JULY 2018
INTO THE VOID
SCIENCE
Kari Byron Crash and Learn
Genetic Privacy Your DNA for Sale
Perth Observatory Science in the Hills
Cover Image
Fibre Optic Cable has revolutionized how data is transferred between computers
Into the void
Science
June 2018 / Issue #2
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Founder / Editor Cameron Costigan Editorial Contributors James Kolacz Elizabeth Suk-Hang Lam Jesse Crowe Professional Proofreader Susan Dunn Business Sponsors BC Marketing Imperial College London Brainbee University of Cambridge This is 42
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About Us Science is all around us in the modern world but too many of us take it for granted. Our mission is to ‘Inspire the World with Science’ and to help people think of science as more than just another subject at school. Foreword - Cameron Costigan We run Into the Void Science from a deep desire to share science with the greater community, but we need your help. Running a magazine cost some real dollars and without your help, I am not sure how long we can continue. If you can, please consider supporting us on Patreon. Even a $1 a month commitment goes a long way to helping us.
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The Real Death Star This is Tethys, one of Saturn’s moons and you wouldn’t be the first one to think it looks like the death star. The Odysseus crater is an enormous impact created the crater, which is about 450 kilometres across and give the moon its Star Wars look. This view is a composite of several images taken in visible light with the Cassini spacecraft narrow-angle camera on Aug. 17, 2015, at a distance of about 44,500 kilometres from Tethys.
Image credit: NASA
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CLEAN MEAT By Jesse Crowe ‘The Travelling Scientist’
To many people, there is nothing better than a perfectly cooked steak, a lovely lamb roast, or even a simple 12 pack of chicken McNuggets. Unfortunately, the global population is rising and the demand for meat is increasing, while the meat industry is struggling to keep up! Almost 80% of agricultural land is used for raising livestock for the purposes of food. Furthermore, the livestock being farmed globally produces around 15% of our total greenhouse gas emissions. Finally, the countless number of animals that are slaughtered every day just to feed humans is, when you think about it, unsettling. Something needs to change. A potential solution to this problem is currently being developed; not on farms or in factories, but in laboratories. The solution is this: cultured meat. No, scientists aren’t exposing animal flesh to the fine arts, they are growing it in Petri dishes similar to how they might culture bacteria or yeast. By obtaining the right animal cells and giving them the appropriate nutrition, it is possible to grow an entire beef burger from one single cell. This technique of producing what is being termed “clean meat” has the potential to yield large amounts of perfectly good meat for human consumption without requiring large amounts of land, water, or feed. It also greatly reduces the amount of greenhouse gases that would be produced by the livestock, and it prevents the animal cruelty and slaughter that is currently occurring in the meat industry. Sounds too good to be true right? Well, obviously there are still some hurdles that need to be overcome before we are all biting into our lab-grown lamb or our petri-dish pork. The possibility of completely substituting traditionally farmed meat for clean meat is still a while off. One problem is that scientists are only able to replicate certain types of meat. Burgers are simple enough, but trying to create a porterhouse steak is a little more tricky, as it requires a specific combination of fats and proteins. One advantage of this is that it may be possible to customise the fat content of meat to improve it’s health benefits while maintaining great taste. Scientists should be able to produce any type of meat in the future, but it will require time and money to develop the technology. This leads to the next big problem… How much will clean meat cost? The first ever burger
created and cooked using this method was valued at $330,000. Now that’s a bit expensive for my taste, but that was in 2013 and further research has greatly reduced the production cost of one clean burger to approximately $10, a far more reasonable price. It is predicted that when clean meat products go to market, they will be priced similarly to their farmed counterparts, within at least 30% of the cost. This price is expected to further reduce over time as clean meat becomes more accepted and more popularised among society. Furthermore, it is likely that the price of clean meat will be subsidised due to its environmental benefits, while traditionally farmed meats will be taxed, making clean meat a cheaper option in the future. Will it taste the same? The answer to this question depends on the individual. The cells that make up clean meat are no different to the cells in living animals, so theoretically they should produce similar (if not identical) flavours. However, convincing society that meat produced in a petri dish will taste the same as meat from a farmed animal is not going to be easy, and how people feel about the meat industry is likely to affect their opinion on the taste of clean meat. What will happen to the current meat industry? It won’t disappear. It will just be scaled down instead of up. There will still be animals farmed for purposes other than slaughter, and perhaps a small amount will still be grown for producing ‘gourmet’ traditional meat, but this would be more expensive for consumers than clean meat. When will we be eating clean meat? Would you believe that one company aims to have their clean meat products available for purchase later this year? Yes, 2018! It will be prepared in some restaurants and sold in certain supermarkets. Depending on the response from consumers, more companies are likely to follow suit and start releasing a variety of clean meat products over the next few years and clean meat could be more common than traditional meat within a few decades. If the response to this clean meat movement is negative, the farming of meat will continue to grow, global warming will be accelerated, and more innocent animals will be slaughtered for food. Meanwhile, hunger will increase along with the global population. So when you are offered lab-grown meat for the first time, graciously accept and enjoy it. The world needs this to happen.
