A model of workplace happiness by iOpener Institute Iberia

SDR _______________________________________________________________________ A model of workplace happiness Vaughan M. Dutton and Laurel D. Edmunds Happiness is a very subjective and illusive concept. Developing a definition and model has been the focus of research for many years. Despite the increased interest in improving happiness in the workplace and in society in general, there does not appear to be a model of happiness which addresses the more specific context of working life. The well established body of work comparing job satisfaction with job performance (Judge et al., 2001) takes a relatively narrow view of each concept, but here we consider a more strengths-based approach in relation to the broader working environment. 1. Objective Our objective was to develop a model of happiness that could be applied to the workplace which would take into account the developments in positive psychology. Hence we required a way not only to measure happiness, but also to give an indication of the variables impacting on happiness. Being an applied model, it would have to be amenable to being converted into a measurement model and suggest a way forward for intervention. In other words, the model was required to be more than an abstract philosophical treatise on happiness or a onedimensional measurement of happiness. It would have to provide a workable explanation of where happiness comes from, how it is sustained and how it might be enhanced. 2. Defining happiness The first step in the development of our model was arriving at an acceptable definition of happiness. This was perhaps the most difficult part of the exercise. Arguably, every theory ever derived makes an inherent assertion as to the nature of happiness. Lay conceptions of happiness abound and with them many divergent opinions on what is relevant emerge. As such,

„happiness‟ applies to an extremely wide range of phenomena and has many varying definitions. In a sense, our question became less about what happiness is and more what interpretation of happiness are we interested in. We had to stake a claim, in a sense, as to how to think about happiness, thereby silencing the multitude of alternative voices. One way of trying to avoid the problem of definition is to resort to subjective reports of happiness. In this approach, respondents are simply asked whether they feel happy or not. This approach has been extremely prevalent in happiness research (King et al., 2006; Lyubomirsky, King & Diener, 2005). A very probable reason for this is that this approach short circuits the problem of definition. After all, if someone says they feel happy, who are we to disagree? In actual fact, however, the assumption in this design is that self-reported affect/emotion represents the essence of happiness. Unwittingly, this design assumes that our emotions provide the most accurate picture of what is happening to us and to our world. It relies on a model of subjectivity that posits a one to one relation between our consciousness and the reality of our inner beings and the world around us. We felt that this affect-based model of happiness is inappropriate to our aims, speaking more about feeling happy than being happy. Feeling happy appeared overly one dimensional and a „snapshot‟ view, ignoring the broader dynamics of a happy existence. In it, the subject is reduced to affect and the highs and lows, the challenges and victories that typify the engaged and productive life are ignored. In short, we wanted an interpretation of happiness that acknowledged more of what it is to be alive. In order to begin making sense of the range of data related in one way or another to happiness,

we employed a top-down design to develop the model. A bottom up approach would, we decided, result in too broad a range of information and that only by being armed with a coherent model could the range of available data be managed properly.

3.1. Being

We felt that once we had a definition of happiness that suited our objectives it would be possible to develop a model of how happiness comes about.

In our theorisation, „Being‟ refers to the intrapsychic phenomena that have a relevance to happiness. Being represents the individual‟s contribution to the phenomenon of happiness. Within this broad category, there are three subcomponents. We have called these Basic Potentials and Aptitudes; relatively stable Basic Affective Happiness and the individual‟s Big Ideas and Basic Drives.

2.1. Our definition of happiness

3.1.1. Basic potentials and aptitudes

For us, every individual has the ability to achieve their full potential as human beings. Happiness refers to the degree to which this is accomplished as well as the awareness of the issues relating and resulting from this accomplishment. In other words, relating this to the workplace, building exceptional performance by understanding and drawing on resources to negotiate obstacles which produce a desired outcome. This definition is expanded into a model of happiness in the remainder of the paper. We have included a fictional case study to illustrate some of the concepts associated with the model.

An individual‟s basic potentials and aptitudes are inherent strengths and talents that we can draw upon. Our understanding of these is very close to Rogers‟ original definition of the terms (Rogers, 1961). They are fairly durable and stable throughout the lifespan.

Our hero is an engineer, educated to PhD level, joining an aerospace company as part of the design team for fighter plane wings.

3.1.2. Relatively happiness

3. Our model of happiness In our model, we conceive of happiness as being comprised of three components. These are „who we are‟ (what we have called our „Being‟); our context (what we have called our „Belonging‟); and our perception of our future (what we have called our „Becoming‟). All three of these contribute to our overall happiness. This conceptual framework of Being, Belong and Becoming was originally inspired by the Quality of Life Profile (QOLP) developed by the Centre for Health Promotion at the University of Toronto in the early nineties. These domain names were adopted and then applied to suite our purposes, i.e. a personal perception of the work situation. We consider each in turn:

Examples of these might be intelligence, patience, tolerance or conscientiousness. The basic potentials and aptitudes can be employed toward the realisation of the big ideas. Our hero has an aptitude for mathematical thinking, is creative and ambitious. stable

basic

affective

The relatively stable basic affective happiness refers to the moment level of happiness that an individual typically experiences. This aspect of the model is the same as the Set Point Theory of Happiness hypothesized by Williams and Thompson (1993). As such, this dimension of happiness refers to our experienced affective happiness. This component ensures that different individuals may experience different levels of happiness when all other factors are held constant. Although all individuals can experience a range of emotions at different intensities, there is a tendency for these to return to an idiosyncratic set point, or points in the case of happiness (Diener et al., 2006). Put simply, some people just seem to be happier than others, irrespective of other factors.

