CHAPTER V: Factors Influencing Learning Achievements in Primary Education

Based on available data 4 and the studies undertaken by this Commission, the factors influencing children’s achievements in primary education have been categorised under Home Background, School Characteristics and Learner Characteristics.

Home Background Factors

Among home background factors, those significantly affecting children’s learning achievements include:

• Socioeconomic status of the family. Persistent household poverty acts as a major stumbling block for children from such households in accessing school facilities, as noted in the Bhutan Living Standard Survey. On the other hand, a UNICEF study shows that, even in the “free” Government schools, parents have to pay for uniforms, school food, fees and other contributions, resulting in a considerable total for a poor family. Consequently, the cost of schooling is one of the main “push” factors that result in high dropout rates in primary education. Clearly, a strong negative association exists between poverty and children’s achievements.

• Educational level of household head. The Learning Quality Survey found that, on average, “children with a literate father have a quarter of a standard deviation higher score in maths and two-fifths of a standard deviation higher score in English.” It can be hypothesised that educated parents generally encourage their children to attend school regularly, help them with homework, and create a conducive home environment in terms of providing facilities for learning, all of which have positive impacts on children’s learning outcomes. Conversely, parental illiteracy has a negative association with achievement. A case study in India’s Bihar state found some association between large number of students scoring 0 on achievement tests and their parents’ illiteracy.5

• Education of the mother is more conspicuously related to children’s achievements. “On the average, children with a literate mother have a quarter or more of a standard deviation higher score in English and maths compare to children whose mother did not attend primary school,” said the Learning Quality Survey. Another study in India found that children of mothers with no schooling are likelier not to be enrolled or to drop out and, more importantly, that the gender gap in families where the mother never went to school is wider. 5

• Smaller family size positively contributes to higher achievement. Households with a higher dependency ratio tend to be poorer, the Living Standard Survey reported. In other words, a smaller family is usually in a better position to meet the costs of schooling. Studies in India have concluded that the presence of a large number of siblings exerts a negative influence on achievements, given that the greater the number of siblings, the less time parents can devote individual attention to children. 6

• Distance travelled to school likewise correlates to achievements. As per the NEA findings for Class VI, the mean score of students who travel less than a half-hour is highest, with further differences in the mean scores of those who travel between 1 and 3 hours to school.

School Characteristics Factors

School characteristics significantly influence on learning outcomes. Key school factors include:

• Teacher quality clearly has a major impact on children’s overall achievements scores. As per the Learning Quality Survey, the correlation between teacher quality and learning outcomes is as follows: a) Variation in teacher quality explains 26 to 45 percent of variation in test scores b) Teacher quality variation effects are highest for English and lowest for Dzongkha c) Teacher quality variation declined in Class IV for Dzongkha and Maths but increased for English. d) Teacher quality variation is greater than school quality variation in English and Maths, although the pattern across subjects is similar.

Teacher qualification also is negatively affected by the following a) A marked difference appears to exist in the standards/level of professional and general education attended by primary-education English and Maths teachers (NEA Class VI findings). Put simply, teachers’ own educational qualifications as well as professional training are suspect. This appears to have resulted in children scoring particularly low marks in Maths in the NEA tests. b) Teachers rely almost exclusively on textbooks for teaching, with the proportion of textbook use at more than 95 percent (NEA findings for Class VI). This means teaching methods are traditional, with an emphasis on memorisation rather than understanding of concepts. c) According to UNESCO (EFA Global Monitoring Report 2005), the share of teachers who had been absent in the week prior to this survey stood at 14 percent in Bhutan.

• School quality

. In a attempt to assess the difference in children’s attainment on tests because of differences in school quality, the Learning Quality Survey identified teacher characteristics that emerged as “robust predictors of learning outcomes across subjects and grades:” a) Share of female teachers: positive impact on achievements b) Share of teachers with professional qualifications: positive impact on achievements c) Share of teachers who have undergone School-Based In-Service Training (SBIP): positive impact on achievements

Differences in school quality, defined in terms of the above characteristics, explain 25 to 45 percent of variances in attainment. School-specific effects vary by subject, being highest for English and lowest for Dzongkha. It should be noted that, within its methodology, the Survey did not examine other important aspects of school quality that also may strongly affect children’s attainment.

