AFET-Study Guide - EUropa.S. 2020

EUropa.S. 2020 April 10-13 | University of Piraeus Organized by: Institute of Research & Training on European Affairs

Study Guide EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee

Topic: “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the EuroMediterranean region�

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide Table of Contents Table of Contents __________________________________________ 2 Greeting of the Board _______________________________________ 3 Introduction to European Parliament AFET Committee _____________ 4 Introduction of the Topic_____________________________________ 5 Historical Background _______________________________________ 5 Legal Framework ___________________________________________ 7 Political and Security Aspects _______________________________ 10 The situation in Syria and the EU’s approach _____________________ 10 Middle East Peace Process (Israeli-Palestinian Conflict) ____________ 12 Terrorism ______________________________________________ 15 Migration _______________________________________________ 18 Economic and Financial Aspects _____________________________ 22 Trade and Energy ____________________________________________ 22 Cyprus’ Exclusive Economic Zone _______________________________ 23 Social, Cultural and Human Aspects __________________________ 24 Democratization and Rule of Law _______________________________ 25 Minorities and Human Rights ___________________________________ 25 Political Parties’ Positions __________________________________ 26 Conclusions ______________________________________________ 29 Questions Raised __________________________________________ 29 Bibliography ______________________________________________ 31 Further Reading ___________________________________________ 41 Useful Links ______________________________________________ 42

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 2

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide

Greeting of the Board Esteemed MEPs, We would like to welcome you all to EUropa.S 2020 and, more specifically, to the European Parliament’s Committee on Foreign Affairs. As Board members, we are delighted to preside AFET in this year’s conference and to, of course, meet you in person and participate with you in the committee sessions, since we are utterly confident that you are capable to negotiate, cooperate, debate and argue diplomatically, in order to achieve the goals of our Committee.

These goals are for all of us to expand our knowledge in matters that baffle the international community and the European Union, to learn how to present our ideas in a diplomatic manner, and, of course, to enjoy ourselves throughout this whole experience. Stimulus for all that will be our particularly interesting topic; “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region”.

Taking into consideration the complexity and the several dimensions of the topic, after thorough research, we have conducted for you this study guide, which will serve as your tool and guideline while you are making your own preparation on your party’s and country’s policy. We believe that the present document, along with bibliography and the useful links-videos in the end of the document, combined with your personal research will help to fully comprehend the topic under discussion and be ready for our debates.

Concluding, we are here to provide you with guidance and support, answer your inquiries, and make further explanations, if needed, so do not hesitate to contact with us. Take this chance that you have been given and gain a new experience full of new knowledge, acquaintances, confidence and diplomatic courtesy.

We cannot wait to meeting you in person, yield the floor to you and listen to your ideas.

The Board of the AFET Committee.

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 3

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide

Introduction to European Parliament AFET Committee The European Parliament constitutes one of the seven institutional organs of the European Union according to the Treaty on the European Union Article 13 (TEU), which practically means that the European Parliament has an enacted role in the production and the interpretation of the European law. 1 It is composed of the Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) who are representatives of the Union’s citizens (TEU 14, par.2) and it is the only one EU directly-elected body. The Lisbon Treaty (2009), the latest version of the European Treaties, has extended even more the its powers and nowadays the European Parliament enjoys the widest range of responsibilities in the history of the Union since it is delineated as a crucial decisionmaking factor2. More specifically, today the treaties recognize to the parliament three different categories of powers; legislative, budgetary and supervisory as well as a system of cooperation with the national parliaments of the member states3. All the aforementioned ensure that both the composition and the function of the European Parliament reflect the democratic nature of this body and its prompt interaction with the European citizens.

In order to coordinate and perform its functions, the European Parliament shall meet not only in plenary sessions once per month, but also divided into specialized committees once or twice per month4. As far as the Committee on Foreign Affairs is concerned, dealing with a variety of issues related to the promotion, implementation and monitoring of the EU’s foreign policy.5 The AFET Committee is fully responsible for the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), the Common Security and Defense Policy (CSDP) and the European Neighborhood Policy (ENP). What is more, one of the fundamental competences of the AFET Committee is the engagement with issues concerning the democracy, the rule of law and human rights including the safeguarding of the cohesion in the EU external policy and the rights of minorities in third countries and the principles of the international law 6 . While through its resolutions can influence the policy-making of the Union and indicate its foreign policy.

1

Χριστιανός, Β.Α. (2011). Εισαγωγή στο δίκαιο της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης. Νομική Βιβλιοθήκη.

Anon 2019. Powers and procedures. [online] Available at: <https://www.europarl.europa.eu/aboutparliament/en/powers-and-procedures> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

3 Ibid.

4 European Parliament. (2019). Highlights | Committees | European Parliament. [online] Available at: <https://www.europarl.europa.eu/committees/en/home.html> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

5 European Parliament. (2019). Rules of Procedure of the European Parliament - Committee on Foreign Affairs July 2019. [online] Available at: <https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/lastrules/RESPAFET_EN.html?fbclid=IwAR3ZdrYvAovth2MSzR7LsTlxJ5PPPbHlGfS8fj7FQqlyVqaHmWWnv836fvg> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

6 Ibid.

2

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 4

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide

Introduction of the Topic The importance of the Mediterranean Sea, in both geopolitical, geostrategic and economic, cultural standpoint can be understood from the very fact that this area is situated at the crossroads between three continents while it connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Indian Ocean. In addition, the area consists the demarcation line between several ideologies, lifestyles and religions: Judeo-Christian and Islamic; developed and underdeveloped; democracy and authoritarianism, etc. Furthermore, the mineral and biological resources, the biodiversity, as well as the oil and gas fields constitute the region, as one of a geopolitical, cultural and economic significance 7.

Although, the Euro-Mediterranean area has all the essential prerequisites and specifications, as it was mentioned above, in order to continue its evolving progress, the last decades it is agonized by various challenges. But, since the Arab Spring of 2011 the region has been marred of conflicts, civil wars and terrorism that led to the refugee/migration crisis and worsened the situation in economic aspects and multiplied the violation of fundamental human rights and freedoms and deteriorated the inadequacy of democracy and rule of law. Accordingly, this study guide has been structured in a manner that covers all the above-mentioned aspects, while it highlights specific crises, such as the one in Syria, involving the Kurds, the long-existing IsraeliPalestinian conflict and the violation of Cyprus’ Exclusive Economic Zone from Turkey.

Under these circumstances the European Union as an active international player can remain neither static nor passive in the present situation. Thus, it goes without saying that the Union has to take concrete measures regarding all the aspects of the current conditions in order to reestablish security and stability in the Euro-Mediterranean area.

Historical Background In the Euro-Mediterranean region, there is a long history of asymmetric interdependence, result of the colonial relationship, between the north and the south of the Mediterranean, bearing in mind that the European States (north) are far more developed than the Middle East and North Africa States (south); today the EU is the most integrated region in the world, in antithesis to the south of the Mediterranean that is the least.

7

SOTIROVIĆ, V.B. (2018). Geopolitics of The Mediterranean Sea Area In Global Security During And After The Cold War (1949-1989). [online] OrientalReview.org.

Available at: https://orientalreview.org/2018/06/08/geopolitics-of-the-mediterranean-sea-area-in-global-securityduring-and-after-the-cold-war-1949-1989/ [Accessed 17 Nov. 2019].

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 5

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide Furthermore, it is important to mention that this area has faced the highest number of wars in the whole history 8 . Conflicts and instability are an integral part of the Mediterranean region, especially south of it; from the end of the Cold War: Algeria faced a decade of prolonged violence from 1991 to 2000; Lebanon experienced several clashes with Israel and a full-blown war in 2006; Israel experienced its second intifada from 2000 to 2005 and numerous violent conflicts in the Gaza Strip, notably in 2006, 2008 and 2012910. While, since the so-called ‘Arab Spring’ in 2011, the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) has been politically and economically more unstable, firstly, due to the fact that countries including Tunisia, Egypt and Libya experienced revolutions and civil conflicts that saw the removal of regimes that had been in power for decades and, secondly, Syria is facing a civil (proxy) war since 2011 with grave humanitarian and political implications and a mass influx of refugees in Europe 11 , while the emergence of the Islamic State led to a multi-sided war and many terrorist attacks in Europe and around the world12.

Already since the early 1970s, the forerunners of the EU have embarked on various processes destined to design their relationship with Mediterranean countries through several policy frameworks. These include, inter alia, the Global Mediterranean Policy of 1972 and the Euro-Arab Dialogue of 1973. But, since 1995, the region has taken on further importance for the EU, both within the foreign policy and domestic arenas, thus the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (EMP)/Barcelona Process came into existence in 1995. By the 2000s, the existing Euro-Mediterranean relationships were defined institutionally through two actions: the European Neighborhood Policy and the Union for the Mediterranean13.

8

Ibid.

Gaub, F. and Popescu, N. (2015). The EU neighbours 1995-2015: shades of grey. Paris: Institute for Security Studies. [online] Available at: https://www.iss.europa.eu/sites/default/files/EUISSFiles/Chaillot_Paper_136.pdf [Accessed 16 Nov. 2019].

10 Anon. (2014). CSP - Major Episodes of Political Violence, 1946-2012. [online] Available at: https://web.archive.org/web/20140121015442/http://www.systemicpeace.org/warlist.htm [Accessed 17 Nov. 2019].

11 Calleya, S. (2017). Managing security challenges in the Euro-Mediterranean area. Malta Arraiolos Meeting 2017. Mediterranean Conference Centre, Valletta.p.40.

12 RTE. (2017). Timeline - Terror attacks in Europe. [online] RTE. Available at: https://www.rte.ie/news/world/2017/0817/898178-europe-terror-attack-timeline/ [Accessed 17 Nov. 2019].

13 Georgakis Abbott, S. (2018). The EU and the Middle East: From the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership to the Union for the Mediterranean. In: Y.A. Stivachtis, ed. Conflict and Diplomacy in the Middle East.

Bristol, England: E-International Relations. Available at: https://www.e-ir.info/publication/conflict-anddiplomacy-in-the-middle-east-external-actors-and-regional-rivalries/ 9

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 6

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide

Legal Framework Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) All aspects of the EU foreign policy including questions relating to security and defense are coordinated, defined and implemented in the context of the CFSP. The CFSP is included in a distinctive institutional framework, in which national diplomats and EU officials guide the external policy on the basis of consensus. It is led by the High Representative, who is the “face and voice” of EU foreign policy and supported by the European External Action Service (EEAS) and other EU delegations in third countries and international organizations. This policy area aims to strengthen the EU's external ability through the development of civilian and military capabilities in the field of conflict prevention and crisis management 14 . Furthermore, it includes the use of sanctions with a diplomatic or economic nature in reply to policies that violate international law and disrespect human rights and democratic principles. Actually, through the CFSP the member states have committed themselves to follow the EU standards in the management of their foreign affairs in order to preserve peace, reinforce international security and promote international cooperation. 15 Although the CFSP has raised a variety of questions and debates regarding not only its governance but also the national sovereignty of the member states and also the real nature of the Union as a leading international factor, it continues to be considered as a milestone in the history of the European integration.16 Common Security and Defense Policy (CSDP) The Common Security and Defense Policy, came into force with the Lisbon Treaty in 200917. The CSDP was designed to respond to the current and ever-increasing needs for a coherent and strategic EU that can successfully become a secure global actor even in circumstances of political disorder and uncertainty. Under the aforementioned guideline, this mechanism has at its disposal military and civilian capabilities as well as a wide array of EU operational instruments (for example the 14

European External Action Service. (2016). Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) - European External Action Service. [online] Available at: <https://eeas.europa.eu/topics/common-foreignsecurity-policy-cfsp/420/common-foreign-and-security-policy-cfsp_en> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

15 EUR-LEX. (2019). Glossary of summaries - EUR-Lex. [online] Available at: <https://eurlex.europa.eu/summary/glossary/foreign_security_policy.html?locale=en> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

16 Hylke Dijkstra, H. and Vanhoonacker, S. (2017). Common Foreign and Security Policy - Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics. [online] Available at: <https://oxfordre.com/politics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore9780190228637-e-155> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

17 European External Action Service. (2019). The Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP). [Text] EEAS - European External Action Service - European Commission. Available at: <https://eeas.europa.eu/topics/common-security-and-defence-policy-csdp_en> [Accessed 29 Nov. 2019].