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KARI BYRON
Using the Scientific Method to Answer Life’s Biggest Questions. Q1: Your book has the Tagline “Why Crash and Burn when you can Crash and Learn”. This is great life advice, Why do you think so many kids & adults feel that failure is not an option? PS I love failure, I do it all the time Kari: Failing sucks. We try so hard, it is work to take a breath and learn from our mistakes. For me, it has become liberating to embrace failure. Every time I fall down and survive, I get a little stronger. Q2: Mythbusters was a phenomenal show and really helped bring science and the scientific method into the forefront for the public. Do you think the humour and playfulness of the show helped get this across, & should more be done to incorporate humour/playfulness into science reporting/communicating? Kari: I learned to really love science on the show. I have always been an artist and fostered my curiosity by getting my hands dirty. When we approached science like art, I fell in love. I was having so much fun and the audience was along for the ride. I like to think of Mythbusters like the cheese sauce on broccoli. It tastes so good that you didn’t realize you were eating a vegetable.
what hurdles they face. Did you always have a passion for science and building things or did this develop later in life? Follow up: What or who inspired you the most? Kari: I came to my love of science as an adult. I wished I realized how much I loved it earlier. One of my best friends has an astrophysicist as a mom. Her name is Sandra Faber. In high school, I remember thinking that she had the coolest job and I always looked up to her as a badass woman in science. Q8: What was your favourite experiment from Mythbusters or white rabbit project? Kari: On Mythbusters, it was the Shark Week myths that I enjoyed most. More recently, I loved the “Mind Control” experiment on the White Rabbit Project. We were trying to emulate superhero powers using current technology. Using a human-to-human interface from Backyard Brains, I was able to control Tory’s muscle movements by hooking us both up to an electrophysiology device. We staged a delicious Italian dinner that turned into a huge mess as I made my Tory puppet spill food and throw wine. I recommend you look that episode up. It was hilarious.
Q3: Artificial Intelligence seems to be coming along in leaps and bounds. Do you think AI developers should adhere to an ethics board like most regular science research have to?
Q9: Will there be a season 2 of White Rabbit Project?
Kari: I have never had a fear of AI. This question made me google “AI and ethics”, so thanks for propelling me into that rabbit hole of conspiracy theories. hahaha
Q10: Many of the participants in our study have faced biases or outright sexism in their workplace. Although many organisations are moving in the right direction to rectify the gender pay-gap and other gendered issues, what else do you think can be done?
Q4: America used to be at the world leader in Blue Sky Science (Large Projects with unclear financial use, but still important), what do you think caused the decline in this kind of research? Kari: I have always loved the connection between amazing scientific discoveries and curiosity-driven research. How many inventions happened because we tried to land on the moon? Q5: Do you think pop culture (TV, Movies, Anime) etc does a good job of inspiring kids to take up science? Kari: Personally, I think science fiction was the catalyst for a generation of amazing scientists. I have a theory that William Gibson’s Neuromancer inspired the internet. Q6: Favourite element in the periodic table? Kari: How about Kr. Krypton since it is a noble gas in lasers and because, well Superman. Q7: We are currently finalizing a study into women working in the STEM fields to see what inspired them and
Kari: Sadly no. I hope to work with the guys again someday.
