulence and exuberance on the body. By 1949 women had gained the vote, could attend a bar and go out to the cinema with her partner; all activities either prohibited or not invented pre-1900. Technological changes had a profound impact on the fabric industry through the introduction and development of synthetic fibres into the everyday wardrobe. From the introduction of the first man-made synthetic fibre rayon at the turn of the century to

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Parisian couturiers using nylon and rayon within their finest work by the end of the forties. Fabric development had enabled the everyday woman to become fashionable by providing economic options. Further development also provided comfort, laundry resistance and moisture absorbency to fabric properties making them practical and fashionable. Non-direct technological fashion changes included the rise of Hollywood being brought to the cinema and creating icons of fashion. Technology provided women with the communication of the what, where, when, why and where questions behind the fashion world. Towards the end of the period the how was also encouraged with many now making their own clothes. Ultimately, the history first half of the twentieth century can be found in capsules of fashion; each telling a story of what cultural, societal and technological factors it was being impacted by. It was a means of self-expression for the woman whether she be a young member of the WSPU at the start of the century or Queen Elizabeth II in 1947 on her wedding day.

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Appendix

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Reference List AUB Archive

(2020) Label for ‘1912 Ivory Corset’. Bournemouth: Arts University Bournemouth.

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131

Figure list Figure 1:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1900 Edwardian boned bodice – closed front view – from the AUB Costume Archive. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 2:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1900 Edwardian boned bodice – opened out interior view – from the AUB Costume Archive. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 3:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1900 Edwardian boned bodice – pin tuck detail around the collar area – from the AUB Costume Archive. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 4:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1900 Edwardian boned bodice – blood in armpit area – from the AUB Costume Archive. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 5:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1900 Maternity corset made of embroidered cotton, metal and boning. Pictures taken at V&A Clothworkers – full front closed view. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 6:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1900 Maternity corset made of embroidered cotton, metal and boning. Pictures taken at V&A Clothworkers – fully opened interior view. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 7:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1900 Maternity corset made of embroidered cotton, metal and boning. Pictures taken at V&A Clothworkers – breast gusset press stud detail. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 8:

Met Museum. (n.d.) c.1900 American women’s suit. [online image]. Available from: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/106529?searchField =All&amp;sortBy=Relevance&amp;ft=1900+womens+suit&amp;offset= 0&amp;rpp=20&amp;pos=10 [Accessed 12 April 2020].

Figure 9:

Met Museum. (n.d.) c.1905 Raudnitz and Co. women’s suit. [online image]. Available from: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/106506?searchField =All&amp;sortBy=Relevance&amp;ft=1900+womens+suit&amp;offset= 40&amp;rpp=20&amp;pos=48 [Accessed 12 April 2020].

Figure 10:

V&A Museum. (n.d.) c.1908 Women’s golf costume made of wool tweed. [online image]. Available from: http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O145789/golf-costume-bosworthfrederick/ [Accessed 12 April 2020].

Figure 11:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1905 Women’s dark green wool jacket with black piping; taken at the Bath Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

132

Figure 12:

Vintage Ad Browser. (n.d.) G-D Justrite Corset advert in fashion magazine. [online image/illustration]. Available from: http://www.vintageadbrowser.com/clothes-ads-1900s [Accessed 11 April 2020]

Figure 13:

Alarmy. (1900) Original old vintage magazine advert from the late Victorian era dated 1900. Advertisement of British tailoring company Shaw & Co. [online image/illustration]. Available from: https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-original-old-vintage-magazineadvert-from-the-late-victorian-era-dated-102576788.html [Accessed 11 April 2020].

