InterpNEWS September/October 2019 Issue

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2 Volume 8, #4 , Sep/Oct 2019

The International Heritage Interpretation e-Magazine.

Hi folks. I am pleased to present our Sep/Oct issue, one of my favorite issues. I had a lot of fun looking for some really interesting and useful articles for you. The Nov/Dec issue is currently in progress and I already have lots of really good articles with more coming. If you’re doing some really innovative interpretive programs or media you’d like to share with our readers in 60 countries please get in touch for article submission details. Here are some other updates.

Winter 2019 issue.

- Call for Articles for the next issue – deadline 1 October. E-mail me if you have any questions.

- Check out our Interpretive Bookstore on the last page for our interpretive textbooks.

- My new book – 40 Years a Heritage Interpreter is also now available as an e-book, http://www.heritageinterp.com/40_years_a_heritage_interpreter.html - The Training center offers our interpretive training courses live at your site for your staff.

Cheers, John Veverka – jvainterp@aol.com

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In this issue

Page

- Interpreting the Day of the Dead - 3000 years of cultural heritage. The Arizona Republic - Interpreting Halloween, The History Channel Staff.

- Why Leaves Change Color – USDA Forest Service -Victorian Mourning Interpretation For Historic Homes, Amanda Sedlak-Hevener - Surviving extremes or long-term warming? Super sea slugs have made their evolutionary choice Richelle Tanner, July 01, 2019

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-An Introduction to Interpreting Cemeteries and Gravestones . John A. Veverka

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- The Hanging Coffins of China. South China Morning Post - Halloween Lantern Tours at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery . Gadling Staff - Cemetery Walking Tours in New Orleans. Thomas K. Arnold, Leaf Group - How Dandelions came to North America.

- 10 Interesting Facts About Earthworms. Laura Beans - Interpreting Invasive Species at Parks, Nature Centers and Natural Areas. InterpNEWS Staff - Going “nuts” for the Acorn Woodpecker. IN Staff - Bringing visitors closer to Thornhill’s masterpiece . Allyson McAlister - Save the Salamanders – Save the Salamanders Conservation Program.

- Historical Industry Legacies – Interpreting Pig Iron. InterpNEWS Staff - “A Corn-Husking and a Pahty at the Old House with the Tin Roof near Lowrys, South Carolina?” Why Not? Dr. Martha Benn Macdonald 68 - Using Scavenger Hunts as an Interpretive Program “Discovery and Engagement” Experience. J.Veverka 70 InterpNEWS is published six times a year as a FREE John Veverka & Associates publication and published as a service to the interpretive profession. If you would like to be added to our mailing list just send an e-mail to jvainterp@aol.com and we’ll add you to our growing mailing list. Contributions of articles are welcomed. It you would like to have an article published in InterpNEWS let me know what you have in mind. Cover photo: Day of the Dead participant. www.heritageinterp.com – jvainterp@aol.com – SKYPE: jvainterp

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Interpreting the Day of the Dead 3000 years of cultural heritage.

The Arizona Republic

More than 500 years ago, when the Spanish Conquistadors landed in what is now central Mexico, they encountered natives practicing a ritual that seemed to mock death.

Read more: http://www.azcentral.com/ent/dead/articles/dead-history.html#ixzz4CjALosg3 It was a ritual the indigenous people had been practicing at least 3,000 years. A ritual the Spaniards would try unsuccessfully to eradicate.

A ritual known today as Dia de los Muertos, or Day of the Dead.

Dia de los Muertos is celebrated in Mexico and certain parts of the United States, including metro Phoenix.

Although the ritual has since been merged with Catholic theology, it still maintains the basic principles of the Aztec ritual, such as the use of skulls.

Today, people don wooden skull masks called calacas and dance in honor of their deceased relatives. The wooden skulls also are placed on altars that are dedicated to the dead. Sugar skulls, made with the names of the dead person on the forehead, are eaten by a relative or friend, according to Mary J. Adrade, who has written three books on Dia de los Muertos.

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The Aztecs and other Meso-American civilizations kept skulls as trophies and displayed them during the ritual.

The skulls were used to symbolize death and rebirth.

The skulls were used to honor the dead, whom the Aztecs and other Meso-American civilizations believed came back to visit during the month long ritual.

Read more: http://www.azcentral.com/ent/dead/articles/dead-history.html#ixzz4CjAGNQEd The skulls were used to honor the dead, whom the Aztecs and other Meso-American civilizations believed came back to visit during the month long ritual.

Unlike the Spaniards, who viewed death as the end of life, the natives viewed it as the continuation of life.

Instead of fearing death, they embraced it. To them, life was a dream and only in death did they become truly awake.

"The pre-Hispanic people honored duality as being dynamic," said Christina Gonzalez, senior lecturer on Hispanic issues at Arizona State University. "They didn't separate death from pain, wealth from poverty like they did in Western cultures."

However, the Spaniards considered the ritual to be sacrilegious. They perceived the indigenous people to be barbaric and pagan.

In their attempts to convert them to Catholicism, the Spaniards tried to kill the ritual.

But like the old Aztec spirits, the ritual refused to die.

To make the ritual more Christian, the Spaniards moved it so it coincided with All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day (Nov. 1 and 2), which is when it is celebrated today.

Previously it fell on the ninth month of the Aztec Solar Calendar, approximately the beginning of August, and was celebrated for the entire month. Festivities were presided over by the goddess Mictecacihuatl. The goddess, known as "Lady of the Dead," was believed to have died at birth, Andrade said.

Today, Day of the Dead is celebrated in Mexico and in certain parts of the United States and Central America.

"It's celebrated different depending on where you go," Gonzalez said.

In rural Mexico, people visit the cemetery where their loved ones are buried. They decorate gravesites with marigold flowers and candles. They bring toys for dead children and bottles of tequila to adults. They sit on picnic blankets next to gravesites and eat the favorite food of their loved ones.

In Guadalupe, the ritual is celebrated much like it is in rural Mexico.

"Here the people spend the day in the cemetery," said Esther Cota, the parish secretary at the Our Lady of Guadalupe Church. "The graves are decorated real pretty by the people."

In Mesa, the ritual has evolved to include other cultures, said Zarco Guerrero, a Mesa artist.

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"Last year, we had Native Americans and African-Americans doing their own dances," he said. "They all want the opportunity to honor their dead."

In the United States and in Mexico's larger cities, families build altars in their homes, dedicating them to the dead. They surround these altars with flowers, food and pictures of the deceased. They light candles and place them next to the altar.

"We honor them by transforming the room into an altar," Guerrero said. "We offer incense, flowers. We play their favorite music, make their favorite food."

At Guerrero's house, the altar is not only dedicated to friends and family members who have died, but to others as well.

"We pay homage to the Mexicans killed in auto accidents while being smuggled across the border," he said.

Read more: http://www.azcentral.com/ent/dead/articles/dead-history.html#ixzz4CjA8CMH5

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Interpreting Halloween The History Channel Staff.

Straddling the line between fall and winter, plenty and paucity, life and death, Halloween is a time of celebration and superstition. It is thought to have originated with the ancient Celtic festival of Samhain, when people would light bonfires and wear costumes to ward off roaming ghosts. In the eighth century, Pope Gregory III designated November 1 as a time to honor all saints and martyrs; the holiday, All Saints’ Day, incorporated some of the traditions of Samhain. The evening before was known as All Hallows’ Eve and later Halloween. Over time, Halloween evolved into a secular, community-based event characterized by childfriendly activities such as trick-or-treating. In a number of countries around the world, as the days grow shorter and the nights get colder, people continue to usher in the winter season with gatherings, costumes and sweet treats.

ANCIENT ORIGINS OF HALLOWEEN Halloween’s origins date back to the ancient Celtic festival of Samhain (pronounced sow-in). The Celts, who lived 2,000 years ago in the area that is now Ireland, the United Kingdom and northern France, celebrated their new year on November 1. This day marked the end of summer and the harvest and the beginning of the dark, cold winter, a time of year that was often associated with human death. Celts believed that on the night before the new year, the boundary between the worlds of the living and the dead became blurred. On the night of October 31 they celebrated Samhain, when it was believed that the ghosts of the dead returned to earth. In addition to causing trouble and damaging crops, Celts thought that the presence of the otherworldly spirits made it easier for the Druids, or Celtic priests, to make predictions about the future. For a people entirely dependent on the volatile natural world, these prophecies were an important source of comfort and direction during the long, dark winter.

To commemorate the event, Druids built huge sacred bonfires, where the people gathered to burn crops and animals as sacrifices to the Celtic deities. During the celebration, the Celts wore costumes, typically consisting of animal heads and skins, and attempted to tell each other’s fortunes. When the celebration was over, they relit their hearth fires, which they had extinguished earlier that evening, from the sacred bonfire to help protect them during the coming winter.

By 43 A.D., the Roman Empire had conquered the majority of Celtic territory. In the course of the four hundred years that they ruled the Celtic lands, two festivals of Roman origin were combined with the traditional Celtic celebration of Samhain. The first was Feralia, a day in late October when the Romans traditionally commemorated the passing of the dead. The second was a day to honor Pomona, the Roman goddess of fruit and trees. The symbol of Pomona is the apple and the incorporation of this celebration into Samhain probably explains the tradition of “bobbing” for apples that is practiced today on Halloween.

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InterpNEWS HALLOWEEN COMES TO AMERICA Celebration of Halloween was extremely limited in colonial New England because of the rigid Protestant belief systems there. Halloween was much more common in Maryland and the southern colonies. As the beliefs and customs of different European ethnic groups as well as the American Indians meshed, a distinctly American version of Halloween began to emerge. The first celebrations included “play parties,” public events held to celebrate the harvest, where neighbors would share stories of the dead, tell each other’s fortunes, dance and sing. Colonial Halloween festivities also featured the telling of ghost stories and mischief-making of all kinds.

By the middle of the nineteenth century, annual autumn festivities were common, but Halloween was not yet celebrated everywhere in the country.

In the second half of the nineteenth century, America was flooded with new immigrants. These new immigrants, especially the millions of Irish fleeing Ireland’s potato famine of 1846, helped to popularize the celebration of Halloween nationally. Taking from Irish and English traditions, Americans began to dress up in costumes and go house to house asking for food or money, a practice that eventually became today’s “trick-or-treat” tradition.

Young women believed that on Halloween they could divine the name or appearance of their future husband by doing tricks with yarn, apple parings or mirrors.

In the late 1800s, there was a move in America to mold Halloween into a holiday more about community and neighborly get-togethers than about ghosts, pranks and witchcraft. At the turn of the century, Halloween parties for both children and adults became the most common way to celebrate the day. Parties focused on games, foods of the season and festive costumes. Parents were encouraged by newspapers and community leaders to take anything “frightening” or “grotesque” out of Halloween celebrations. Because of these efforts, Halloween lost most of its superstitious and religious overtones by the beginning of the twentieth century.

By the 1920s and 1930s, Halloween had become a secular, but community-centered holiday, with parades and town-wide parties as the featured entertainment. Despite the best efforts of many schools and communities, vandalism began to plague Halloween celebrations in many communities during this time. By the 1950s, town leaders had successfully limited vandalism and Halloween had evolved into a holiday directed mainly at the young. Due to the high numbers of young children during the fifties baby boom, parties moved from town civic centers into the classroom or home, where they could be more easily accommodated. Between 1920 and 1950, the centuries-old practice of trick-or-treating was also revived. Trick-or-treating was a relatively inexpensive way for an entire community to share the Halloween celebration. In theory, families could also prevent tricks being played on them by providing the neighborhood children with small treats. A new American tradition was born, and it has continued to grow. Today, Americans spend an estimated $6 billion annually on Halloween, making it the country’s second largest commercial holiday.

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TODAY’S HALLOWEEN TRADITIONS The American Halloween tradition of “trick-or-treating” probably dates back to the early All Souls’ Day parades in England. During the festivities, poor citizens would beg for food and families would give them pastries called “soul cakes” in return for their promise to pray for the family’s dead relatives. The distribution of soul cakes was encouraged by the church as a way to replace the ancient practice of leaving food and wine for roaming spirits. The practice, which was referred to as “going a-souling” was eventually taken up by children who would visit the houses in their neighborhood and be given ale, food, and money.

The tradition of dressing in costume for Halloween has both European and Celtic roots. Hundreds of years ago, winter was an uncertain and frightening time. Food supplies often ran low and, for the many people afraid of the dark, the short days of winter were full of constant worry. On Halloween, when it was believed that ghosts came back to the earthly world, people thought that they would encounter ghosts if they left their homes. To avoid being recognized by these ghosts, people would wear masks when they left their homes after dark so that the ghosts would mistake them for fellow spirits. On Halloween, to keep ghosts away from their houses, people would place bowls of food outside their homes to appease the ghosts and prevent them from attempting to enter.

HALLOWEEN SUPERSTITIONS Halloween has always been a holiday filled with mystery, magic and superstition. It began as a Celtic end-of-summer festival during which people felt especially close to deceased relatives and friends. For these friendly spirits, they set places at the dinner table, left treats on doorsteps and along the side of the road and lit candles to help loved ones find their way back to the spirit world. Today’s Halloween ghosts are often depicted as more fearsome and malevolent, and our customs and superstitions are scarier too. We avoid crossing paths with black cats, afraid that they might bring us bad luck. This idea has its roots in the Middle Ages, when many people believed that witches avoided detection by turning themselves into cats. We try not to walk under ladders for the same reason. This superstition may have come from the ancient Egyptians, who believed that triangles were sacred; it also may have something to do with the fact that walking under a leaning ladder tends to be fairly unsafe. And around Halloween, especially, we try to avoid breaking mirrors, stepping on cracks in the road or spilling salt.