• Availability of textbooks or learning materials. Clearly, schools without textbooks or learning materials will not be able to do an effective job. In that sense, textbooks are important for children’s achievements; therefore, the Commission investigated the status of the availability of textbooks in schools. Only 65.8 percent of student respondents had textbooks, leaving 34.2 percent – more than one-third – without texts. Moreover, of those without books, only 78.2 percent could share with those who had books. The remaining 21.8 percent – nearly 1 in 4 – neither had books nor could borrow from friends. Given the difficulty of accessing textbooks, it is understandable that not all children are willing share their books, although quality of the printing may be very poor (see Box 5). At the same time, it is equally understandable why so many children’s achievements are disappointingly low. One study in India shows that schools where all children had textbooks score two to three times higher than children who had some or none. 7

Box 5. Quality and standards of textbooks

Recently Thailand, following the example of many developed countries, introduced textbooks printed on cream-coloured paper that is “eye-friendly.” This paper is not as lightreflective, providing greater reading comfort than conventional printing paper. While the Thai initiative may seem like a luxury, far from the Bhutan’s realities, attention must be drawn to challenges involving Bhutanese textbook quality.

The Commission found the condition of many textbooks to be very poor, not only because of wear and tear but because they were poorly produced, using sub-quality paper. The books’ photos and illustrations, which should serve as excellent visual aids for learners, are in fact indistinct and masses of fused colours. This defeats their very purpose. Textbooks should be such that children will enjoy using and owning them. In the long run, better-quality books using superior paper are cheaper, given that they are more durable than cheaply produced books, which have to be replaced regularly. In addition, it is more environment-friendly to produce fewer, better-quality books than mass quantities of cheap books. Similarly, even the exercise books provided to some schools need to be monitored. During the Commission’s visits to schools, some head teachers showed us samples of poor-quality exercise books and requested Commission members to “tell the concerned authorities that such stationery cannot be used.” The paper was so thin that a pencil pierces it when children write in the exercise book.

• Health and nutrition. A clear-cut link exists between health and learning. Ill health affects attendance, retention, cognitive development and academic performance. Recent studies also reveal a negative relationship between health/nutritional status and learners’ school achievements. A UNICEF study indicates Bhutan continues to be afflicted with a high incidence of protein energy malnutrition among its children. In this context, schools have a strategic role in promoting good health and nutrition, as well as overcoming “status” issues related to bringing home food to school (see Box 6). School-based health programmes can be a cost-effective way to improve the health of learners; in all, the issue must be viewed from the principle of equity, i.e., socially equitable distribution of learning outcomes. This, then, calls at least for ensuring provision of free school meals, including health and nutrition services, in all primary schools in the country.

Box 6. At least one hot meal a day

In a study on the Status of Access to Primary Education of the Girl Child (MoE, 2003), 63 percent of respondents – nearly 2 in 3 – said “children refused to take pack lunch to school.” Teachers have noted that children feel shy to bring food from home to school, and the Commission found in one of our visits that the perceived quality of food affects children’s “status” and makes them shy or proud. Said one 8-year-old girl attending a community school in Wangdue Phodrang dzongkhag: “We don’t get lunch in school, so we take pack lunch. I take red rice with a tshoemm and I eat with others who also bring red rice. The children who bring white rice eat together. They usually sit away from us because they are shy, and often they have no tshoem to eat with their rice.”

• Infrastructure facilities. The level of infrastructure facilities provided in school –buildings, classrooms, drinking water, toilets – also is associated with learner achievements and overall school quality. In Bhutan, a considerable amount of capital investment is being made in constructing new physical infrastructure. In the process, however, maintenance and/or refurbishing of old school buildings appears to have been rather neglected, resulting in a significant proportion of school infrastructure in a dilapidated state (see Box 7). This has garnered media attention, which has highlighted the negative impact of poorly maintained or refurbished schools on children’s health and learning. Clearly, a strong case exists for assigning equal attention to proper maintenance and refurbishing of school buildings and facilities.