Kari: I think we need to continue to keep the awareness going. I wrote about my own struggles in Crash Test Girl because I think it is an important conversation. Q11: You are now the chief creative officer at ‘Smart Gurlz’. It sounds awesome. What does this job entail? Kari: Besides being a spokesperson, I will be designing and consulting on new toys that will teach girls coding. I am hoping to include more STEM areas in the future. I learned to love STEM through play and I am hoping to inspire girls the same way. Q12: We have created a character ‘Fiona Fox’ and in conjunction with working women in STEM, plan to write a series of books to encourage girls into the STEM fields. What do you think of her? Kari: She is so cute. I love the big eyes. I am a sucker for puppy eyes!
JULY 2018
Grab a copy of Kari’s New Book Here Kari with the rest of the Myhbusters team - Image Credit: Mythbusters
PERTH
OBSERVATORY The Perth Observatory is Western Australia’s oldest observatory which is located 35km east of Perth in Bickley. The Observatory has served WA for over 120 years and remains actively involved in the service of public education through Day Tours for schools and Night Sky Tours for the public. In recognition of its scientific, cultural and historical significance, the Observatory was entered on the state’s Heritage Register in 2005. We sat down with Matt Woods, one of the volunteers running the observitory to pick his brains about Perth’s out of this world history. Q: So what inspired your interest in astronomy? Matt: As a child I lived in Northam with my family and I remember my dad taking me outside to see the Columbia Space Shuttle re-enter the earth atmosphere. From that moment I knew I loved the stars. Q: The Perth Observatory has bee around for a long time. How many telescopes do you have? Matt: We have around 15 telescopes of various sizes but we have 8 domes, some of which can be remotely operated via the internet. Q: Perth Observatory has been involved in some pretty important discoveries, can you tell us a bit about one of your favourite ones? Matt: Yeah, back in the 1970’s we teamed up with NASA and the Keiper Airborne Observatory to observe uranus as it was the first time in modern history that it was going to pass over a particulalrly bright star. The data collected by NASA’s flying observatory (a tricked out ex-military jet) and the Perth Observatory both led to the joint discovery of Uranus having rings.
Q: In the hay day of the Observatory how did they capture data? Matt: Glass plates! We have over 30,000 glass plates that we are looking to digitise at some point but it all requires funding. To give you an idea to digitise 6000 of them into research grade data, would take up 33,000 Gigabytes of storge space. Q: For someone who is just starting out, what kind of telescope do you recommend? Matt: Dobsonian telescopes are great and if you manage to get one that is 10 inches or larger you can use any standard eyepeice with them. A good pair of binoculars would go astary either as you can you them to quickly scout object and to look at through your telescope. Q: So is there still real research happening at the Perth Observatory? Matt: At the moment their is some but we are working towards some big things but like with everything science it is all predicated on funding. KEY DISCOVERIES FROM PERTH - co-discovered Uranus’s ring system - was part of the NASA International Planetary Patrol - our Automated Supernova Search has discovered 30 supernovae - discovered 29 Minor Planets between 1970 and 1999 - helped discover the super-earth exoplanet OGLE2005-BLG-390lb HOW CAN YOU HELP? https://www.perthobservatory.com.au/donations Image Copyright: Andrew Lockwood (Perth Observatory Volunteer)
17
3Ă—10 Femtoseconds of Fame Real Scientists Explain Their Work
Genetic Epidemiology Dr Kaitlin Wade, University of Bristol Dr Kaitlin Wade, Post doctoral Research Associate, University of Bristol Integrative Epidemiology Unit. My main interest is the relationship of diet and body composition with adverse health outcomes (like cancer, type 2 diabetes and other diseases) and, specifically, how using human genetics can improve causal inference in this context. At Bristol, I’m fortunate to have access to the wealth of detailed data, generated over 20-plus years thanks to the dedicated participants of the Children of the 90s (CO90s) longitudinal study. I have conducted many studies using CO90s
data, primarily focusing on understanding how genetics can influence changes in cardiovascular health over childhood and adolescence and the association between body mass index and these changes. My future aspirations are to study how the gut microbiome (a huge community of micro-organisms that help us digest food and produce vital compounds for our metabolism and immunity) may fit into these relationships.