But what about the Halloween traditions and beliefs that today’s trick-or-treaters have forgotten all about? Many of these obsolete rituals focused on the future instead of the past and the living instead of the dead. In particular, many had to do with helping young women identify their future husbands and reassuring them that they would someday—with luck, by next Halloween—be married. In 18th-century Ireland, a matchmaking cook might bury a ring in her mashed potatoes on Halloween night, hoping to bring true love to the diner who found it. In Scotland, fortune-tellers recommended that an eligible young woman name a hazelnut for each of her suitors and then toss the nuts into the fireplace. The nut that burned to ashes rather than popping or exploding, the story went, represented the girl’s future husband. (In some versions of this legend, confusingly, the opposite was true: The nut that burned away symbolized a love that would not last.) Another tale had it that if a young woman ate a sugary concoction made out of walnuts, hazelnuts and nutmeg before bed on Halloween night she would dream about her future husband. Young women tossed apple-peels over their shoulders, hoping that the peels would fall on the floor in the shape of their future husbands’ initials; tried to learn about their futures by peering at egg yolks floating in a bowl of water; and stood in front of mirrors in darkened rooms, holding candles and looking over their shoulders for their husbands’ faces. Other rituals were more competitive. At some Halloween parties, the first guest to find a burr on a chestnut-hunt would be the first to marry; at others, the first successful apple-bobber would be the first down the aisle.

Of course, whether we’re asking for romantic advice or trying to avoid seven years of bad luck, each one of these Halloween superstitions relies on the good will of the very same “spirits” whose presence the early Celts felt so keenly

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USDA Forest Service.

f you are lucky, you live in one of those parts of the world where Nature has one last fling before settling down into winter's sleep. In those lucky places, as days shorten and temperatures become crisp, the quiet green palette of summer foliage is transformed into the vivid autumn palette of reds, oranges, golds, and browns before the leaves fall off the trees. On special years, the colors are truly breathtaking.

How does autumn color happen?

For years, scientists have worked to understand the changes that happen to trees and shrubs in the autumn. Although we don't know all the details, we do know enough to explain the basics and help you to enjoy more fully Nature's multicolored autumn farewell. Three factors influence autumn leaf color-leaf pigments, length of night, and weather, but not quite in the way we think. The timing of color change and leaf fall are primarily regulated by the calendar, that is, the increasing length of night. None of the other environmental influences-temperature, rainfall, food supply, and so on-are as unvarying as the steadily increasing length of night during autumn. As days grow shorter, and nights grow longer and cooler, biochemical processes in the leaf begin to paint the landscape with Nature's autumn palette.

Where do autumn colors come from?

A color palette needs pigments, and there are three types that are involved in autumn color. 

 

Chlorophyll, which gives leaves their basic green color. It is necessary for photosynthesis, the chemical reaction that enables plants to use sunlight to manufacture sugars for their food. Trees in the temperate zones store these sugars for their winter dormant period.

Carotenoids, which produce yellow, orange, and brown colors in such things as corn, carrots, and daffodils, as well as rutabagas, buttercups, and bananas.

Anthocyanins, which give color to such familiar things as cranberries, red apples, concord grapes, blueberries, cherries, strawberries, and plums. They are water soluble and appear in the watery liquid of leaf cells.

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Both chlorophyll and carotenoids are present in the chloroplasts of leaf cells throughout the growing season.

Most anthocyanins are produced in the autumn, in response to bright light and excess plant sugars within leaf cells.

During the growing season, chlorophyll is continually being produced and broken down and leaves appear green. As night length increases in the autumn, chlorophyll production slows down and then stops and eventually all the chlorophyll is destroyed. The carotenoids and anthocyanins that are present in the leaf are then unmasked and show their colors.

Certain colors are characteristic of particular species. Oaks turn red, brown, or russet; hickories, golden bronze; aspen and yellow-poplar, golden yellow; dogwood, purplish red; beech, light tan; and sourwood and black tupelo, crimson. Maples differ species by species-red maple turns brilliant scarlet; sugar maple, orange-red; and black maple, glowing yellow. Striped maple becomes almost colorless. Leaves of some species such as the elms simply shrivel up and fall, exhibiting little color other than drab brown.

The timing of the color change also varies by species. Sourwood in southern forests can become vividly colorful in late summer while all other species are still vigorously green. Oaks put on their colors long after other species have already shed their leaves. These differences in timing among species seem to be genetically inherited, for a particular species at the same latitude will show the same coloration in the cool temperatures of high mountain elevations at about the same time as it does in warmer lowlands.

Does weather affect autumn color?

The amount and brilliance of the colors that develop in any particular autumn season are related to weather conditions that occur before and during the time the chlorophyll in the leaves is dwindling.

Temperature and moisture are the main influences.

A succession of warm, sunny days and cool, crisp but not freezing nights seems to bring about the most spectacular color displays. During these days, lots of sugars are produced in the leaf but the cool nights and the gradual closing of veins going into the leaf prevent these sugars from moving out. These conditions-lots of sugar and lots of light-spur production of the brilliant anthocyanin pigments, which tint reds, purples, and crimson. Because carotenoids are always present in leaves, the yellow and gold colors remain fairly constant from year to year.

The amount of moisture in the soil also affects autumn colors. Like the weather, soil moisture varies greatly from year to year. The countless combinations of these two highly variable factors assure that no two autumns can be exactly alike. A late spring, or a severe summer drought, can delay the onset of fall color by a few weeks. A warm period during fall will also lower the intensity of autumn colors. A warm wet spring, favorable summer weather, and warm sunny fall days with cool nights should produce the most brilliant autumn colors.

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What triggers leaf fall?

In early autumn, in response to the shortening days and declining intensity of sunlight, leaves begin the processes leading up to their fall. The veins that carry fluids into and out of the leaf gradually close off as a layer of cells forms at the base of each leaf. These clogged veins trap sugars in the leaf and promote production of anthocyanins. Once this separation layer is complete and the connecting tissues are sealed off, the leaf is ready to fall.

What does all this do for the tree?

Winter is a certainty that all vegetation in the temperate zones must face each year. Perennial plants, including trees, must have some sort of protection to survive freezing temperatures and other harsh wintertime influences.

Stems, twigs, and buds are equipped to survive extreme cold so that they can reawaken when spring heralds the start of another growing season. Tender leaf tissues, however, would freeze in winter, so plants must either toughen up and protect their leaves or dispose of them.

The evergreens-pines, spruces, cedars, firs, and so on-are able to survive winter because they have toughened up. Their needle-like or scale-like foliage is covered with a heavy wax coating and the fluid inside their cells contains substances that resist freezing. Thus the foliage of evergreens can safely withstand all but the severest winter conditions, such as those in the Arctic. Evergreen needles survive for some years but eventually fall because of old age.

The leaves of broadleaved plants, on the other hand, are tender and vulnerable to damage. These leaves are typically broad and thin and are not protected by any thick coverings. The fluid in cells of these leaves is usually a thin, watery sap that freezes readily. This means that the cells could not survive winter where temperatures fall below freezing. Tissues unable to overwinter must be sealed off and shed to ensure the plant's continued survival. Thus leaf fall precedes each winter in the temperate zones.

What happens to all those fallen leaves?

Needles and leaves that fall are not wasted. They decompose and restock the soil with nutrients and make up part of the spongy humus layer of the forest floor that absorbs and holds rainfall. Fallen leaves also become food for numerous soil organisms vital to the forest ecosystem.

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What happens to all those fallen leaves?

Needles and leaves that fall are not wasted. They decompose and restock the soil with nutrients and make up part of the spongy humus layer of the forest floor that absorbs and holds rainfall. Fallen leaves also become food for numerous soil organisms vital to the forest ecosystem.

It is quite easy to see the benefit to the tree of its annual leaf fall, but the advantage to the entire forest is more subtle. It could well be that the forest could no more survive without its annual replenishment from leaves than the individual tree could survive without shedding these leaves. The many beautiful interrelationships in the forest community leave us with myriad fascinating puzzles still to solve.

Where can I see autumn color in the United States?

You can find autumn color in parks and woodlands, in the cities, countryside, and mountains - anywhere you find deciduous broadleaved trees, the ones that drop their leaves in the autumn. Nature's autumn palette is painted on oaks, maples, beeches, sweet gums, yellow-poplars, dogwoods, hickories, and others. Your own neighborhood may be planted with special trees that were selected for their autumn color.

New England is rightly famous for the spectacular autumn colors painted on the trees of its mountains and countryside, but the Adirondack, Appalachian, Smoky, and Rocky Mountains are also clad with colorful displays. In the East, we can see the reds, oranges, golds, and bronzes of the mixed deciduous woodlands; in the West, we see the bright yellows of aspen stands and larches contrasting with the dark greens of the evergreen conifers.

Many of the Forest Service's 100 plus scenic byways were planned with autumn color in mind. In 31 States you can drive on over 3,000 miles of scenic byways, and almost everyone of them offers a beautiful, colorful drive sometime in the autumn.

Thanks to the USDA Forest Service for this contribution to InterpNEWS.

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InterpNEWS Victorian Mourning Interpretation For Historic Homes

By Amanda Sedlak-Hevener mandyhevener@gmail.com (reprinted from interpNEWS July 2017)

Victorian mourning rituals permeated the 19th century. They transformed a formerly simple act of mourning the dead into something elaborate. An entire industry sprang up around mourning rituals, with manufacturers creating specific clothing, bakeries making mourning biscuits and other foods, and even artisans designing jewelry made from the hair of dead loved ones. Books on proper mourning etiquette were produced and sold both in the U.S. and in England.

The mourning process started when Queen Victoria’s husband, Prince Albert died of what is believed to be typhoid fever in 1861. They were apparently very much in love, and had a total of nine children together during their 21 year marriage. The dual loss of her mother, in March 1861, as well as her husband in December of that same year, caused Victoria to mourn deeply. She wore black clothing for the remainder of her life (even to her children’s weddings), and people dubbed her “the widow of Windsor.” This is where Victorian mourning customs come from - Queen Victoria’s actions. These customs spread across the pond and became the “only” way to mourn the loss of a loved one in America during the time period.

After Prince Albert’s death, Queen Victoria only used black-bordered stationary and refused to allow her daughters and aides to wear any jewelry other than jet beaded necklaces. (For the record, jet is considered a “minor gemstone” and its chemical makeup is similar to that of coal. It’s basically made of pressurized, decayed wood that has been smoothed and made shiny and turned into beads.) She memorialized him with public statuary, including an equestrian statue in Wolverhampton, in 1866, and a seated version of him covered in gilt located in Hyde Park that was put into place in 1877. Not to mention her creation of Royal Albert Hall.

Even though Royal Albert Hall was his idea, construction of it did not begin until 1867, 6 years after his death.

Victorian mourning etiquette dictated how the deceased would be displayed, prior to burial. The body of the deceased was placed in the parlor or front room of his or her home in a coffin, which was sitting on top of sawhorses or simple wooden chairs. In most cases, the dead was embalmed (although not always). Flowers were placed in the room in order show that the deceased was loved, but also to mask the smell. Parlors were used because they were typically the best decorated rooms in the house. Houses of this time period were built with extra wide doors to allow the coffins to horizontally pass through them. The body was never left alone in the house. No matter what, the widow/widower/children/servants/someone was always there with it. A 24 hour vigil was the most common period for wakes, but some lasted 3 to 4 days, depending on the distance mourners had to travel.

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InterpNEWS Not only were there elaborate rituals in the home, but there was a mourning period that had to adhered to as well. This varied, based on the survivors of the deceased. Mourning pertaining to women was in three stages: deep mourning, second mourning, and half mourning. Deep mourning started immediately following death until a year and a day have a passed. Second mourning started after deep mourning, and lasted for 9 to 12 months. Half mourning came next, and lasted for 6 months. However, some women, like Queen Victoria, remained in mourning for the rest of their lives. This mourning was typically observed by widows, and sometimes by widowers, who could remarry during the mourning period. A widower who remarried while in mourning could wear a typical suit and tie on his wedding day, but had to go back into mourning the next day.

Amazingly, his new wife had to go into mourning for the prior wife as well.

Mourning wasn’t just something practiced when a spouse died. Here are some mourning periods for other family members:         

For a parent: 6 months to a year For children over 10 yrs old: 6 months to a year For children under 10 yrs: 3 to 6 months Infants: 6 weeks and up For siblings: 6 to 8 months For aunts and uncles: 3 to 6 months For cousins: 6 weeks to 3 months For aunts or uncles related by marriage: 6 weeks to 3 months Grandparents: 6 months

Special clothing was the most important component of the mourning period. It was usually made of crepe – an uncomfortable black fabric known for turning a rusty color over time (where the term “widows weeds” comes from) or leaking dye all over the person wearing it. Those with more money could afford dresses made of wool, cotton, or a silk and wool blend called bombazine. Any type of cloth could typically be used, as long as it wasn’t shiny. Widowed women wore full length dresses with cape-like sleeves and high collars, styles of which went from lavish (for the wealthy) to simple (for the not-so-wealthy.) They also wore veils that covered their faces which were worn as such during the funeral/wake, and then pushed back so they could see for the rest of the mourning period. Mourning bonnets were also worn, in lieu of veils. Some went so far as to wear black gloves. During the ourning period, women wore very little jewelry and carried black bordered handkerchiefs, which were not fully dyed because of the instability of the color. No one wanted to get a face full of dye.

Men who lost their wives/children/loved ones wore black suits with simple white shirts, although some simply wore their everyday suit with a black armband. Scarves, stoles, and sashes (all in black, of course) were worn, as well as black shoes, gloves and hats. Some men wore regular hats with black “weepers,” which were thin strips of black crepe wrapped around like a hatband with black ribbons festooned onto them.

Children under the age of 12 in mourning wore white with black armbands during the summer months, and gray during the winter ones. However, they also wore black bonnets, sashes, ribbon trimming, and belts.

Over the age of 12, children wore mourning clothing that was the same as that worn by adults.

Mourning wasn’t just practiced by the family of the deceased. Household servants and other mourners not in the direct line from the deceased wore mourning cockades and badges with their regular clothing.

Everyone who came into contact with the deceased in his or her daily life had to go into mourning.

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Special mourning jewelry was created to memorialize the deceased. This is where human hair brooches and bracelets, memory lockets, and other items came from. Black beads, such as jet, glass, clay, onyx, and vulcanite were favored, as well as cross pendants. The hair of the deceased was shaped into crosses and placed, alongside weeping willow branches, in shadowboxes. In some cases, the hair was sent by mail to a specialized artisan who then returned it in the correct woven form. Hairwork became a form of needlework, similar to needlepoint, and was popularized in women’s magazines at the time, such as Godey’s Lady’s Book.

Love me forever Victorian morning jewelry reliquary broach.