• School location. The dzongkhag in which schools are located explains 6 to 23 percent of variation in attainment, according to the Learning Quality Survey. Again, these effects vary by subject, being lowest for Dzongkha and highest for English. Scores in English and Maths are higher in schools in villages with a bank, motor road or phone line, the Survey found.

Box 7. Overcrowded and dangerous hostels

During the Commission’s visits to schools, it was noticed that many buildings were in states of disrepair. Often the hostel facilities were less than adequate. One head teacher of a boarding school told Commission members, “The girls’ hostel is crowded. There are three girls to a bed. It’s not so bad for the boys: They are much are better off, with only two to a bed.”

Likewise, media coverage of poor school infrastructure has been vivid. Bhutan Times wrote: “Every night the students of Lauri Community Primary School pray before bed to distract themselves from the fear that they may die the next day; their hostel might crumble down any time.”

Student Characteristics Factors

Among student characteristics, these factors strongly correlate with children’s achievements:

• Learner readiness. As noted in Chapter II, it is widely recognised that ECCE substantially enhances children’s school readiness, with the latter correlated to children’s achievements in primary education. Yet, as also discussed above, this has not been an area of importance in the Bhutanese education sector, as reflected in the modest budgetary support for early learning. Thus, a need exists to draw lessons from various studies suggesting that investment in ECCE is a costeffective way to improve education quality. In light of this, the following has been extracted from the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2005.

A cross-country study in sub-Saharan Africa shows clear relationships between early childhood care and education programme coverage and repetition and survival rates, as well as children’s physical development. The study concludes that 87 percent of investment in the programme will be repaid in the form of increased efficiency in primary education. Other individual and social returns – such as better health, higher income and greater social cohesion – will most likely offset the remaining 13 percent, and possibly much more.

• Gender. The NEA findings for Class VI that “girls outperformed boys in literacy tests,” whereas “boys outperformed girls in numeracy tests,” do not explain why girls are doing better in literacy, and why boys are doing better in numeracy.

• Language. A need exists to address the question of how to best teach Dzongkha (much less English), particularly to those children whose first language is not Dzongkha. In the United States, for example, remedial learning programmes are offered for students whose first language in not English and/or those who are weak in this subject.

CHAPTER VI: Secondary Education

In Bhutan the basic education level has been raised to Class X, even as the country’s Education Sector Strategy expects provisions to be made for “education and training opportunities to everyone up to a level equivalent to Class XII.” Moreover, secondary and tertiary education are part of both the EFA goals and the MDG targets. Thus, developing a good-quality secondary school system is an important education policy objective.

Looking at education beyond the primary level, this Commission considered lower, middle and higher secondary education as a whole under “secondary education.” Overall, the situation in secondary education in Bhutan is similar to that for primary education, but the challenges are much more pronounced.

Enrolment

In 2007 the student enrolment was 104,467 in primary level (PP-VI), 38, 911, in the lower and middle secondary level (VII – X) and 8, 816 in the Higher Secondary level (XI – XII)

Enrolment figures for 2007 speak for themselves, the country’s education pipeline is highly “leaky:” Of the total students enrolled in primary education, only 37 percent are in lower and middle secondary – and of the latter, only 22 percent proceed to higher secondary.

The above transitions rates contrast sharply with those prevailing in developed countries. North America and Western Europe have almost achieved universal secondary education, with GERs above 100 percent and average NERs exceeding 90 percent.

Given the sharp drop in enrolment from primary to lower/middle secondary and from the latter to higher secondary, it can be assumed that the country’s GER for secondary education (data not available) is very low – lower than the worldwide average GERs of 78 percent and 51 percent respectively for lower/middle and higher secondary education.

Retention and Repetition

With fewer students and relatively better inputs in terms of infrastructure and qualified teachers, one might expect that secondary schooling fares better than primary in dropout and repetition rates. Disappointingly, however, these rates are higher than at primary level for 2001/2002-2006/2007.