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Want to feature your work? Contact us! Counting money to stop infectious diseases Dr Michael Head, Clinical Informatics Research Unit, University of Southampton Infectious diseases are rarely out of the news. Resistance to antibiotics is on the increase. There’s still plenty of AIDS, tuberculosis and pneumonia around the world. Tummy bugs and diarrhoea kills well over half a million people per year (Did you know that?), and Ebola is never far from the thinking of nervous health specialists who focus on West Africa. One way to tackle infectious diseases is by doing research to find out what works and what doesn’t. That might be testing out a new vaccine, or assessing how doctors treat and manage patients, or even viewing how the general public respond to health emergencies like an Ebola outbreak or pandemic flu. All of this costs money and there is a very limited pot of money to go around. Thus, it is vital to spend that money as wisely as possible on the research that is of the highest priority and can make the greatest impact. In order to support the research decision-makers of the world we count on the money provided for research and my work mostly focuses on infection.
much disease is actually out there is one way to help set priorities on what we should fund next. For example, our research has shown pneumonia (which cases 1 million deaths per year around the world, mostly in very young children) to be particularly under-funded compared to its burden of disease. Our results are being fed directly into the thinking of key policymakers such as the World Health Organisation and the World Bank, and large global funders such as the Wellcome Trust and Bill Gates (specifically, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation who have been a key funder of our work). We will be able to provide information that can support all of these organisations to invest wisely and make the most impact with an increasingly dwindling amount of money. You can contact Michael on m.head@soton.ac.uk
Alongside measuring levels of funding given to malaria, tuberculosis, diarrhoea and the rest, we look at other sets of data such as the burden of disease (how many cases, how many deaths, that kind of thing). Being able to show how much money is going in to research versus how
Colorized scanning electron micrograph of Ebola virus particles (green) found both as extracellular particles and budding particles from a chronically-infected African Green Monkey Kidney cell (blue); 20,000x magnification. Image Credit: Wikicommons
HOW SECURE IS YOUR DNA? By Jesse Crowe ‘The Travelling Scientist’ Have you ever wanted to learn more about your ancestors and where they came from? Or maybe you’ve wanted to know your risk of getting a serious disease in the future. If so, then you are probably aware that there are companies out there offering to answer these questions for you. No, they aren’t fortune tellers, they are geneticists. By giving them a sample of your DNA and paying a small fee, companies like 23andMe or Ancestry will map out your DNA, analyse your genetic information and give you the answers to these intriguing questions. However, not everyone fully understands what happens to our genetic information after we agree to have it analysed. When you apply to have your DNA tested, you are required to read through and accept the terms and conditions set by the company…but who actually reads that stuff? Well, when it comes to analysing your genetic makeup, you might want to read the fine print. By signing these forms, you’re agreeing to give them the ability to process, analyse, distribute and communicate your genetic information with other companies, usually pharmaceutical research companies that are looking into genetic traits and certain diseases. This is part of the reason why this type of genetic testing is so cheap. DNA analysis is a complex process and the companies don’t make their profits from us as customers. The majority of profit comes from sharing our genetic information with these third-party companies. Usually, you can opt to not have your DNA shared with other companies, although over 80% of 23andMe customers have agreed to share their results for the purposes or research. Alternatively, you can choose to delete your personal information from the company database after receiving the results. The companies that pay for your genetic information usually use it for research and development purposes, but as our understanding of genetics improves there are certain risks to consider when it comes to your own DNA. For example, if insurance companies could access your genetic information they could easily penalise you if you have any high-risk genetic markers. Certain
businesses could potentially use the information to market specific products toward you. There is even the possibility that hackers could steal your genetic information and use it for nefarious purposes! There is no record of these events taking place yet, but there is no reason why they couldn’t happen in the (near) future. It has been suggested that we need genetic privacy protection laws that prevent sharing and increase the security protecting this highly personal data. However, it is important to consider that increased security around such information could make it more difficult for research studies that require genetic information from a wide range of people, leading to slower progression in the medical research field. Perhaps companies just need to be clearer about their intentions with people’s genetic information and privacy concerns should be discussed more thoroughly before customers willingly offer up their DNA? If you choose to have your DNA tested and opt to share the results with third-party companies for the purposes of research you will discover a lot about your genetic makeup and you will be contributing to studies that will improve our understanding of genetic diseases, but you are putting your genetic information at risk of being used improperly in the future. It is entirely possible that your DNA would be kept secure and only used for important scientific purposes, but DNA is highly specific and personal information that could be abused by businesses in the future for the purposes of making money, so it is important to consider what you are giving away when you spit into a cup.
