EUropa.S. 2018 March 30th – April 2nd | University of Piraeus Organized by: Institute of Research & Training on European Affairs
Study Guide EUropa.S. 2018 European Council
Topic: Enhancing the internal and external nexus of the EU’s Common Security and Defense policy; the initiative of the European Defense Action Plan
European Council, “Enhancing the internal and external nexus of the EU’s Common Security and Defense policy; the initiative of the European Defense Action Plan” Study Guide
Table of Contents Greeting of the Board
2
Introduction to the European Council
4
Introduction of the Topic
5
The European Common Security and Defense Policy (ECSDP)
5
The military and civilian operations
8
The European Defense Action Plan
9
The present threats
14
Conclusion
15
Glossary
15
Questions Raised
17
Bibliography
18
Further Reading
19
Useful Links
19
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European Council, “Enhancing the internal and external nexus of the EU’s Common Security and Defense policy; the initiative of the European Defense Action Plan” Study Guide
Greeting of the Board Honorable Heads of States and Governments, We are more than honored to welcome you in EUropa.S. 2018 and, first and foremost in the European Council. Utilizing the knowledge and the directives that are provided by the Study Guide, the Board of the EC highly expects that the Heads of States and Governments will stand their ground and at the same time will find the golden section upon this year’s argumentative agenda. It is a commonplace that this institution attracts the most experienced and dedicated participants who will have the chance to witness the highest level of political cooperation between the EU countries towards the European Union’s legislative procedure. The title of the Agenda Item for 2018 is “Enhancing the internal and the external nexus of the EU’s Common Security and Defense policy; the initiative of the European Defense Action Plan”. All fundamental information regarding the functioning of the European Council as an EU institution, the policy and the general directives of the member states and inclusive and comprehensive description of the Agenda is included in this Study Guide. Moreover, through our cooperation we would like to outline the European actions and decisions, the legal framework and the latest news upon the Common Security and Defense Policy (CSDP), the innovative European Defense Action Plan and, most importantly, the interaction and the impact on powerful countries such as Russia, USA and North Korea. We are pretty sure that with your unique presence and contribution the European Council of Europa. S 2018 will be fascinating! Sharpen your swords, stand your ground, wave your flag, support your country and compromise for the common European interest! Best regards, The Board of the European Council
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European Council, “Enhancing the internal and external nexus of the EU’s Common Security and Defense policy; the initiative of the European Defense Action Plan” Study Guide
Introduction to the European Council The European Council (EC) 1is the fundamental decision maker of the EU’s overall political directions and priorities. Being established in 2009 as an official EU institution the EC is composed of the heads of the state or government of all EU countries, the European Commission President and the High Representative for Foreign Affairs & Security Policy. The European Council provides the impetus for the major political issues relating to European integration such as amendments to the Treaties and changes to the institutions, declarations on external relations in the context of the common foreign and security policy, etc. It also serves as a forum for top-level political discussions in crisis situations and it endeavors to resolve disagreements between Member States. Following negotiations between the Member States, the European Council, on a consensus basis, can issue: • Guidelines setting out the European Council's priorities relating to management of the Union and its common policies by the Council of Ministers and the European Commission. They sometimes take the form of general policy guidelines and determine the timescale and specific objectives; • Declarations or resolutions: they express the views of the Heads of State or Governments on a specific point. It is chaired by its President (Donald Tusk since 2014)2, who is elected by the European Council itself for a once-renewable two-and-a-half-year term. He is the main representative of the European Union to the outside world. Τhe meeting of the EU takes place 4 times a year – but the President has the ability to convene additional meetings to address urgent issues. It makes decisions by consensus – but by unanimity or qualified majority upon some issues. Only the heads of state/government can vote. That means that the voting procedure, neither the European President nor the Commission President takes part.
