A"love'hate"relationship" " Public"Relations"" IOC"&"the"Media"
! ! ! International!Olympic!Academy!! Master!programme:!Olympic!Studies! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Name:!! Lea!van!Breukelen! Module:!! M.2.3.!Olympic!Games!Organization!and!Management!! Professor:! K.!Toohey!
Just"like"the"Olympic"Games"the"first"traces"of"public"relations"can"be"found"in"Greece1."The"Greek" word"sematikos"means"to"signify,"to"mean."Semantikos"means"semantics,"which"can"be"defined"as" how"to"get"people"to"believe"things"and"do"things."Slater2"argues"that"Pierre"de"Coubertin"can"not" only"be"seen"as"the"renovator"of"the"Modern"Olympic"Games"but"also"as"one"of"the"founders"of" modern"public"relations."In"the"early"years"of"the"Olympic"Movement,"when"the"future"of"the" Games"was"threatened,"it"was"De"Coubertin"who"saved"the"future"of"the"Olympic"Movement"with" his"skillful"public"relations"practices."""" The"IOC"and"the"media"have"a"complicated"relationship."With"the"help"of"the"media"the"Beijing" Olympics"in"2008"reached"4.7"billion"television"viewers,"70%"of"the"world’s"population3."But"due"to" the"media"the"1990s"were"a"disaster"for"the"image"of"the"IOC"and"shows"what"can"happen"when" the"IOC"fails"to"live"up"its"rhetoric."A"public"relations"crisis"can"occur"easily"because"the"Olympic" Games"have"great"interest"from"the"international"media."In"this"essay"I"will"discuss"the"importance" of"a"good"public"relations"strategy"for"the"IOC"with"a"case"study"about"the"IOC"and"the"doping" issue.""" ! Public'relations' ' Public'relations'is'the'profitable'integration'of'an'organization’s'new'and'continuing'relationship'with' stakeholders'including'costumers'by'managing'all'communications'contacts'with'the'organization' that'create'and'protect'the'brand'and'reputation'of'the'organization4.'' ! The!boss!of!Bell!Telephone!once!said!“Communicate!or!die”.5!He!did!not!said!that!to!recruit!new! costumers,!but!to!his!managers!to!get!more!collaboration!from!internal!and!external!stakeholders.! We!live!in!a!world!where!everybody!can!interfere!anybody.!We!want!to!be!informed!because!if!we! do!not!get!clear!information!we!get!suspicious.!When!companies!want!to!reach!targets,!they!need! collaboration!from!others!but!dependence!makes!vulnerable.!From!the!outset!public!relations!has! this!dependence!as!one!of!the!guiding!principles!for!determining!policy!and!strategy.!! Like!the!Olympic!Games,!modern!public!relations!are!a!products!of!the!late!19th!century6.!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!Litwin,!L..!A!brief!history!of!public!relations.! Retrieved!15L07L2012:!http://www.larrylitwin.com/handouts/History%20of%20PR%20090104.pdf! 2!Slater,!J.!Modern!public!relations:!Pierre!de!Coubertin!and!the!birth!of!the!Modern!Olympic!Games.!Sixth!International!Symposium!for! Olympic!Research,!pp.!149L160.! 3!Nielsen.!Beijing'Olympics'Draw'Largest'Ever'Global'TV'Audience.! Retrieved!18L07L2012.! http://blog.nielsen.com/nielsenwire/wpLcontent/uploads/2008/09/press_release3.pdf! 4!Caywood,!C.!The!Handbook!of!Strategic!Public!Relations!&!Integrated!Communications.!New!York:!MCGraw!Hill!(1997).!! 5!Mastenbroek,!J.!Persie!van,!M.!Rijnja,!G.!Vries!de,!B.!Public!Relations;!de!communicatie!van!organisaties.!Alphen!aan!de!Rijn:!Kluwer! (2004).! 6!Slater,!J.!Modern!public!relations:!Pierre!de!Coubertin!and!the!birth!of!the!Modern!Olympic!Games.!Sixth!International!Symposium!for! Olympic!Research,!pp.!149L160.!!