Figure 14:

Vintage Ad Browser. (n.d.) Zurich masked ball Art Noveau poster. [online image/illustration]. Available from: http://www.vintageadbrowser.com/clothes-ads-1900s [Accessed 11 April 2020]

Figure 15:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1900 cream coutil corset with straight front basque, with lace and blue ribbon trimming; full front closed view – taken at Hampshire wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 16:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1900 cream coutil corset with straight front basque, with lace and blue ribbon trimming; department store label – taken at Hampshire wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 17:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1900 cream coutil corset with straight front basque, with lace and blue ribbon trimming; whalebone label – taken at Hampshire wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 18:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1900 cream coutil corset with detachable elastic suspenders and light blue flossing; full interior view – taken at Hampshire Wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author

Figure 19:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1900 cream coutil corset with detachable elastic suspenders and light blue flossing; interior rusting – taken at Hampshire Wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author

Figure 20:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1900 cream coutil corset with detachable elastic suspenders and light blue flossing; exterior rusting – taken at Hampshire Wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author

Figure 21:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1912 Evening dress designed by Lady Lucy Duff Gordon with ‘oriental’ influence; dress made of magenta/purple silk, violet silk chiffon and with appliqué and embroidery detail. Picture taken at V&A Exhibition Kimono: Kyoto to Catwalk Exhibition. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 22:

Davies-Strodder, C., Lister, J. and Taylor, L. (2015) c.1912 Evening dress designed by Lady Lucy Duff Gordon with ‘oriental’ influence; dress made of magenta/purple silk, violet silk chiffon and with appliqué

133

and embroidery detail. [photograph]. In: London Society Fashion. London: V&A Publishing, p.77. Figure 23:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1913 Paul Poiret Mantle made of citron yellow/lime wool; key example of Poiret silhouette in this period; Picture taken at V&A Exhibition Kimono: Kyoto to Catwalk Exhibition. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 24:

Gunn, M. (2020) Traditional Japanese women’s kimono c.1925-35 made of figured crêpe silk with stencil dyeing of warp threads; Picture taken at V&A Exhibition Kimono: Kyoto to Catwalk Exhibition. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 25:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1905-15 ‘kimono for export’ made for American socialite Emily Grigsby; made of satin silk and embroidered in silk threads; Picture taken at V&A Exhibition Kimono: Kyoto to Catwalk Exhibition. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 26:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1910 walking costume owned by London socialite Heather Firbank; made of navy wool serge and a beige striped blanket wool. Picture taken at V&A Clothworkers – full front closed view of jacket. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 27:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1910 walking costume owned by London socialite Heather Firbank; made of navy wool serge and a beige striped blanket wool. Picture taken at V&A Clothworkers – waist to hem view of skirt folded in half; front view. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 28:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1910 walking costume owned by London socialite Heather Firbank; made of navy wool serge and a beige striped blanket wool. Picture taken at V&A Clothworkers – jacket sleeve button detail [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 29:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1910 walking costume owned by London socialite Heather Firbank; made of navy wool serge and a beige striped blanket wool. Picture taken at V&A Clothworkers – label and lapel detail. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 30:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1910 walking costume owned by London socialite Heather Firbank; made of navy wool serge and a beige striped blanket wool. Picture taken at V&A Clothworkers – interior boned waistband of skirt. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 31:

Davies-Strodder, C., Lister, J. and Taylor, L. (2015) c.1910 walking costume made of navy wool serge and striped beige blanket wool owned by London socialite Heather Firbank [photograph]. In: London Society Fashion. London: V&A Publishing, p.141.

134

Figure 32:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.Around 1910 Walking suit made from wool with an elongated jacket and ankle-length skirt; picture taken at the V&A Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 33:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1912 ivory corset made of herringboned coutil fabric consisting of 10 panels and 26 bones; photo taken at the AUB Archive. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 34:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1912 white coutil corset with attached elastic suspenders, adjustable straps and decorative white flossing; full front view – Taken at Hampshire Wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 35:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1912 white coutil corset with attached elastic suspenders, adjustable straps and decorative white flossing; rustless bones label – Taken at Hampshire Wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 36:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1919 Natural raw silk women’s suit with no fastenings and epitomising the straight silhouette that became prolific towards the end of the decade. Photo taken at the Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Gunn, M. (2020/1918) ‘A woman votes for the first time, December 1918’ – taken at the Imperial War Museum, London. [photograph]. In possession of: the author