SUBPLATE SOLVED
The disappearance of an entire brain region should be cause for concern. Yet, for decades scientists have calmly maintained that one brain area, the subplate, simply vanishes during the course of human development. Recently, however, research has revealed genetic similarities between cells in the subplate and neurons implicated in autism—leading a team of Rockefeller scientists to wonder: what if subplate cells don’t actually vanish at all?
In a new paper, which appears in Cell Stem Cell, Ali H. Brivanlou, the Robert and Harriet Heilbrunn Professor, and Postdoctoral Associate Zeeshan Ozair demonstrate that subplate neurons survive, and in fact become part of the adult cerebral cortex, a brain area involved in complex cognitive functions. The team outlines a connection between subplate neurons and certain brain disorders, and further identifies a strategy for treating such disorders via innovative stem cell techniques. A happier fate In the developing brain, the subplate sits below the cortical plate, a precursor to the cortex. During some stages of development, the subplate is the largest layer of the brain—making its ultimate disappearance all the more confounding. “The understanding about the subplate was that it expands and then the cells of the subplate just die out. But we hypothesized: What if these subplate cells are not dying? What if they’re just moving to a different level of the cortex—becoming part of the cortex?” says Brivanlou. He and his colleagues found ample support for this idea. In samples of brain tissue from various developmental stages, they detected PRDM8, a protein expressed in migrating neurons that helps cells move into the cortical plate. They also detected PRDM8 in subplate-like neurons that they generated from stem cells; and experiments showed that these laboratory-grown subplate neurons wandered away from their original location. All of these findings pointed not to cell death, but to cell movement. Far from a site of demise, the subplate seems to nurture the development of functional and diverse cells. Ozair and Brivanlou observed that subplate neurons mature into various types of deep projection neurons—cells
found in the deepest layers of the cortex. The subplate’s subplot In other experiments, the researchers modulated the levels of WNT signaling, a pathway known to guide many developmental processes. They found that the level of WNT signaling determined the fate of subplate neurons: low levels yielded projection neurons that extend within the cortex, and high levels yielded neurons that project to other brain areas. These findings have significant implications for understanding brain disorders. Projection neuron abnormalities have been linked to several neurodevelopmental conditions, including autism; and Brivanlou and Ozair’s research suggests that these abnormalities manifest very early in development. “A lot of the genes associated with autism are first expressed in the subplate,” says Ozair. “And if subplate neurons don’t die but instead become part of the cortex, they will carry those mutations with them.” In addition to shedding light on the early stages of brain disorders, the research presents new hope for preventing or treating such disorders through stem-cell therapy. For example, the scientists hope that their findings will one day make it possible to treat neurodegenerative disease using techniques to generate scarce neuronal subtypes from subplate-like stem cells. “The deep layers of the cortex are involved in many diseases: Alzheimer’s, Lou Gehrig’s, and Huntington’s disease all kill off specific types of deep-projection neurons,” says Ozair. “When we think about cellular replacement therapy, we need to think about how these cells are made in the first place.” Brivanlou adds: “This research shows us how to generate these neurons directly, because we know the signaling mechanism that is necessary for their fate to be unveiled.”