Public!relations!originated!in!the!United!States!when!the!railroad!industry!prompted!the! development!of!practices!such!as!customer!communication!and!press!relations7.!According!to! Effective!Public!Relations,!by!Scott!M.!Cutlip,!Allen!H.!Center!and!Glen!M.!Broom,!modern!public! relations!comprise!the!following!specialties:!internal!relations,!publicity,!advertising,!press!agentry,! public!affairs,!lobbying,!issue!management,!investor!relations,!and!development.!Nowadays!social! media!is!an!important!specialty!for!public!relations.!!! ! Public!relations!uses!many!marketing!tools!and!even!can!be!used!to!promote!a!product!but!it!is!often! used!for!a!different!goal8.!Marketing!is!about!selling!products!and!services!while!public!relations!is! more!concerned!with!“selling”!persons,!government!policies,!corporations!and!other!institutions.! Public!relations!has!been!used!for!many!different!purposes!like!attracting!investments,!influence! legislation,!raise!the!public!profiles!of!companies,!a!positive!spin!on!disasters,!gain!public!support!for! conducting!warfare!and!to!change!the!perception!of!the!public!of!repressive!regimes.!Public!relations! have!grown!in!to!a!multiLbillion!dollar!industry!that!has!become!a!port!of!political!life!and!modern! business.!! ! Public!relations!are!now!an!international!matter;!there!are!three!main!reasons!for!the!increased! international!interaction!among!organizations!and!public9:! ! •
The!expansions!of!communications!technology!have!increased!the!dissemination!of! information!about!products,!services!and!lifestyles!around!the!world.!!
! •
The!formations!of!multinational!trading!blocks,!such!as!the!European!Economic!Community! and!the!North!American!Free!Trade!Agreement.!!
! •
People!around!the!world!are!uniting!in!order!to!reach!common!goals,!like!reducing! population!growth!and!fighting!against!diseases.!!
! Sport'public'relations'
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 7!Lin,!T.!How!a!strategic!public!relations!campaign!can!enhance!the!reputation!of!China;s!financial!public!relations!industry.! Retrieved!13L07L2012! http://digitallibrary.usc.edu/assetserver/controller/item/etdLLinL20070413.pdf! 8!Corporate!watch.!Public!relations!and!lobbying!industry.! Retrieved!16L07L2012:!http://www.corporatewatch.org/?lid=1570! 9!Skinner,!J.!Toohey,!K.!International!Sport!Public!Relations.!Elsevier:!Sport!Public!Relations!and!Communication!(2010).!!
Sport'public'relations'is'a'managerial'communicationHbased'function'designed'to'identify'a'sport' organization’s'key'publics,'evaluate'its'relationships'with'those'publics,'and'foster'desirable' relationships'between'the'sport'organization'those'publics10.'' ! On!an!international!stage!sport!can!be!used!as!a!tool!to!generate!national!unity,!promote!social! change!and!celebrate!national!values!and!identity,!but!often!sport!is!overlooked.!However!the! Olympic!Games!have!been!used!a!number!of!times!to!make!political!statements.!There!also!have! been!boycotts!at!the!Olympic!Games,!for!the!following!reasons11:!the!Cold!war;!apartheid!or! imperialism!and!nations!being!divided!by!political!or!ideological!differences.!The!political!statements! and!boycotts!were!harmful!for!the!Games!and!its!image!since!the!Games!are!promoting!peace.!! ! The!end!of!the!Cold!War!has!decreased!the!emphasis!on!conventional!interLstate!diplomacy,!and! increased!the!emphasis!on!public!diplomacy!and!soft!power12.!During!the!1990s,!the!number!of!Non! Governmental!Organizations!increased!from!6,000!to!26,000.!The!NGO’s!claim!to!act!as!a!global! conscience!by!representing!the!global!public!interest!beyond!the!individual!states.!The!power!and! influence!of!International!NonLGovernment!Organizations!have!also!increased;!the!INGO’s!operate! around!the!world,!are!privately!funded!and!act!independent13.!! The!International!Olympic!Committee!is!the!supreme!authority!of!the!Olympic!Movement.14!! The!IOC!acts!as!a!catalyst!as!a!collaboration!between!all!parties!of!the!Olympic!family,!from!the! National!Olympic!Committees,!the!International!Sports!Federations,!the!Organizing!Committees!for! the!Olympic!Games,!the!athletes,!The!Olympic!Program!partners,!broadcast!partners!and!United! Nations!agencies.!On!this!basis!the!IOC!ensures!the!regular!celebration!of!the!Olympic!Games!and! the!promotion!of!the!Olympic!Values!like!peace!and!respect.!! The!International!Olympic!Committee!is!an!INGO!as!it!has!the!capacity!to!bring!together!groups,! associations,!organizations!and!individuals!from!different!countries!who!are!nonLstate!actors!on!the! world!stage!with!their!interactions!giving!rise!to!transnational!relations15.!!