In the house that was previously occupied by the deceased, a number of things had to be done before the first mourner arrived to pay their respects. Portraits and mirrors in the home (or anything shiny, like vases, in more extreme cases) were covered in black crepe fabric. A simple black-ribboned wreath, usually made of laurel, yew or boxwood, would be placed on the door, and the front door knob would be decorated with black ribbons. If the deceased were a child, white ribbons would be used instead. Some people draped their windows with black crepe as well. Every family photograph in the house would be turned around to face the wall, or, if it couldn’t be turned around, it was draped with fabric like the others. Also, clocks would be stopped at the time of death and left that way until the funeral ceremony ended.

After the house was ready, death announcements or funeral announcements would be sent out. In some cases, the announcements would be hand delivered, but they were mailed out as well. At one point during the Victorian Era, people asked the post office to produce special mourning stamps, as their regular colorful stamps were seen as too “cheery” to be used to mail out funeral announcements and death notices.

Once all of the mourners had paid their respects to the deceased, a funeral hearse would arrive to carry the coffin to the church for a religious ceremony. This ceremony could be elaborate or simple, depending on the religion and class status of the deceased and his or her family. The color of the draping on the hearse indicated whether or not the dead was an adult (black cloth) or a child (white cloth). The burial ritual at the ceremony was very similar to those practiced today, complete with a prayer and everyone gathering around the casket.

When the funeral ceremony was complete, people would go back to the home of the deceased and eat.

A traditional tea or dinner was served. These mourning foods included ladyfingers, funeral pie, biscuits, and cakes. There were also funeral cookies, wrapped in paper with the deceased’s name and dates of birth and death printed on them. The meal was as simple or extravagant as the finances of the deceased’s family. Post funeral meals were a tradition from ancient times that are still practiced today.

Sometimes the biscuits would be wrapped in white paper with black sealing wax and handed out as funeral favors to those who couldn’t make it back to the house for the post-funeral meal. While some of the food served was produced in the household of the deceased, other things were purchased. Commercial bakeries made funeral biscuits wrapped in paper that were printed with “uplifting” quotes, poems and bible verses.

These can be compared to the holy cards given out today, and were kept as morbid souvenirs of the deceased.

Examples of Victorian mourning poems that were printed on these wrappings:

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When ghastly Death, with unrelenting hand, Cuts down a father! brother! or a friend!

The still small voice should make you understand, How afraid you are -- how near your final end.

But if regardless and still warned in vain, No wonder if you sink to endless pain: Be wise before it's too late, use well each hour To make your calling and election sure.

AND Thee we adore, eternal Name, and humbly bow to thee, How feeble is our mortal frame!

What dying worms we be.

Our wasting lives grow shorter still, As days and months increase; And every beating pulse we tell, Leaves but the number less.

The year rolls round and steals away, The breath that first it gave; Whate'er we do, where'er we be, We're traveling to the grave.

In addition, despite the religiosity of the time period, spiritualism was popular. This was a way of communicating with the dead in the afterlife. Séances were held to communicate with deceased loved ones.

This is where the idea of the classic séance comes in – a spiritualist/psychic sitting at a round table holding the hands of the loved ones who want to communicate with the deceased in the “other world.” And yes, knocking, thumping noises, eerie noises, tables falling over or tilting, etc were all an expected part of the séance. Although it could never be proven whether or not the psychic/medium ever contacted the dead, they certainly put on a show while trying to. One of the most famous practitioners of this newfound “spiritualism” was Mary Todd Lincoln, who held séances in the White House while her husband was president. After his death, her beliefs in this grew even stronger.

Photography was in existence, but many could not afford it, so only pictures taken of their loved ones happened after that particular loved one died. This led to death photography, where the dead would either be photographed alone, in some cases, laying on a bed, in a coffin, or propped up sitting or standing with the help of an elaborate set of stands. (Note: this practice is highly questioned today, and some scholars believe that photographs of the dead were never taken. However, their dissent hasn’t been proven either.) Makeup and prosthetic eyes would sometimes be applied to make the deceased look better, but sometimes they just left the him or her looking, well, dead. In some cases, the living posed alongside their dead loved one. This usually happened with children. Mourners would also have their photos taken holding pictures or a book of pictures of the deceased, as this would illustrate and memorialize the depth of their sorrow. In some cases, the photos of the dead would be taken in their homes, but in others, they would be transported (presumably by hearse) to a photography studio.

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InterpNEWS There was also spirit photography, which supposedly captured images of the dead was popular as well.

Sometimes the images of the dead were superimposed behind a depiction of the living, using a kind of 19th century photoshop. In others, photos of the interior of the house were taken with ghostly images in them. Both were proof of the afterlife, and that the deceased was still around.

In all, Victorian mourning is a series of interesting and complex rituals that truly hearken back to another time period.

How To Set Up A Historic Home For A Victorian Mourning Ritual Mirrors and portraits in the house must be covered with black cloth, preferably crepe.

In some cases, everything shiny in the house (vases, etc) was draped with black cloth as well.

All clocks must be stopped at the time the deceased passed into the next realm.

A black ribboned wreath is placed on the doors to the parlor. Other door knobs and hand rails are bedecked with black ribbons. If the deceased is a child, then white ribbons are appropriate.

Someone must sit alongside the deceased until the funeral procession begins.

White flowers were placed alongside the coffin, which usually sat on sawhorses or ladder-backed chairs.

Mourning a spouse traditionally had three periods: deep mourning (the first year), second mourning (the next 9 to 12 months after that), and half mourning (6 months after second mourning ended.)

Wakes traditionally took place in the home, although the body was embalmed at a funeral home.

The dead was carried out of the house feet first. This prevented him from looking back at the house and trying to get another family member to follow him in death.

This was more than a down-home simple way of mourning. It was very regimented and stoic and proper.

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Surviving extremes or long-term warming? Super sea slugs have made their evolutionary choice By Richelle Tanner, July 01, 2019 “reprinted with permission from ClimateInterpreter.org”.

Nudibranchs are a type of sea slug known for their beautiful colors and curious incorporation of other animals and plants into their own bodies (e.g. using plant chloroplasts to photosynthesize, incorporating toxins into their cells, and swallowing anemones’ stinging cells whole to place in their own tentacles). But did you know they also have more nuanced advantages in their habitats, most importantly under climate change scenarios: they appear to be incredibly heat tolerant. Nudibranchs are mollusks, which you may recognize as being mostly shelled animals like clams, snails, and oysters. But nudibranchs have lost their shells over evolutionary time, and still inhabit areas that are exposed to extreme environmental conditions (like in the rocky intertidal zone). They can’t swim away, have no shell, and still survive every tidal cycle (where they get exposed to the hot sun and air for hours at a time!) like it’s no big deal.

Researcher Dr. Eric Armstrong and I started seeing dozens (that’s a lot!) of nudibranchs on the shores around the San Francisco Bay Area in California in Spring 2016. It was an El Nińo year, which seems to cultivate lots of baby nudibranchs on the shores of the west coast of America, for reasons still unknown1.

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One important thing to note is that El Nińo years bring warmer waters to our coast. We knew we had to document the heat tolerance of as many species of nudibranchs as possible and attempt to understand how they accomplished such a feat as individual species and as a group.

From left to right: (A) Doriopsilla spp. in the heat tolerance test (B) Triopha catalinae being measured before tests, and (C) Okenia rosacea at Avila Beach, CA during a collection. All photo credits: R. Tanner.

Heat tolerance can be measured a couple of different ways, and they each tell a different part of the whole story.

We chose to focus on the critical thermal maximum limit and the plasticity of this limit with different environmental conditions (or how easily these limits can be manipulated in the lab with temperature acclimation). The critical thermal maximum, or CTmax, tells us what temperature a nudibranch can withstand for a short period of time. We measure it by rapidly increasing the water temperature for a single nudibranch, and observing when it lost muscle function. After losing muscle function, a nudibranch is unable to hold on to its rock or leaf blade, and therefore cannot perform its function in the habitat. It’s important to note that they are not dead at this point! When returned to cooler temperatures, they recover just fine. Therefore, this is the maximum temperature at which a nudibranch can survive for short periods of time. The plasticity of CTmax tells us something a little more interesting about how a nudibranch can change its heat tolerance with long-term warming. We measure it by keeping nudibranchs at multiple different temperatures in the lab for at least two weeks, and then comparing their CTmax values after those acclimation periods. High plasticity means that a nudibranch can increase its CTmax with warmer acclimation. Low plasticity means CTmax isn’t affected by acclimation temperature.

With human-induced climate change, we can expect to see an increase in the number of extreme temperatures and the average temperature of the environment2 more rapidly than organisms are accustomed to. This means that both plasticity and CTmax are important measures of how species will survive under climate change3. There are a few options: high plasticity and CTmax, low plasticity and high CTmax (or vice versa), and low plasticity and CTmax. The first option is most ideal under climate change – being able to adjust upper temperature limits that are already high would protect a species from both consequences of climate change.

However, this is energetically costly to maintain!

They might not have enough energy left to reproduce. The third option will most likely result in extinction, since the species has little ability to adapt on a rapid time scale. The middle option is often referred to as the “Trade-Off Hypothesis”. Other intertidal animals like porcelain crabs show this pattern as well4.

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InterpNEWS . If a nudibranch has high CTmax, it will have little ability to change it – but that could be ok if the limit is already higher than projected climate extremes. If a nudibranch has low CTmax, it will be able to change it rapidly with warming temperatures, but it may not survive extremes if CTmax is inherently lower than the upper limit of environmental temperatures.

Responses to climate change in two heat tolerance traits: CTmax and plasticity. Graphic by R. Tanner.

Nudibranchs follow the Trade-Off Off Hypothesis in a latitudinal pattern. This means that more southern populations have reduced plasticity but higher CTmax, and more northern populations have high plasticity but lower CTmax5. We see this pattern along the nudibranch lineage in multiple species. This is very cool! Since nudibranchs disperse far and wide along the coast as babies, they have evolved the ability to trade off between these two types of heat tolerance based on where they end up settling as adults. Unfortunately, climate clima change throws a wrench in this pattern – warming patterns put southern populations at more of a risk, since they are unable to increase their CTmax limits any further with warmer average temperatures.

This study was just the beginning for researchers lo looking oking at the physiology of temperate (i.e. neither tropical nor polar) nudibranchs. But there is so much more to learn – mollusks are one of the most diverse and largest taxonomic groups on Earth, and fast growing. With more knowledge, we may be able to use us nudibranchs as indicators of ecosystem health under climate change scenarios. Want to help researchers meet this goal? Sign up for iNaturalist and get your friends on board for a nature walk, where you can document all types of ocean and land indicator species pecies and be a part of our mission to understand and protect our changing world.

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1. Schultz, S. T. et al. Climate-index response profiling indicates larval transport is driving population fluctuations in nudibranch gastropods from the northeast Pacific Ocean. Limnol. Oceanogr. 56, 749 (2011).

2. IPCC. Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea, and L.L. White (eds.)]. (Cambridge University Press, 2014).

3. Gunderson, A. R. & Stillman, J. H. Plasticity in thermal tolerance has limited potential to buffer ectotherms from global warming. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 282, (2015).

4. Stillman, J. H. Acclimation Capacity Underlies Susceptibility to Climate Change. Science 301, 65–65 (2003).

5. Armstrong, E. J., Tanner, R. L. & Stillman, J. H. High Heat Tolerance Is Negatively Correlated with Heat Tolerance Plasticity in Nudibranch Mollusks. Physiol. Biochem. Zool. 92, 430–444 (2019).

About the Author: Dr. Richelle Tanner is a Postdoctoral Research Associate at Washington State University, specializing in marine evolutionary and environmental physiology, climate change effects, and bioinformatics. She also serves as chair of the Science Partnerships Committee of the National Network for Ocean and Climate Change Interpretation.

The original article can be found at https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/704519?journalCode=pbz. Request for a copy for the article may be sent to (richelle.tanner@richelletanner.com) or: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333182660_High_heat_tolerance_is_negatively_correlated_with_ heat_tolerance_plasticity_in_nudibranch_molluscs

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InterpNEWS An Introduction to Interpreting Cemeteries and Gravestones John A. Veverka

From a Texas cemetery.

No, not me – but it does make you think.

I first became interested in gravestone and cemetery interpretation many years ago while attending an Association of Interpretive Naturalists regional meeting in Indiana. One of the events included a visit to Spring Mill State Park and discussions about their cemetery interpretation which was an outstanding experience.

Since that time I have been involved with Community Interpretive Planning as part of heritage tourism development. For all of the communities I have worked with, some interest in interpretive services for their cemeteries always came up. In fact, cemetery interpretation and gravestone interpretation is very popular and growing in interest. Some cities, like the community of Belvidere in Illinois, incorporate cemetery interpretive programs, both guided and self-guided, into their community history and heritage interpretation. The interpretation here not only includes the symbols and meanings of the stones and their designs, but the historic “founding fathers� and key historical figures from the community. These programs are highly attended and very successful.

Some of the more unusual gravestones to be seen in the Belvidere Cemetery. The tree trunks are somewhat unique for Illinois and represent the brevity of life. The number of broken branches can indicate deceased family members buried at that site as well.

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In addition to the wealth of unusual grave stones in the Belvidere Cemetery, the Cemetery also has some unique architecture as well, the Frank Lloyd Wright Pettit Memorial Chapel – a historic facility built in 1907 that is still being used, and currently under restoration. This is an important part of the total cemetery interpretive program.

Frank Lloyd Wright’s Pettit Memorial Chapel, Belvidere Cemetery, Belvidere, IL.

Planning for Cemetery and Gravestone Interpretive Programs or Services.

If you are interested in providing a community heritage interpretation program using a local historic cemetery, here are some steps to consider: -

Remember that this is a cemetery. Any and all interpretive guided programs or tours, and self-guiding interpretation must be respectful of the site you are in.

Check into the need to acquire permission to use the cemetery.

Be mindful of how many visitors you could manage in the cemetery at any one time, and any damage that might occur (soil/grass erosion, etc.).

Plan your objectives well – what do you want the interpretive programs to accomplish?

Clearly plan what elements you want to interpret:  Gravestone art/designs and their historic meanings.  Gravestones as a social statement.  Gravestone carvers  Historical figures from the communities past.  Communities relationships to conflicts (Revolutionary War, Civil War, etc.).  Social stories and conflict (where were the black community members buried?)  Funeral practices (above ground vaults, wooden caskets, etc.).

Once you have decided upon what elements you want to interpret, begin your research into that subject. I will provide some excellent references and web sites at the end of this article to help get you started.