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 7

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, â&#x20AC;&#x153;The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean regionâ&#x20AC;?

Study Guide European External Action Service), in order to accomplish with the most effective way the double challenge of peace-making and peace-keeping. Nowadays, under the framework of the CSDP the EU undertakes both military operations and civilian missions in three continents; Europe, Asia and Africa18.

European Neighborhood Policy (ENP) The European Neighborhood Policy 19 was firstly launched in 2003 and developed throughout 2004 with the main aim to balance the two different pace of development in the Mediterranean region since the dividing lines between the ever enlarged EU on the one hand and its neighbors on the other were becoming even more intense and obvious.20 So, the ENP was designed to constitute a pillar of political, security and economic stabilization based on the principles of democracy and rule of law and respected human rights in one of the most fragile geographical zones. The ENP was reviewed twice; in 2011 after the uprisings of the Arab Spring and in 2015 after a request of the EU Member States. Today, 16 of the EU closest eastern and southern neighbors participate in this framework including Ukraine, Egypt, Israel, Libya, Syria etc., while Russia takes part in activities under ENP without being a partner country.

EEAS 2019. European Neighbourhood Policy. [online] Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-wedo/policies/international-affairs/european-neighbourhood-policy_en

18

European External Action Service. (2019). Military and civilian missions and operations - European External Action Service. [online] Available at: <https://eeas.europa.eu/topics/military-and-civilianmissions-and-operations/430/military-and-civilian-missions-and-operations_en> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

19 European External Action Service. (2019). European Neighbourhood Policy. [online] Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/international-affairs/europeanneighbourhood-policy_en 20 European External Action Service. (2019). European Neighbourhood Policy. [online] European Neighbourhood Policy.

Available at: <https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhoodenlargement/neighbourhood/overview_en> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 8

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide All the programs of the ENP are funded by its reviewed financial instrument which is now called European Neighborhood Instrument21.

Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (EUROMED – EMP) The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership is one of the three regional and multilateral cooperation initiatives of the ENP achieving in the reinforcement of the stability and the prosperity in the area.22 The fundamental step for this strategic cooperation began in 1995 with the Barcelona Process, the very first declaration of this comprehensive partnership. This is the reason why the EUROMED is formerly known as the Barcelona Process. The EMP was officially established in 2008 and it constitutes a Union between the EU Member States and the countries of the partnership which have today reached the number of 16. More specifically, the Partnership is based on the adoption of cooperation agreements between the EU and each partner separately.23 The Euro-Mediterranean Agreement Association (EMAA) is a legally binding treaty between the European Union and Mediterranean countries that establishes a framework for cooperation between them, covered by the ENP. Seven of them have an EMAA in force24, whereas Palestine has a temporary EMAA in force25. Syria initialed an EMAA in 2008, however signing has been postponed indefinitely 26 , while negotiations for a Framework Agreement with Libya, have been suspended27.

The goal of EUROMED first and foremost is the promotion of the economic integration through the creation of a free trade area without investment barriers between both

21

European External Action Service. (2016). European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) - European External Action Service. [online] European External Action Service.

Available at: <https://eeas.europa.eu/diplomatic-network/european-neighbourhood-policy-enp/330/europeanneighbourhood-policy-enp_en> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

22 European Commission. (2019). Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (EUROMED) | Migration and Home Affairs. [online] Available at: <https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-wedo/networks/european_migration_network/glossary_search/euro-mediterranean-partnership_en> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

23 European Commission. (2019). Euro-Mediterranean partnership - Trade - European Commission. [online] Available at: <https://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/countries-and-regions/regions/euromediterranean-partnership/> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

24 Morocco, Israel, Algeria, Jordan, Lebanon, Egypt, Tunisia.

25 “Euro-Mediterranean Association Agreements”. European Union. Available at: https://eurlex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=LEGISSUM:r14104 [Accessed 13 Nov. 2019].

26 EEAS. (2019). EU-Syria relations, factsheet. [Text] EEAS - European External Action Service - European Commission. Available at: https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage/6769/eusyria-relations-factsheet_en [Accessed 13 Nov. 2019].

27 European Commission. (2016). Libya. [Text] European Neighbourhood Policy And Enlargement Negotiations - European Commission. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhoodenlargement/neighbourhood/countries/libya_en [Accessed 13 Nov. 2019].

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 9

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide the EU and Southern Mediterranean countries and between the Southern Mediterranean countries themselves.28 Union for the Mediterranean The Union for the Mediterranean (henceforth UfM) is the successor of the Barcelona Process and was officially launched in 2008 by the Joint Declaration of the Paris Summit for the Mediterranean29. The governance of the UfM is based on the principles of unanimous decision-making, co-ownership and shared responsibility between all its Member States and partners. Promoting stability and integration across the Mediterranean region is the main goal of the UfM30. In order to successfully meet this goal, the Union aims at increasing the visibility of the partnership through the identification, appraisal and labialization of regional cooperation programs and projects in six priority areas: a) private sector development and youth employability, b) energy, c) environment and water, d) transport and urban development, e) civil protection and gender policies and f) higher education and research. To date, more than 50 of these initiatives have been adopted amounting to more than 5 billion euros31.

Political and Security Aspects Post-2011 events proved that the widening and increasingly intersecting conflicts are having a detrimental impact on the region’s social fabric and its people. As a result, what happens in the region has a spill-over effect. In this chapter, we will analyze the context, the implications for the EU and its actions regarding the situation in Syria, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and issues concerning terrorism.

The situation in Syria and the EU’s approach Syria’s civil war is in its eighth year32. A conflict that began in March 2011 with peaceful protests for reform and rights, in the context of the Arab Spring, evolved into a militarized confrontation, not just between the opposition and the Assad regime, but

28

EUR-LEX. (1995). Barcelona Declaration and Euro-Mediterranean partnership. [online] Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=LEGISSUM:r15001> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

29 Joint Declaration of the Paris Summit for the Mediterranean. (2008). In: Paris Summit for the Mediterranean. [online] Available at: https://ufmsecretariat.org/wpcontent/uploads/2012/09/ufm_paris_declaration1.pdf [Accessed 13 Nov. 2019].

30 Union for the Mediterranean. (n.d.). What we do?. [online]. Available at: https://ufmsecretariat.org/what-we-do/ [accessed 13 Nov. 2019].

31 Albinyana, R. (2016). A Review of EU Policies towards the Mediterranean Region. European Institute of the Mediterranean, [online] (136), p.10. Available at: <https://www.iemed.org/recursoscompartits/pdfs/A%20review%20of%20EU%20policies%20towards%20the%20Mediterranean%20regi on%20-1957-2016.pdf> [Accessed 17 Nov. 2019].

32 See Useful Links for informational videos.

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 10

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide 33 also among multiple factions . Eight years after the outbreak of the conflict, the situation in Syria is still critical. An estimated 500,000 Syrians have been killed since the outbreak of civil war in March 2011, over 6.6 million people have been internally displaced, and nearly 14 million need humanitarian assistance. More than 5.6 million more have sought refuge in neighboring countries and beyond. About a million Syrians have moved to Europe34. The possibilities for violence are still high, and there is little progress in sight towards a sustainable resolution of the conflict.

Whereas, Turkey’s military operation in north-eastern Syria, caused a resurgence in the crisis35. The EU strongly criticized this military operation: The Council condemned Turkey’s military action36, while, MEPs called for measures against Turkey and many reiterated the essential part of the Kurds in the fight against ISIS militants37.

Nevertheless, the European Union is being engaged to this conflict since 2011. In the beginning of the conflict the EU terminated its contacts with Syria in the framework of the Euro Mediterranean Partnership (EUROMED), while it adopted a series of sanctions 38 . Furthermore, the EU adopted a concrete stance and advocated the position of “Assad should go,” when the conflict turned into a civil war in between oppositional forces and Assad regime. The EU stated very clearly that “[it] has called on President Assad to step aside and allow a peaceful and democratic transition”39.

The rise of Islamic State in 2014 altered the EU’s approach to the Syrian crisis, as IS took control of the major cities in Iraq and Syria and carried out terror activities in the capital cities of Europe. This situation gave rise to security considerations of the member states and shifted their attention from the removal of Assad regime and 33

CNN Library. (2019). Syrian Civil War Fast Facts. [online] CNN. Available at: https://www.cnn.com/2013/08/27/world/meast/syria-civil-war-fast-facts/index.html [Accessed 19 Nov. 2019].

34 European Parliamentary Research Service, 2018. EU strategy for Syria. [online] European Parliament.

Available at: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/EPRS/EULaw/09-15301-EU-Strategy-for-Syria-EPRS-00EN.pdf [Accessed 19 Nov. 2019].

35 Pleitgen, F. and CNN. (2019). Everything you need to know about Turkey’s military offensive in Syria. [online] CNN. Available at: https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/07/middleeast/six-questions-syria-usintl/index.html [Accessed 19 Nov. 2019].

36 Consilium. (2019). North East Syria: Council adopts conclusions. [online] Council of the European Union. Available at: http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2019/10/14/councilconclusions-on-north-east-syria/ [Accessed 19 Nov. 2019].

37 European Parliament. (2019). Debate: MEPs call for action following Turkey’s military operation in Syria. [online] European Parliament.

Available at: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/world/20191018STO64606/debate-meps-callfor-action-following-turkey-s-military-operation-in-syria [Accessed 13 Nov. 2019].

38 Stankov, V. (2019). THE ROLE OF THE EUROPEAN UNION FOR THE SETTLEMENT OF THE CONFLICT IN SYRIA. IJASOS- International E-journal of Advances in Social Sciences, [online] pp.1032–1035. Available at: https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/doi/10.18769/ijasos.592327 [Accessed 19 Nov. 2019].

39 JOINT COMMUNICATION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS. https://eurlex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52012JC0014 EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 11

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide Syria’s democratic transition to the fight against the IS. The European Union has never carried out a military engagement in Syria directly; it has supported the US-led antiISIS forces at the member state level. For example, France increased its military engagement and airstrikes under the umbrella of the US-led coalition40. After the Paris attack in 2015, France invoked, for the first time, the mutual defense clause of Article 42(7) of the Lisbon Treaty, on 17 November 2017 41 . France and US were also supported by Germany, United Kingdom, Belgium, and Denmark through ground forces, naval support, and intelligence. Moreover, the European Parliament has adopted resolutions condemning the atrocities and widespread violations of human rights and international humanitarian law committed by all parties to the conflict42.

Overall, since the beginning of the conflict, the European Union and its member states have provided more than €10.8 billion in humanitarian, development, economic and stabilization assistance, to help those who have fled the war, both within and outside Syria. The EU Regional Trust Fund in response to the Syrian crisis (the Madad Fund) was established in December 2014 to ensure a more flexible response for the region affected by the Syrian crisis. Contributions to the Trust Fund have reached EUR 1.6 billion to date43.

Middle East Peace Process (Israeli-Palestinian Conflict) The Israeli-Palestinian conflict began in the middle of the 20th century still being ongoing 44 . The origin could be traced back to the first Zionist Jewish migration to Palestine, in 1882 45 . The conflict clearly emerged later on, in 1947, when the Palestinian nationalism emerged, in response to Jewish people’s will to form a state with actual borders, rather than being a spread-out nation.

40

Kizilkan, Z.B. (2019). Changing Policies of Turkey and the EU to the Syrian Conflict. p.16. Available at: https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/641989 [Accessed 19 Nov. 2019].