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10!Stoldt,!G.!Dittmore,!S.!Branvold,!S.!Sport!Public!Relations.!Human!Kinetics!(2006)! 11!Horne,!J.!&!Whannel,!G.!Understanding!the!Olympics.!Oxon:!Routledge!(2012)!! 12!Brownell,!S.!Soft'Power.!IOA!Master’s!Olympic!Studies!June!2012! 13!Skinner,!J.!Toohey,!K.!International!Sport!Public!Relations.!Elsevier:!Sport!Public!Relations!and!Communication!(2010).! 14!International!Olympic!Committee.!The!Organization.! Retrieved!13L07L2012:!http://www.olympic.org/aboutLiocLinstitution! 15!Skinner,!J.!Toohey,!K.!International!Sport!Public!Relations.!Elsevier:!Sport!Public!Relations!and!Communication!(2010).!
The!diversity!of!stakeholders,!see' figure'Stakeholders'of'the' International'Olympic'Committee,! from!the!TOP!sponsors!to!the! memorabilia!collectors,!makes!it! complex!to!have!a!public!relations! strategy!that!suits!every!stakeholder.! A!decent!public!relations!strategy!for! the!IOC!is!extremely!important!since! it!is!no!longer!primary!mediating!between!governments!of!hostile!nations!but!rather!is!mediating! between!a!complex!mix!of!actors!such!as!governments!of!the!host!city,!multiple!national! governments,!nonLgovernmental!organizations!like!Human!Right!Watch,!the!United!Nations!and!the! international!media16.!! The!image!of!the!Games!and!the!IOC!is!created!due!to!soft!power:!coLoption!and!attraction.!The!end! of!the!Cold!War!has!decreased!the!emphasis!on!conventional!interLstate!diplomacy,!and!increased! the!emphasis!on!public!diplomacy!and!soft!power!in!the!communication!strategy!of!the!IOC!and!the! Olympic!Movement!in!general.!! Brownell17!states!that!there!are!three!modes!of!Olympic!communication!how!the!actors! communicate;!diplomatic!communication,!mass!mediated!communication!and!intellectual! communication.!Diplomatic!communication,!also!known!as!silent!diplomacy,!is!done!in!secret!so!it!is! not!transparent!to!the!media.!! ! The!International!Olympic!Committee!positions!itself!as!an!organization!which!transcends!sport! because!it!has!a!philosophy!and!promotes!itself!as!tool!for!peace!and!human!rights,!a!role!rarely! associated!with!a!sport!organization.!So!for!the!credibility!and!positive!public!relations!for!the!IOC!it! is!important!that!it!be!seen!as!a!honest!organization,!operating!by!its!values,!the!spirit!of!Olympism! transparent!and!reproach!the!values!and!spirit!in!its!business18.!!! Rowe!argues,!“The!Olympics!provide!the!greatest!opportunity!for!scandal!in!sport!because...!its! highly!romanticized!mythology!lends!itself!most!easily!to!the!allLpurpose!transgression!of!‘cheating.”! “Since!an!organization!like!the!IOC!is!always!in!the!global!media!spotlight,!acts!of!perceived! arrogance!and!nepotism!by!its!members!are!easy!targets!for!the!“modern!scandal!production! machine.”!