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The Red Oak Cemetery located near Ripley, Ohio, is a good candidate for interpretation, as it is located near the newly designated Ohio River Road Scenic Byway. These small cemeteries are full of history and stories and can give community visitors a real sense of the past and heritage of the region. They are, in many respects, a historical treasure that must be taken care of.

Some small community cemeteries can be very powerful even if they are lacking in gravestones. The Dougherty-Miller Cemetery located in Jefferson County (not far from Madison), Indiana is an example of this.

I visited the cemetery site as part of developing a regional community interpretive plan for Jefferson County.

The Dougherty-Miller Cemetery, outside of Madison, Indiana. This was a black cemetery from the late 1800’s.

Most of the headstones would have been wooden, and have long since disappeared. Only the depressions of where the graves are (yellow arrows) can been seen highlighted by a light snow from the day before.

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This cemetery, for blacks in the late 1800’s, was almost lost amongst the trees. The site is now being cleared and restored. When you walk into a site like this one, and have first person interpretation of “who, what, when, and why”, it is sad and sobering. The day I visited the site a light snow had fallen, highlighting the many grave sites without any markers. This is a powerful and important part of local history, and the interpretive experience here will send chills down your back – and the memory of your visit will linger. There are only a few headstones showing today, like the one below, of a black civil war veteran who could only be buried here.

The weathered stone of a black Civil War soldier is one of the only visible stones at the Dougherty-Miller cemetery.

The Story on the Stones – Interpreting symbols and their meanings.

Of course, one of the most interesting parts of gravestone interpretation for most visitors is the use of art and symbols on many older stones. This is something that will need to be researched for any cemetery you might be interested in interpreting, as there is some change in designs and types of symbols used over time. There is also a design change as you look at cemeteries from the east coast and move west. So you’ll need to find out just what part of the gravestone art story you have. There are lots of reference books for that, but here are some very common symbols.

This stone from the Red Oak Cemetery, Ripley, Ohio has a common feature, the willow tree. The tree represents life, knowledge, the fall of man through sin, human fruition or frailty. Note that the branches on the right have been broken off and there is a lamb near the tree.

The lamb represents innocence, indicating that this is the grave of a youngster or teenager.

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InterpNEWS Here is another “tree design” of which there are many varieties. Note how this design differs from the previous one.

Different tree (or other symbol) styles represent different stone carvers styles, and can be traced back to master carvers from the east coast from the 1600’s and 1700’s. As master carvers taught their apprentices, the apprentices adapted that style. As these new stone carvers moved westward, their designs mirrored those of the master they worked under. In time, they would evolve their own unique design style.

Another common design on gravestones is the hand/finger pointing up. This symbolized the pathway to heaven, or heavenly reward.

This stone in the Blood Cemetery, in Clinton County, Michigan, illustrates the common design of the finger pointing up. The garland around the hand symbolizes victory over death (left).

Another common gravestone symbol is the use of Clasped Hands which symbolizes “farewell” or hope of meeting in eternity (below).

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Flowers were common on women’s graves. The flower symbolizes life’s frailty and immortality. Of course, some of the older gravestones in New England can have some exceptional carvings on them, such as the use of skulls, which symbolize the transitory nature of earthly life, penitence, and mortality, like the example below.

But some gravestones can be much simpler, and may lack any art work at all. Some stones, like the one below, may have been done “on a budget”, the family not being able to afford a well-known stone carver, not have a stone carver available or the stone work was done by a family member or friend. In this case a simple flower design at the top, and an epitaph. This stone is from the Belpre, Ohio Cemetery and dates from 1804. The bottom epitaph says “Death is a debt to nature which I have paid, and so will you”. Note that you can have an interpretive program just based on epitaphs!

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A revolutionary war era gravestone from Belpre, Ohio. One of the original settlers into this part of Ohio probably shortly after the war ended.

Of course, these are just a few of the common symbols that you might find on older gravestones, there are hundreds of different designs and symbols. Here are just a few symbols and their meanings from “Tomb With A View’s Guide to Commemorative Motifs, Mourning Images, and Memento Mori”(an internet web site): Anchor – Hope, seaman.

Angels – Rebirth, protection, wisdom, mercy, divine love.

Bird – Eternal live, winged soul, spirituality.

Chain with three links – Trinity, faith, Odd Fellows Column – Nobel life Frog – Worldly pleasure, sin.

Ivy – Fidelity, attachment, undying affection.

Poppies – Eternal sleep.

Rope Circle – Eternity.

Rose – Victory, pride, triumphant love, purity.

Tree – Life, knowledge.

Tree Trunk, Leaning – Short interrupted life, mourning.

Urn – Immortality, death of the body and its return to dust.

Wreath on Skull – Victory of death over life.

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This has just been a sampling of the interpretive possibilities for cemeteries and gravestones as part of community heritage interpretation and tourism development. In Freeman Tilden’s terms (Interpreting our Heritage, 1954), this is something we can all RELATE to, as eventually, as one gravestone noted: As I am now, you shall be too! This can be one of the most powerful tools we have for interpreting the true nature of our communities, and our heritage. The stories are all there; people, events, folk art, a history textbook carved in stone waiting to be read.

I hope you will consider this aspect of community or historic interpretation if it is appropriate to your site or stories. The interpretive experience will be powerful and memorable, helping visitors and local residents alike truly understand their local history. Here are some references to help you get started.

References: Ludwig, Allen. “Graven Images – New England Stonecarving and Its Symbols – 1650 – 1815.” Wesleyan University Press, Hanover, NH. Ridlen, Susanne S. “Tree-Stump Tombstones: A Field Guide to Rustic Funerary Art in Indiana.” Old Richardville Publications, IN “Tomb With a View’s Guide to commemorative Motifs, Mourning Images, and Memento Mori” – internet web site: http://members.aol.com/TombView/symbol2.html.

For other information on cemetery and gravestone studies contact: The Association for Gravestone Studies, 278 Main St., Suite 207, Greenfield, MA 10301; or at: www.gravestonestudies.org

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The Hanging Coffins of China: Mysteries Along the Yangtze.

South China Morning Post Barbara, Sandra China Travel

Hanging coffins in Shiuan China Southern China boasts dramatic and beautiful landscapes of rivers, mountains, forests, and towering cliffs. The region is also home to one of the oldest historic mysteries in China – the hanging coffins that dot the waterways of the Yangtze River. Experts attribute the precarious graveyards to the Bo people who began this tradition around 3000 years ago. Incredibly, these coffins are suspended on the sheerest cliffs or are placed in crevices as high as 130 meters from the ground. For decades, scholars have been trying to piece together clues to determine why the Bo practiced this funerary ritual and how they were able to place the coffins in such difficult-to-reach places.

Who made the Cliffside cemeteries?

The oldest evidence of hanging coffins in China comes from ancient records of the practice in the Fujian province dating back more than 3000 years. From there, the practice spread to other southern regions of China, primarily in the Hubei, Sichuan, and Yunnan provinces. Experts suspect that it was the minority Bo people who made the coffins because their culture appeared around the same time as the coffins. Subsequently, the practice and the people both disappeared from records toward the end of the Ming Dynasty. There are some indications that the Ming slaughtered the Bo. However, exactly where the Bo came from and what happened to them are still being discussed today. (Ji, 259).

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InterpNEWS Why Did the Bo Prefer Cliff Cemeteries?

There are various theories as to why the Bo chose to place their dead away from the main living areas, high along the sheer faces of cliffsides facing the water. They all relate to the spiritual beliefs of the ancient people.

Coffins suspended along the cliff sit on wooden beams.

Filial Duty Duty to the family, or filial piety, has been an integral part of Asian cultures. There is also much evidence of ancestor worship dating back thousands of years. Historically, many Chinese people chose to keep their deceased loved ones close to the family, so that they could easily care for the remains and pay homage. In this way, they were also caring for the spirit. A contented and happy spirit was less likely to return to haunt the living. However, the Bo were different. They placed their dead loved ones in hard-to-reach places. Some scholars theorize that the higher the placement, the more respect and duty one was showing, and this pleased the dead very much. If the living could make their ancestors’ spirits very happy, then the spirits would bestow blessings upon the living.

Closer to Heaven In ancient times many people believed that divine spirits dwelt in nature, such as rocks, mountains, and water.

Mountaintops and high elevations were also auspicious places and thought to be closer to heaven, according to Guo Jing of Yunnan Provincial Museum. He speculates that for the Bo, the cliffs served as the stairway to heaven, while the coffins served as a bridge to the afterlife.

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Better Preservation of the Corpse Another theory suggests the Bo probably chose cliff precipices as graves for a practical reason that also has its basis in the belief of an afterlife. The bodies of dead loved ones needed to be preserved the best they could without disturbance and with the least amount of decay. This practice ensured the immortality of the spirit in the next life. Therefore, it was important to place the dead away from animals and people who could damage or rob the coffin. The hanging coffins and cliff tombs were airy, dry, and shaded, and these conditions slowed down the rate of decomposition. In contrast, burials in the ground with the moisture and organisms would lead to much quicker decay.

Placing the Coffins on the Cliffs

Photo from Historicmysteries.com

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InterpNEWS Earth Ramps

One theory suggests that the Bo constructed ramps of dirt that served as footpaths along the face of the cliffs.

Then the coffin was carried up the paths. However, many experts discount this idea, because the amount of labor required to build the ramps was inconsistent with small rural populations.

Scaffolding Others suggest that the people who hung the coffins used climbing aids in the form of posts or scaffolding placed in the sides of the cliffs, however, there is no evidence of this practice.

Ropes Rope markings provide evidence to support the idea that they were extensively used to move the coffins. Also, scientists found ropes in some caves, and other ropes are still visible in some of the caves that they have not yet explored. In many cases, it appears the Bo lowered the coffins to their designated spots from the top of the cliff, but other scholars believe they may have sometimes hoisted them up from the ground level.

A Culture That Disappeared

There may be many reasons of a spiritual and practical nature for hanging coffins from cliffs. The culture seemed to arise quickly and quickly ended, for the most part, once the Bo disappeared around 400 years ago. Since then, many of the coffins that are more accessible have been robbed and disrupted. But many of them are still intact, hidden in caves and crevices and rumored to contain great amounts of wealth. Luckily, for those who lie in coffins that prove too difficult or dangerous to reach, they rest in peace. Perhaps they are pleased that their families gave them the most auspicious and unreachable sites.

References: South China Morning Post Barbara, Sandra China Travel Academia Rapelling down a cliff to get a look at the coffins.

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InterpNEWS Halloween Lantern Tours at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery Gadling Staff

Old Dutch Church at Sleepy Hollow

Many communities have a signature event that sets them apart from others. It’s their claim to fame. Their annual extravaganza. Events range from mega-productions like the long-running flowery flotilla, the Tournament of Roses in Pasadena, California to the testosterone fueled Run-A-Mucca Motorcycle Rally in sparsely populated Winnemucca, Nevada.

In the Village of Sleepy Hollow, New York, it all comes together on October 31st. Halloween. All-Hallows’ Eve. The day before the Day of the Dead. If you’ve ever heard the name Sleepy Hollow you are probably familiar with the namesake tale penned by American writer Washington Irving in 1820. In The Legend of Sleepy Hollow the climax comes when hapless Ichabod Crane is pursued by a Headless Horseman through a cemetery. In the story, the cemetery where the abbreviated equestrian chases Ichabod is actually the Old Dutch Churchyard which adjoins present day Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, but never mind it’s close enough for marketing purposes. Sleepy Hollow Cemetery was originally named the rather uninspired Tarrytown Cemetery and the Village of Sleepy Hollow didn’t change its name from North Tarrytown until the late 1990’s

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Ah yes, the cemetery. Ask the proverbial man-on-the-street to conjure up an image of a cemetery and it’s likely he’ll envision something akin to Sleepy Hollow Cemetery. Sleepy Hollow has it all; spooky lilting 18th century death’s head tombstones, twisting narrow roads, majestic mausoleums and magnificent statuary, perfectly placed onto a hilly woodland canvas. It’s a cemetery with a capital “C”. It’s the perfect place to spend Halloween. Most cemetery administrators are understandably skittish about Halloween. The goblin-centric holiday often brings out the worst in people and because cemeteries have relatively low security, they are often vandalized by tombstone topplers and mayhem makers. Not so for Sleepy Hollow Cemetery. Administrators and the nonprofit Sleepy Hollow Historic Fund look forward to it. It’s party time or more specifically, lantern tour time.

For months Sleepy Hollow Cemetery has been lining up volunteers and taking reservations for their Halloween Lantern Tours. The tours are so popular that a total of 17 lantern tours now occur October. At Sleepy Hollow, Halloween isn’t just a day, it’s an entire month. Of course, if you really want to do it right Halloween night is the time to go. Tour guides will supply you with your own personal lantern, but you may also want to pack along a small flashlight.

The first stop on the mile-long tour is to pay homage at the grave of the one who made this all possible: Washington Irving. Then you’ll be off to the 19th century receiving tomb, where bodies were stored when the ground was too frozen to dig graves.

The Receiving Tomb on the lantern tour

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InterpNEWS Vampire fans will be overjoyed to know that the receiving tomb was featured as one of the haunts of the vampire Barnabas Collins in the 1970 MGM film, House of Dark Shadows. The tour continues through Revolutionary War and Civil War monuments and notable and notorious permanent residents like industrialists Andrew Carnegie and William Rockefeller and master counterfeiter and all-around scoundrel Joshua D. Miner and explores the mysterious symbols on gravestones.

Even though Sleepy Hollow Cemetery is in the greater New York City megalopolis, when night falls on the cemetery it gets dark, really dark. It’s best not to stray from your tour group. Legend has it that the Headless Horseman still rides there carrying his jack-o-lantern head pursuing Ichabod Crane and whoever else might wander into his path.

The Latin inscription on Catriena VanTessel’s Gravestone translates to “Death Conquers All” Douglas R. Keister is a graveyard guru, who Sunset magazine said “has done for cemetery exploration what Audubon did for birding.” His 39 books include four books on cemeteries such as Stories in the Stone: A Field Guide to Cemetery Symbolism and Iconography. Read his blog on Red Room. All photos are copyright Douglas R. Keister.