41 Anon 2015. France invoked “mutual defence clause” for the first time in EU history. [online]. Available at: http://euromil.org/france-invoked-mutual-defence-clause-for-the-first-time-in-eu-history/ [Accessed 19 Nov. 2019].

42 European Parliament resolution of 18 May 2017 on the EU strategy on Syria (2017/2654(RSP)). [online] Available at: <http://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-8-2017-0227_EN.html> [Accessed 19 Nov. 2019].

43 Consilium. (2017). Council adopts EU strategy on Syria. [online]. Available at: http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2017/04/03/fac-conclusions-syria/ [Accessed 19 Nov. 2019].

44 See Useful Links for informational videos.

45 Neal, L.S. (1995). The Roots of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: 1882-1914. Illinois Wesleyan University Digital Commons @ IWU, p.34.

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 12

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide The divisive issues are: a) control of Jerusalem46, b) Israeli settlements47, c) mutual recognition, d) borders, e) security, f) Palestinian freedom of movement and right of return and g) water rights. The aspects of this conflict have been the object of numerous international conferences dealing with historic rights, security issues and human rights, while many diplomatic efforts have been taken, either from States and individuals either from the United Nations, mainly focusing on the two-state solution48.

The European Union’s involvement the conflict is almost as old as the conflict itself; this makes the Israeli-Palestinian conflict one of the longest, sustained cases of active EU involvement in world politics49. In the EU’s 2003 security strategy, resolution of the Israeli- Palestinian conflict was defined as a ‘a strategic priority for Europe’ and one of the keys for ‘dealing with other problems in the Middle East50. After the Oslo Accords were signed in 1993–95, the EU became the main financier of the peace process and the “most reliable donor”51; since 2000 the EU has given more than €770 million to Palestine. However, EU members could not present a united position, neither on the 2011 or the 2012 Palestinian bids for statehood in the UN52.

The European Parliament has passed several resolutions regarding this conflict; most importantly in 2014, passed a resolution recognizing the Palestine statehood 53. The MEPs support “in principle recognition of Palestinian statehood and the two-state solution on the basis of the 1967 borders, with Jerusalem as the capital of both states, and believe these should go hand in hand with the development of peace talks, which 46

Beauchamp, Z. (2018).

What is Jerusalem? [online] Vox. Available at: <https://www.vox.com/2018/11/20/18080040/jerusalem-israel-palestine> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

47 Beauchamp, Z., 2018. What are settlements, and why are they such a big deal? [online] Vox. Available at: <https://www.vox.com/2018/11/20/18080052/israel-settlements-west-bank> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

48 Beauchamp, Z. (2018). What are the ‘two-state solution’ and the ‘one-state solution’? [online] Vox. Available at: <https://www.vox.com/2018/11/20/18080094/what-are-the-two-state-solution-andthe-one-state-solution> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

49 Persson, A. (2018). Introduction: The Occupation at 50: EU-Israel/Palestine Relations Since 1967.

Middle East Critique, [online] 27(4), pp.317–320.

Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19436149.2018.1492222 [Accessed 9 Nov. 2019].

50 European Security Strategy. (2003). A Secure Europe in a Better World. Available at: https://www.cvce.eu/content/publication/2004/10/11/1df262f2-260c-486f-b414dbf8dc112b6b/publishable_en.pdf [Accessed 15 Sep. 2017].

51 Wadi, R. (2019). What defines the EU’s relations with Israel and the Palestinians? [online] Middle East Monitor. Available at: https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20190502-what-defines-the-eusrelations-with-israel-and-the-palestinians/ [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

52 Persson, A. (2018). Introduction: The Occupation at 50: EU-Israel/Palestine Relations Since 1967.

Middle East Critique, [online] 27(4), pp.317–320.

Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19436149.2018.1492222 [Accessed 9 Nov. 2019].

53 European Parliament. (2014). European Parliament resolution of 17 December 2014 on recognition of Palestine statehood (2014/2964(RSP)). [online] Available at: <http://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-8-2014-0103_EN.html> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 13

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide 54 should be advanced” . It was also decided to launch the “Parliamentarians for Peace” initiative to bring together MEPs and MPs from the Israeli and Palestinian parliaments.

The EU’s decision to label products from Israeli settlements in the West Bank in 2015 led Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu to suspend the EU’s diplomatic involvement in peace efforts with the Palestinians for a “reassessment.”55 Efforts to reinstate the EU-Israel Association Council, an annual ministerial-level political dialogue, in 2016 faltered. According to the Union, the Council demonstrates “the significance of the EU attaches to its relations with the State of Israel.” Yet, it has been unable to reconvene since 2012–– in spite of a legal framework that stipulates that the Council meets once a year to examine EU-Israeli relations56. Therefore, the EU should invest in building ties with Israeli politicians with a general pro-European attitude and encourage them to challenge EU bashing publicly and to view and portray the EU as a partner, rather than a foe.

Therefore, while the relations between the EU and Israel have gotten worse, Israel has developed a new strategic alliance with Greece, closer ties with the Visegrad Four group (Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary) and far-right governments and parties in Europe, while the Palestinians, for their part, have had difficulties in finding allies among the states of Europe, but Western European states, such as France and Germany, have remained committed to EU positions and seek to preserve the two-state solution57.

The ties of Israel with European states are bearing fruit, as in May 2018, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Romania, in coordination with Israel, successfully blocked a joint EU statement condemning the relocation of the U.S. Embassy to Jerusalem58. While no EU member state voted against the December 2017 UN General Assembly resolution calling on Washington to withdraw its recognition, six eastern member states did abstain following threats from former U.S. ambassador to the UN Nikki Haley, highlighting the lack of an EU consensus on foreign policy matters pertaining to Israel and Palestine59. Additionally, Hungary opened a trade office in Jerusalem with

54

Ibid.

Reuters. (2015). Israel suspends EU role in peace process with Palestinians. Reuters. [online] 29 Nov. Available at: <https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-palestinians-eu-idUSKBN0TI0SH20151129> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

56 Wermenbol, G. (2019). The EU and the Israeli-Palestinian Peace Process in a Post-Mogherini Era. [online] Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.

Available at: <https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/79985> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

57 Ibid.

58 Bretan, J. (2018). Emerging Europe Trio Block Joint EU Statement on US Embassy in Israel. [online] Emerging Europe. Available at: <https://emerging-europe.com/news/emerging-europe-trio-blockjoint-eu-statement-us-embassy-israel/> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

59 Kranz, M. (2019). Nikki Haley issued a stern threat to UN members and said the US would be ‘taking names’ on Jerusalem vote. [online] Business Insider.

Available at: 55

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 14

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide 60 diplomatic status in March 2019 . This decision revealed defiance toward the publication of an internal EU memo in the same month, which called on member states to “continue to respect the international consensus on Jerusalem.”61 Despite the current situation, the EU has many different peace-building tools at its disposal, some of which are unique, such as offering Israel and Palestine closer integration into the EU. Nevertheless, the EU should, inter alia, develop a new comprehensive approach countering entrenched occupation, settlement expansion, displacement and annexation policies by focusing on supporting the Palestinian presence on the ground through development measures as well as political and financial support against forced evictions; explore opportunities for Israeli-Palestinian talks in a variety of settings, such as at the sidelines of the Eastern Mediterranean Gas Forum; support a unified Palestinian structure and reforms in governance, as today, the Palestinians are divided into two governments/groups, the Palestinian Authority (PA) and Hamas;

Terrorism Terrorism has been a long-standing concern in most EU member states. According to a study conducted by the Pew Research Centre in May 2017, the EU’s civil society is concerned about terrorism to a significant extent, as almost 8% of EU citizens are worried about the rise of Islamic extremism62. As more than 2400 people have died in terrorist attacks in Europe since 200163 governments and policy-makers in most EU member states have been urged by their citizens to deliver an adequate response to the terrorist threat64.

<https://www.businessinsider.com/nikki-haley-un-jerusalem-vote-us-taking-names-2017-12> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

60 France24. (2019). Hungary opens trade mission to Israel in west Jerusalem. [online] France 24.

Available at: <https://www.france24.com/en/20190319-hungary-opens-trade-mission-israel-westjerusalem> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

61 Wermenbol, G. (2019). The EU and the Israeli-Palestinian Peace Process in a Post-Mogherini Era. [online] Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.

Available at: <https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/79985> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

62 Abdelsamad, H. (2018). Terrorism and counterterrorism in the EU. DOC Research Institute. Available at: <https://doc-research.org/2018/08/counterterrorism/> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

63 Berthelet, P. (2017). How the European Union is making major strides fighting terrorism. [online] The Conversation. Available at: <http://theconversation.com/how-the-european-union-is-making-majorstrides-fighting-terrorism-82866> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

64 European Parliament. (2017). The European Union’s Policies on Counter-Terrorism Relevance, Coherence and Effectiveness - Study for the LIBE Committee. Policy Department for Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs, p.14.

Available at: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2017/583124/IPOL_STU(2017)583124_EN.p df EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 15

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide Terrorism has also been prevalent in the southern neighborhood countries, especially in the MENA region 65 ; thus, today more than ever, as the EU and the southern Mediterranean region countries are deeply interdependent, the need for a comprehensive approach is vital for the security of the EU. After the terrorist attacks in Madrid (2004) and London (2005), EU member states broadened and strengthened their cooperation by establishing the position of EU Counter-Terrorism Coordinator in March 2004, and adopting the EU CounterTerrorism Strategy in November 200566; the strategy focuses on four pillars: prevent, protect, pursue and respond 67 . Accordingly, the European Parliament has adopted new rules to make the use of guns and the creation of home-made bombs more difficult for terrorists and created a special committee on terrorism to evaluate how to better fight terrorism at EU level 68, while, in 2018, a report was produced with concrete measures on fighting terrorism69.

In the context of the Euro-Med Partnership, cooperation in counter-terrorism has started since 1973 through the Euro-Arab Dialogue, then the cooperation occurred under the framework of the 1995 Barcelona Process and the EMP. However, the collaboration was limited; a change was pursued after 2004, with the establishment of the European Neighborhood Policy, but the aims of the counter-terrorism Action Plans were vague and limited, due to the hesitance of the EU to cooperate with authoritarian regimes70. Yet, in 2005 – the 10nth anniversary of the EMP, a “EuroMediterranean Code of Conduct on Countering Terrorism” was published reiterating the need to strengthen co-operation and coordination to respond to terrorism.

The alteration in the approach of the EU occurred, after 2015 - in the light of the emergence of ISIS and due to several terrorist attacks in the EU. In 2017, the European 65

U.S. Department of State. (2019). Chapter 2. Country Reports: Middle East and North Africa Overview. [online] U.S. Department of State. Available at: <//2009-2017.state.gov/j/ct/rls/crt/2015/257517.htm> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

66 Ibid, p.4.

67 Consilium.

(2019).

EU counter-terrorism strategy. [online] Available at: <http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/fight-against-terrorism/eu-strategy/> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

68 European Parliament. (2018). Terrorism in the EU since 2015 | News | European Parliament. [online] Available at: <https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/security/20180703STO07127/terrorism-inthe-eu-since-2015> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

69 European Parliament. (2018). 2018/2044(INI) - 12/12/2018 - Text adopted by Parliament, single reading. [online] European Parliament.

Available at: <https://oeil.secure.europarl.europa.eu/oeil/popups/summary.do?id=1566710&t=d&l=en> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

70 Torelli, S. (2017). European Union and the External Dimension of Security: Supporting Tunisia as a Model in Counter-Terrorism Cooperation. [online] European Institute of the Mediterranean. p. 20.

Available at: <https://www.euromesco.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/201704-EuroMeSCo-Paper33.pdf>.

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 16

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide Commission presented a set of operational and practical measures to prevent terrorism and better defend EU citizens, one of which was to enhance multilateral and bilateral counter-terrorism cooperation with third countries, regarded as necessary for strengthening the Union’s internal security;71 in June 2018, the Council approved the Commission’s proposal 72 . The negotiating mandates approved by the Council allow the Commission to start talks with eight countries73 on behalf of the EU on the exchange of information, including personal data, with Europol.