Retention and repetition rates

• Average dropout rate per class per year for Classes VII-X 8

• Highest average dropout rate per year, found in Class VII 7.15% 5.55%

• Average repetition rate per class per year for Classes VII-X 6.7%

• Highest average repetition rate per year, found in Class VII 10.9%

Gender Disparity in Secondary Schools

Education statistics for 2007 indicate a slow but steady increase in girls’ enrolment at every level of general education. However, as in most developing counties, the higher the level of education, the greater gender disparities. As indicated earlier, gender parity exists at the primary level, but gender differences in participation show up at secondary level, as shown in Table 2. This can be attributed to low overall secondary enrolment, which tends to be at the expense of girls. Further, gender inequality persists as the strongest inverse correlate of school attendance and performance (UNESCO, 2003), with poor instruction also remaining a root cause. The state of school infrastructure, including the availability of separate girls’ toilets, has a further bearing on girls’ participation.

While no biases exist against girls’ enrolment in Bhutan, no policy framework specifically addresses factors strongly influencing gender patterns of secondary school participation and retention. The EFA Global Monitoring Report has identified these factors as puberty, pregnancy and early marriage, and “household and societal.”

Table 2: Girls’ Enrolment in Classes X and XI in Public Schools

Source: General Statistics 2006-2007, MoE

Academic Achievement

In the last five years, the pass percentage in Class X and XII Board Examinations has been more than 90 percent and 92 percent respectively. While this is a welcome outcome, a need exists to examine more closely the NEA findings on Class X and details of the results of Classes X and XII.

NEA of Class X English and Mathematics

8 Data for Class X not available.

The average test scores were 19.72 (out of 60) for English and 37.99 (out of 100) for Mathematics.

The above scores show that achievement levels at the end of lower and middle secondary education are disappointingly low. Moreover, these poor scores were secured by the academically “best of the best” among their school-age cohort. The scores in these core subjects further reflect overall “standards” of student achievements in Class X Board Examinations.

As with the NEA findings for Class VI with regard to maths scores, it can be assumed that the poor Class X scores also result in part from low educational qualifications and low motivation of teachers. Such scores also could arise from rote-learning teaching styles.

Results of BCSC for Class X and BHSEC for Class XII

The numbers of Class X and XII Board Examination failures between 2002 and 2006 were 1,805 and 1,305 respectively, revealing an unacceptable picture of educational outputs of middle and higher secondary schools. A study undertaken by this Commission of popular –but not necessarily outstanding – schools in Indian towns bordering Bhutan found that these schools consider a 100 percent pass percentage as the minimum achievement level for Class X and XII. What seems to matter most is the percentage of students scoring of 60 percent (1st Division) and above in their board examinations.

In 2006 a total of 3,737 students passed the Class XII Board Examination. Of these, only 35 percent, or 1,315, were selected for admission to various tertiary institutes in the country. Because the cut-off point is usually below 60 percent, it can be surmised that many of those selected had passed the Class XII exams with marks of less than 60 percent. However, if a mean score of 60 percent – still low – is taken as a satisfactory level of performance, than these students’ achievement levels are unsatisfactory. Concomitantly, progress toward formation of high-quality human resources in the country is progressing slowly.

Conclusion

1. As portrayed in earlier Chapters, most primary-school children are far below their required level of academic achievement. With many nonetheless graduating to secondary education, recouping their “learning deficit” has become a major challenge in secondary schools. For this reason, early intervention is crucial via good-quality early childhood care and education programmes and adequate provision of quality primary education.

2. It is clear that, as in the case of primary education, the most important challenge for secondary education is to improve educational outcomes of students – and what affects student outcomes most is the quality of teaching/learning in classrooms. This requires addressing the crux of school quality issue: how to attract the best-educated people into the teaching profession, leading to better student outcomes. To respond to this, a need exists to follow what high-performing countries like the Republic of Korea and Singapore do: recruit teachers from the best of their national graduates.