Figure 37:

Figure 38:

Gunn, M. (2020/1919) ‘Lady Astor is elected as the first female member of parliament within the British Government – taken at the Imperial War Museum, London. [photograph]. In possession of: the author

Figure 39:

Gunn, M. (2020) Female Ministry of Munitions uniform; full head to toe front view – taken at the Imperial War Museum, London. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 40:

Gunn, M. (2020) Female Ministry of Munitions uniform; collar detail – taken at the Imperial War Museum, London. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 41:

Gunn, M. (2020) Female Ministry of Munitions uniform; mid-riff detail – taken at the Imperial War Museum, London. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 42:

Imperial War Museum. (n.d.) Female munitions workers at the National Shell Factory in Dublin take a break outdoors during the First World War. [online picture/photograph]. Available from: https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/205213652 [Accessed 22 April 2020]

135

Figure 43:

Gunn, M. (2020) Blue overalls for women working in the War Office – taken at the Imperial War Museum, London. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 44:

Gunn, M. (2020) Van driver for the Midlands Railway women’s uniform with matching boots; bag part of uniform for the first women tram conductors in Britain – taken at the Imperial War Museum, London. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 45:

Gunn, M. (2020) Pale khaki hat and overall for the Women’s Land Association; women farm labourers – taken at the Imperial War Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 46:

Gunn, M. (2020) Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps uniform; the first women in the British Army – taken at the Imperial War Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 47:

Gunn, M. (2020) Poster from the Tramways Department encouraging women to come to work – taken at the Imperial War Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 48:

Gunn, M. (2020) Quote from Lord Shelbourne in 1916 – taken at the Imperial War Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Gunn, M. (2020) c.1925 brassiere made of black ribbed silk – full front view – taken at V&A Clothworkers. [photograph]. In possession of: the author

Figure 49:

Figure 50:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1925 brassiere made of black ribbed silk – full back view – taken at V&A Clothworkers. [photograph]. In possession of: the author

Figure 51:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1925 brassiere made of black ribbed silk – hook and eye fastenings close-up – taken at V&A Clothworkers. [photograph]. In possession of: the author

Figure 52:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1925 brassiere made of black ribbed silk – interior view, including side elastic gusset – taken at V&A Clothworkers. [photograph]. In possession of: the author

Figure 53:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1920 ‘bust flattener’ made of white cotton and with an embroidered top edge – full back view; taken at Hampshire Wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 54:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1920 ‘bust flattener’ made of white cotton and with an embroidered top edge – interior side view; taken at Hampshire Wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 55:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1920 ‘bust flattener’ made of white cotton and with an embroidered top edge – button and embroidery detail; taken at Hampshire Wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

136

Figure 56:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1920s girdle made of elasticated panels and cotton with elastic suspenders attached; taken at Hampshire Wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 57:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1920s white cotton bust bodice with ribbon straps attached – taken at Blandford Fashion Museum ‘Changing the Shape’ exhibition. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 58:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1920-30 turquoise bloomers with elasticated hems; taken at Hampshire Wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 59:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1920-30 turquoise bloomers with elasticated hems (yoke waistband detail); taken at Hampshire Wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 60:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1336 B.C. to 1326 B.C Chain and counterpoise from King Tutankhamen’s tomb – taken at the Saatchi Gallery exhibition Tutankhamen: Treasures of the Golden Pharaoh. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 61:

Higgs, L. (n.d.) c.1920s Scarab necklace from the era of ‘Tut-mania’. [online image]. Available from: https://theadventurine.com/culture/jewelry-history/the-eternal-appealof-egyptian-revival-jewelry/ [Accessed 22 April 2020]

Figure 62:

Gunn, M. (2020) Pair of tapestry woven gloves; one folded c.1336 B.C. to 1326 B.C. – taken at the Saatchi Gallery exhibition Tutankhamen: Treasures of the Golden Pharaoh. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 63:

Gunn, M. (2020) Back of Egyptian statue with hieroglyphics adorned on the back – taken at the Saatchi Gallery exhibition Tutankhamen: Treasures of the Golden Pharaoh. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 64:

Masters, T. (2014) c.1920s ‘Tut-mania’ gloves. [online photo]. Available from: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-28403598 [Accessed 25 April 2020]

Figure 65:

V&A Museum. (n.d.) c.1923 evening jacket made of gold lamé and embroidered with Egyptian motifs. [online image]. Available from: https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/art-deco-global-influences [Accessed 25 April 2020]

Figure 66:

Fukai, A. (2015) c.1927 Madeleine Vionnet evening dress made of black silk gauze with gold thread embroidery, tassels and Egyptian inspired patterns. [photograph]. In: The Collection of the Kyoto

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Costume Institute: Fashion: A History from the 18th to the 20th Century. Köln: Taschen. p.370. Figure 67:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1336 B.C. to 1326 B.C. Golden statuette from the tomb showing a tall, long and lean figure; much like the silhouette to be desired in the 20s – taken at the Saatchi Gallery exhibition Tutankhamen: Treasures of the Golden Pharaoh. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 68:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1336 B.C. to 1326 B.C Crook and flail of Tutankhamen made of gold leaf, carnelian, glass, wood and bronze – taken at the Saatchi Gallery exhibition Tutankhamen: Treasures of the Golden Pharaoh. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 69:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1336 B.C. to 1326 B.C. Vertical side straps from the mummy of Tutankhamen made of gold, carnelian, glass and faience. The straps are covered in Egyptian hieroglyphics – taken at the Saatchi Gallery exhibition Tutankhamen: Treasures of the Golden Pharaoh. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 70:

Gunn, M. (2020) Large golden statue from Tutankhamen tomb. c.1336 B.C. to 1326 B.C. – taken at the Saatchi Gallery exhibition Tutankhamen: Treasures of the Golden Pharaoh. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 71:

L’Art et la Mode (1924) Egyptian influence of western fashion. [illustration]. Available from: https://lesanneeselegantes.tumblr.com/post/93804496054/lart-et-lamode-1924 [Accessed 25 April 2020].

Figure 72:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1923 Green satin ‘flapper’ style dress – taken at the Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author

Figure 73:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1920s chiffon top part of dress embroidered with small clusters of white glass beads – taken at the Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 74:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1920s chiffon top part of dress embroidered with small clusters of white glass beads; bead detail – taken at the Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 75:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1920s chiffon top part of dress embroidered with small clusters of white glass beads; bead and sleeve detail – taken at the Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 76:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1920-30 gold lamé evening jacket; full front view – taken at Hampshire wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

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Figure 77:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1920-30 gold lamé evening jacket; sleeve and fabric detail – taken at Hampshire wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 78:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1920-30 gold lamé evening jacket; interior view – taken at Hampshire wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 79:

Fukai, A. (2015) c.1920 Paul Poiret evening dress with silver lame. [photograph]. In: The Collection of the Kyoto Costume Institute: Fashion: A History from the 18th to the 20th Century. Köln: Taschen. p.377.

Figure 80:

V&A Musuem. (2020). C.1920s burnt orange rayon crochet dress with streamers attached. [online image/photograph]. Available from: http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O318652/dress-trimmings-unknown/ [Accessed 27 April 2020].