EU’s counter-terrorism cooperation with its MENA neighbors is focused on four areas: a) border controls; b) countering the financing of terrorism; c) fostering regional cooperation; and d) strengthening the rule of law and the protection of human rights 74 . For this, the EU funding for counter-terrorism efforts and preventing/countering violent extremism, amounted approximately €334 million in 2015 and €399 million in 201675. Furthermore, in the context of this cooperation the EU has: conducted the EU Integrated Border Management Assistance Mission Libya (EUBAM Libya) between 2013 and 2017 in order to assist the Libyan authorities in border management76; encouraged member states to provide technical assistance to third countries to help them comply with international Anti-Money Laundering and Countering Financing of Terrorism (AML/CFT) standards77; set up the AML/CFT Global Initiative, with an investment of 16 million EUR, to support countries in the MENA region to monitor, disrupt, and deny the financing of terrorism and funds associated with terrorist activity78; and launched the “Counter-Terrorism in the Middle East and North Africa Region (CT MENA)” project, which provides extensive training opportunities for law-makers, police forces, prosecutors, judges, and other justice sector stakeholders79.

71

European Commission. (2019). Security Union: Commission presents new measures to better protect EU citizens. [Text] European Commission - European Commission. Available at: <https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_17_3947> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

72 COLLARD, E. (2018). Security Union: Strengthening Europol’s cooperation with third countries to fight terrorism and serious organized crime. [Text] Migration and Home Affairs - European Commission.

Available at: <https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/news/security-union-strengthening-europolscooperation-third-countries-fight-terrorism-and-serious_en> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

73 i.e. Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Tunisia and Turkey 74 Gaub, F., Popescu, N., Missiroli, A. and Europäische Kommission eds. (2017). After the EU global strategy: building resilience, edited by Florence Gaub and Nicu Popescu; foreword by Antonio Missiroli.

Paris: European Union Institute for Security Studies. p.7-8 Available at: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2017/578013/EXPO_IDA(2017)578013_EN.p df 75 Ibid.

76 Ibid, 9-10.

77 Ibid, p.13-14 78 Ibid.

79 Ibid, p. 11-12.

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 17

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide During the years, many suggestions have been proposed by various academics, analysts, and the EU itself to improve the EU’s work in the field of counterterrorism, suggestions, inter alia, such as: peer-to-peer training sessions and exchange of best practices, intelligence and biometric data; creation of research programs focused on the psychological and social dimensions of terrorism; establishment of Euro-Med research center focused on radicalization, that, through it, the EU, its institutions and non-EU member of the UfM, could engage with NGOs and civil society organizations in trying to understand the roots of extremism and dealing with its propagation; adoption of alternative counterterrorism policy-making, focused more on citizens and based on information and evidence-based assessments; and, last but not least, the EU should develop “soft-power” initiatives and policies which will be addressing the root causes of terrorism, focused on the youth80.

Migration According to stats from the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, from 2014 to November 2019, more than 1,8 million refugees and migrants have crossed the European borders81, with the majority originating from Middle Eastern and African countries, which are trapped in long-standing sectarian and/or civil conflicts, and live under extreme poverty, hunger and insecurity, with no job opportunities, while the impacts of climate change are more visible than ever82. More than 19 thousand people have lost their lives in the Mediterranean Sea83.

Access to Europe is mainly achieved by three routes, namely the Western Mediterranean, the Central Mediterranean and the Eastern Mediterranean. The first two are considered access points for migratory flows from Africa, while the latter for migratory flows from the Middle East and South Asia. In geographical terms, the first Route mainly takes advantage of the Spanish exclaves – the only land border between Africa and Europe - of Ceuta and Melilla in Africa. The Central Mediterranean Route, is the most dangerous one, as it begins from coastal towns and villages of the failed state of Libya and heads towards Italy and Malta. Finally, the Eastern Mediterranean

80

Abdelsamad, H. (2018). Terrorism and counterterrorism in the EU. DOC Research Institute. Available at: <https://doc-research.org/2018/08/counterterrorism/> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

81 See Useful Links for informational videos.

82 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2015). Briefing paper: Understanding the root causes of displacement. [online] UNHCR. Available at: <https://www.unhcr.org/protection/operations/56684ce89/briefing-paper-understanding-rootcauses-displacement-idmc-2015.html> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

83 IOM. (2019). Europe | Flow monitoring. [online] Migration - IOM. Available at: <https://migration.iom.int/europe?type=arrivals> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 18

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide Route involves Turkey as a point of departure and mainly Greece and Bulgaria as transit countries84.

For the European Union, the crisis triggered rapid developments. On one hand, division among member states deteriorated as there was widespread suspicion and mistrust regarding the management of the crisis, while, on the other hand, division reached also the societies of the countries mostly affected by the crisis, as the dilemma “Solidarity or Mistrust” towards refugees and migrants, had a strong impact on politics within the European Union. EU countries that had pro-refugee politics such as Germany, France and Italy, witnessed gradually far right, populist and xenophobic outbreaks. In policy matters the EU took many different actions and funded many projects85, while the Commission published the “European Agenda on Migration ”86 but in this chapter, we will focus on cooperation matters and initiatives in the Mediterranean region, especially regarding the central route.

Operation Sophia Up until 2015, it was largely left to Italy to address the growing flow of migrants from – the deadliest route – Libya, in the form of the Mare Nostrum a “Search and Rescue” operation, which lasted from October 2013 to October 2014, and under which some 150,000 seaborne migrants were rescued and brought to Italy87.

Having failed in 2014 to replace the Italian Mare Nostrum Operation with an appropriate EU mission with the usage of FRONTEX, and despite the large number of migrant arrivals and deaths at sea in 2014 in the central Mediterranean, it took a series of mass drownings and a tragedy of nearly 700 people perishing in a ship off the coast of Lampedusa on 19 April 2015 for the EU to act88.

84

Info Migrants. (2019). Changing journeys: Migrant routes to Europe. [online] InfoMigrants. Available at: <https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/15005/changing-journeys-migrant-routes-to-europe> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

85 For more information about EU’s policy actions see: https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-wedo/policies/european-agenda-migration/background-information_en 86 European Parliament. (2019). Immigration policy | Fact Sheets on the European Union | European Parliament. [online] Available at: <https://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/152/immigration-policy> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

87 Baldwin-Edwards, M. and Lutterbeck, D. (2019). Coping with the Libyan migration crisis. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, [online] 45(12), pp.2241–2257.

Available at: <https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1369183X.2018.1468391> [Accessed 13 Nov. 2019].

88 Bonomolo, A. and Kirchgaessner, S. (2015). UN says 800 migrants dead in boat disaster as Italy launches rescue of two more vessels. The Guardian. [online] 20 Apr. Available at: <https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/20/italy-pm-matteo-renzi-migrant-shipwreck-crisissrebrenica-massacre> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 19

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide On 18 May 2015 Council Decision (CFSP) 2015/778 was published, announcing an EU military operation in the Southern Central Mediterranean. Its original name was EUNAVFOR-MED, which was changed to Operation Sophia in September 2015, named after a baby born aboard one of the mission’s ships off the coast of Libya. Operation Sophia (to use its current name) states its objective as being “disruption of the business model of human smuggling and trafficking networks in the southern central Mediterranean”.

The operation has also supporting tasks, including, training of Libyan Coastguard and Navy, implementation of the UN arms embargo on the high seas off the coast of Libya.

Moreover, the operation also conducts surveillance activities and gathers information on illegal trafficking of oil exports from Libya, in accordance with the UN Security Council resolutions89.

The Operation is still operational today (it was extended until 31 March 2020) 90, but, but, in March 2019, the EU began to replace ships with unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), due to fractions between member states91; many believe that the operation was a pull factor, as people trying to cross the borders knew that the Union’s ships will rescue them 92 . Under international and EU law, the ships that participated in the mission were obliged to assist vessels in distress, but such obligation does not apply to UAVs. Accordingly, the EU has not carried out a rescue in these waters in more than a year 93 , raising questions about the humanitarian character of the Union, as the responsibility has fallen into the shoulders of NGOs, which in some cases have prosecuted94 and fined95.

89

Ibid.

Consilium. (2019). EUNAVFOR MED Operation Sophia: mandate extended until 31 March 2020. [online] Available at: <http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/pressreleases/2019/09/26/eunavfor-med-operation-sophia-mandate-extended-until-31-march-2020/> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

91 Barigazzi, J. (2019). EU extends Operation Sophia for 6 months, still without ships. [online] POLITICO. Available at: <https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-extends-operation-sophia-for-6-months-stillwithout-ships/> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

92 House of Lords. (2017). Operation Sophia: a failed mission. [online] London: House of Lords.p.31.

Available at: <https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201719/ldselect/ldeucom/5/5.pdf>.

93 Fine, S. (2019). All at sea: Europe’s crisis of solidarity on migration. p.6.

94 Hughes, R. (2019). How this ship captain took on Italy’s strongman. BBC News. [online] 6 Jul. Available at: <https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-48853050> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

95 Terol, A.R. (2019). Spain threatens migrant rescue NGO with €900k fine. [online] Available at: <http://www.catalannews.com/society-science/item/spain-threatens-migrant-rescue-ngo-with-900kfine, https://www.catalannews.com/society-science/item/spain-threatens-migrant-rescue-ngo-with900k-fine> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

90

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 20

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide Despite the fact that more than 50,000 people have been saved by the naval forces of the operation96, “Sophia” is considered a “failed mission”, as it hasn’t managed to achieve disrupt illegal trafficking, while the EU has been harshly criticized from various organizations, such as the International Amnesty “the EU shows its willingness to stop refugees coming to Europe without considering the costs, while human rights are violated”97. According to Human Rights Watch, the training of Libyan coastguards aims to trap people in Libya, violating their human rights, especially freedom of movement98.

Therefore, considering the situation in Libya and the conflicts in Africa and Middle East, is of utmost importance that the EU would develop a new comprehensive approach to Libya and the migrant flows coming from there. Of course, it should also, work and develop more multi-faceted actions and initiatives in Libya in the context of promoting migrants’ rights, helping reform the economy and support municipalities.

Other Actions Taken In response to the criminalization of rescuing operations of NGOs and the non-existent EU SAR operations, 14 EU member states signed a “solidarity mechanism” in how to respond when a boat in distress sought to dock in Europe and how to allocate brings around the 14 countries99.

In combination with the above-mentioned the EU has increasingly emphasized cooperation with third countries, in this manner the EU established the “Emergency Trust Fund for Africa” 100 in November 2015, an initiative aiming to curb the root causes of migration from Africa. A part of the 2015-2020 budget (€647.7m) will be allocated to the southern neighborhood countries101.

Regarding the eastern Mediterranean route (from Turkey to Greece/Bulgaria), on 18 March 2016, the European Council and Turkey reached an agreement aimed at 96

Cusumano, E. (2019). Migrant rescue as organized hypocrisy: EU maritime missions offshore Libya between humanitarianism and border control. Cooperation and Conflict, [online] 54(1), pp.3–24.

Available at: <http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0010836718780175> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

97 Amnesty International. (2016). EU risks fuelling horrific abuse of refugees and migrants in Libya. [online] Amnesty International. Available at: <https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2016/06/eurisks-fuelling-horrific-abuse-of-refugees-and-migrants-in-libya/> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

98 Human Rights Watch. (2016). EU/NATO: Europe’s Plan Endangers Foreigners in Libya. [online] Human Rights Watch. Available at: <https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/07/06/eu/nato-europes-planendangers-foreigners-libya> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

99 Gotev, G. (2019). EU coalition of the willing agrees new migrant ‘solidarity mechanism’. www.euractiv.com. Available at: <https://www.euractiv.com/section/justice-home-affairs/news/eucoalition-of-the-willing-agrees-new-migrant-solidarity-mechanism/> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

100 See more: https://ec.europa.eu/trustfundforafrica/index_en 101 Fine, S., 2019. All at sea: Europe’s crisis of solidarity on migration. p.19.