A DOG ACT By James Kolacz
There are estimated to be 4.8 million pet dogs in Australia alone, living in nearly 40% of households nationwide. But how did they come to be so synonymous with our way of life? And what effect does it have on them?
It’s estimated that dogs were first domesticated over 20,000 years ago. Since then, they, along with other domesticated animals, have not been exposed to the same selective pressures that other creatures experience. Imagine, for example, if your purebred Labrador started showing signs of hip problems. Most people would probably take him to the vet, perhaps decrease his food, maybe even consider surgery. Now, if this Labrador were actually a hyena, it would be dead. If he can’t run and requires his food brought to him, the pack has no use for him and quickly he and his lineage would fade into the obscurities of time. It is, of course, understandable that we want to keep little Fido alive as long as possible. He’s part of our family, right? We do this out of love, we try to ease their suffering and extend the time we have together. Sure, maybe it increases his chances of spawning little splay-hipped progeny, but that’s a risk most of us are more than willing to take. It’s not, however, the only way we mess with the DNA of our canine friends. The initial domestication of dogs caused a ‘population bottleneck.’ Essentially, a population bottleneck occurs any time there is a reduction in the effective population size (Ne) of a species. The effective population size comprises the members of a species capable of breeding, ie. not too old, not too young and impacted by sex ratios. Now, it seems unlikely that early humans kidnapped thousands of wild dogs en masse. Rather, that they slowly domesticated a select few, likely as pups, hand-rearing them and, importantly, having them breed with each other rather than members of the wild packs. Immediately then, the population size available to these domesticated dogs has crashed, meaning that any pre-existing genetic flaws already impacting these dogs would quickly become spread through the domesticated population, rather than disappearing as Darwinian genetics would have us believe. Population bottlenecks are also responsible for a loss of genetic diversity in many previously (or currently) endangered animals, such as the cheetah or elephant seal. Selective breeding has also played a large role in the
accumulation of genetic abnormalities within dogs. While nature typically selects traits that will increase dog’s chances of either survival or reproduction, humans typically select for traits that are not quite as useful. The pug is a prime example of selective breeding gone awry. Its squashed face, small size and facial wrinkles were all desirable traits for humans. This resulted in pugs carrying these features being interbred and, eventually, inbred. Firstly, these very traits that we were selecting for aren’t particularly advantageous for the pug itself; ever heard one try to breathe and sleep at the same time? In addition to this, what if a gene for arthritis is located near a gene for extra wrinkles? Suddenly we’re forcing selection not only for adorable cheeks but for expensive, painful procedures in later life. Recently, scientists compared the genomes of domesticated animals and plants to those of their wild counterparts. They did so using SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) within coding DNA. Essentially, an SNP is a single nucleotide mutation in an organisms DNA. Usually, an SNP occurs in non-coding or ‘junk’ DNA; if it happens in coding DNA and alters the amino acid that stretch of DNA codes for, there is a strong possibility it will have a negative effect on the fitness of the individual. This is known as a ‘deleterious mutation.’
In Darwinian genetics, natural selection will often eliminate deleterious mutations (known as ‘purifying selection’) but of course, domesticated animals are not properly exposed to natural selection. Scientists found that there was a significantly higher build-up of potentially deleterious mutations within domesticated populations of dogs than there were amongst wild species. They also discovered that domesticated dogs had significantly lower genetic variation, making it more difficult for these deleterious traits to be bred out. So, what does all this mean for Santa’s Little Helper? Previous research into genetic variation in dogs found that the two best ways of avoiding a build-up of deleterious mutations in dogs was to avoid breeding dogs merely to ‘fit breed standards’ and to maintain a large and diverse population. Short of dabbling in the dark world of eugenics, it would seem if you really want help our canine pals out, make your next pet a good-natured mongrel from the pound. You might save yourself some vet bills, and in forty years, Fido V might just thank you (by not eating your slippers.)
Images; Above: A sad reflection of human intervention with Pug breeding. Below: The snout of the Pitbull has become deformed over 100 years of inter breeding.