1
An overview of the European Council, 2017. What does the European Council do? Available at :https://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/institutions-bodies/european-council_en [Accessed on 04/12/2017] 2 Donald Tusk, the President of the European Council, 2017. Available at: http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/european-council/president/ [Accessed on 06/12/2017] EUropa.S. 2018, March 30th – April 2nd, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 4
European Council, “Enhancing the internal and external nexus of the EU’s Common Security and Defense policy; the initiative of the European Defense Action Plan” Study Guide
Introduction of the Topic The agenda item of this year’s European Council could be characterized as one of the main EU’s priorities and, at the same time, an issue that concerns the majority of the European governments and officials. In a challenging period of time of internal public unrests and external dangers it was more that expected that the Union would take the significant initiative and its countries would try to co-operate in order to make an unprecedented step: Τhe establishment of an European Common Security and Defense Policy. Aspiring to take a dominant role in conflict prevention, peace building and enforcement, in the reinforcement of the security against terrorist military groups such as ISIS and Al-Qaeda and so as the provocations of the North Korea’s government the European Union works hard but maturely enough for this common goal. The
The European Common Security and Defense Policy (ECSDP) The historical and analytical background of ECSDP Despite the fundamental economic nature of the European Union the idea of joint policies regarding the sector of defense is almost as old the Union itself. The origins of this idea can be found in the Treaty of Brussels in 19483 and its auspices to promote a mutual defense framework. Due to the threat that the Soviet Union has posed, this framework led to the creation of the Western European Union (WEU), which together with NATO, comprised the main assembly for dialogue regarding the security and defense in Europe, until the 1990s’. The United Kingdom, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, Spain, Portugal and Greece were the members of the WEU under the principle of mutuality in response to external aggression. With the military assistance clause in the light of an armed attack to a signature state, the other states were obliged to aid it under the Article V of the Brussels Treaty. Despite its spirit though Article V was ab initio and de facto left to be implemented to NATO, since all the members of the WEU were also NATO’s members.
3
The Brussels Treaty, 2009. Treaty of Economic, Social and Culture Collaboration and Collective SelfDefence. Available at: https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_17072.htm [Accessed on 05/12/2017] EUropa.S. 2018, March 30th – April 2nd, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 5
European Council, “Enhancing the internal and external nexus of the EU’s Common Security and Defense policy; the initiative of the European Defense Action Plan” Study Guide The Treaty of Amsterdam (1997) was the fundamental basis for the independence of the European Union from its Member States, in the fields of the external affairs and the defense and promoted ad hoc the High Representative for Common Security and Defense Policy. In the aftermath of the Cold War and the following conflicts in Balkans, the necessity for a specified response forum for crisis management and conflict prevention was more urgent than ever. The conditions under which military units could be used were already agreed upon in the WEU Council in 1992 as the Petersburg Tasks and they were integrated in the Treaty of Amsterdam. “The common foreign and security policy shall include all questions relating to the security of the Union, including the progressive framing of a common defense policy…which might lead to a common defense, should the European Council so decide” (Article 17 of the Treaty of the European Union, TEU). This Article would eventually lead to the Common Security and Defense Policy. The next step was the independence in military actions and the ascension of formidable military forces, as they were discussed in the Cologne European Council (1999). This was achieved through the alliance with NATO and the Berlin Plus Agreement which allowed access in NATO’s assets and capabilities under the condition that they have fulfilled some prerequisites. Assets also could be found in national and multinationals sources. The Treaty of Nice (2001)4 and the creation of the third pillar of internal affairs and justice was an answer to the threat that terrorism has presented and the need to respond to the internal security and refugee’s issues. This underlined the urgency for the coordination in both external and internal security. The initiative of the High Representative in 2003 for the codification of the security challenges and the overall security scope in Europe led to the European Security Strategy and the revision of its implementation in 2008. The Treaty of Lisbon (2009) was the key element in setting the base for the Common Security and Defense Policy (CSPD)5. This Treaty gave the power to the High Representative of the Union in Foreign Affairs and Security Policy and also Vice-President of the European Commission to initiate an European External Action Service (EEAS) and adopt a comprehensive approach in the issue of crisis management.