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Cemetery Walking Tours in New Orleans Thomas K. Arnold, Leaf Group

New Orleans' cemeteries often are called "cities of the dead" because of the preponderance of above-ground tombs. The Experience New Orleans website explains that the city of New Orleans lies below sea level, and it's difficult to dig a hole without having it fill with water because of the high water table. Early settlers tried all sorts of techniques to keep caskets in their shallow burial plots, including placing stones in caskets to weigh them down and boring holes in the coffins. But it was not uncommon to see coffins popping up out of the ground after rain. Ultimately, residents adopted the Spanish custom of burying the dead above ground in vaults.

St. Louis Cemetery

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This daytime walking tour takes visitors through St. Louis Cemetery No. 1, the oldest cemetery in New Orleans. Guides take visitors through its various pathways, pointing out graves and tombs of significance-including the tomb of voodoo queen Marie Laveau. Visitors continue to carve three X's on the side of the tomb in the hopes that Laveau, who died in 1881, will grant them their wishes. Guides also talk about history of the French Quarter, witchcraft and voodoo. The tour starts outside Rev. Zombie's Voodoo Shop, 723 St. Peter St., in the heart of the French Quarter.

Haunted History Tours 97 Fontainbleau New Orleans, LA 70125 504-861-2727 hauntedhistorytours.com Lafayette Cemetery

Lafayette Cemetery No. 1 was the first cemetery in New Orleans' Garden District. When yellow fever struck the city in 1853, many of the victims were buried here in mass graves. Lafayette Cemetery No. 1 has been a setting in several movies, including "Double Jeopardy" and "Interview with the Vampire." It also is the cemetery featured in Ann Rice's vampire books. The cemetery was built in 1833 and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972. Tours start at the cemetery entrance on Washington St., across the street from the Commander's Palace.

Tour-New-Orleans 504-914-2039 tour-new-orleans.com

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Cemetery Voodoo Tour

The grave of Marie Laveau is known throughout the world as “the most famous and powerful Voodoo Queens of North Ameerica.

The Cemetery Voodoo Tour is another walking tour of St. Louis Cemetery No. 1, which was established in 1789. Tour guides include Robert Florence, author of "New Orleans Cemeteries" and "City of the Dead," and other experts. The tour starts at Marie Laveau's tomb with a discussion of voodoo, its West African religious basis and its melding with Catholicism in slave-holding territories. Other tombs on the tour include those of Civil Rights pioneer Homer Plessy and chess champion Paul Morphy. Portions of the movie "Easy Rider" were filmed in this cemetery.

Tours depart from the courtyard of the Royal Cafe Beignet, 334-B Royal St. Historic New Orleans Tours P.O. Box 19381 New Orleans, LA 70179-0381 504-947-2120 tourneworleans.com Enjoy your tours – as I am, so will you someday be (historic stone carving).

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How Dandelions came to North America.

Out of all of the plants that are considered weeds in the United States, the humble dandelion holds a place of distinction. Known for its stubborn nature of invading newly cleared land and hard to eliminate tap root, dandelions are a bane to gardeners who continually battle over the same area of unearthed land for the right to grow. Dandelions are also a highly nutritious plant and have been and are still used as herbal remedies and as medicines. The introduction of the dandelion into North America is a wonderful lesson in history and also sheds some light on a plant that was once regarded as staple in early colonial life.

Dandelions are known botanically as Taraxacum officinale and are members of the daisy family, Asteraceae.

The name, “dandelion” is a miss pronounciation of the French name dent de lion, which translates to “tooth of the lion”. The tooth of the lion refers to the dandelion’s leaves which are serrated and look much like teeth.

Dandelions are thought to have originated in Europe and Asia where humans have cultivated them for hundreds of years. The typical “wild type” dandelion has a rosette of toothed leaves originating from a central growing point or crown at the ground level of the soil. From this crown, buds numbering from one to five will emerge on tall ll stems of ten to twenty inches tall. These buds open up into the unmisstaken golden-yellow golden aster-like flowers which will then transform into the characteristic seed head puff ball. The average size of the dandelion plants can be from six inches wide andd tall to 24 inches wide and tall or more if growing conditions permit large growth. European cultivars of dandelions will have even larger leaves as these selections are used as cutting greens.

It is estimated that dandelions have been in cultivation sin since the Roman times. For the last thousand years, dandelions have been used as remedies for illnesses including liver problems, gastrointestinal distress, fluid retention, and skin ailments. Besides being a medicinal plant, the dandelion is a tasty and highly hi nutritious vegetable. All parts of the plant can be eaten including the root and flowers. Leaves can be eaten as salad greens or steamed with beets, flowers are used to make dandelion wine, roots are boiled and steeped in a tea or roasted and made into nto a coffee substitute.

During the 17th century, dandelions were heavily used as food and medicine. Early colonists who came to the new settlements of the American colonies brought many items from their homeland that they thought they would need in this new land. One of those items was the dandelion.. It was from this very early introduction in American history that dandelions began their spread across uncharted territory. It was the common people looking for a new life who brought this plant with the simple need for something familiar in a strange new place.

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Many Native American peoples also developed their own uses of the dandelion after it naturalized. Since their introductionin to North America, dandelions have colonized the rest of the world and are just as abundant as other introduced species such as house sparrows and starlings.

Dandelions grow best in full sun in areas that have been recently or constantly disturbed such as construction sites, flower beds, newly weeded gardens, and lawns. Although they are non-native, these plants are not considered a threat to existing flora as they are not able to compete in areas where native plants are well established.

Dandelions can be thought of as foundation plants for a group of people who had not yet found their own foundation in a new and overwhelming place. Although not as widely used as medicine and a source of food as they once were in North America, many cultures around the world still employ this plant in customary practices that date back hundreds of years.

Sources: Pojar, Jim, Andy MacKinnon. Plants of the Pacific Northwest Coast. Vancouver: Lone Pine Publishing, 1994. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/cerc/danoff-burg/invasion_bio/inv_spp_summ/Taraxum_officinale.htm http://www.anpc.ab.ca/assets/dandelion.pdf

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10 Interesting Facts About Earthworms Laura Beans Did you know there didn’t belong here?

Anyone prone to working the soil knows that upturning the earth exposes these shiny, wigging, pinkishbrownish tubular life forms, sending them thrashing in hasty retreat into the comforting, moist darkness of the soil.

Earthworms: A Garden's Friend of Foe? That depends.

Here are 10 things you may want to know about earthworms: 1. Earthworms come in a seemly infinite variety—around 6,000 species worldwide.

One of the most familiar of them, the sort you may see in your garden, is commonly known as the night crawler (it typically surfaces after dark), the angleworm (its makes popular bait for fishing) or the rain worm (it leaves waterlogged soil after storms).

2. Of the more than 180 earthworm species found in the U.S. and Canada, 60 are invasive species, brought over from the Old World, including the night crawler.

3. Lacking lungs or other specialized respiratory organs, earthworms breathe through their skin.

4. The skin exudes a lubricating fluid that makes moving through underground burrows easier and helps keep skin moist. One Australian species can shoot fluid as far as 12 inches through skin pores.

5. Each earthworm is both male and female, producing both eggs and sperm.

They mate on the surface of the earth, pressing their bodies together and exchanging sperm before separating.

Later, the clitellum (a collar-like organ that goes around the worm's body the way a cigar band does a cigar) produces a ring around the worm. As the worm crawls out of the ring, it fills the ring with eggs and sperm. The ring drops off, seals shut at the ends and becomes a cocoon for the developing eggs.

6. Baby worms emerge from the eggs tiny but fully formed. They grow sex organs within the first two or three months of life and reach full size in about a year. They may live up to eight years, though one to two is more likely.

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Earthworm egg cases look like tiny lemons. When earthworms hatch, they look like tiny adults. Photo credit: U.S. Department of Agriculture 7. Full size for an earthworm varies among species, ranging from less than half an inch long to nearly 10 feet.

The latter monsters don't occur in U.S. backyards—you'll have to go to the Tropics to see one of them. The homegrown versions top out at around 14 inches.

8. The glaciers that crawled across Canada into the northern tier of the lower 48 states during the most recent ice age wiped out earthworms in those areas.

In other parts of the U.S., you may find native earthworm species, but the worms living in the regions scoured by glaciers are invaders from overseas, brought here intentionally by early settlers on the assumption that the worms would improve the soil, or carried accidentally in shipments of plants or even in dirt used as ballast in ships.

9. The earthworm's digestive system is a tube running straight from the mouth, located at the tip of the front end of the body, to the rear of the body, where digested material is passed to the outside. Species vary in what they eat, but by and large their devouring of fallen leaves and/or soil allows the worms to move nutrients such as potassium and nitrogen into the soil.

Also, worm movements within the Earth create burrows that encourage the passage of air and a loosening of the soil. Good things, right? Well, maybe not. Which brings us to 10 ...

10. The northern forest evolved after the glaciers retreated, yielding an ecosystem that does not benefit from earthworms. These forests require a deep layer of slowly decomposing leaves and other organic matter called “duff" that overlays the soil. When earthworms invade these forests, they quickly eat up the duff, with the result that nutrients become less available to young, growing plants and the soil, instead of aerating and loosening, becomes more compact.

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The combined effects of such developments have resulted in damage to trees such as sugar maples and to many forest herbs and understory plants, such as trillium, rare goblin ferns, trout lilies and other forest-floor species.

In some areas, oak forests have been overrun by buckthorn, and in others the presence of earthworms has allowed the invasion of Japanese barberry.

As duff disappears, so do the insects and other small creatures that depend on it for survival, with the result that animals such as salamanders lose a key food source and face population declines. Earthworm burrows also may speed the passage of water through forest soil, another change that might be a benefit to farmland or a garden with compacted soil but that is a negative in a northern forest.

Earthworm movements within the Earth create burrows that encourage the passage of air and loosening of the soil. Although eradicating earthworms in areas they have already invaded is virtually impossible in practical terms (the measures that wipe out earthworms, such as spraying with pesticides, also kill many other species), we can all help protect as-yet un-invaded ecosystems by keeping worms out of such areas.

If you use earthworms for composting and live in a region near forests that have not been hit by earthworms, you can help by dropping use of the worms. Also, to avoid spreading earthworm eggs when fertilizing with composted materials, freeze your compost for at least a week before using it—freezing will kill eggs as well as the worms.

If you use earthworms for bait fishing, don't dump leftover worms onto the soil at the end of a day's fishing.

Remove them from the site, or throw them far enough into a pond that they will die before they can reach to shore. When planting new shrubs or trees in your garden or yard, examine any Earth ball or potting soil for evidence of worms.

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InterpNEWS

Interpreting Invasive Species at Parks, Nature Centers and Natural Areas.

InterpNEWS Staff

Having done over 100 interpretive plans and training courses for parks, natural areas and nature centers, it seem that one to the thematic subthemes that always pops up is that of how those individual sites are dealing with invasive species. They try to interpret these main concepts: 1.

2.

3.

4.

What are invasive species you can see here?

Where did they come from to get here?

Why are they so harmful to our native species?

And... how do we control them or remove them?

So as many sites hire seasonal interpreters or volunteers who may not be familiar with invasive species they may have at there site, here is a short overview of our most common invasive species.

John Veverka ------------------------------Invasive species are a significant threat to many native habitats and species of the United States and a significant cost to agriculture, forestry, and recreation. The term "invasive species" can refer to introduced or naturalized species, feral species, or introduced diseases. There are many species that are invasive. Some species, such as the dandelion, while non-native, do not cause significant economic or ecologic damage and are not widely considered as invasive. Overall, it is estimated that 50,000 non-native species have been introduced to the United States, including livestock, crops, pets, and other non-invasive species. Economic damages associated with invasive species' effects and control costs are estimated at $120 billion per year.

Kudzu known as "the vine that ate the south", forms dense monocultures that outcompete native ground cover and forest trees. It can grow by up to one foot a day.

Kudzu (/ˈkʊdzuː/; also called Japanese arrowroot) is a group of plants in the genus Pueraria, in the pea family Fabaceae, subfamily Faboideae. They are climbing, coiling, and trailing perennial vines native to much of eastern Asia, Southeast Asia, and some Pacific islands. The name is derived from the Japanese name for the plant East Asian arrowroot (Pueraria montana var. lobata), クズ or 葛 (kuzu). Where these plants are naturalized, they can be invasive and are considered noxious weeds. The plant climbs over trees or shrubs and grows so rapidly that it kills them by heavy shading. The plant is edible, but often sprayed with herbicides.

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Widely known simply as tumbleweed Kali tragus is a species of flowering plant in the family Amaranthaceae. It is known by various common names such as prickly Russian thistle, windwitch, or common saltwort. It is widely known simply as tumbleweed because in many regions of the United States, it is the most common and most conspicuous species of tumbleweed.

Informally, it also is known as "salsola", which was its generic name until fairly recently.

Introduced through imported flaxseed from Russia that was contaminated with Kali seeds. Although invasive, it was used in Westerns to symbolize frontier areas of the United States.

A privet is a flowering plant in the genus Ligustrum.

Privet is a flowering plant in the genus Ligustrum. The genus contains about 50 species of erect, deciduous or evergreen shrubs, sometimes forming small or medium-sized trees, native to Europe, north Africa, Asia, many introduced and naturalised in Australasia, where only one species extends as a native into Queensland.

Some species have become widely naturalized or invasive where introduced. Privet was originally the name for the European semievergreen shrub Ligustrum vulgare, and later also for the more reliably evergreen Ligustrum ovalifolium used extensively for privacy hedging, though now the name is applied to all members of the genus.

The generic name was applied by Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) to L. vulgare. It is often suggested that the name privet is related to private, but the OED states that there is no evidence to support this.

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The zebra mussel

The zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) is a small freshwater mussel. This species was originally native to the lakes of southern Russia and Ukraine. However, the zebra mussel has been accidentally introduced to numerous other areas, and has become an invasive species in many countries worldwide. Since the 1980s, they have invaded the Great Lakes and the Hudson River.

The species was first described in 1769 by the German zoologist Peter Simon Pallas in the Ural, Volga, and Dnieper rivers. Zebra mussels get their name from a striped pattern commonly seen on their shells, though it is not universally present. They are usually about the size of a fingernail, but can grow to a maximum length of nearly 2 in (5.1 cm). Shells are D-shaped, and attached to the substrate with strong byssal fibers, which come out of their umbo on the dorsal (hinged) side.

Initially spread by ballast tanks of oceangoing vessels on the Great Lakes, now spread lake-to-lake by trailerdrawn boats. May be a source of avian botulism in the Great Lakes region.