Chapter VII: School Culture: An Overlooked Dimension for Improvement

Even a casual visit to a school will make one sense that it has a culture of its own. It is when it comes to explaining a school culture that one may fumble. However, thanks to David Fulton, 9 a stipulative definition of a school culture exists, which make it explaining it in a practical, short way:

School culture simply is what counts as normal at a school. There is more to this definition than first meets the eye. When something counts as normal, it means that it is sanctioned, officially or unofficially, by the institution. It is something – a practice, a value, a point of view – that is so embedded in an organisation that its presence is barely noticed or seen as out of the ordinary. It is the set of practices that a new member to the school will likely conform to after six months on the job. They may enter with a different set of beliefs or practices (perhaps fresh from teacher training), but they will be overpowered by the culture.

Studies have established the centrality of school culture to school improvement. Indeed, there is no dearth of examples of “intentional school culture,” or school culture that has been harnessed for building excellence in academics and character. Despite this, many schools pay no heed to their culture, let alone shape it to achieve growth of academics and character. A school culture tends to haphazardly unfold, sometime in responses to external pressure, principal personality and/or school rituals. Under the circumstances, the real danger is that the culture could deteriorate to a point that it could derail even the best-planned academic reforms.

Therefore, this Commission undertook to gauge the state of school culture in Bhutan, visiting more than 25 schools in 13 dzongkhags, surveying more than 800 students and 150 teachers, and interviewing scores of students, teachers and parents.

Alarmingly, the most important survey findings concern a classroom culture that has a direct correlation with teaching and learning – to the detriment of learners’ academic achievements. The dominant feature of this culture is “ a culture of passivity”, in which students are simply recipients of knowledge. What difference will it make to develop a classroom culture around student engagement? First and foremost, students will learn more. Students (and adults) simply do not learn well in an atmosphere of fear and stress. The author of a recent Educational Leadership article, a neuro-scientist, makes this point: In a stressful classroom environment, “information flow to the higher cognitive networks is limited, and the learning process grinds to a halt.” (Willis, 2007).

Based on the above, the following recommendations can have a positive impact on teaching, learning and the lives of children:

• Shift from a culture of fear to a culture of engagement in classrooms

• Create a culture of reading in schools

• Strengthen both teacher in-service training and access to best practices throughout the country

By no means have these findings covered all dimensions of school culture that have a bearing on school characteristics. But at this stage, it is important to focus on those aspects of immediate relevance to the core business of school: teaching and learning. Moreover, these recommendations are largely able to be implemented relatively quickly, and with no budgetary implications. Equally important, by highlighting aspects directly relevant to the basic functioning of a school, it is possible to stimulate greater overall attention to school culture.

Chapter VIII: Tertiary Education

In reviewing the status of tertiary education in the country, this Commission limited its studies to a) Sherubtse College as a Social Institution and b) Quality Assurance of Higher Education in Bhutan. Clearly, however, many other critical issues concerning higher education exist beyond those covered by the two studies. It is expected that these additional issues will be covered under a study under way by the Ministry of Education toward formulation of a comprehensive policy for tertiary education in Bhutan.

Study on Sherubtse College as a Social Institution

Sherubtse College is the oldest college in the country, and the premier institution of higher learning. As such, it is the subject of much public debate. According to the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2005, the quality of learning depends on student behaviour more than on anything else, in that student behaviour responds directly to the socialisation process. Yet apparently no attempt has been made to understanding how Sherubtse students and faculty interacting, not only as learners and teachers but as persons in the social context of the college. Higher education is not only a set of outcomes; it is also a process. Given the amount of time spent at college, the behaviour of students and faculty alike is bound to be determined by the quality of this process. The latter also affects the way students and faculty experience life and work at the college.

In undertaking the study, this Commission visited Sherubtse and both surveyed and extensively interviewed students and faculty members. Further, the Commission also had conversations on various issues concerning Sherubtse with two former Directors of the College. However, the study is not sociological research on the college; rather, it is an effort to direct attention to the social process that significantly affects student life, including their character and academic achievements. Major survey findings include:

• Sherubtse College, the pinnacle of learning in Bhutan, appears at risk of sliding into becoming a mediocre institution

• In general, students do not seem fully engaged in learning. When asked whether the students are “actively engaged and excited to learn,” the average staff response was 2.91 out of 5 points. Student effort appears to vary by course of study – science students seem to work hardest – and several students we spoke with said that faculty expectations are fairly low.