4
The Treaty of Nice, 2011. Available at: http://www.europedia.moussis.eu/books/Book_2/2/2/4/?all=1 [Accessed on 05/12/2017 5 The European Union - External Action, 2017. Available at: https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage_en [Accessed on 05/12/2017] EUropa.S. 2018, March 30th – April 2nd, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 6
European Council, “Enhancing the internal and external nexus of the EU’s Common Security and Defense policy; the initiative of the European Defense Action Plan” Study Guide
Institutional structure and agencies The permanence of institutional bodies and instruments of political and military nature were essential for the task of common defense and they were established with the Treaty of Nice by the European Council. These are: 1. The Political and Security Committee, responsible for the general direction of the Common Foreign and Security Policy, which includes the CSDP and of keeping track of the international status, 2. The European Union Military Committee, for providing counsel in military affairs, 3. The Committee for Civilian Aspects of Crisis Management, for advising upon civilian aspects of crisis management, 4. The Politico-Military Group, with the task of enveloping all political aspects regarding the military and civil-military affairs, their capabilities and also serving as a forum for coordination with other states, to the inclusion of EU-NATO alliance, 5. The Crisis Management and Planning Directorate, responsible for the objectives of the EEAS, the CSDP and the strategic coordination of civilian missions and military operations, 6. The European Union Military Staff, as the basis for assembling military expertise within the EEAS, 7. The Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability, for supervising all civilian operations for crisis management under the CSDP, 8. The European Defense Agency, for advancing the defense capacity and the military coordination among the EU Member States (to the exclusion of Denmark) and signing Administrative Arrangements with third states (like Norway in 2006, Switzerland in 2012, the Republic of Serbia in 2013 and Ukraine in 2015), 9. The European Security and Defense College, for experimenting and developing strategic and advanced education in the CSDP, 10. The European Union Institute for Security Studies, for a common security culture for the Union and expanding expertise in external policy, 11. data,
The European Union Satellite Centre, for collecting and analyzing satellite
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European Council, “Enhancing the internal and external nexus of the EU’s Common Security and Defense policy; the initiative of the European Defense Action Plan” Study Guide 12. The EU Operations Centre, for advancing the civil and military operations and achieving their coordination.
The international role and perspective The CSDP is vital for the EU in order to advance its status in the international stage and simultaneously increase the international security, through conflict prevention, peace-keeping operations and a comprehensive approach to crisis management with civilian and military missions. Thus, there are two parallel directions to its package of goals. Developing its autonomy in the security and defense sector in the European level and at the same time reach out for reciprocal collaboration with international partners and allies in the international stage. Article 21 of the TEU underlines the importance of combating common threats under the auspices of the United Nations. In the spirit of this Article, EU is promoting a balanced collaboration with the USA in the field of security, so that they can counter terrorist threats that continuously arise, increase their respective capabilities in crisis management, co-participate in such operations like in Kosovo and Congo and combat the proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction. Partnerships of same nature are in place with Iceland, Montenegro, Norway, Canada, Serbia, Ukraine and Turkey. Apart from NATO the EU has developed close discussions on security and crisis management with the African Union, the OSCE and the ASEAN.
The military and civilian operations Since March 2002 and the creation of the European Union Police Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina by Council Joint Action, under the CSDP near the 30 military and civilian missions and operations have been undertaken. The Headline Goals which include this nature of missions have been adopted in order to adapt to the continuously changing security environment. These missions are an integral part of the CSDP and the EU has launched plenty of these overseas operations with military and civilian assets in Europe, Africa and Asia. These missions work in a comprehensive way under the scope of EU’s regional policies. The decision for their deployment is taken under the meetings of the Foreign Affairs Council.
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European Council, “Enhancing the internal and external nexus of the EU’s Common Security and Defense policy; the initiative of the European Defense Action Plan” Study Guide Analysis of the civilian and military operations and missions worldwide
The European Defense Action Plan In June 2016, Federica Mogherini (HR/VP) published the Global Strategy for the European Union’s Foreign and Security Policy, which revived the discussions for CSDP and gave the base for the EU Security and Defense Package. The EDAP is the second of the three pillars of the EU Security and Defense Package and its basis is the need for acquiring the assets for enhancing defense through a European Defense Fund. The European Commission ignited the significance of this Fund in order for the Member States to enhance the expenditures in their joint defense capabilities, ensure the security of their citizens and develop a competitive and innovative industrial base. It was presented on 30 November of 2016 by the European Commission and it was welcomed by the EU leaders during the European Council meetings in December 2016 and March 2017. The European Council possesses a key role in the discussions with the stakeholders regarding the Plan. The EDAP operates through three short-terms goals: 1. The European Defense Fund in order to promote investment in joint research and advancement of defense equipment and technologies through two
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European Council, “Enhancing the internal and external nexus of the EU’s Common Security and Defense policy; the initiative of the European Defense Action Plan” Study Guide windows which are essential to each other but not identical in their legal structure and their capital. https://twitter.com/eudefence