TAXONOMY More than Just Names By Elizabeth Suk-Hang Lam
Have you ever tried personality tests with your names? Do you think your name can reveal something about yourself? We have names to distinguish ourselves from our peers, but for living things on Earth, we do not give them names merely to distinguish them, but also reveal their characteristics! Dogs, cats, butterflies are the common names we have often used. However, for scientists, these names are not enough for identification. For example, there are approximately 20,000 species of butterflies in the world (Figure 1)! We could not simply name them Butterfly A, B, C. This would just create heaps of confusion! Here comes the need for a universal identifier and taxonomy could be the solution. It is the science of naming, describing and classifying organisms that include all plants, animals and microorganisms of the world. It is not merely about naming. It classifies the living things on Earth with their characteristics and relationships. Taxonomy is much more than the science of naming. By giving organisms a unique name, we know more about the organisms in our living environment. Not only can we gain a better understanding of the organisms we can also find better ways to protect them. For example, we can also identify the invasive ones from the native ones and protect the diverse wildlife. In March 2018, Sydney has a record of a gecko called Hemidactylus garnotti, which is an invasive species not supposed to be in Australia. Experts have later noticed that this is not a single found - the former record of a Hemidactylus frenatus in September 2017 was indeed the invasive Hemidactylus garnotti! Although both geckoes belong to the same genus Hemidactylus, they are two entirely different species. Hemidactylus garnotti could threaten endangered species while Hemidactylus frenatus is an ordinary Asian House Gecko. This has alerted the biosecurity authorities in New South Wales and collected the sample specimen in time to protect Australia’s wildlife. While naming itself may not sound to be a new concept, taxonomy started with Carl Linnaeus. In 1753, he introduced a binary form of species names - an epithet that describes the trivial characteristics of the organism
plus a more specific name of classification (genus). This naming system gives all organisms a specific scientific name with two Latin words. This simplicity has revolutionized the naming system and has laid out the foundation in modern botany and zoology. Scientists group living things with their common features and trace the ancestry of organisms with the shared common features. These features are not limited to observable characteristics, such as organisms with four limbs, but also include their genetic features. Finding a specific type of organism with taxonomy is like finding your home with a specific street address - starting with your state, then narrow it down to the suburb, then the street name and street number. With taxonomy, scientists group living things with eight hierarchies, from domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, down to species. While there are so many different life forms on Earth, scientists have classified them into just three domains - Bacteria, Archaea and Eukaryota. Both Bacteria and Archaea contain only one cell while Eukaryota has multiple cells. We, humans, having countless cells in our body, certainly belong to this group of multicell organisms! Then domains split into kingdoms. Animalia is one of the kingdoms, they are the organisms that feed on other organisms to obtain nutrition. No matter you are vegan or meat-lovers, we need to eat to gain nutrition. So, humans belong to the kingdom of Animalia. Under each kingdom, there comes different groups called phyla. Animals with a supporting skeleton bone called vertebrate belong to the Chordata phylum. Therefore, humans are a member of Chordata. Each phylum then splits into different classes. The class Mammalia can feed their young with milk, and so do we. Then, the class divides into different orders. Humans belong to the order Primates, which has the characteristics of may include some version of an opposable digit – the thumb.
and each family has different genera. The Genus Homo Ahas large skulls and the ability to make tools for them selves. In Latin, homo means man.
onomy! Do you know, there is a fly after the performer Beyoncé?
Each genus is finally divided into species. The species homo sapiens have the ability to develop symbols and writing. Therefore, scientists have regarded humans as homo sapiens!
“It was the unique dense golden hairs on the fly’s abdomen that led me to name this fly in honour of the performer Beyoncé as well as giving me the chance to demonstrate the fun side of taxonomy – the naming of species,” Dr Lessard said in the CSIRO blog.
It might appear complicated to most of us. But taxonomy is not a boring subject, taxonomists have also made hilarious and exciting scientific names with tax-
Even though we are not taxonomists, we can still understand the taxonomy with the angle of appreciation of the diverse life on Earth!
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