The Army Corps of Engineers has set up boat inspection site to look for zebra mussels and help boaters clean the mussels from their boats.

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The common starling

The common starling (Sturnus vulgaris), also known as the European starling, or in the British Isles just the starling, is a medium-sized passerine bird in the starling family, Sturnidae. It is about 20 cm (8 in) long and has glossy black plumage with a metallic sheen, which is speckled with white at some times of year. The legs are pink and the bill is black in winter and yellow in summer; young birds have browner plumage than the adults. It is a noisy bird, especially in communal roosts and other gregarious situations, with an unmusical but varied song. Its gift for mimicry has been noted in literature including the Mabinogion and the works of Pliny the Elder and William Shakespeare.

The common starling has about a dozen subspecies breeding in open habitats across its native range in temperate Europe and western Asia, and it has been introduced to Australia, New Zealand, Canada, United States, Mexico, Peru, Argentina, the Falkland Islands, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, South Africa and Fiji. This bird is resident in southern and western Europe and southwestern Asia, while northeastern populations migrate south and west in winter within the breeding range and also further south to Iberia and North Africa. The common starling builds an untidy nest in a natural or artificial cavity in which four or five glossy, pale blue eggs are laid. These take two weeks to hatch and the young remain in the nest for another three weeks. There are normally one or two breeding attempts each year. This species is omnivorous, taking a wide range of invertebrates, as well as seeds and fruit. It is hunted by various mammals and birds of prey, and is host to a range of external and internal parasites.

Large flocks typical of this species can be beneficial to agriculture by controlling invertebrate pests; however, starlings can also be pests themselves when they feed on fruit and sprouting crops. Common starlings may also be a nuisance through the noise and mess caused by their large urban roosts. Introduced populations in particular have been subjected to a range of controls, including culling, but these have had limited success except in preventing the colonization of Western Australia.

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The Burmese pythons in Florida

The Burmese pythons in Florida are classified as an invasive species in the area. Invasive species disrupt the introduced ecosystem by preying on native species, outcompeting native species for food or other resources, and/or disrupting the physical nature of the environment. On being preyed upon, they are comparable in size or even larger than adult native snake species and quickly reach sizes that reduce their vulnerability to predation.

The high reproductive potential, low age at sexual maturity, and longevity of Burmese pythons clarify why controlling the population through removal of individuals would be difficult. A typical female breeds every other year, produces a clutch of between twenty and fifty eggs, and can live for twenty years or more.

Additionally, as apex predators and dietary generalists, Burmese pythons target a wide array of taxonomic groups. Thus, they are not dependent upon a specific prey species. The flexible dietary requirements of Burmese pythons enable them to survive for long periods of time without food, but when prey is readily available, they will eat regularly. Consequently, Burmese pythons pose a great threat to wildlife, especially midsized mammals.

Severe declines in mammalian populations across the Everglades may be tied to the proliferation of pythons.

Comparisons of road surveys conducted in 1996-1997 (prior to proliferation) and 2003-2011 (after proliferation) indicated declines from 88% to 100% in the frequency of raccoon, opossum, bobcat, rabbit, fox, and other mammalian species sightings. These declines were concordant with the spatial geography of python spread. Most of these species are well-known to have increased in numbers following human disturbance, however.

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The Africanized bee

The Africanized bee, also known as the Africanised honey bee, and known colloquially as the "killer bee", is a hybrid of the western honey bee species (Apis mellifera), produced originally by cross-breeding of the East African lowland honey bee (A. m. scutellata) with various European honey bees such as the Italian honey bee A. m. ligustica and the Iberian honey bee A. m. iberiensis.

The Africanized honey bee was first introduced to Brazil in 1956 in an effort to increase honey production, but 26 swarms escaped quarantine in 1957. Since then, the hybrid has spread throughout South America and arrived in North America in 1985. Hives were found in south Texas in the United States in 1990.

Africanized bees are typically much more defensive than other varieties of honey bee, and react to disturbances faster than European honey bees. They can chase a person a quarter of a mile (400 m); they have killed some 1,000 humans, with victims receiving ten times more stings than from European honey bees. They have also killed horses and other animals.

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Asian carp A long tradition of Asian carp exists in Chinese culture and literature. A popular lyric circulating as early as 2000 years ago in the late Han period includes an anecdote which relates how a man far away from home sent back to his wife a pair of carp (Chinese: 鲤鱼; pinyin: Liyu), in which, when the wife opened the fish to cook, she found a silk strip that carried a love note of just two lines: “Eat well to keep fit, missing you and forget me not”.

Silver carp have become notorious for being easily frightened by boats and personal watercraft, which cause them to leap high into the air.

The fish can jump up to 2.5–3.0 metres (8–10 ft) into the air, and numerous boaters have been severely injured by collisions with the fish. According to the EPA, "reported injuries include cuts from fins, black eyes, broken bones, back injuries, and concussions.".

Silver carp can grow to 45 kilograms (99 lb) in mass. This behavior has sometimes also been attributed to the very similar bighead carp, but this is uncommon. Bighead carp do not normally jump when frightened.

Catching jumping carp in nets has become part of the Redneck Fishing Tournament, in Bath, Illinois. Other parties, such as the Peoria Carp Hunters, have taken advantage of the jumping ability as a mechanism of hunting the carp, in some cases to purge the invasive species.

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The emerald ash borer

The emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) is a green buprestid or jewel beetle native to north-eastern Asia that feeds on ash species. Females lay eggs in bark crevices on ash trees, and larvae feed underneath the bark of ash trees to emerge as adults in one to two years. In its native range, it is typically found at low densities and does not cause significant damage to trees native to the area. Outside its native range, it is an invasive species and is highly destructive to ash trees native to northwest Europe and North America. Prior to being found in North America, very little was known about emerald ash borer in its native range; this has resulted in much of the research on its biology being focused in North America. Local governments in North America are attempting to control it by monitoring its spread, diversifying tree species, insecticides, and biological control. multiflora rose Rosa multiflora (syn. Rosa polyantha) is a species of rose known commonly as multiflora rose,Rosa multiflora is grown as an ornamental plant, and also used as a rootstock for grafted ornamental rose cultivars.

In eastern North America, Rosa multiflora is now generally considered an invasive species, though it was originally introduced from Asia as a soil conservation measure, as a natural hedge to border grazing land, and to attract wildlife. It is readily distinguished from American native roses by its large inflorescences, which bear multiple flowers and hips, often more than a dozen, while the American species bear only one or a few on a branch.

In some regions this plant is classified as a noxious weed. In grazing areas, this rose is generally considered to be a serious pest, though it is considered excellent fodder for goats.

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The rusty crayfish The rusty crayfish is a large, aggressive species of freshwater crayfish which is native to the United States. Its range is rapidly expanding in North America, displacing native crayfishes in the process: it is known to have reached New England, Ontario, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Ohio, Colorado, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and even Manitoba. It was first spotted in the mid 1960s. The rusty crayfish was first captured in Illinois in 1973, and has been collected at over 20 locations in the northern portion of the state.

In 2005, F. rusticus was found for the first time west of the Continental Divide, in the John Day River, Oregon, which runs into the Columbia River. The larger size and aggressive nature of rusty crayfish that have been introduced to a body of water makes it harder for them to be preyed upon by native species of fish, which are not accustomed to crayfish fighting them back.

Giant African land snail

Giant African land snail is the common name of several species within the family Achatinidae, a family of unusually large African terrestrial snail. This invasive species was smuggled into Florida from Africa. The snails can grow up to be bigger than your fist. Since they need calcium to build their shells, they attach themselves to concrete or cement, which in many cases is house foundations, weakening houses. Another problem is that their eggs are so tiny and they breed very often. Florida is trying to keep the population down, they've even tried training dogs to find snails (and it works).

Do you have any “invasive species� stories and how you interpret them or manage to control them? I love to hear from you for upcoming issues of InterpNEWS. John Veverka jvainterp@aol.com

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InterpNEWS

Going “nuts” for the Acorn Woodpecker.

IN Staff

I came across my first look at an Acorn Woodpeckers “granary” tree while working for the USDA Forest Service doing interpretive trail planning, in California. I was simply amazed at it and was lucky enough to see a bird fly to the tree and stuff in an acorn and fly away, probably looking for more. So I thought I would share some information on this bird and their unique way of being sure they will always have a meal waiting for them. John Veverka, IN Editor.

Acorn Woodpeckers live year-round in oak and pine-oak woodlands of western Oregon, California, and the Southwest through Mexico and Central America. They also live in other habitats with oaks present or nearby, including streamside forests, Douglas-fir forests, redwood forests, tropical hardwood forests, suburban areas, and urban parks. Though found as low as sea level, they are more common in mountains, ranging up to the elevation limit of oak trees.

Acorn Woodpeckers eat acorns and insects (and other arthropods). The woodpeckers harvest acorns directly from oak trees and are famous for their habit of storing nuts—primarily acorns, but also almonds, walnuts, hazelnuts, pecans, and pinion pine nuts—in individually drilled holes in one or more storage trees. These are known as granaries and can have upwards of 50,000 nuts stored in them.

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The birds drill the holes primarily in the winter, in the thick bark of dead limbs where the drilling does no harm to a living tree. Each year they reuse old holes and add some new ones. The acorns are wedged so tightly in their holes that they’re very difficult for other animals to remove. After they’ve been stored for a while, the fit becomes looser as the acorn dries out—group members periodically check their stored acorns and move the loose ones to smaller holes. Besides converting many kinds of live and dead trees into granaries, Acorn Woodpeckers often store acorns in structures like utility poles, fence posts, and wood-sided buildings—a practice that has brought them into conflict with more than a few protective homeowners. Despite their association with acorns, Acorn Woodpeckers prefer to catch flying insects when those are available. They hunt for ants, beetles, and other insects by flying out from high perches. They may hunt insects at any time of year, often storing them in cracks or crevices. Besides nuts and insects, Acorn Woodpeckers also eat fruit, sap, oak catkins, and flower nectar, along with occasional grass seeds, lizards, and even eggs of their own species. In the spring they gather in groups to suck sap from small, shallow holes in tree bark, often using the same sets of sap holes for several years.

Acorn Woodpeckers excavate multiple cavities, any one of which may be used for nesting (the rest are used for nocturnal roosting). They dig cavities in dead or living limbs, large or small, either in the granary (storage) tree or any other large tree. The woodpeckers reuse nest holes for many years.

The cavity is usually about 6 inches in diameter, and it may be 8 inches to more than 2 feet deep. Acorn Woodpeckers do not build a nest within the cavity, but during the digging process a layer of fresh wood chips usually accumulates on the bottom. They replenish the chips throughout the nesting period by pecking away at the cavity walls.

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Acorn Woodpeckers are such unusual birds with such complicated social behavior that they have given rise to one of the longest-running behavioral studies of birds. They live in family groups of up to a dozen or more individuals, and they cooperate in raising young and in gathering, storing, and guarding food. Even their approach to cooperative breeding is unusually complex. Some groups have multiple breeding males and females, and all of a group’s breeding females lay their eggs in a single nest. Each female destroys any eggs that are present before she begins laying, resulting in the demise of more than one-third of the total eggs laid in joint nests. Once all the females have started laying their own eggs, their destructive behavior stops and they remove the debris to a nearby tree. There each egg is gradually eaten by several individuals—often including the female who laid it. Throughout the year, Acorn Woodpeckers collect acorns and wedge them tightly into holes they’ve made in tree bark. Acorn Woodpeckers fiercely defend these acorn granaries against other groups and any other species that might rob the stores. They also defend 15-acre territories around the granary. They occasionally wander outside the territory in pursuit of acorns and water. Birds that help at nests but don’t get to breed often go out looking for breeding vacancies in other groups, up to about 10 miles away.

Acorn Woodpeckers are numerous and their populations have been stable since 1966, according to the North American Breeding Bird Survey. Partners in Flight estimates the global breeding population at 5 million, with 30 percent living in the U.S. and 57 percent in Mexico. They rate a 9 out of 20 on the Continental Concern Score and they are not on the 2014 State of the Birds Watch List. While Acorn Woodpeckers are common in oak woodlands, their numbers have probably declined since historic times because of development and habitat degradation, including overgrazing and loss of oaks due to disease and habitat conversion. Oak, pine-oak, and streamside forest has been converted to other uses throughout the Acorn Woodpecker’s range. In the Southwest and parts of Mexico, overgrazing has damaged mountain pine-oak habitats and streamside forests, probably reducing the Acorn Woodpecker population substantially. California populations, though not currently declining, have an uncertain future because of slow oak forest regeneration. Other threats include having nest holes taken over by European Starlings, an aggressive introduced species. Occasionally, people shoot Acorn Woodpeckers to keep them from eating nut and fruit crops. However, Acorn Woodpeckers have also shown the ability to colonize new habitats such as suburban neighborhoods, using human-made structures for roosting and acorn storage.

---------------------------------------- References: Koenig, Walter D., Peter B. Stacey, Mark T. Stanback and Ronald L. Mumme. (1995). Acorn Woodpecker (Melanerpes formicivorus), version 2.0. In The Birds of North America (P. G. Rodewald, editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, New York, USA. Lutmerding, J. A. and A. S. Love. Longevity records of North American birds. Version 2015.2. Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Bird Banding Laboratory 2015.

North American Bird Conservation Initiative. (2014). The State of the Birds 2014 Report. US Department of Interior, Washington, DC, USA. Partners in Flight (2017). Avian Conservation Assessment Database. 2017.

Sauer, J. R., J. E. Hines, J. E. Fallon, K. L. Pardieck, Jr. Ziolkowski, D. J. and W. A. Link. The North American Breeding Bird Survey, results and analysis 1966-2013 (Version 1.30.15). USGS Patuxtent Wildlife Research Center (2014b). Available from http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/bbs/.

Sibley, D. A. (2014). The Sibley Guide to Birds, second edition. Alfred A. Knopf, New York, USA.

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Bringing visitors closer to Thornhill’s masterpiece Allyson McAlister Marketing Manager, ATS

The Painted Hall is home to the finest painted interior in England. However, the majority of the painting is high up on a ceiling, far away from visitors, peering up at it from below. As part of their award-winning award conservation and restoration project, The Old Royal Naval College invited ATS to help them bring James Thornhill's epic painting closer to the viewer, complete with detailed interpretation of the complex painted scenes of gods, monarchs, seafaring and complex allegory. allegory.