a. The “research window” for cooperating research in innovative defense technologies such as encrypted software, metamaterials, electronics and robotics. A capital of 25 million EUR for defense research have already been included to the 2017 EU budget and there is an expectance of reaching 90 million EUR until 2020. The Commission intends to present a proposal for a dedicated programme for defense research with an estimated amount of 500 million EUR per year for the post2020 era. b. The “capability window” under which several Member States could purchase certain equipment and innovations together to diminish their costs and this would be agreed by the Member States who already have these capabilities (technology and equipment). Such examples are joint purchases in bulk buy helicopters and drone technology. The potential capital of this window could reach 5 billion EUR per year. 2. Enhance investments in SMEs (Small and medium-sized enterprises), startups, mid-caps and other suppliers to the industry. The European Investment Bank is a potential funding supplier and the European Commission supports its cause of accessing the funding by the defense supply chains. The modernization of the supply chains and the funding of productive investment projects are also under the framework of this goal. EUropa.S. 2018, March 30th – April 2nd, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 10
European Council, “Enhancing the internal and external nexus of the EU’s Common Security and Defense policy; the initiative of the European Defense Action Plan” Study Guide
3. Enhancing the Single Market in the defense sector. This goal is based on the Directives regarding the EU transfers, the strengthening of the industry standards, the facilitation of cross- border participation in defense procurement and the advancement of sectoral policies, like the EU space programmes, to highlight the CSDP priorities. An overview of the European Defense Fund
The challenges of the EDAP Although it poses an innovative initiative with a large scale of potential, especially, in the fields of research and defence this plan faces plenty obstacles due to its basis on a multinational basis. First of the EU budget cannot take the place of the Member States’ budget on defence. It should be the collaboration of the EU countries for developing the necessary defence equipment and ensure value for money. But taking into consideration the current status in Europe after the referendum in the United Kingdom and the, not great yet existent, increase of euro-skepticism in many EU countries from France to Hungary and from the Netherlands to Poland under the anti-migrant and anti-EU spirit, the collaborative base of the plan is rather placed in EUropa.S. 2018, March 30th – April 2nd, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 11
European Council, “Enhancing the internal and external nexus of the EU’s Common Security and Defense policy; the initiative of the European Defense Action Plan” Study Guide an unstable solid. The recent German elections in September have certainly added more fuel to the fire. The lack of cooperation between Member States in the defense and security sectors is estimated to reach an annual cost between 25 billion EUR and 100 billion EUR. The lack of competition and the lack of scale economies for industry and production alongside many inefficiencies in these sectors are but deteriorating the situation. Two years ago, the USA spent twice as much as the total spending of EU Member States on defense. China has expanded its defense budget by 150% over the past decade. An estimated 80% of defense procurement is run on a purely national basis, leading to severe and costly duplication of military capabilities. The European troops that are deployed do not extend beyond the 3% of the overall EU troops (40.000) and the cause of that is the lack of interoperability and the deterioration and lack of equipment. Bearing in mind the 200.000 deployed US troops overseas the EU is an inferior level in comparison. Since the 2010, less than 200 million EUR has been spent each year on common European research and technology, but the EU goal is to triple these numbers after the 2021 in order to proceed with its overall goal. The importance of advancing the EU capacity in the defence sector through the EDAP is not based solely on safety and security but mostly on the positive spill-over impact that will have on the European economy. The EU defence industry produces a total capital of 100 billion EUR per year and 1,4 million highly skilled and trained people are employed in Europe, in a direct or indirect way. A statistical overview estimates that each euro which is invested in defence generates a return of 1,6 especially in skilled employment, research technology and exports. The voluntary nature of the EDAP and the coordinative participation does not encourage involvement among member states and is solely based on short-term political interests and strategies. This leads to a status where the only contributors are the Member States with the biggest military industries and research institutions, which it may meets the efforts underlined by the EDAP’s main objectives, but it is not under a EU common reciprocal collaboration. The problem regarding the distribution of funds is based on this issue and the nature of voluntarism. And the last issue is strictly related to national sovereignty since the whole concept of redistribution is based on the principle of “juste retour”. The largest military companies expect to make the most of their investment, but this poses an extremely difficult task for the Member States with less-developed defence industries, who are both unwilling to participate in the endeavor and also are protected by the political limits of the EU based on the protection of the national defence industries. The idea EUropa.S. 2018, March 30th – April 2nd, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 12
European Council, “Enhancing the internal and external nexus of the EU’s Common Security and Defense policy; the initiative of the European Defense Action Plan” Study Guide of changing from national sovereignty ideas to joint actions on defence initiatives could be present capable of promoting the EDAP but is it worth the risk? The EU tried to resolve the situation with the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) and avoid the current direction of bilateral and multilateral military cooperation to more efficient joint forms of defence and security integration. PESCO is based on Article 42(6) of the TEU which underlines the power o certain likeminded states to take the EU defence policy in the next level. Its voluntary nature and its framework co-operation to decide on the pace and the fields of progress are its treats. The European Commission President Jean-Claude Junker said “I think the time to make use of this possibility is now” during the 2016 State of the Union Address.