Figure 81:

Gunn, M. (2020). C.1925 silk summer day dress in white and blue striped fabric; full front view – taken at V&A Clothworkers. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 82:

Gunn, M. (2020) C.1925 silk summer day dress in white and blue striped fabric; organdie vest detail – taken at V&A Clothworkers. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 83:

Gunn, M. (2020) C.1925 silk summer day dress in white and blue striped fabric; cartridge pleats detail – taken at V&A Clothworkers. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 84:

Davies-Strodder, C., Lister, J. and Taylor, L. (2015) c.1925 silk summer day dress owned by London socialite Heather Firbank [photograph]. In: London Society Fashion. London: V&A Publishing, p.96.

Figure 85:

Met Museum. (n.d.) c.1928 Louiseboulanger ostrich feather evening dress. [online image]. Available from: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/83209?searchField= All&amp;sortBy=Relevance&amp;ft=feather+dress&amp;offset=0&amp ;rpp=20&amp;pos=1 [Accessed 29 April 2020].

Figure 86:

O’Eris, C. (2017/1935) Ginger Rogers in a glamorous ostrich feather dress in the 1935 film Top Hat. [online image/photograph]. Available from: https://www.flickr.com/photos/140428060@N02/27613959449/ [Accessed 29 April 2020].

Figure 87:

GettyImages. (1935) White Ostrich Feather Cape designed by Norman Hartnell. [online image/photograph]. Available from: https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/the-ostrich-feathercape-designed-by-norman-hartnell-the-news-photo/3251399 [Accessed 29 April 2020].

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Figure 88:

Poppy’s Vintage Clothing. (n.d.) Vintage 1930s white ostrich feather cape 30s evening capelet with matching purse S/M. [online image]. Available from: https://www.poppysvintageclothing.com/products/vintage-1930s-whiteostrich-feather-cape-30s-evening-capelet-with-matching-purse-s-m [Accessed 29 April 2020].

Figure 89:

Philadelphia Museum of Art (n.d.) c.1937 Elsa Schiaparelli x Salvador Dalí ‘Lobster Telephone’ collaboration dinner dress made of silk organza and synthetic horsehair. [online image]. Available from: https://philamuseum.org/collections/permanent/65327.html?mulR=6620 01656|1# [Accessed 1 May 2020].

Figure 90:

Gunn, M. (2020) C.1938 Green and white print organdie dress – taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 91:

Gunn, M. (2020) C.1938 Green and white print organdie dress; print detail – taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 92:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1938 Charles James printed silk evening dress with print designed by surrealist artist Jean Cocteau – taken at the V&A Museum’s fashion collection. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 93:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1938 Charles James printed silk evening dress with print designed by surrealist artist Jean Cocteau; print detail – taken at the V&A Museum’s fashion collection. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 94:

Gunn, M. (2020) c.1935 Mainbocher crépe de chine floral printed dress, belt and jacket with ruffle hem and petal tab capped shoulders – taken at the V&A Museum’s fashion collection. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 95:

Met Museum. (n.d.) c.1930s American day dress with kaleidoscope of colourful printed flowers. [online image]. Available from: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/84283?searchField= All&amp;sortBy=Relevance&amp;ft=1930+print+dress&amp;offset=0& amp;rpp=80&amp;pos=35 [Accessed 1 May 2020].

Figure 96:

Met Museum. (n.d.) c.1930s American day dress with kaleidoscope of colourful printed flowers – Bodice detail. [online image]. Available from: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/84283?searchField= All&amp;sortBy=Relevance&amp;ft=1930+print+dress&amp;offset=0& amp;rpp=80&amp;pos=35 [Accessed 1 May 2020].

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Figure 97:

Goldstein Museum Collection. (n.d.) c.1936-38 Flowered rayon chiffon afternoon dress in blue and green floral print – front view. [online image]. Available from: http://collection.goldstein.design.umn.edu/proficiowebmodule/JDetail.a spx?db=objects&dir=GOLDSTEIN&rID=1961.010.022 [accessed 1 May 2020].