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16!Brownell,!S.!Soft'Power.!IOA!Master’s!Olympic!Studies!June!2012! 17!Brownell,!S.!Soft'Power.!IOA!Master’s!Olympic!Studies!June!2012! 18!Skinner,!J.!Toohey,!K.!International!Sport!Public!Relations.!Elsevier:!Sport!Public!Relations!and!Communication!(2010).!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Case'study' The!case!study!of!the!International!Olympic!Committee!and!the!issue!of!doping!show!what!can! happen!when!the!IOC!fails!to!live!up!its!rhetoric.!A!public!relations!crisis!can!occur!easily!because!the! Olympic!Games!have!great!interest!from!the!international!media.!! Public!relations!crisis’s!can!show!us!insights!of!struggles!between!dominant!and!subordinate!groups! are!articulated!via!representations!of!morality!in!the!media.!The!fact!that!so!many!rich!and!powerful! individuals!and!organizations,!like!the!IOC,!hire!spinLdoctors!to!handle!media!scandals!clearly! underlines!their!importance!to!elites19 .! For'this'study'case'I'used'Kirkwood’s'article'Good'as'Gold:'Commercial'Aspects'of'WADA’s' Development'as'the'main'source.''' !!! In!the!late!1990s!drugLrelated!scandals!began!to!increase!dramatically!in!elite!sport.!! During!this!same!period,!corporate!scandals!involving!the!International!Olympic!Committee!took! place:!bribery,!pandering,!ecological!decimation,!supporting!and!honoring!viciously!repressive! governments!and!a!spirit!of!elitism!permeated!the!image!of!the!IOC20. ! ! In!1999!the!IOC!lost!the!support!of!the!public!in!its!supposed!fight!against!drugs!in!sport21.!The!IOC! realized!that!it!had!to!take!actions!to!restore!their!image!and!to!satisfy!the!pressing!public!outcry! that!demanded!for!a!more!credible!and!accountable!elite!sport.!! In!1999!the!IOC!president!JuanLAntonio!Samaranch!chaired!an!antiLdoping!meeting,!where!he! answered!questions!about!the!integrity!of!the!IOC’s!operation,!since!there!were!many!calls!to!reform!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 19!McKay,!J.!Hutchins,!B.!&!Mikosza,!J.!‘Shame!and!Scandal!in!the!Family’:!Australian!Media!Narratives!of!the!IOC/SOCOG!Scandal!Spiral.! Retrieved!18L07L2012!http://www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/ISOR/ISOR2000e.pdf! 20!Kirkwood,!K.!Good'as'Gold,'commercial'aspects'of'WADA’s'development.!Seventh!International!Symposium!for!Olympic!Research.!!! 21!Teetzel,!S.!The!Road!to!Wada.!Seventh!International!Symposium!for!Olympic!Research.!! Retrieved!18L07L2012:!http://www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/ISOR/ISOR2004t.pdf!
and!a!stronger!stance!on!doping.!To!satisfy!the!public,!the!IOC!began!planning!an!independent! doping!control!agency.!The!IOC!showed!its!commitment!to!eradicating!doping!in!sport,!salvaged!its! reputation!and!restored!the!public’s!faith!and!the!image!of!the!IOC.!! ! Hoberman22 states!that!the!growing!commercialization!of!the!Olympics!dictated!that!the!primary! goal!of!doping!control!was!to!bolster!the!image!of!the!Olympics!to!current!and!future!sponsors.! Hoberman!argues!that!Samaranch!had!a!policy!of!"passive!tolerance"!for!doping,!but!with!a!guideline! that!no!more!than!one!tenth!of!one!percent!of!athletes!at!any!Olympic!Games!would!test!positive.! ! In!the!1980s!and!1990s!commercialism!entered!the!Games!and!the!IOC!benefited.!It!increased!the! status!of!the!Games!as!the!greatest!show!on!earth.!For!the!Olympic!athletes!the!prestige!of!winning! an!Olympic!medal!or!“just”!participating!had!a!valueLadded!effect!since!a!good!result!had!commercial! value.!Many!athletes!started!to!benefit!from!the!Games!and!this!seems!to!make!it!necessary!to!use! performance!drugs.!A!mentioned!before!that!Samaranch!was!only!concerned!about!the!superficial! aspects!of!doping,!the!IOC!misjudged!the!impact!that!a!commercialized!Games!would!have!on!the! motivation!of!athletes.!! ! The!Olympic!Games!in!1988!in!Seoul!were!memorial!to!the!doping!issue.!When!gold!medalist!and! 100m!world!record!holder,!Canadian!Ben!Johnson,!was!disqualified!for!the!use!of!doping,!Samaranch! claimed!victory:!“The!bad!news!we!can!transfer!into!good!news.!This!is!not!a!disaster,!for!it!shows! the!IOC!is!very!serious,!and!that!we!are!winning!the!battle!for!clean!Games.!The!gap!between!our! aims!and!those!who!are!cheating!is!narrowing.!I!am!very!sorry!for!Johnson,!who!is!a!great!athlete,! and!he!is!not!the!only!person!we!have!to!blame.”! ! After!the!Johnson!case!the!doping!issue!had!emerged!as!a!strong!threat!to!the!position!of!the! Olympic!Games!and!for!the!image!of!the!IOC.!But!after!increasing!tide!of!documented!incidents,! along!with!a!steady!supply!of!new!scandals!involving!host!city!vote!buying,!expenseLaccount!largesse,! sex!scandals,!doping!coverLups,!compromised!event!judging,!sexual!harassment,!and!other! symptoms!of!the!corrupt!wielding!of!power!doping!wasn’t!the!sole!threat!for!very!long23.! ! In!the!Tour!de!France!of!1998!a!huge!drug!scandal!demonstrated!the!harm!of!doping!for!elite!sports.! It!was!Samaranch!that!involved!the!IOC!in!the!drug!scandal!of!the!Tour!de!France!by!commenting!to! the!Spanish!newspaper!El!Mundo.!The!members!of!the!IOC!were!not!happy!with!the!reaction!of!