The EU Security and Defense Package: The other two pillars The EDAP is only the second pillar on a wider initiative based also on collaboration with third parties. The first pillar is the Implementation Plan on Security and Defense, which underlines the priorities of the EU Global Strategy and exploit both the civilian and military operations and missions and the benefits of the EDAP. Its scope covers the external conflicts and crisis, the building capacities of partners and the protection of EU and its citizens from external threats. This is an essential structural element especially regarding the neighborhood crisis who are a direct threat to EU’s internal security. That’s the reason of expanding also the defense capacities of partners and neighbors through concrete actions base on PESCO and a command centre for military training missions. The third pillar of the Package is the ascension of the EU-NATO cooperation, based on the Joint Declaration in Warsaw in December 2016. This cooperation covers 7 specified areas: a.
Countering hybrid threats
b.
Building defense capabilities
c.
Coordination in parallel exercises
d.
Development of defence and security capacity
e.
Promotion of defence industry and research
f.
Expansion of cyber-security and defence EUropa.S. 2018, March 30th – April 2nd, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 13
European Council, “Enhancing the internal and external nexus of the EU’s Common Security and Defense policy; the initiative of the European Defense Action Plan” Study Guide g.
Advancing operational cooperation including maritime issues
The problem arises regarding the difference in the nature of organizations and the velocity of each respective mandate between the EU and NATO. This collaboration may makes each organization stronger and neither institution has the potential to address these challenges alone. Yet the jurisdiction lies with the Member States of each organization and their willingness to collaborate in that immense extent with the other organization.
The Progress of EDAP’s negotiations
The present threats The essential significance of the EDAP and the EU Security and Defence Package as whole can only be truly proven not just with statistic facts but also as the dangers which is tasked to counter. In the end, one goal is only, as important as, the matters which it is entitled to resolve. First and foremost, the neighborhood crisis that have risen in the recent years especially after the Russian initiatives in Ukraine and the following sanctions both from EU members and USA. And for that time things have only progressed to the worst. The sanctions increase dispute and argument among EU Members since many states, as Bulgaria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Austria, Spain, Greece, Cyprus and Italy see the sanctions as a problem. While other states like Romania, Poland and the EUropa.S. 2018, March 30th – April 2nd, Athens, Greece europas.irtea@gmail.com | www.europas.irtea.gr Page 14
European Council, “Enhancing the internal and external nexus of the EU’s Common Security and Defense policy; the initiative of the European Defense Action Plan” Study Guide Baltic States want a more direct presence of NATO in the Black Sea. In past June Germany and Austria have taken a direct opposition to the sanctions. All these ignite the necessity for the EU Members to coordinate on promoting a common security and defense policy plan in order to expand their position in the international stage and pose a stronger presence.
Conclusion Coming to the end of this document, it would be an oversight not to highlight that the dynamic prospect of the establishment of the Security and Defence Policy of the European Union is a high European priority at the same time an issue that stirs up controversy. Trying to heal their wounds of the consecutive and shocking terrorist attacks and to be an influential global power, the European Union and its Members is willing believe again the European dream of the effective cooperation, peacemaking and advocacy of the Common European interest. Beyond that the terrorist hits, the refugee crisis, the continuing proliferation of the Weapons of Mass Destruction, the immense cyber threats, the regional conflicts in other areas and regions, like Turkey, Egypt and Syria, the need for advancing the maritime security and the phenomenon of state failure all pose imminent dangers for the safety of the EU Member States and their citizens. The board is set and the pieces are moving and now it is the time to see if the European Union will take its turn into a joint action with the tools that the EDAP is providing or choose the sole approach to the issues under the spirit of euroskepticism. In the end it will be a dispute between the idea that united we stand, divide we fall and the idea that each man is as strong as on each own. This is the time for the Members to take initiative, to stand their ground and to negotiate. Last but not least, we strongly encourage you all to be aware and completely informed of the matter and the latest news until the day of the Conference because day by day new standards and decisions declare their presence.