Using the extensive research arch into the site – along with fresh perspectives – ATS created a multimedia guide for the Painted Hall that allows visitors to see the paintings in detail, either following a set tour of the interior or through a random-access plan plan of the ceiling. And it also allows them to unpack some of the symbolism that’s featured in the painted scheme.

A challenge for this project was to deliver a multimedia guide for a site that was also also a live conservation a live conservation project.

Hard-hat hat interviews, filmed with experts high uup p on the conservation scaffold now allows visitors to get up close to the paintings with a personal guide. And new high high-resolution resolution photography of the completed restoration gives the experience of an added dimension. dimension.

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The creation of a heads-up up experience for visitors required designing a tour that achieves the right balance of audio and multimedia content. Binaural Binaural (3D) soundscapes has created an authentic atmosphere for visitors, as they marvel rvel at the artwork and interiors. interiors. The design team solved the challenge of identifying the many painted characters with a custom flippable ceiling map map and hot spots – allowing visitors to explore the vast ceiling and pick out features more easily.

ATS carried out user testing with access and working groups during the design stages. The multimedia tour is available in multiple multiple languages including British Sign Language, plus a specialist Audio Described tour which was written by Vocal Eyes and produced by ATS. Together with the on on-site site interpretation, the multimedia guides create a seamless visitor experience that's as intriguing as it is awe-inspiring. awe ATS continue to lead the way in helping deliver extraordinary on-site visitor experiences using handheld mobile interpretation, films and digital. Please visit our portfolio page http://ats http://ats-heritage.co.uk/portfolio/ heritage.co.uk/portfolio/ to explore other exciting projects we have worked on and how to get in touch.

Allyson McAlister Mar Marketing Manager, ATS t: 023 9259 5000 m: 07785 735065 e: allyson.mcalister@ats-heritage.co.uk w: www.ats-heritage.co.uk

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Save the Salamanders Dedicated To Salamander Conservation https://www.savethesalamanders.com/

Threats to Salamanders.

The decline in amphibian populations has been both well-documented and well publicized. However, this attention is largely focused on frogs and toads. Little mention is given to salamanders or the threats that they face. This is unfortunate as the decline in salamander species is extremely significant. Around half of all the world’s salamander species are listed as Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

Therefore all of these species are all facing a high risk of extinction.

A further 62 species have been designated as Near-Threatened with populations that are dwindling. This means they are quickly getting closer to Threatened Status and to the brink of extinction.

Sadly for some salamanders it is already too late, as both the Yunnan Lake Newt (Cynops wolterstorffi) and Ainsworth's Salamander (Plethodon ainsworthi) have already gone extinct!

Even those species that are not experiencing population declines deserve attention and conservation to ensure that they remain healthy and stable. The issues that plague salamanders are not just exclusive to species found in the wild. Every year literally millions of salamanders are unwillingly forced into or reared in captive settings.

Here they are subjected to many forms of abuse and cruelty.

Below is an overview of some of the threats that salamanders face.

Habitat Destruction One of the biggest issues affecting salamanders is the loss of their natural habitat. Many areas that were once suitable for salamanders to live have now been destroyed for developmental construction and agriculture. Habitats of all kinds are being lost at an alarming rate. Wetlands are drained, forests are logged and cut down, and waterfronts are developed. Salamanders are literally losing their homes and they are losing them rapidly! Deforestation is particularly harmful to salamanders. When the amount of shade that covers the forest floor is reduced due to the removal of trees, the increased sunlight can allow for higher temperatures to reach the forest floor.

This increases the threat of desiccation. The exposed sunlight can also rapidly dry up vernal pools and temporary flooded areas on the forest floor which are crucial breeding/birthing sites. Where natural habitats do still exist, they are often fragmented or degraded. Fragmentation occurs when healthy areas of habitat are isolated from one another. These fragmented areas are known as habitat islands.

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Salamander populations are affected since gene flow between the populations is prevented. This increases the occurrence of inbreeding, which results in a decrease in genetic variability and the birthing of weaker individuals. Fragmented populations where inbreeding occurs often ends in a genetic bottleneck. This is an evolutionary event where a significant percentage of the population or species is killed or otherwise prevented from reproducing. Habitat fragmentation is also harmful because it often eliminates crucial requirements in the area which are critical to the survival of salamander populations. Such areas include spaces that can be utilized for thermoregulation, prey capture, breeding, and over-wintering. Without such habitat requirements populations dwindle. Breeding sites, often in the forms of vernal pools are particularly important. The loss of such areas in the form of habitat destruction can negatively affect the entire population and its reproductive output. According to the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC), there is some evidence that certain salamander species have individuals that return to the pond in which they were born once they reach maturity. Therefore, destruction of a breeding pond may result in loss of the entire population returning to that site. Habitat complexity is also important as it offers shelter to salamanders from both predators and human persecution.

Degradation occurs when the natural habitat has been altered and degraded to such a degree that it is unlikely that any remaining salamanders species would be able to survive. Developments and agriculture near fragmented habitats put salamanders at serious risk. As amphibians, salamanders have extremely absorbent skins. Industrial contaminants, the introduction of sedimentation into waterways, sewage run off, pesticides, oils, and other chemicals and toxic substances from developmental construction sites and human settlements can all be absorbed by salamanders. This can quickly lead to deaths. They can also cause widespread horrific deformities to occur. A study conducted at Purdue University found that out of 2,000 adult and juvenile salamanders 8 percent had visible deformities.

According to Save The Frogs, Atrazine (perhaps the most commonly used herbicide on the planet, with some 33 million kg being used annually in the US alone) can reduce survivorship in salamanders. Many products are sold with the claim that they are eco-friendly. However, these should be viewed with caution. For example, according to N.C Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation, Roundup and many other surfactant-loaded glyphosate formulations are not labeled for aquatic use. When these formulations are applied to upland sites according to label instructions, the risk to surfactant-sensitive species is considered low. While this may be the case for fish it does not necessarily apply to amphibians. Salamanders that breed in water also routinely use non-aquatic areas and could easily be exposed to glyphosate formulations that contain harmful surfactants through direct application and not just incidental drift.

Habitat destruction and degradation can also effect the availability of prey items, causing unnatural declines in appropriate food sources.

Road Mortality (Roadkill) Habitats are often isolated and cut off from one another by the roads and highways that now run through them. Countless numbers of salamanders are killed on roads and highways every year when they are hit by vehicles. Salamanders that are migrating to breeding and egg-laying sites often must cross over roads to reach such areas.

Here many of the mature members of the breeding population are killed. Removing members of the breeding populations greatly limits reproductive output, this makes it incredibly hard for salamander numbers to rebound.

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Roads present an additional problem because they represent a form of habitat loss. The roads that run through natural areas also fragment the existing populations, drastically making them smaller in size. This limits the gene flow and genetic diversity between the isolated populations on either side and this greatly increases the chances of extirpation.

When salamanders attempt to cross roads to travel between the populations, or to critical breeding/birthing sites it greatly increases their chances of being hit and killed by vehicles.

The Wetlands Ecology and Management (2005) population projections for spotted salamander (Ambystoma maculatum) life tables imply that an annual risk of road mortality for adults of greater then 10% can lead to local population extirpation. Unfortunately, it is estimated that mortality rates can often be as high as 50 to 100%, which means populations are at extreme risk of extirpation and extinction due to road mortality. Wyman (1991) reported average mortality rates of 50.3 to 100% for hundreds of salamanders attempting to cross a paved rural road in New York State, USA. Given that this figure pertains to a rural area from over a decade ago, it is fair to assume that even higher mortality rates occur as their has been in increase in cars and roads over the years. Reducing road mortality is paramount to preserving salamander species.

Being hit and killed by vehicles is not the only threat that roads create for salamanders. Chemical run-off from vehicles contaminate roadside ditches and pools. These sites are often utilized by salamanders for breeding and birthing. According to Steven P. Brady (2012) survival in roadside pools averaged just 56%, as compared to 87% in woodland pools. Thus, an average of 36% fewer individual embryos survived to hatching in roadside versus woodland pools.

Water Modification

Salamanders are amphibians, and as such have a constant connection with water. Even terrestrial species must stay moist to avoid desiccation.

Species also return to water to breed and lay-eggs.

Unfortunately, human activities and modifications to once natural areas often causes alterations to occur in water tables, and in wetlands, ponds, and lakes. Such alterations include the drying of these areas, changes in water temperatures, the stocking of fish in ponds, and the contamination of water sources from chemical runoff from urbanized areas.

The alteration of waterflows from natural areas for human usage can prevent flows that supply salamander habitats from creating important pools, ponds, and flooded areas.

Any of these alterations can have catastrophic effects on salamanders and their reproductive output. The increase in human activities and recreation in natural areas and on the water affects salamanders in many negative ways. Individuals who use All-Terrain Vehicles often head off of designated trails and trample through natural areas. Here salamanders that are hiding under leaf litter and other forms of natural debris are at risk of being run-over and killed. Totally aquatic salamander species often end up being seriously injured or killed as a result of boat propellers, dredging, fishermen, and commercial fishing nets.

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Cruelty Issues From an ethical point of view, most people are against animal cruelty and support efforts to minimize animal suffering and to protect species. In Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary, animal welfare is defined as “the avoidance of abuse and exploitation of animals by humans by maintaining appropriate standards of accommodation, feeding and general care, the prevention and treatment of disease and the assurance of freedom from harassment, and unnecessary discomfort and pain.

When salamanders are subjected to cruelty by humans it is done for insignificant and trifling reasons. The usage of salamanders is not imperative to humans in anyway. Consequently then any suffering we inflict on salamanders is totally unnecessary. The only area in which salamanders are subjected to cruelty and ultimately death by humans that could be argued as necessary is when these amphibians are used as food. However, even in this instance it is not justifiable as most salamander species are far to small to provide a significant food source to humans. Secondly, in the places where salamanders are consumed their is a plethora of other food sources available, hence their are many alternatives; as such it is not crucial to consume them. The passages below highlight some of the ways in which salamanders are subjected to cruelty.

Salamanders are often captured from the wild to be sent off to the exotic pet trade. The wild-caught pet trade severely depletes already at-risk wild populations. Over 20 million wild-caught amphibians are sold every year in the U.S alone.

Salamanders are also exploited for monetary gain in other cruel ways. Firebelly Newts (genus Cynops) are sealed-up in plastic packages and sold as trinkets and keychain pets in many places across Asia. Here they are devoid of food and water and slowly die. The salamanders can survive for several weeks in the sealed keychains.

Salamanders are also captured and killed for Salamander Brandy, a beverage that actually contains a corpse of a deceased salamander in it. One of the methods in which the drink is cruelly made is to have two live salamanders tossed into a barrel of fermenting fruits and then leaving them for a month’s time. After this point the mixture is then distilled.

Salamanders are also captured, killed, and consumed in certain places around the world. Species belonging to the genus Ambystoma are wild-caught for food across Mexico. Mudpuppy Salamanders (Necturus maculosus) have turned up in food markets in Toronto, Ontario.

Both the Chinese Giant Salamander (Andrias davidianus) and Japanese Giant Salamander (Andrias japonicus) have been nearly hunted to extinction. Protective laws have been put in place to conserve Giant Salamanders, but illegal harvest still continues. In 2012 the Chinadialogue newspaper reported that among the most regularly eaten wild animals in Guangdong are Giant Salamanders.

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Several species of salamanders are used as fishing bait. These include the Tiger Salamanders (genus Ambystoma), Mudpuppy Salamanders (genus Necturus), and the Dusky Salamanders (genus Desmognathus)

Using salamanders for bait is an extremely inhumane and abusive practice as these are vertebrate animals fully capable of experiencing pain and suffering. Being forcefully stabbed with hooks inflicts extreme agony an distress upon the salamanders. Salamanders used for bait are both bred for the practice and taken directly from the wild. The majority of salamanders used for bait are wild-caught, which makes it even more barbaric; pillaging the animals from their natural habitats only then to be subjected to a painful death. This abuse of salamanders is widespread. Collins and Picco (2012) found that up to 73% of fishers used tiger salamanders as bait. According to the article Anglers Inadvertaintly Spreading Deadly Fungus (2012), in 1968 alone over 2.5 million tiger salamander larvae were sold as bait in the lower Colorado River area. That is over 2 million salamanders in one year from just one small location!

The serious amphibian diseases ranaviruses and chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis – Bd) are also being spread throughout populations and to previously healthy animals via the fishing bait trade. When infected animals are captured from the wild for this trade, and then shipped and sold in other locations they bring the diseases with them.

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A study conducted by James Collins, assistant director for biological sciences at the National Science Foundation (NSF) and Angela Picco of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in Sacramento, found that up to 67% of anglers released tiger salamanders bought as bait into fishing waters, and 4% of bait shops put salamanders back in the wild after they were housed with infected animals. Their research also found that from March – October of 2005, 85% of Arizona bait shops sampled sold at least one ranavirus-infected tiger salamander. This is a staggering number of infected animals being introduced through this trade in just one State! In 2006, ranaviruses were detected in the tiger salamander bait trade between May and October in Arizona, New Mexico and Colorado.

Salamanders are commonly used for school dissections. In 2009 Animal welfare investigators reported that the Oakton Community College anatomy and physiology course used dozens of salamanders. These were dissected while they were still alive so students could watch their working organs before they were killed.

This is a barbaric example of animal cruelty. According to the Humane Society of the United States, animals used for dissections are predominantly taken from the wild. This further contributes to the decline in salamanders. Even captive-reared species are unethical, as the animals are raised solely to be killed.

Certain salamander species are used in various Chinese medicines. The salamanders that are used for these practices are pillaged directly from the wild, which severely impacts the populations. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) identifies harvesting for use in traditional medicines as a threat to several species of salamanders belonging to the genera Paramesotriton and Tylototriton. Other species such as the Sichuan Salamander (Batrachuperus pinchonii) and the Sword-Tailed Newt (Cynops ensicauda) are also sought after for this trade.

A massive number of salamanders are being lost each year through the combination of the many threats mentioned above. This unnatural decline in salamander populations cannot rebound on its own. This is why the conservation of salamander species is required. Without assistance, many species simply cannot survive the many hazards we have created for them.