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22!Hoberman,!J.!How'Drug'Testing'Fails:'The'Politics'of'Doping'Control.!Wayne!Wilson!&!Edward!Derse!(eds),!p.!242.! 23!Kirkwood,!K.!Good'as'Gold,'commercial'aspects'of'WADA’s'development.!Seventh!International!Symposium!for!Olympic!Research.!
Samaranch.!It!was!discarded!in!favor!of!strengthening!the!IOC's!prohibitionist!posture!through!the! founding!of!the!World!AntiLDoping!Agency,!the!subsidiary!of!the!IOC!that!was!dedicated!to!research! and!administering!all!matters!related!to!the!use!of!doping!in!sport.!! In!1999!there!was!gain!a!low!point!of!IOC!public!relations!when!the!IOC!created!an!own!focus!group! survey!that!showed!that!the!Games!only!damaged!a!little!in!the!opinion!of!the!public.!One!survey! showed!that!the!Olympic!Games!had!a!strong!connection!with!peace,!fair!play!and!friendship.!This! survey!wasn’t!good!for!the!image!of!the!IOC,!The!New!York!Times!stated!that!the!choices!doping,! corruption!and!bribery!were!not!included.!Also!sporting!officials!were!not!amused,!the!reaction!was! that!the!IOC!“clean!up!its!act.”!!! ! After!Samaranch!left!the!IOC!in!2001,!the!IOC!hired!the!services!of!the!American!media!relations!firm! Hill!&!Knowlton.!The!IOC!hired!Hill!&!Knowlton!to!work!on!its!relationship!with!the!media!since!the! IOC!identified!itself!as!severely!damaged!by!negative!publicity!and!the!omnipresent!doping!problems! that!was!silenced!for!a!while!due!to!all!the!other!scandals.!Hill!&!Knowlton!stated!the!following! objectives!for!the!IOC:! Protect'and'enhance'the'image'and'integrity'of'the'International'Olympic'Committee,'its'leadership,' members,'member'organizations'and'the'Olympic'Games.'Minimize'the'negative'financial,'legal'and' public'relations'of'the'situation'on'these'and'future'Olympic'Games.' ! Hill!&!Knowlton!provided!the!IOC!with!a!plan!which!involved!improving!the!message!of!the!IOC,!the! development!of!subsidiary!and!relations!with!third!party!organization!to!propagate!messages,! focusing!on!the!history!of!the!Games!while!disassociating!from!individuals!associated!with! improprieties!and!identifying!the!IOC’s!biggest!critics!and!threats!and!strategizing!on!how!the!deal! with!them.!! ! In!1999!the!IOC!established!the!World!Anti!Doping!Agency.!According!to!WADA24!its!key!activities! include!scientific!research,!education,!development!of!antiLdoping!capacities!and!monitoring!of!the! World!AntiLDoping!Code,!the!document!that!harmonized!antiLdoping!policies!in!all!sports!and! countries.!WADA!works!towards!a!dopingLfree!sports!world.! The!leadership!of!the!IOC!and!the!market!position!of!the!Olympic!Games!was!protected!by!WADA!by! focusing!the!media!on!the!doping!problems!on!International!Federations,!National!Olympic! Committees,!individual!athletes!and!coaches!instead!of!focusing!on!the!IOC.!For!the!IOC!this!was!a!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 24!WADA.!About!WADA.!! Retrieved!17L07L2012:!http://www.wadaLama.org/en/AboutLWADA/!