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European Council, “Enhancing the internal and external nexus of the EU’s Common Security and Defense policy; the initiative of the European Defense Action Plan” Study Guide
Glossary NATO: “is an alliance of 28 countries bordering the North Atlantic Ocean. It includes Canada, the United States, Turkey and most members of the European Union. NATO is an acronym for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization”. PESCO: “is the Permanent Structured Cooperation on security and defence (PESCO), as outlined in the Treaty of the EU, Articles 42 (6) and 46, as well as Protocol 10. Through PESCO, Member States increase their effectiveness in addressing security challenges and advancing towards further integrating and strengthening defence cooperation within the EU framework”. Juste retour: “Principle that the funding granted to project participants from a given country/region under a joint call is in proportion to the budget contributed to the joint call by that country/region”. Weapon of Mass Destruction: “is a radiological, chemical, nuclear or other weapon that has the power to kill, injure humans or cause damage to human-made structures such as buildings, means of transport and natural structures (e.g. mountains) or even the biosphere.
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European Council, “Enhancing the internal and external nexus of the EU’s Common Security and Defense policy; the initiative of the European Defense Action Plan” Study Guide
Questions Raised I.
For which reason is the Common European Policy on Defence and Security of utmost importance of the EU future? II. How could the EU States enforce defence preparedness and have a joint policy towards the urgent external and internal threats? I. For what reason is the European Common Defence and Security Policy crucial and fundamental for the future of the EU II. Under which circumstances could the European Defence Action Plan be a successful endeavor? III. How important could be the harmonization of the Member’s policies upon the defence and the security for success of the Plan? IV. How could the European Defense Fund encourage the small and medium enterprise (SME) and how can they benefit? V. Is the establishment of the common European policy on defence and security a step towards the creation of an EU army? VI. According which principles and elements can the cooperation between NATO and EU be effective and progressive? VII. Could be possible for the EU to cooperate with countries outside the EU (third countries) for the sustainability of the Plan? VIII. How can the Union face with its internal disagreements and reservation concerning the defence and security policy? IX. What role have the military and civilian missions and operations played so far? X. How the EU can continue and improve this effort being dedicated to the Common Security and Defence Policy?
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European Council, “Enhancing the internal and external nexus of the EU’s Common Security and Defense policy; the initiative of the European Defense Action Plan” Study Guide
Bibliography Deutsche Wirtschafts Nachrichten (2016). “ Barnier: Gemeinsame Verteidigung der EU ist nicht gegen NATO gerichtet “ [online] Available from : 1. https://deutschewirtschafts-nachrichten.de/2016/09/15/barnier-gemeinsame-verteidigung-der-euist-nicht-gegen-nato-gerichtet/ Donata Riedel (2017), “ Pesco - Die militärische Union Europas “ [online] Available from : http://www.handelsblatt.com/politik/international/gemeinsameverteidigung-pesco-die-militaerische-union-europas/20575622.html EU Observer (2017). “EU defence strategy 'outsourced' to arms industry “. [online] Available from: https://euobserver.com/foreign/139451 European Commission (2016). “About the European External Action Service (EEAS)”. [online] Available from: https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquartershomepage/82/about-the-european-external-action-service-eeas_en European Commission, (2017). A European Defence Fund: €5.5 billion per year to boost Europe's defence capabilities [online] Available from : http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-17-1508_en.htm Handelsblatt (2017) : “Die stille Revolution in Europas Verteidigungspolitik” [online] Available from : http://www.handelsblatt.com/politik/international/europaeischeunion-die-stille-revolution-in-europas-verteidigungspolitik/20074558.html Tom O’Connor (2017), “EU LAUNCHES OWN DEFENSE AGAINST RUSSIA, RESPONDING TO TRUMP NATO FUNDING COMMENTS” Newsweek” . [online] Available from : http://www.newsweek.com/eu-defense-fund-tackle-russia-militarytrump-nato-622648
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European Council, “Enhancing the internal and external nexus of the EU’s Common Security and Defense policy; the initiative of the European Defense Action Plan” Study Guide
Further Reading A.Bredimas, G.Kyriakopoulos (2016), International Organizations. Nomiki BiBliothiki Publications. Sahpekidou E. (2013) , European Law. Sakkoulas A.E Sahpekidou E. , Stagkos.P , (2009) The Law of the European Communities and the European Union II Sakkoulas A.E Sahpekiodou E. (2008) , European Union. Sakkoulas A.E Useful Links
Youtube : “ Common defence policy: Can European armies unite? - Talking Europe “ [online] Available from : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xn_1ZtLd0ZY Youtube : “Spend more, spend better to improve EU defence - the network” [online] Available from : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MpYAxD-vz1w Youtube : “ EU Common Defence and Security Policy in Action “ [online] Available from : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mVdz0vDOKuc
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