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 21

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide stopping the flow of irregular migration via Turkey to Europe102. Until now, Turkey, has respected this agreement, but during the last months, in the light of the recent events with the gas fields in Cyprus’ Exclusive Economic Zone and the invasion in north east Syria, President Erdogan has threatened to allow millions of people to cross the EU-Turkish borders103. Simultaneously, the invasion in the Kurdish-controlled areas of Syria, is boosting refugee flows into Europe again, according to stats 104 , fact that should be carefully watched.

Economic and Financial Aspects According to the Council of the European Union, this pillar includes the achievement of “sustainable and balanced economic development of the countries of the Mediterranean region” with the goal to create a win-win cooperation area where the EU Member States and their neighbors can enjoy shared prosperity. Under this framework, the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership plays the most crucial role in the attempt of succeeding the high standards of this common intention.

Trade and Energy The establishment and the further development of free trade areas between the European Union and the Mediterranean States is one of the most important dimensions of this aspect. Creating an environment characterized by the lack of economic barriers and as a result the extensive exchange of goods, capitals and human resources can contribute decisively to the mitigate poverty levels in the region. 105 Supplementary, the conducive provisions for investments in this enlarged EuroMediterranean market play an indispensable role in the sustainable economic growth and the consequent shared prosperity. After the adoption of EUROMED, a large number of trade agreements have been signed and moreover a wide variety of freetrade-zones projects have been taken place in the direction of a widened economic integration. 106 Nevertheless, not all of these initiatives have the same successful 102

European Parliament. (2016). Legislative train schedule. [online] European Parliament. Available at: <https://www.europarl.europa.eu/legislative-train> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

103 Gauthier-Villars, D. (2019). Turkey’s Erdogan Threatens EU With Wave of Refugees if It Doesn’t Support Syria Offensive. Wall Street Journal. [online] 10 Oct. Available at: <https://www.wsj.com/articles/turkeys-erdogan-threatens-eu-with-wave-of-refugees-if-it-doesntsupport-syria-offensive-11570724256> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

104 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2015). Briefing paper: Understanding the root causes of displacement. [online] UNHCR. Available at: <https://www.unhcr.org/protection/operations/56684ce89/briefing-paper-understanding-rootcauses-displacement-idmc-2015.html> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

105 Georgakis Abbott, S. (2018). The EU and the Middle East: From the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership to the Union for the Mediterranean. In: Y.A. Stivachtis, ed. Conflict and Diplomacy in the Middle East.

Bristol, England: E-International Relations. Available at: https://www.e-ir.info/publication/conflict-anddiplomacy-in-the-middle-east-external-actors-and-regional-rivalries/ 106 Ibid.

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 22

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide progress and this is also reflected to statistical data from the European Commission.

More specifically, combined “gross domestic product of the Maghreb States (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia; population: 66 million) is less than that of Portugal (populations: 10 million), while the GDP of the Mashreq States (Jordan, Egypt, Lebanon, Syria; population: 86 million) roughly equals that of Greece or Finland (population: 10 and 5 million respectively)”. Furthermore, the fact that the per capita income in the EU is about ten times higher than in the Mediterranean partners can also point out that there is a lot space for action and improvement yet. Under this prism, the Union should be focused on pursuing mutually beneficial trade agreements with both members of EUROMED and if possible other Mediterranean countries in order to ensure and extend the economic cooperation in the region.

As far as energy is concerned, the Mediterranean area is one of the richest in oil and gas fields, a characteristic that often makes the situation in the region more and more controversial provoking upheavals. Discoveries of natural gas resources around Egypt, Cyprus, Israel and Greece are shaking up Europe’s energy politics. Traditionally, Russia has been Europe’s main supplier of gas, and as a consequence there is significant Russian influence over the European market.107 However, the facts have changed a lot mainly during the last decade. Today this influence is threatened by various gas discoveries in the eastern Mediterranean.108 Nowadays, numerous drilling tests and agreements are taking place in different geographical spots of the Mediterranean and not only the EU Member States but also their Mediterranean Neighbors declare determined and more than eager to exploit in the most effective way the energy treasures of the region. Taking these points into account, it would be more than beneficial for the Union to review its energy portfolio regarding the suppliers and the transit routes under the scope of the current updates. Supplementary, emphasis should be given on the development of crucial transport infrastructure for the existent energy sources, if the Union seeks to maintain its dominant and leading role in the international scene.

Cyprus’ Exclusive Economic Zone The dispute between Cyprus and Turkey is considered to be perhaps the most crucial and up-to-date topic of the current affairs in the Euro-Mediterranean region. The dispute between the two countries was reignited on February 2018 and since then it has continuously escalated acquiring, that way, serious diplomatic dimensions. To be 107

Kesseba, K. and Konstantinos, L., 2019. Five countries in the eastern Mediterranean are shaking up Europe’s energy map. [online] The Conversation. Available at: <https://theconversation.com/fivecountries-in-the-eastern-mediterranean-are-shaking-up-europes-energy-map-119619> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

108 KALEHSAR, O.S., 2019. The geopolitics of natural gas resources in East Mediterranean - Daily Sabah. [online] Available at: <https://www.dailysabah.com/op-ed/2019/09/09/the-geopolitics-of-naturalgas-resources-in-east-mediterranean> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019] EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 23

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide more specific, in 2003 Cyprus and Egypt have signed a maritime demarcation agreement for the delineation of the drilling rights in the region.109 However, in the beginning of 2018 Turkey denied the aforementioned deal claiming that such agreements fully ignore the rights of Turkish-Cypriots. Until today, Turkey continues to refuse the rights of Cyprus involving the Cypriot Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) by violating the international conventions and preventing the Republic of Cyprus from the oil and gas exploitation. The Cypriot Republic has accused Turkey for aggressive and provocative actions referring to the decision of the Ankara to send another drilling ship to the Cypriot coasts as “bullying tactics”.110 This situation has caused series of reactions and upheaval in the eastern Euro-Mediterranean area without achieving a concrete result yet.111 Washington and Brussels have urged Turkey to withdraw its vessels from Cypriot waters and the European Union has already adopted a legal framework for adopting sanctions against Turkey for its confrontation with an EU Member State112.

Social, Cultural and Human Aspects Despite the fact that the Euro-Mediterranean cooperation was firstly and mainly incited by geopolitical factors and the shared need to promote common economic interests, the social and cultural objectives of this policy should not be undermined in the prism of a complete analysis. In particular, this aspect aims to the establishment and the further improvement of an intercultural dialogue in the region with regards to its customized problems such as but not limited to the irregular migration, the fight against drugs and the human trafficking.113 Nowadays, the accomplishment of such a dialogue tends to be one of the most important challenges for the Union, not only because it plays the key-role for the stability but also due to the significant cultural differences between the northern and southern shores of the Mediterranean.

109

Turner, J. (2019). Cyprus and Turkey: the battle for oil and gas in the Eastern Mediterranean. [online] Offshore Technology. Available at: <https://www.offshore-technology.com/features/cyprus-andturkey-the-battle-for-oil-and-gas-in-the-eastern-mediterranean/> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

110 Al Jazeera. (2019). Cyprus calls Turkey gas exploration ‘provocative and aggressive’ | News | Al Jazeera. [online] Available at: <https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/cyprus-calls-turkey-gasexploration-provocative-aggressive-191004062752503.html> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

111 EURACTIV and AFP. (2019). Total, Eni stake new claim in Cyprus gas and oil search. [online] EURACTIV. Available at: <https://www.euractiv.com/section/energy/news/total-eni-stake-new-claim-in-cyprusgas-and-oil-search/> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

112 EURACTIV. (2019). EU takes step closer to Turkey drilling sanctions. www.euractiv.com. Available at: <https://www.euractiv.com/section/global-europe/news/eu-takes-step-closer-to-turkey-drillingsanctions/> [Accessed 29 Nov. 2019].

113 Georgakis Abbott, S. (2018). The EU and the Middle East: From the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership to the Union for the Mediterranean. Available at: https://www.e-ir.info/publication/conflict-anddiplomacy-in-the-middle-east-external-actors-and-regional-rivalries/ EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 24

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide Democratization and Rule of Law Since the adoption of the Barcelona Declaration until today, it has to be acknowledged that this pillar has met significant progress thanks to the successful implementation of the three designed and specialized programs (EUROMED Heritage, EUROMED Audiovisual, EUROMED Youth)114. However, as democracy and rule of law constitute firmly the fundamental principles of the Union, it is undoubted that the collaborative actions can be constantly strengthened. Following this direction, the role of mass media and education is designated as crucial in the evolvement of an intercultural awareness and mutual comprehension in the Euro-Mediterranean area. Moreover, this region can be characterized by the co-existence of Christians and Muslims and the following fragility that this pluralism has created. Under these circumstances, the elimination of all forms of racism and xenophobia is considered as more than essential. Under this scope, priority should be given both in projects that increase intercultural understanding based in the principle of tolerance and in training programs especially for young people in the area of human resources and the improvement of the well-being as prerequisites for the Mediterranean prosperity.

Minorities and Human Rights The Mediterranean region is a crossroad of Europe, the Middle East and Africa, which makes it a key space of encounter between different nations, cultures, languages and religions. These encounters while they have a formed a multicultural, they have also led to major conflicts. In Mediterranean societies, it can be noticed that a wide variety of national and religious minorities has led to controversial debates regarding the recognition of their rights. It should also be highlighted that significant minorities’ groups can be observed both in EU Member States like Spain, Italy, Greece and France and in Mediterranean countries such as Morocco, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, and Israel. 115 In order to give the required emphasis on the minorities groups, the EU borrows concepts, norms, and standards generally from the Council of Europe, such as the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. 116 Particularly, the most important treaties regarding minorities in Europe and in the world are United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and European Charter for 114

Ibid. Özlem ULTAN, M. (2017). MINORITY RIGHTS IN THE EUROPEAN UNION LAW AND MEDITERRANEAN MINORITIES. Social Sciences Studies Journal, [online] 3(9), pp.757–766. Available at: <http://www.sssjournal.com/DergiTamDetay.aspx?ID=104> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

116 Minority Rights. (2016). Research: How to defend minority cultural rights by using local laws in the Southern Mediterranean region? - Minority Rights Group. [online] Available at: <https://minorityrights.org/research-how-to-defend-minority-cultural-rights-by-using-local-laws-inthe-southern-mediterranean-region/> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

115

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 25

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide Regional or Minority Languages which protect and prioritize fundamental human rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of religion, electoral rights and a fair trial. 117 However, the Member States have frequently followed differentiated approaches and suggestions to this issue which proves that there is still plenty of space for more actions to be taken like projects and activities fostering cultural policy reform.

Political Parties’ Positions European People’s Party (EPP) EPP is currently the largest political group in the European Parliament with 182 seats; it is composed of liberal conservative and Christian democracy parties118, however, during the last years some national parties of EPP adopted far-right or populist rhetoric, mainly due to the economic and refugee crisis 119 . EPP believes that the Mediterranean region, should be one of the priorities of EU’s external policy, as instability in the region has already affected Europe. Regarding the refugee and migrant crisis, EPP supports zero-tolerance policy for migrant smugglers, through operations such as Operation Sophia and through initiatives that address the root causes120. Furthermore, it supports more active engagement of the EU on Middle East affairs, while it supports the two state-solution for the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

However, as it was mentioned in the Israel-Palestine chapter, many countries that their governing party belong to EPP, have a strong relationship with Israel. Also, the EPP group condemned Turkey’s invasion in Syria and asked for reducing funds towards it. Moreover, EPP supports closer economic integration between the southern Mediterranean countries, through free trade agreements and strategic investments121.

Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats (S&D) The S&D party is the second largest political party in the EP with 154 seats; the parties that consist S&D focus on social democracy policies122. As far as the Mediterranean region is concerned, the S&D group support the further engagement of the EU with its southern neighbors, especially in areas of rule of law and human rights. Regarding 117

Ibid.

Parties and Elections. (2019). Parties and Elections in Europe. [online] Parties and Elections in Europe.

Available at: <http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/eu.html> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

119 Rankin, J. (2019). Viktor Orbán’s party suspended from centre-right EPP bloc. The Guardian. [online] 20 Mar. Available at: <https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/mar/20/manfred-weber-calls-forfreezing-of-hungarian-partys-voting-rights> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

120 European People’s Party. (2019). Position Paper on the Mediterranean. [online] Available at: </newsroom/publications/position-paper-on-the-mediterranean> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

121 Ibid.

122 Parties and Elections. (2019). Parties and Elections in Europe. [online] Parties and Elections in Europe.

Available at: <http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/eu.html> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

118

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 26

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide migration, S&D advocates for amendments to EU migration and asylum policies aiming for a more sustainable system that works for the member states while it protects people’s right 123 . Terrorism, according to S&D could be battled through coherent domestic policies and international cooperation, including social inclusion to tackle radicalization124. Regarding security aspects, S&D advocates for the recognition of the Palestinian State along with the two-state solution and for further EU-Palestinian cooperation125. Furthermore, the S&D group has asked for sanctions against Turkey due to the invasion in Syria and the trespassing to Cyprus’ EEZ126127.

Renew Europe (Renew) Renew Europe is a progressive, centrist, liberal party founded in the current Parliamentary term, as the successor of the ALDE party128. It is the third largest party with 108 seats. Acknowledging that Europe is now one of the most attractive areas in the world, for people looking for better living conditions for their families, or seeking to escape conflicts, it supports the renewal of the EU asylum and migration system. In addition, it proposes that the EU should make migration agreements with safe Mediterranean countries, while it should continue to provide funding and assistance in order to combat the causes of migration129. Regarding terrorism, Renew Europe proposes increasing cooperation in intelligence sharing and advancing EU capabilities

123

Socialists & Democrats. (2014). Migration And Asylum. [online] Socialists & Democrats. Available at: <https://www.socialistsanddemocrats.eu/sites/default/files/S%26D-Migration_and_AsylumLEAFLET_Web_pbp.pdf> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

124 Socialists & Democrats. (2017). Special committee on terrorism must focus on practical results. [online] Socialists & Democrats.

Available at: <https://www.socialistsanddemocrats.eu/newsroom/special-committee-terrorism-must-focuspractical-results> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

125 Socialists & Democrats. (2014). S&Ds lead call for recognition of Palestine. [online] Socialists & Democrats.

Available at: <https://www.socialistsanddemocrats.eu/newsroom/sds-lead-callrecognition-palestine> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

126 Socialists & Democrats. (2019). EU should impose economic sanctions and a full ban on arms sales to Turkey following its military intervention in Syria. [online] Socialists & Democrats. Available at: <https://www.socialistsanddemocrats.eu/newsroom/eu-should-impose-economic-sanctions-and-fullban-arms-sales-turkey-following-its-military> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

127 Socialists & Democrats. (2019). Pittella: Presence of Turkish vessels in Cyprus’ Exclusive Economic Zone. [online] Socialists & Democrats.

Available at: <https://www.socialistsanddemocrats.eu/newsroom/pittella-presence-turkish-vessels-cyprusexclusive-economic-zone> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

128 Parties and Elections. (2019). Parties and Elections in Europe. [online] Parties and Elections in Europe.

Available at: <http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/eu.html> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

129 ALDE. (2018). Freedom, opportunity, prosperity: the Liberal vision for the future of Europe. Available at: <https://www.aldeparty.eu/sites/alde/files/40Resolutions/2019_freedom_opportunity_prosperity_the_liberal_vision_for_the_future_of_europe_0. pdf> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 27

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide against hybrid activities, such as disinformation campaigns. In conflict matters, the group has supported the two-state solution for the Israeli-Palestinian conflict130.

Identity and Democracy (ID) ID is the fifth largest party in the EP with 73 seats, was launched in 2019131 and it is composed of far-right, nationalist, populist and Eurosceptic parties, however there is a lot of division inside the group132. The ID group says its focus is creating jobs and growth, increasing security, tackling illegal immigration 133 . However, due to the internal division, it hasn’t yet presented a common policy on matters, especially regarding the Mediterranean region. Of course, parties of the alliance in national have showed several policies, mainly anti-refugee and anti-migrant ones. For example, League’s (Italy) former minister of Home Affairs, Matteo Salvini, had passed a security decree that forbid vessels carrying migrants to dock in Italian ports134. With regards to the Israeli-Palestinian issue, the party is again divided as one the one hand far-rights policies go hand in hand with the anti-Semitism ideology or with ideas that consider Arabs (Palestinians) as terrorist, but on the other hand parties in ID have strong relationships with Israel135.

European United Left/Nordic Green Left (GUE/NGL) GUE/NGL is a political group composed of left-wing to far-left members, of socialists to communists, it has 41 seats in the current EP, being the least populous group 136. In accordance with their ideology MEPs of this groups have supported resolutions regarding proactive Search and Rescue (SAR) operations in the Mediterranean and stopping states to criminalize NGOs for saving lives; this resolution failed for only two

130

Ibid.

Parties and Elections. (2019). Parties and Elections in Europe. [online] Parties and Elections in Europe.

Available at: <http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/eu.html> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

132 Identity and Democracy Group. (2019). Identity and Democracy Group: United on the Outside, Divided on the Inside? EU Logos. Available at: <https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/06/28/identity-anddemocracy-group-united-on-the-outside-divided-on-the-inside/> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

133 European Parliament. (2019). Parliament group priorities: Identity and Democracy | News | European Parliament. [online] Available at: <https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/euaffairs/20190712STO56963/parliament-group-priorities-identity-and-democracy> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

134 Butini, C. (n.d.). There’s No End in Sight for Matteo Salvini’s War on Migrants. Foreign Policy.

Available at: <https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/08/21/theres-no-end-in-sight-for-matteo-salvinis-waron-migrants-league-liga-open-arms-rescue-ships-meditteranean-libya/> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

135 Landau, N. and Lerner, D. (2018). In Jerusalem Meeting, Netanyahu Hails Italy’s Salvini as a ‘Great Friend of Israel’. Haaretz. [online] 12 Dec. Available at: <https://www.haaretz.com/israelnews/.premium-in-jerusalem-meeting-netanyahu-hails-italy-s-salvini-as-a-great-friend-of-israel1.6741620> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

136 Parties and Elections. (2019). Parties and Elections in Europe. [online] Parties and Elections in Europe.

Available at: <http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/eu.html> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

131

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 28

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide 137 votes . Regarding the Middle East Peace Process, GUE/NGL has proposed that “is time for the EU to stop relying on the US to take the lead in the region and freeze all its agreements with Israel as pressure for it to respect international law” 138.

Conclusions From the analysis of the topic area, we can understand that the Mediterranean region is a multi-faceted one with many different issues; on its northern part, Europe, in general, has a tremendous economic, social and cultural growth, despite the problems that many societies face; but, the southern part of it is marred with conflicts, political instability and authoritarianism. In order for this region to have a stable and prosperous future the role of the EU is more than important, as the Union has the capacity to address many of the problems of the region. However, the approach should be a comprehensive one, considering all the aspects; political and security ones, economic and social ones.

Questions Raised 1. Is the current legal framework adequate in order to respond to the current challenges of the Euro-Mediterranean area?

2. How the EU could be involved in Syria? How the rights of the Kurds can be protected and promoted?

3. What role can the EU play in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict?

4. What measures and actions should be taken in order to battle terrorism in the region? What is the role of international cooperation and technology in this fight?

5. What actions should be taken in order to address the root causes of migration?

6. How should the EU respond to the migratory and refugee flows?

7. What measures the EU should take for the gas dispute between Cyprus and Turkey?

8. How can the EU use the gas and oil resources in the Mediterranean in order to handle the energy needs in the most effective way?

9. How can the EU ensure the implementation of rule of law and democracy in the Euro-Mediterranean region?

10. What actions should the EU take in order to protect the minorities rights from violations?

137

GUE/NGL 2019. Life-saving in the Mediterranean shot down by the right wing. [online] GUE/NGL. Available at: <https://www.guengl.eu/life-saving-in-the-mediterranean-shot-down-by-the-right-wing/> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

138 GUE/NGL 2019. Israeli settlements are war crimes. [online] GUE/NGL. Available at: <https://www.guengl.eu/israeli-settlements-are-war-crimes/> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 29

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, â&#x20AC;&#x153;The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean regionâ&#x20AC;?

Study Guide 11. What is the role of free trade areas in the achievement of sustainable economic growth?

12. How important is the engagement of the civil society, especially the youth and women, in the stability efforts?

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 30

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide

Bibliography 1. Abdelsamad, H. (2018). Terrorism and counterterrorism in the EU. DOC Research Institute.

Available at: <https://docresearch.org/2018/08/counterterrorism/> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

2. Al Jazeera. (2019). Cyprus calls Turkey gas exploration ‘provocative and aggressive’ | News | Al Jazeera. [online] Available at: <https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/cyprus-calls-turkey-gasexploration-provocative-aggressive-191004062752503.html> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

3. Albinyana, R. (2016). A Review of EU Policies towards the Mediterranean Region. European Institute of the Mediterranean, [online] (136), p.10. Available at: <https://www.iemed.org/recursoscompartits/pdfs/A%20review%20of%20EU%20policies%20towards%20the%2 0Mediterranean%20region%20-1957-2016.pdf> [Accessed 17 Nov. 2019].

4. ALDE Party. (2018). Freedom, opportunity, prosperity: the Liberal vision for the future of Europe. Available at: <https://www.aldeparty.eu/sites/alde/files/40Resolutions/2019_freedom_opportunity_prosperity_the_liberal_vision_for_t he_future_of_europe_0.pdf> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

5. Amnesty International (2016). EU risks fuelling horrific abuse of refugees and migrants in Libya. [online] Amnesty International. Available at: <https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2016/06/eu-risks-fuellinghorrific-abuse-of-refugees-and-migrants-in-libya/> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

6. Anon. (2014). CSP - Major Episodes of Political Violence, 1946-2012. [online] Available at: <https://web.archive.org/web/20140121015442/http://www.systemicpeace. org/warlist.htm> [Accessed 17 Nov. 2019].

7. Baldwin-Edwards, M. and Lutterbeck, D. (2019). Coping with the Libyan migration crisis. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, [online] 45(12), pp.2241–2257.

Available at: <https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1369183X.2018.1468391> [Accessed 13 Nov. 2019].

8. Barigazzi, J. (2019). EU extends Operation Sophia for 6 months, still without ships. [online] POLITICO. Available at: <https://www.politico.eu/article/euextends-operation-sophia-for-6-months-still-without-ships/> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

9. Beauchamp, Z. (2018a). What are settlements, and why are they such a big deal? [online] Vox. Available at: EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 31

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide <https://www.vox.com/2018/11/20/18080052/israel-settlements-westbank> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

10. Beauchamp, Z. (2018b). What are the ‘two-state solution’ and the ‘one-state solution’? [online] Vox. Available at: <https://www.vox.com/2018/11/20/18080094/what-are-the-two-statesolution-and-the-one-state-solution> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

11. Beauchamp, Z. (2018c). What is Jerusalem? [online] Vox. Available at: <https://www.vox.com/2018/11/20/18080040/jerusalem-israel-palestine> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

12. Berthelet, P. (2017). How the European Union is making major strides fighting terrorism. [online] The Conversation.

Available at: <http://theconversation.com/how-the-european-union-is-making-majorstrides-fighting-terrorism-82866> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

13. Bicchi, F. (2018). The European Cooperation in the Southern Mediterranean: The Multilateralization of Bilateral Relations? The Hague Journal of Diplomacy, [online] 13(1), pp.117–135.