Figure 98:

Goldstein Museum Collection. (n.d.) c.1936-38 Flowered rayon chiffon afternoon dress in blue and green floral print – back view. [online image]. Available from: http://collection.goldstein.design.umn.edu/proficiowebmodule/JDetail.a spx?db=objects&dir=GOLDSTEIN&rID=1961.010.022 [accessed 1 May 2020].

Figure 99:

Goldstein Museum Collection. (n.d.) c.1934 Elsa Schiaparelli long blue polka dot net dress – front view. [online image]. Available from: http://cdesgdp.oit.umn.edu/proficiowebmodule/JDetail.aspx?db=objects&dir=GOL DSTEIN&rID=1984.014.026 [Accessed 2 May 2020].

Figure 100: Goldstein Museum Collection. (n.d.) c.1934 Elsa Schiaparelli long blue polka dot net dress – back view. [online image]. Available from: http://cdesgdp.oit.umn.edu/proficiowebmodule/JDetail.aspx?db=objects&dir=GOL DSTEIN&rID=1984.014.026 [Accessed 2 May 2020]. Figure 101: Kerry Taylor Auctions. (n.d.) Gold lamé bias cut evening gown with surrealist print. [online image]. Available from: https://www.bloomsburyfashioncentral.com/products/berg-fashionlibrary/museum/kerry-taylor/evening-gown-10347 [Accessed 2 May 2020]. Figure 102: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1930s bias cut ivory dress made of crepe; full front view – Taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Figure 103: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1930s bias cut ivory dress made of crepe; embroidery detail – Taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Figure 104: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1930s bias cut ivory dress made of crepe; Back detail – Taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Figure 105: Gunn, M. (2020) 1930s ivory satin/sateen bias cut wedding dress with attached cape; full front view – taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author

141

Figure 106: Gunn, M. (2020) 1930s ivory satin/sateen bias cut wedding dress with attached cape; wedding photo – taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author Figure 107: Gunn, M. (2020) 1930s ivory satin/sateen bias cut wedding dress with attached cape; button cuff detail – taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author Figure 108: Gunn, M. (2020) 1930s ivory satin/sateen bias cut wedding dress with attached cape; side sash detail – taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author Figure 109: Gunn, M. (2020) 1930s ivory satin/sateen bias cut wedding dress with attached cape; cotton tape in neckline lining – taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author Figure 110: British Library. (1943) Make Do and Mend Pamphlet cover and sample page. [illustration/online image]. Available from: https://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item106365.html [Accessed 5 May 2020]. Figure 111: Gunn, M. (2020). c.1945 Party dress with pink and black long striped skirt made of black-out curtain fabric – taken at Bath Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author Figure 112: Gunn, M. (2020). c.1940s homemade dress repurposed from a 1930s printed dress – taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Figure 113: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1940s hand knitted waistcoat – taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Figure 114: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1940s Copper silk/rayon tailored top with peter pan collar and scalloped hem; full front view – Taken at Hampshire Wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Figure 115: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1940s Copper silk/rayon tailored top with peter pan collar and scalloped hem; let out of side seams, interior view – Taken at Hampshire Wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Figure 116: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1940s Copper full mid-calf length skirt made up of six flared panels; full front view – taken at Hampshire Wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Figure 117: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1940s Copper full mid-calf length skirt made up of six flared panels; let out of seams detail – taken at Hampshire Wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

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Figure 118: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1940s Copper full mid-calf length skirt made up of six flared panels; skirt placket detail – taken at Hampshire Wardrobe. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