• Accountability for lecturers and students appears weak. For example, both students and staff told us of several lecturers who simply do not show up for class, with apparently little if any consequence.

• Many buildings and classrooms are in disrepair.

• Departments exhibit uneven performance; some appear to be thriving, while others are struggling.

• The college seems to have struggled for the last decade with many changes in leadership, which has affected the overall culture of the institute. A need exists for strong and stable leadership.

• Faculty trust and professional morale are both relatively low. The average score was 2.88 (out of 5) when asked if the staff trusts one another and 2.79 when asked if there are opportunities to grow professionally at Sherubtse. In addition, there does not appear to be a culture of celebration or recognition of strong staff performance. The survey revealed an average score of 2.68 when staff were asked if they have a voice in decision making, and 2.73 when asked if there exists collaborative spirit among staff.

• The area around the college is commercially undeveloped and does not feel like a “college town.” (This may be because students simply do not have the discretionary funds to support coffee shops, restaurants and bookstores.)

• Many students and faculty noted that the library and information system need improvement and complained about limited access to the Internet. (This should be remedied, at least in part, when the new technology building is completed.)

Obviously, it is not possible to improve all aspects of a social process overnight; a long-term view is needed. Nevertheless, a start must be made somewhere, and it is wise to start small –with a small victory at a time. This is where the Commission’s recommendations come in:

• Strengthen accountability for weak performance. Lecturers who fail to show up for class should be disciplined. In addition, departments with continued weak performance should be both held accountable and required to find measurable ways to improve instruction and student performance.

• Students should be held more accountable. (For that academic performance. This aspect has been addressed to with the introduction of the RUB curriculum from 2007)

• Attend to the maintenance of classrooms and of the campus as a whole.

Quality Assurance of Higher Education in Bhutan

Since its establishment in 2003, the Royal University of Bhutan (RUB) has been mandated to cover “all education of Level 5 and above” (ISCED, 1997) in the country. Consequently, virtually all educational programmes deemed tertiary have been accredited and qualifications recognised by RUB. In the process, however, issues of quality assurance have not been given the attention they warrant. In this context, the Commission developed a case study on “Quality Assurance of Higher Education in Bhutan,” combining desktop research and data generated through a survey of tertiary education providers, graduates and key stakeholders. The idea was to create greater awareness regarding the challenges posed by quality assurance issues, along with higher recognition of qualifications from the perspective of key stakeholders, including students. We hope that this study can serve as a modest input to the ongoing formulation of the country’s policy on higher education. Key findings of the study include:

• Management of tertiary education is new to Bhutan. Before the establishment of RUB barely five years ago, almost all tertiary education institutions had arrangements to offer their own awards, with few institutions working closely with external partners. Following the establishment of RUB, a common academic framework for all tertiary education programmes was established for quality assurance. However, the effectiveness of such a framework is yet to be assessed since it is at an early stage of implementation.

• Based on assessment of the present situation and aggregated feedback by education providers, clients and stakeholders, quality assurance of tertiary education in Bhutan is constrained mainly by:

1. The missions of almost all tertiary education institutions are not well aligned with the long-term human resource development needs of the country, including that of corporate sector.

2. Tertiary education institutions suffer from acute shortages of qualified teaching staff. Learning resources and infrastructure facilities are other challenges.

3. There are no established and agreed performance indicators to judge the performance of tertiary education institutions. In the absence of these, performance is ranked using different indicators.

• With an increasing number of Bhutanese students pursuing higher education outside the country, a matter of particular concern arises from the importance of protecting students from low-quality or disreputable providers of higher education outside the country.

• Most stakeholders are concerned that no agreed national framework exists on quality assurance, enforceable across all educational, professional and vocational institutions. Under such circumstances, most stakeholders indicated they want quality assurance –including accreditation of educational, professional and vocational programmes –made the responsibility of an independent council, as commonly practiced in many other countries.