Available at: <https://brill.com/view/journals/hjd/13/1/article-p117_117.xml> [Accessed 13 Nov. 2019].

14. Bonomolo, A. and Kirchgaessner, S. (2015). UN says 800 migrants dead in boat disaster as Italy launches rescue of two more vessels. The Guardian. [online] 20 Apr. Available at: <https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/20/italy-pm-matteo-renzimigrant-shipwreck-crisis-srebrenica-massacre> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

15. Bretan, J. (2018). Emerging Europe Trio Block Joint EU Statement on US Embassy in Israel. [online] Emerging Europe. Available at: <https://emergingeurope.com/news/emerging-europe-trio-block-joint-eu-statement-usembassy-israel/> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

16. Butini, C. (n.d.). There’s No End in Sight for Matteo Salvini’s War on Migrants.

Foreign Policy. Available at: <https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/08/21/theresno-end-in-sight-for-matteo-salvinis-war-on-migrants-league-liga-open-armsrescue-ships-meditteranean-libya/> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

17. Calleya, S. (2017). Managing security challenges in the Euro-Mediterranean area. Malta Arraiolos Meeting 2017. Mediterranean Conference Centre, Valletta.p.40.

18. Carnegie-Endowment for International Peace. (2019). The EU and the IsraeliPalestinian Peace Process in a Post-Mogherini Era. [online] Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.

Available at: <https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/79985> [Accessed 12 Nov. 2019].

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 32

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide 19. CNN Library. (2019). Syrian Civil War Fast Facts. [online] CNN. Available at: <https://www.cnn.com/2013/08/27/world/meast/syria-civil-war-fastfacts/index.html> [Accessed 19 Nov. 2019].

20. COLLARD, E. (2018). Security Union: Strengthening Europol’s cooperation with third countries to fight terrorism and serious organised crime. [Text] Migration and Home Affairs European Commission.

Available at: <https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/news/security-union-strengtheningeuropols-cooperation-third-countries-fight-terrorism-and-serious_en> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

21. Consilium. (2017). Council adopts EU strategy on Syria. [online] Council of the European Union.

Available at: <http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2017/04/03/facconclusions-syria/> [Accessed 19 Nov. 2019].

22. Consilium. (2019). EU counter-terrorism strategy. [online] Available at: <http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/fight-against-terrorism/eustrategy/> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

23. Consilium. (2019). EUNAVFOR MED Operation Sophia: mandate extended until 31 March 2020. [online] Available at: <http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/pressreleases/2019/09/26/eunavfor-med-operation-sophia-mandate-extendeduntil-31-march-2020/> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

24. Consilium. (2019). North East Syria: Council adopts conclusions. [online] Council of the European Union.

Available at: <http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/pressreleases/2019/10/14/council-conclusions-on-north-east-syria/> [Accessed 19 Nov. 2019].

25. Cusumano, E., 2019. Migrant rescue as organized hypocrisy: EU maritime missions offshore Libya between humanitarianism and border control.

Cooperation and Conflict, [online] 54(1), pp.3–24. Available at: <http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0010836718780175> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

26. EUNAVFOR MED. (n.d.). Operation Sophia - About us. Operation Sophia.

Available at: <https://www.operationsophia.eu/about-us/> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

27. EUR-Lex. (2019) Barcelona Declaration and Euro-Mediterranean partnership. [online] Available at: <https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?uri=LEGISSUM:r15001> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

28. EUR-Lex. (2019). Glossary of summaries - EUR-Lex. [online] Available at: <https://eurEUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 33

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, â&#x20AC;&#x153;The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean regionâ&#x20AC;?

Study Guide lex.europa.eu/summary/glossary/foreign_security_policy.html?locale=en> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

29. EURACTIV and AFP. (2019). Total, Eni stake new claim in Cyprus gas and oil search. [online] EURACTIV. Available at: <https://www.euractiv.com/section/energy/news/total-eni-stake-new-claimin-cyprus-gas-and-oil-search/> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

30. Euractiv. (2019). EU takes step closer to Turkey drilling sanctions. www.euractiv.com. Available at: <https://www.euractiv.com/section/globaleurope/news/eu-takes-step-closer-to-turkey-drilling-sanctions/> [Accessed 29 Nov. 2019].

31. European Commission. (2019)PRESS RELEASE - 3199th Council meeting - Foreign Affairs. [Text] European Commission - European Commission.

Available at: <https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/PRES_12_467> [Accessed 19 Nov. 2019].

32. European Commission. (2019). Euro-Mediterranean partnership - Trade European Commission. [online] Available at: <https://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/countries-and-regions/regions/euromediterranean-partnership/> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

33. European Commission. (2019). Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (EUROMED) | Migration and Home Affairs. [online] Available at: <https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-wedo/networks/european_migration_network/glossary_search/euromediterranean-partnership_en> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

34. European Commission. (2019). Security Union: Commission presents new measures to better protect EU citizens. [Text] European Commission European Commission.

Available at: <https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_17_3947> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

35. European Commission. (2019) European Neighbourhood Policy. [online] Available at: <https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-wedo/policies/international-affairs/european-neighbourhood-policy_en> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

36. European Commission. (2016). Libya. [Text] European Neighbourhood Policy And Enlargement Negotiations - European Commission. Available at: <https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhoodenlargement/neighbourhood/countries/libya_en> [Accessed 17 Nov. 2019].

37. European Commission. (2016). Association agreement. [Text] European Neighbourhood Policy And Enlargement Negotiations - European Commission.

Available at: <https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhoodEUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 34

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide enlargement/policy/glossary/terms/association-agreement_en> [Accessed 9 Nov. 2019].

38. European External Action Service. (2016). Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) - European External Action Service. [online] Available at: <https://eeas.europa.eu/topics/common-foreign-security-policycfsp/420/common-foreign-and-security-policy-cfsp_en> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

39. European External Action Service. (2019). Union for the Mediterranean (UfM).

[Text] EEAS - European External Action Service - European Commission.

Available at: <https://eeas.europa.eu/diplomatic-network/unionmediterranean-ufm/329/union-mediterranean-ufm_en> [Accessed 9 Nov. 2019].

40. European External Actions Service. (2016). European Neighborhood Policy (ENP) - European External Action Service. [online] European External Action Service. Available at: <https://eeas.europa.eu/diplomatic-network/europeanneighbourhood-policy-enp/330/european-neighbourhood-policy-enp_en> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

41. European External Action Service. (2016). EU-Syria relations, factsheet. [Text] EEAS - European External Action Service - European Commission. Available at: <https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage/6769/eusyria-relations-factsheet_en> [Accessed 19 Nov. 2019].

42. European Organisation of Military Associations and Trade Unions (2015).

France invoked “mutual defence clause” for the first time in EU history. [online] EUROMIL. Available at: <http://euromil.org/france-invoked-mutual-defenceclause-for-the-first-time-in-eu-history/> [Accessed 19 Nov. 2019].

43. European Parliament. (2019). Highlights | Committees | European Parliament. [online] Available at: <https://www.europarl.europa.eu/committees/en/home.html> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

44. European Parliament. (2019). Immigration policy | Fact Sheets on the European Union | European Parliament. [online] Available at: <https://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/152/immigrationpolicy> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

45. European Parliament. (2014). European Parliament resolution of 17 December 2014 on recognition of Palestine statehood (2014/2964(RSP)). [online] Available at: <http://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-8-20140103_EN.html> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

46. European Parliament. (2016). Legislative train schedule. [online] European Parliament. Available at: <https://www.europarl.europa.eu/legislative-train> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 35

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide 47. European Parliament. (2017). European Parliament resolution of 18 May 2017 on the EU strategy on Syria (2017/2654(RSP)). [online] Available at: <http://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-8-20170227_EN.html> [Accessed 19 Nov. 2019].

48. European Parliament. (2017). The European Union’s Policies on CounterTerrorism Relevance, Coherence and Effectiveness - Study for the LIBE Committee. Policy Department for Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs, p.224.

49. European Parliament. (2018). 2018/2044(INI) - 12/12/2018 - Text adopted by Parliament, single reading. [online] European Parliament. Available at: <https://oeil.secure.europarl.europa.eu/oeil/popups/summary.do?id=15667 10&t=d&l=en> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

50. European Parliament. (2018). Terrorism: MEPs propose new measure to tackle the threat | News | European Parliament. [online] Available at: <https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/security/20181122ST O19808/terrorism-meps-propose-new-measure-to-tackle-the-threat> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

51. European Parliament. (2018). Terrorism in the EU since 2015 | News | European Parliament. [online] Available at: <https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/security/20180703ST O07127/terrorism-in-the-eu-since-2015> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

52. European Parliament. (2019). Debate: MEPs call for action following Turkey’s military operation in Syria. [online] European Parliament. Available at: <https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/world/20191018STO6 4606/debate-meps-call-for-action-following-turkey-s-military-operation-insyria> [Accessed 13 Nov. 2019].

53. European Parliament. (2019). Powers and procedures. [online] Available at: <https://www.europarl.europa.eu/about-parliament/en/powers-andprocedures> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

54. European Parliament. (2019). Rules of Procedure of the European Parliament Committee on Foreign Affairs - July 2019. [online] Available at: <https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/lastrules/RESPAFET_EN.html?fbclid=IwAR3ZdrYvAovth2MSzR7LsTlxJ5PPPbHlGfS8fj7FQqlyV qaHmWWnv836fvg> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

55. European Parliamentary Research Service. (2018). EU strategy for Syria. [online] European Parliament.

Available at: <https://www.europarl.europa.eu/EPRS/EULaw/09-15301-EU-Strategy-forSyria-EPRS-00-EN.pdf> [Accessed 19 Nov. 2019].

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 36

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide 56. European People’s Party. (2019). Position Paper on the Mediterranean. [online] Available at: </newsroom/publications/position-paper-on-themediterranean> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

57. EU-Logos. (2019). Identity and Democracy Group: United on the Outside, Divided on the Inside? EU Logos. Available at: <https://www.eulogos.org/2019/06/28/identity-and-democracy-group-united-on-the-outsidedivided-on-the-inside/> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

58. France24. (2019). Hungary opens trade mission to Israel in west Jerusalem. [online] France 24. Available at: <https://www.france24.com/en/20190319hungary-opens-trade-mission-israel-west-jerusalem> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

59. GUE/NGL. (2019). Israeli settlements are war crimes. [online] GUE/NGL. Available at: <https://www.guengl.eu/israeli-settlements-are-war-crimes/> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

60. GUE/NGL. (2019). Life-saving in the Mediterranean shot down by the right wing. [online] GUE/NGL. Available at: <https://www.guengl.eu/life-saving-inthe-mediterranean-shot-down-by-the-right-wing/> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

61. International Crisis Group. (2019). Tackling the MENA Region’s Intersecting Conflicts | Crisis Group. [online] Available at: <https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/easternmediterranean/syria/tackling-mena-regions-intersecting-conflicts> [Accessed 17 Nov. 2019].

62. Fine, S. (2019). All at sea: Europe’s crisis of solidarity on migration. p.19.

63. Gaub, F. and Popescu, N. (2015). The EU neighbours 1995-2015: shades of grey.

Paris: Institute for Security Studies.

64. Gaub, F., Popescu, N., Missiroli, A. and Europäische Kommission eds. (2017).

After the EU global strategy: building resilience$dedited by Florence Gaub and Nicu Popescu ; foreword by Antonio Missiroli. Paris: European Union Institute for Security Studies.

65. Gauthier-Villars, D. (2019). Turkey’s Erdogan Threatens EU With Wave of Refugees if It Doesn’t Support Syria Offensive. Wall Street Journal. [online] 10 Oct. Available at: <https://www.wsj.com/articles/turkeys-erdogan-threatenseu-with-wave-of-refugees-if-it-doesnt-support-syria-offensive-11570724256> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

66. Georgakis Abbott, S. (2018). The EU and the Middle East: From the EuroMediterranean Partnership to the Union for the Mediterranean. In: Y.A. Stivachtis, ed. Conflict and Diplomacy in the Middle East. Bristol, England: EInternational Relations.