There is much about salamanders that scientists do not know. Aspects of the biology, ecology, and lifestyles of many species is a mystery. This undoubtedly means human interference is negatively affecting salamanders in ways in which we don’t even know. The intricate relation between all species and the vital roles they play within eco-systems is also being altered. Such alterations can have serious consequences to not just salamanders, but many other animals as well (including humans).

Given the many threats that salamanders face, their survival now is dependent on conservation efforts.

Visit their web site to learn more what you can do to help and discover more about salamanders. J.Veverka https://www.savethesalamanders.com/threats/

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Historical Industry Legacies – Interpreting Pig Iron.

InterpNEWS Staff

Pig iron is an intermediate product of the iron industry. Pig iron has a very high carbon content, typically 3.5– 4.5%, along with silica and other constituents of dross, which makes it very brittle, and not useful directly as a material except for limited applications. Pig iron is made by smelting iron ore into a transportable ingot of impure high carbon-content iron in a blast furnace as an ingredient for further processing steps. The traditional shape of the molds used for pig iron ingots was a branching structure formed in sand, with many individual ingots at right angles to a central channel or runner, resembling a litter of piglets being suckled by a sow. When the metal had cooled and hardened, the smaller ingots (the pigs) were simply broken from the runner (the sow), hence the name pig iron. As pig iron is intended for remelting, the uneven size of the ingots and the inclusion of small amounts of sand caused only insignificant problems considering the ease of casting and handling them.

Casting pig iron, Iroquois smelter, Chicago, between 1890 and 1901.

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Smelting and producing wrought iron was known in ancient Europe and the Middle East, but iron was produced in bloomeries by direct reduction. Pig iron was not produced in Europe before the Middle Ages. The Chinese were also making pig iron by the later Zhou Dynasty (which ended in 256 BC). Furnaces such as Lapphyttan in Sweden may date back to the 12th century; and some in the Mark, Westfalen to the 13th. It remains to be established whether these northern European developments derive from Chinese ones. Wagner has postulated a possible link via Persian contacts with China along the Silk Road and Viking contacts with Persia, but there is a chronological gap between the Viking period and Lapphyttan.

The phase transition of the iron into liquid in the furnace was an avoided phenomenon, as decarburizing the pig iron into steel was an extremely tedious process using medieval technology.

Traditionally, pig iron was worked into wrought iron in finery forges, later puddling furnaces, and more recently into steel. In these processes, pig iron is melted and a strong current of air is directed over it while it is stirred or agitated. This causes the dissolved impurities (such as silicon) to be thoroughly oxidized. An intermediate product of puddling is known as refined pig iron, finers metal, or refined iron.

Pig iron can also be used to produce gray iron. This is achieved by remelting pig iron, often along with substantial quantities of steel and scrap iron, removing undesirable contaminants, adding alloys, and adjusting the carbon content. Some pig iron grades are suitable for producing ductile iron. These are high purity pig irons and depending on the grade of ductile iron being produced these pig irons may be low in the elements silicon, manganese, sulfur and phosphorus. These types of pig irons are used to dilute all the elements (except carbon) in a ductile iron charge which may be harmful to the ductile iron process.

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Until recently, pig iron was typically poured directly out of the bottom of the blast furnace through a trough into a ladle car for transfer to the steel mill in mostly liquid form; in this state, the pig iron was referred to as hot metal. The hot metal was then poured into a steelmaking vessel to produce steel, typically an electric arc furnace, induction furnace or basic oxygen furnace, where the excess carbon is burned off and the alloy composition controlled. Earlier processes for this included the finery forge, the puddling furnace, the Bessemer process, and the open hearth furnace.

Modern steel mills and direct-reduction iron plants transfer the molten iron to a ladle for immediate use in the steel making furnaces or cast it into pigs on a pig-casting machine for reuse or resale. Modern pig casting machines produce stick pigs, which break into smaller 4–10 kg piglets at discharge.

Until recently, pig iron was typically poured directly out of the bottom of the blast furnace through a trough into a ladle car for transfer to the steel mill in mostly liquid form; in this state, the pig iron was referred to as hot metal. The hot metal was then poured into a steelmaking vessel to produce steel, typically an electric arc furnace, induction furnace or basic oxygen furnace, where the excess carbon is burned off and the alloy composition controlled. Earlier processes for this included the finery forge, the puddling furnace, the Bessemer process, and the open hearth furnace.

Modern steel mills and direct-reduction iron plants transfer the molten iron to a ladle for immediate use in the steel making furnaces or cast it into pigs on a pig-casting machine for reuse or resale. Modern pig casting machines produce stick pigs, which break into smaller 4–10 kg piglets at discharge.

Until recently, pig iron was typically poured directly out of the bottom of the blast furnace through a trough into a ladle car for transfer to the steel mill in mostly liquid form; in this state, the pig iron was referred to as hot metal. The hot metal was then poured into a steelmaking vessel to produce steel, typically an electric arc furnace, induction furnace or basic oxygen furnace, where the excess carbon is burned off and the alloy composition controlled. Earlier processes for this included the finery forge, the puddling furnace, the Bessemer process, and the open hearth furnace.

Modern steel mills and direct-reduction iron plants transfer the molten iron to a ladle for immediate use in the steel making furnaces or cast it into pigs on a pig-casting machine for reuse or resale. Modern pig casting machines produce stick pigs, which break into smaller 4–10 kg piglets at discharge.

The sow (iron piece down the middle, and the pigs, the 10 small ingots of iron.

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“A Corn-Husking and a Pahty at the Old House with the Tin Roof near Lowrys, South Carolina?” Why Not? By Dr. Martha Benn Macdonald InterpNEWS Regional Editor

Even in June, that Saturday afternoon when my former student and delightful friend, Rebecca, and I decided to explore the fields and woods in the counties of York, Chester, and Lancaster, it was sizzling. That day we spotted the house shown in the picture and started speculating, as we are wont to do. A tin roof, a lovely arch in the back hall, the fire places, and all the jars. What did they mean? Who had lived there? Rebecca discovered that a man named Stark Olcott once owned the property.

Speculating is such fun and creative. Besides, asking questions, certainly a form of critical thinking, usually leads to answers. Just yesterday, for example, when we were walking around the old Waxhaw Presbyterian Church Cemetery in Lancaster County, reading names, looking at carvings on the graves, and the various kinds of tombstones, we reasoned that the one headstone marked Cruckett might be a variant of Crockett or perhaps a misspelling on the part of the carver. Wondering about a high stone wall surrounding four graves, we discovered that these four graves belonged to the wife, aunt, and two sons of Robert Leckie, an engineer and stonemason, who worked under Robert Mills on Landsford Canal.

Talking about those buried in the cemetery, we reminisced about our other “jaunts,” as it were. What kind of entertainment might the family who lived in this house with the tin roof near Lowrys do after April 9, 1865, when they Civil War was over and the tired, defeated soldiers returned home, many to learn their farms had been ravaged, destroyed, burned by Sherman’s Army on his March to the Sea. “They” had to make the most of what was left. They may have planted corn and when it was harvested, invited neighbors from surrounding farms to come help shuck. According to tradition, some of the younger men challenged each other to see who could shuck the most ears in the shortest amount of time when the crop came in in the late summer or early fall. Boys and men alikeWhy? tried to red that ear of corn.If you found the red ear of corn, you could Dofind youthe know story? kiss whichever girl you wanted to. And that excited a lot of young men.

Sometimes, that kiss brought on a romance, but other times it boded jealousy and feuding.

Then, of course, following a meal there was dancing. What might the women serve in the war-torn South? Well, there was always a grinnin’ possum surrounded by apples or sweet potatoes if your orchard hadn’t been burned and if someone had saved a few sweet potatoes. It was too early for hog-killin. “Not cold enough.” There may have been some peaches and mulberries, and someone might whip up cornbread or spoonbread to accompany the meal. Someone may have gone fishing in the creek.

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The Reconstruction years that followed the war-torn South were difficult. In order to build back, neighbors and families had to come together and move forward, overlooking differences, and one of the best ways to do that was, and is, through a celebration. Corn-husking helped. It was something that was shared. Children played games, young people courted, and adults exchanged stories. Some may have tipped the bottle. Corn-husking was an old tradition around the United States.

Corn husk doll (left), boy scouts husking corn (ca.1917).

Just remember if you tramp around in the summer time, as Rebecca and I often do, to watch for spiders, poison ivy, chiggahs, ghosts, and hunters. We heard gunshots yesterday and wondered. Lavender oil is good for chiggahs.

Finally, if you have a good receipt for cornbread, use it. You can always sweeten it for dessert by adding mulberries, peaches, apples, or whatever fruit you might have available.

Dr. Martha Macdonald College English instructor (Ret), author, and performer. doctorbenn@gmail.com

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Using Scavenger Hunts as an Interpretive Program “Discovery and Engagement” Experience.

John Veverka Interpretive Planner & Coach

Many years ago when I was working on my interpretive degrees at The Ohio State University, I needed summer jobs, and spent 5 summers as a seasonal interpretive naturalist with Ohio State Parks. One of our most popular programs for children was our Junior Naturalist Program (kids 8-10) and Naturalist Aide Program for children 11- 14 years old. The programs ran weekly (our park visitor campsite visitation turned over weekly) and children attended our 2-hour program three times a week. At the completion of the third day there were awarded a patch (see the pic above). One of the program activities I developed for one of the three 2-hour program activities was an interpretive scavenger hunt. As we had lots of participant, I put the children into teams of three each, give them a scavenger hunt sheet – instructions for safety (don’t bring in a snake or poison ivy for example) and sent them on their way. As we had several different groups, I had different scavenger sheets so they all were going to the same place looking for the same things. When they returned we had a “debriefing” and interpretation about the different items or experiences they had in finding them. The Junior Naturalists and Naturalist Aides had different levels of things to find, smell, feel or discover. You can make your own scavenger hunt forms to fit your programs or your park or sites unique resources. It works just as well for historic sites as natural areas, and can work for museums and zoos/botanical gardens as well.

Some things to consider: - Age appropriate things to find, smell, feel or discover.

- Safety issues (what not to touch or bring back).

- Seasonal availability for parks.

- Site appropriate resources and management issues.

Here are some examples scavenger hunt forms and you can find many more with an internet graphics search to use as a model. These are for younger kids, school groups or families to do with their children.

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Source: http://www.mykidsadventures.com/scavenger-hunt-ideas/

Discovery in action – the scavenger hunt form can be hand-made or printed. Be sure the children can actually “find” the items you have them look for, and then tell them the “rest of the story” for each object.

In a photo scavenger hunt, players take pictures of the items they find. (Image source: Len Bishop)

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The Heritage Interpretation Training Center The Heritage Interpretation Training Center offers 44 college level courses in heritage interpretation, from introductory courses for new interpretive staff, docents and volunteers, to advanced courses for seasoned interpretive professionals. Courses can be offered/presented on site at your facility or location, or through our e-LIVE on-line self-paced interpretive courses.

Some of our on-line courses are listed below. You can start the course at any time and complete the course at your own pace: Introduction to Heritage Interpretation Course. 14 Units - 2 CEU credits. $150.00 http://www.heritageinterp.com/introduction_to_heritage_interpretation_cou rse.html Planning/Designing Interpretive Panels e-LIVE Course - 10 Units awarding 1.5 CEU Credits $125.00 http://www.heritageinterp.com/interpretive_panels_course.html Planning Interpretive Trails e-LIVE Course - 13 Units - 2.5 CEU Credits $200.00 http://www.heritageinterp.com/interpretive_trails_course.html Interpretive Writing e-LIVE Course - 8 Units and 2 CEU Credits $200.00 http://www.heritageinterp.com/interpretive_writing_course.html Training for Interpretive Trainers e-LIVE Course - 11 Units and 2 CEU Credits. $200.00 http://www.heritageinterp.com/training_for_interp_trainers.html The Interpretive Exhibit Planners Tool Box e-LIVE course - 11 Units and 2 CEU Credits. $200.00 http://www.heritageinterp.com/interpretive_exhibits_course.html Interpretive Master Planning - e-LIVE. 13 Units, 3 CEU Credits. $275.00 http://www.heritageinterp.com/interpretive_master_planning_course.html A supervisors guide to Critiquing and Coaching Your Interpretive Staff, Eleven Units, 1.6 CEU Credits. $175.00 http://www.heritageinterp.com/critiquing_and_coaching_interpretive_staff.h tml

The Heritage Interpretation Training Center/John Veverka & Associates. jvainterp@aol.com – www.twitter.com/jvainterp - Skype: jvainterp Our course catalog: http://www.heritageinterp.com/interpretive_training_center_course_catalogue_.html

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The Heritage Interpretation Training Center Interpretive Bookstore and the Heritage Interpretation Resource Center http://www.heritageinterp.com/interpretation_book_store.html

If you’re looking to expand your interpretive library, check out our interpretive bookstore. Most of these books are available as e-books. These are the same text books that I use for our 44 interpretive training Courses.

All of these books can be ordered/purchased through PayPal at the bookstore web site page. http://www.heritageinterp.com/interpretation_book_store.html --------------------------------Interpretive Master Planning Volume 1, Strategies for the new millennium. (Available as an e-book $30.00), Interpretive Master Planning Volume 2, Philosophies, theory and practice resource materials. (Available as an e-book - $30.00).

Advanced Interpretive Master Planning -.Developing regional and multi-site interpretive plans, interpretive systems planning and creating “Landscape Museums”. John Veverka's Master Copy is available as a PDF ebook - $30.00.

The Interpretive Trainers Handbook Available as an e-book - $30.00. The fine art of teaching interpretation to others.

The Interpretive Trails Book. The complete interpretive planning book for developing and interpreting selfguiding trails. John Veverka Master copy – e-book publication copy available as a PDF - $30.00 The Interpretive Writers Guidebook - How to Provoke, Relate and Reveal your messages and stories to your visitors. Interpretive copy writing for interpretive panels, museum exhibits, self-guiding media and more.

Available as a PDF - $40.00 - this is our new Interpretive Writing text book used for the Heritage Interpretation Training Center's Interpretive Writing Courses.

40 Years a Heritage Interpreter – This is my huge collection of interpretive resource articles and reference materials from 40 years of doing, teaching, and writing about heritage interpretation. $40.00. Sent as an ebook.

You can also visit: The Heritage Interpretation Resource Center: http://www.heritageinterp.com/heritage_interpretation_resource_center.html The Heritage Interpretation Resource Center has a list of FREE articles and handouts.