Figure 119: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1946 Parachute silk wedding dress with smocked waist and sweetheart neckline; full front view – taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Figure 120: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1946 Parachute silk wedding dress with smocked waist and sweetheart neckline; full back view – taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Figure 121: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1946 Parachute silk wedding dress with smocked waist and sweetheart neckline; wedding invite – taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Figure 122: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1946 Parachute silk wedding dress with smocked waist and sweetheart neckline; wedding photo from 1946 – taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Figure 123: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1946 Parachute silk wedding dress with smocked waist and sweetheart neckline; Waistline smocking detail – taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author Figure 124: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1946 wedding headband – taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Figure 125: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1940s ‘Suggestions for using Weldons patterns on Parachute Panels’ newspaper spread – taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Figure 126: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1941 Array of headscarves printed with patriotic propaganda by Jacqmar of London, an English textile-printing company – taken at the Imperial War Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Figure 127: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1941 Array of headscarves printed with patriotic propaganda by Jacqmar of London, an English textile-printing company; print detail – taken at the Imperial War Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Figure 128: Gunn, M. (2020) c.Mid 1940s Lady’s Utility suit made of light brown wool; full front view – taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Figure 129: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1941 Utility suit made of brown checked wool lined with cotton and rayon, peach cotton utility shirt and a reptile skin gas mask bag; full front view – taken at the V&A Museum Fashion Collection. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.

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Figure 130: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1947 Utility suit made of tweed by British brand Jaegar; full front view – taken at the Bath Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Figure 131: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1941 Utility stamped printed summer dress with thin navy waist belt; full front view – taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Figure 132: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1941 Utility stamped printed summer dress with thin navy waist belt; top detail – taken at Blandford Fashion Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Figure 133: V&A Museum. (2020 c.1942 Digby Morton grey herringbone wool Utility suit with CC41 buttons; full front view. [online image]. Available from: http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O15667/original-no-16-skirt-suitmorton-digby/ [Accessed 6 May 2020]. Figure 134: V&A Museum. (2020 c.1942 Digby Morton grey herringbone wool Utility suit with CC41 buttons; button detail. [online image]. Available from: http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O15667/original-no-16-skirt-suitmorton-digby/ [Accessed 6 May 2020]. Figure 135: Fukai, A. (2015) c.1940-44 Beige-pink wool suit by Parisian designer Jeanne Lanvin; full front view. [photograph]. In: The Collection of the Kyoto Costume Institute: Fashion: A History from the 18th to the 20th Century. Köln: Taschen. p.432. Figure 136: Fukai, A. (2015) c.1940-44 Beige-pink wool suit by Parisian designer Jeanne Lanvin; button pocket detail. [photograph]. In: The Collection of the Kyoto Costume Institute: Fashion: A History from the 18th to the 20th Century. Köln: Taschen. p.432. Figure 137: Maywald, W. (1947) The iconic Christian Dior’s 1947 bar suit which epitomised his ‘New Look’ collection. [photograph]. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2017/feb/16/christian-dior-frenchfashion-1947 [Accessed 9 May 2020]. Figure 138: Gunn, M. (2019) c.1947 Dior Bar Suit at the Dior: Designer of Dreams exhibition at the V&A Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author Figure 139: Gunn, M. (2019) c.1947 sketch of Dior’s Bar Suit at the Dior: Designer of Dreams exhibition at the V&A Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author Figure 140: V&A Museum. (n.d.) c.1947 New Look coat in plum coloured silk; full front view. [online image]. Available from: http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O139972/new-look-coat-dior-christian/ [Accessed 9 May 2020].

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Figure 141: Gunn, M. (2019) c.1947 Dior ‘Maxim’ dress made of silk velvet and wool; full front view – taken at the Dior: Designer of Dreams exhibition at the V&A Museum. [photograph]. In possession of: the author. Figure 142: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1947 Dior green silk polka dot day dress; full front view – taken at V&A Museum Fashion Collection. [photograph]. In possession of: the author Figure 143: Gunn, M. (2020) c.1947 Dior green silk polka dot day dress; bodice detail – taken at V&A Museum Fashion Collection. [photograph]. In possession of: the author Figure 144: V&A Museum. (n.d.) c.1947 Dior green silk polka dot day dress; back drape detail. [online image]. Available from: http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O117680/green-day-dress-diorchristian/ [Accessed 9 May 2020].

145