67. Gotev, G. (2019). EU coalition of the willing agrees new migrant ‘solidarity mechanism’. www.euractiv.com.

Available at: EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 37

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide <https://www.euractiv.com/section/justice-home-affairs/news/eu-coalitionof-the-willing-agrees-new-migrant-solidarity-mechanism/> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

68. House of Lords-European Union Committee (2017). Operation Sophia: a failed mission. [online] London: House of Lords.p.31. Available at: <https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201719/ldselect/ldeucom/5/5.pdf> .

69. Hughes, R. (2019). How this ship captain took on Italy’s strongman. BBC News. [online] 6 Jul. Available at: <https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe48853050> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

70. Human Rights Watch. (2016). EU/NATO: Europe’s Plan Endangers Foreigners in Libya. [online] Human Rights Watch.

Available at: <https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/07/06/eu/nato-europes-plan-endangersforeigners-libya> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

71. Info Migrants. (2019). Changing journeys: Migrant routes to Europe. [online] InfoMigrants.

Available at: <https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/15005/changing-journeys-migrantroutes-to-europe> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

72. Hylke Dijkstra, H. and Vanhoonacker, S. (2017). Common Foreign and Security Policy - Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics. [online] Available at: <https://oxfordre.com/politics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.

0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-155> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

73. KALEHSAR, O.S. (2019). The geopolitics of natural gas resources in East Mediterranean Daily Sabah. [online] Available at: <https://www.dailysabah.com/op-ed/2019/09/09/the-geopolitics-of-naturalgas-resources-in-east-mediterranean> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

74. Kesseba, K. and Konstantinos, L. (2019). Five countries in the eastern Mediterranean are shaking up Europe’s energy map. [online] The Conversation. Available at: <https://theconversation.com/five-countries-inthe-eastern-mediterranean-are-shaking-up-europes-energy-map-119619> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

75. Kizilkan, Z.B. (2019). Changing Policies of Turkey and the EU to the Syrian Conflict. p.16.

76. Kranz, M. (2019). Nikki Haley issued a stern threat to UN members and said the US would be ‘taking names’ on Jerusalem vote. [online] Business Insider.

Available at: <https://www.businessinsider.com/nikki-haley-un-jerusalemvote-us-taking-names-2017-12> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

77. Landau, N. and Lerner, D. (2018). In Jerusalem Meeting, Netanyahu Hails Italy’s Salvini as a ‘Great Friend of Israel’. Haaretz. [online] 12 Dec. Available at: <https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-in-jerusalem-meetingEUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 38

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide netanyahu-hails-italy-s-salvini-as-a-great-friend-of-israel-1.6741620> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

78. Minority Rights Group International. (2016). Research: How to defend minority cultural rights by using local laws in the Southern Mediterranean region? Minority Rights Group. [online] Available at: <https://minorityrights.org/research-how-to-defend-minority-cultural-rightsby-using-local-laws-in-the-southern-mediterranean-region/> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

79. Neal, L.S. (1995). The Roots of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: 1882-1914.

Illinois Wesleyan University Digital Commons @ IWU, p.34.

80. Özlem ULTAN, M. (2017). MINORITY RIGHTS IN THE EUROPEAN UNION LAW AND MEDITERRANEAN MINORITIES. Social Sciences Studies Journal, [online] 3(9), pp.757–766.

Available at: <http://www.sssjournal.com/DergiTamDetay.aspx?ID=104> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

81. Parties and Elections. (2019). Parties and Elections in Europe. [online] Parties and Elections in Europe. Available at: <http://www.parties-andelections.eu/eu.html> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

82. Persson, A. (2018). Introduction: The Occupation at 50: EU-Israel/Palestine Relations Since 1967. Middle East Critique, [online] 27(4), pp.317–320.

Available at: <https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19436149.2018.1492222> [Accessed 9 Nov. 2019].

83. Pleitgen, F. and CNN. (2019). Everything you need to know about Turkey’s military offensive in Syria. [online] CNN. Available at: <https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/07/middleeast/six-questions-syria-usintl/index.html> [Accessed 19 Nov. 2019].

84. Rankin, J. (2019). Viktor Orbán’s party suspended from centre-right EPP bloc.

The Guardian. [online] 20 Mar. Available at: <https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/mar/20/manfred-weber-callsfor-freezing-of-hungarian-partys-voting-rights> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

85. Reuters. (2015). Israel suspends EU role in peace process with Palestinians.

Reuters. [online] 29 Nov. Available at: <https://www.reuters.com/article/usisrael-palestinians-eu-idUSKBN0TI0SH20151129> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

86. RTE. (2017). Timeline - Terror attacks in Europe. [online] RTE. Available at: <https://www.rte.ie/news/world/2017/0817/898178-europe-terror-attacktimeline/> [Accessed 17 Nov. 2019].

87. Socialists & Democrats. (2019). Pittella: Presence of Turkish vessels in Cyprus’ Exclusive Economic Zone. [online] Socialists & Democrats. Available at: EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 39

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide <https://www.socialistsanddemocrats.eu/newsroom/pittella-presenceturkish-vessels-cyprus-exclusive-economic-zone> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

88. Socialists & Democrats. (2019). EU should impose economic sanctions and a full ban on arms sales to Turkey following its military intervention in Syria. [online] Socialists & Democrats.

Available at: <https://www.socialistsanddemocrats.eu/newsroom/eu-should-imposeeconomic-sanctions-and-full-ban-arms-sales-turkey-following-its-military> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

89. Socialists & Democrats. (2014). Migration And Asylum. [online] Socialists & Democrats.

Available at: <https://www.socialistsanddemocrats.eu/sites/default/files/S%26DMigration_and_Asylum-LEAFLET_Web_pbp.pdf> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

90. Socialists & Democrats. (2014). S&Ds lead call for recognition of Palestine. [online] Socialists & Democrats.

Available at: <https://www.socialistsanddemocrats.eu/newsroom/sds-lead-callrecognition-palestine> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

91. Socialists & Democrats. (2017). Special committee on terrorism must focus on practical results. [online] Socialists & Democrats. Available at: <https://www.socialistsanddemocrats.eu/newsroom/special-committeeterrorism-must-focus-practical-results> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

92. SOTIROVIĆ, V.B. (2018). Geopolitics Of The Mediterranean Sea Area In Global Security During And After The Cold War (1949-1989). [online] OrientalReview.org.

Available at: <https://orientalreview.org/2018/06/08/geopolitics-of-the-mediterraneansea-area-in-global-security-during-and-after-the-cold-war-1949-1989/> [Accessed 17 Nov. 2019].

93. Stankov, V. (2019). THE ROLE OF THE EUROPEAN UNION FOR THE SETTLEMENT OF THE CONFLICT IN SYRIA. IJASOS- International E-journal of Advances in Social Sciences, [online] pp.1032–1035.

Available at: <https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/doi/10.18769/ijasos.592327> [Accessed 19 Nov. 2019].

94. Terol, A.R. (2019). Spain threatens migrant rescue NGO with €900k fine. [online] Available at: <http://www.catalannews.com/societyscience/item/spain-threatens-migrant-rescue-ngo-with-900k-fine, https://www.catalannews.com/society-science/item/spain-threatensmigrant-rescue-ngo-with-900k-fine> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

95. Torelli, S. (2017). European Union and the External Dimension of Security: Supporting Tunisia as a Model in Counter-Terrorism Cooperation. [online] European Institute of the Mediterranean.

Available at: EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 40

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide <https://www.euromesco.net/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/201704EuroMeSCo-Paper-33.pdf>.

96. Turner, J. (2019). Cyprus and Turkey: the battle for oil and gas in the Eastern Mediterranean. [online] Offshore Technology.

Available at: <https://www.offshore-technology.com/features/cyprus-and-turkey-thebattle-for-oil-and-gas-in-the-eastern-mediterranean/> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

97. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2015). Briefing paper: Understanding the root causes of displacement. [online] UNHCR. Available at: <https://www.unhcr.org/protection/operations/56684ce89/briefing-paperunderstanding-root-causes-displacement-idmc-2015.html> [Accessed 21 Nov. 2019].

98. U.S. Department of State. (2017). Chapter 2. Country Reports: Middle East and North Africa Overview. [online] U.S. Department of State. Available at: <//2009-2017.state.gov/j/ct/rls/crt/2015/257517.htm> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

99. Wadi, R. (2019). What defines the EU’s relations with Israel and the Palestinians? [online] Middle East Monitor.

Available at: <https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20190502-what-defines-the-eusrelations-with-israel-and-the-palestinians/> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

100.

Wermenbol, G. (2019). The EU and the Israeli-Palestinian Peace Process in a Post-Mogherini Era. [online] Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.

Available at: <https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/79985> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].

101. Χριστιανός, Β.Α. (2011). Εισαγωγή στο δίκαιο της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης. Νομική Βιβλιοθήκη.

Further Reading  European Union. 2019. European Border and Coast Guard Agency (Frontex). [online] EUROPA. Available at: <https://europa.eu/european-union/abouteu/agencies/frontex_en> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].  The European Union’s Global Strategy: Three Years On, Looking Forward.

Available at: <https://eeas.europa.eu/sites/eeas/files/eu_global_strategy_2019.pdf>.  Fiott, D. and Parkes, R. (2019). CHAILLOT PAPER / 151 - Protecting Europe. [ebook] European Union Institute for Security Studies. Available at: https://www.iss.europa.eu/sites/default/files/EUISSFiles/CP_151.pdf [Accessed 22 November 2019].

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 41

EUropa.S. 2020 European Parliament AFET Committee, “The role of the EU in achieving stability in the Euro-Mediterranean region” Study Guide  Parkes, R. (2017). Out Of (And Inside) Africa: Migration Routes And Their Impacts. [ebook] European Union Institute for Security Studies. Available at: https://www.iss.europa.eu/sites/default/files/EUISSFiles/Brief_12_Africa_mi gration.pdf [Accessed 22 November 2019].  Shared Vision, Common Action: A Stronger Europe: A Global Strategy for the European Union’s Foreign And Security Policy. Available at: <https://eeas.europa.eu/sites/eeas/files/eugs_review_web_0.pdf>.  Tardy, T. (2017). Operation Sophia’S World Changes And Challenges. [ebook] European Union Institute for Security Studies. Available at: https://www.iss.europa.eu/sites/default/files/EUISSFiles/Brief%2032%20Ope ration%20Sophia_0.pdf [Accessed 22 November 2019].

Useful Links  Crisis Group. Tackling the MENA Region’s Intersecting Conflicts | Crisis Group. [online] Available at: <https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-northafrica/eastern-mediterranean/syria/tackling-mena-regions-intersectingconflicts> [Accessed 17 Nov. 2019].  Europe’s Migrant Crisis Explained. (n.d.).

Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=12FT7cOLaZ4> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].  Europe’s Refugee Crisis Explained. (n.d.).

Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v13kTeAHY4c> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].  Libya’s political struggle explained. (n.d.).

Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=huizL_VfJBI> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].  Locke, S. (2018). Everything you need to know about Israel-Palestine. [online] Vox. Available at: <https://www.vox.com/2018/11/20/18079996/israelpalestine-conflict-guide-explainer> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].  Syria’s war: Who is fighting and why. (n.d.). Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JFpanWNgfQY> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].  The Israel-Palestine conflict: a brief, simple history. (n.d.). Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iRYZjOuUnlU> [Accessed 20 Nov. 2019].  The Israel-Palestine conflict: a brief, simple history. (n.d.). Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iRYZjOuUnlU&t=84s> [Accessed 22 Nov. 2019].

EUropa.S. 2020, April 10-13, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 42