great!strategy!since!a!doping!scandal!would!blame!the!athletes!and!wouldn’t!affect!the!IOC!in!the! first!place.!!! ! In!2001!Dick!Pound!became!the!president!of!WADA.!He!started!with!a!hoarse!publicity!campaign! against!doping!of!blaming!the!athletes!willpower!and!integrity.!Pound!scorned!athletes!that!used! doping!a!life!of!guilt!and!shame.!Hill!&!Knowlton!gave!WADA!the!suggestion!to!feed!the!media!a! steady!dose!of!information!to!ensure!a!higher!quantity!of!controlled!content,!which!shows!a!positive! side!of!the!IOC.!! After!the!Salt!Lake!City!Games!in!2002!the!IOC!showed!a!role!reversal!in!a!short!time!frame.!Canadian! crossLcountry!skier!Scott!stated!that!"Doping!is!a!problem!in!our!sport,!inadequate!testing!for!doping! is!an!even!bigger!problem."!Pound!reacted,!according!to!the!protocols!of!Hill!&!Knowlton,!by!placing! the!onus!on!her!integrity!to!name!names'!and!help!WADA!clean!up!her!sport.!The!IOC!became,! through!WADA,!the!pursuer!of!fairness!and!justice.!! ! Conclusion' From!this!case!study!it!can!be!concluded!that!the!IOC!under!president!Samaranch!did!not!had!a!clear! communication!strategy.!In!a!public!relations!crisis!an!organization!should!barrage!the!media!with! positive!messages!and!ensure!that!important!stakeholders!get!updates!on!moving!on!to!solve!the! crisis.!The!organization!should!select!limited!spokespeople!and!provide!them!media!training25.!The! 1990s!were!a!disaster!for!the!IOC’s!public!relations!and!image.!The!IOC!couldn’t!handle!the!negative! publicity!and!gave!the!media!all!the!time!to!create!stories!and!drama.!In!1998!it!was!obvious!that!the! IOC!didn’t!have!a!strict!strategy!as!Samaranch!gave!his!opinion!out!of!the!blue!to!a!Spanish! newspaper.!By!founding!the!WADA!and!by!hiring!a!professional!media!relations!firm,!the!IOC! captured!with!success!a!dominant!antiLdoping!position.!This!was!accomplished!after!defining! messages!that!captured!the!spirit!of!the!Olympic!brand!in!the!marketplace.!The!quality!of!the! publicity!exposure!and!by!repeating!the!antiLdoping!message,!the!IOC!created!a!kind!of!insurance! against!future!doping!scandals.!Of!course!there!is!still!a!doping!problem!but!the!antiLdoping!message! served!to!fade!the!attention!away!from!the!IOC.!! In!the!future!the!IOC!must!stay!focused!on!its!antiLdoping!message.!But!the!integrity!of!its!antiL doping!message!can!be!affected!if!the!IOC!continues!to!struggle!with!corrupt!practices!in!the!other! aspects!of!its!business.!! The!future!public!relation!threats!of!the!IOC!are!the!environment!and!human!right!issues.!The!IOC! tries!to!take!responsibility!for!its!impact!on!the!environment,!consumers,!employees,!communities,!
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25!Skinner,!J.!Toohey,!K.!International!Sport!Public!Relations.!Elsevier:!Sport!Public!Relations!and!Communication!(2010).!
stakeholders!and!all!other!members!of!the!public!who!may!be!impacted26.!The!IOC!is!being!treated! like!a!government!by!NGO’s!and!the!IOC!is!reacting!like!one.!
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26!Brownell,!S.!The'Olympic'Games,'the'World'System'and'Corporate'Social'Responsibility.!IOA!Master’s!Olympic!Studies!June!2012!
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McKay,!J.!Hutchins,!B.!&!Mikosza,!J.!‘Shame'and'Scandal'in'the'Family’:'Australian'Media'Narratives' of'the'IOC/SOCOG'Scandal'Spiral.!! Retrieved!18L07L2012!! http://www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/ISOR/ISOR2000e.pdf! !
Nielsen.!Beijing!Olympics!Draw!Largest!Ever!Global!TV!Audience.! Retrieved!18L07L2012.! http://blog.nielsen.com/nielsenwire/wpLcontent/uploads/2008/09/press_release3.pdf! ! Séguin,!B.!Olympic'System.!IOA!Master’s!Olympic!Studies!June!2012.!! ! Slater,!J.!Modern'public'relations:!Pierre'de'Coubertin'and'the'birth'of'the'Modern'Olympic'Games.! Sixth!International!Symposium!for!Olympic!Research,!pp.!149L160.!
! Skinner,!J.!Toohey,!K.!International'Sport'Public'Relations.!Elsevier:!Sport!Public!Relations!and! Communication!(2010).!! ! Stoldt,!G.!Dittmore,!S.!Branvold,!S.!Sport'Public'Relations.!Human!Kinetics!(2006)! ! Teetzel,!S.!The!Road!to!Wada.!Seventh'International'Symposium'for'Olympic'Research.!! Retrieved!18L07L2012!! http://www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/ISOR/ISOR2004t.pdf! ! WADA.!About'WADA.!! Retrieved!17L07L2012!! http://www.wadaLama.org/en/AboutLWADA/! ! !! !