Our hero scores higher than average on happiness measures and so tends to be happy rather than unhappy. 3.1.3a. Big Ideas The Big Idea refers to what drives an individual. It is what we understand as being the ultimate objective in one‟s life. It is what we value and strive toward. An example of a Big Idea might be to help other people; to experience as much of life as possible or perhaps to conserve the natural world. As such, the Big Idea is an overarching motivator which exists at an abstract level but which may inform and guide what we understand as worthwhile pursuits in our everyday life. We assume that individuals will have more than one big idea which may harmonise to a greater or lesser extent. One facet of our hero is that he loves planes and wants to be involved in the process of creating the best. His Big Idea drive is the process of creating the best. In time, his priorities may change and he could channel this drive into creating the best home and family, or charity for conserving planes. 3.1.3b. Basic drives toward fulfilling our potential The last aspect of Being is a fundamental and irrepressible drive toward fulfilling our potential. This is what Rogers (1961) termed the drive toward self actualisation. In our formulation, this drive permeates the other dimensions of Being and provides direction to our development. An expression of this in keeping with the positive psychology approach would be „flow‟. Csikszentmihalyi first described this in „Beyond boredom and anxiety‟ in 1975. This is where challanges and skills are in balance, one becomes lost in concentration and a state of flow ensues. Although whilst experiencing flow, a individual is not aware of feeling happy as this would be disruptive. However, on reflection, flow is described as a positive state and leads to feelings of subjective well-being

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). In Csikszentmihalyi‟s own words “people are happy not because of what they do, but because of how they do it” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1999, p826). Similarly, Diener et al. (1999) concluded in their review that achieving ones goals is predictive of subjective well-being. Therefore if one perceives that there is progression in life/work, this should encourage greater satisfaction and happiness. 3.1.5. Being conclusion In other words, people will be motivated toward realising their ultimate potential through the employment of their basic potentials and aptitudes. This is most effective when their goals are meaningful and intrinsically motivated. The task of the individual is then to align their big ideas with the basic potentials. Underlying all of this is their durable affective happiness. Considered together, these components make up the Being in terms of happiness 3.2. Belonging The Belonging component of happiness refers to the context in which we find ourselves. It is self evident that our context is comprised of a multitude of phenomena. For our purposes, we had to simplify how the context should be approached in order to avoid being immersed in its complexity. We reduced the heterogeneous context to four categories: material objects, people, community norms (codified community values) and values (abstract ideals that are held dear by the communities of which we are part). Individuals might be members of different communities at different times or in different roles. For this reason, we have used the terms „community norms‟ and „community values‟. The communities within which we find ourselves are comprised of all of these phenomena (although they may take on varying qualitative meanings) which are arranged in various ways. For our purposes, these phenomena are most relevant in terms of their function as enabling the development of our being or as restricting the development of our being. Any contextual

phenomenon may therefore be ranged on a continuum from enabling to restricting the individual‟s development (see Fig. 1). While phenomena may take on this dimension, it is possible for the individual to influence how restrictive or enabling a particular phenomenon is. Some phenomena may be easily influenced while others may resist any influence whatsoever. An additional dimension is

therefore evident – reflecting how fixed or fluid a phenomenon is along the enabling/restrictive dimension. This dimension is known by us as the fixed-fluid continuum. Importantly, it is possible for the individual to influence phenomena in either direction. Ultimately, it is in the individual‟s best interest to have restrictive phenomena as fluid as possible and enabling phenomena as fixed as possible.

Enabling

Fixed

Fluid

Restrictive Fig. 1: Restrictive/ enabling and Fixed/fluid continua

Our hero has to adjust to a different work ethic. He has gone from the freedom of managing his time and work as a PhD student to the more structured regime of a formal work culture and management hierarchy. He has also replaced being responsible for all aspects of his PhD with a situation where he has relatively little responsibility. His work is prescribed as he is at the bottom of the ladder. He could be running metal fatigue stress tests for two months for example.

norms are likely to be fixed as this is a long established company with many fixed parameters. The Project Team may be relatively fixed too given the nature of the work.

This may be the company’s approach to assessing the fixed values of reliability and accuracy. The norms would be to show competence and to prove oneself through merit. Fixed aspects here are meeting deadlines and the laws of physics. In these circumstances the

The fixed-fluid dimension is determined both by Being and by the way in which contextual phenomena are arranged in a particular community. This arrangement is a system in that a change in one area may affect phenomena in other areas (see Fig. 2).

Our hero may perceive this as restrictive but, this company approach may be enabling in the long run. He has a long ladder to climb and this could be an important investment in his future. His Big Idea of creating the best enables him to see beyond the short term.

People

Material objects

Potentials

Norms

Aptitudes

Values

Fig. 2: Arrangement of factors with enabling/ restricting properties

In our case study, enabling aspects could include in-house training for improving his knowledge and working experience with materials. Increasing flexibility could allow him to rise within the team or move to a different team. Ultimately this may lead where he aims to be, i.e. a blue sky team. If our hero is only aware of the stress tests, he is likely to be unhappy, perceiving the situation to be fixed and restrictive. However, awareness of possibilities and culture within the company may allow him to contend with this initial situation for greater flexibility and rewards in the future.

foundation of past mastery of expected and unexpected circumstances, together with social approbation for their negotiation. Hence the individual develops a sense of self belief in their ability to transact circumstances successfully towards realisation.

Over the course of time, out hero moves from a position which is fixed and restrictive to one that becomes more flexible and enabling. This is likely to satisfy his need to actualise his potential and build upon his strengths over time, maintaining and possibly improving his happiness in the workplace.

3.3.2. Retrospective appraisal

3.3. Becoming

Our hero is aware that things tend to go well in his life and that he can see positive aspects to events compared with others. This stance is also supported by responses from those around him.

The final dimension in our model of happiness is that of Becoming. Becoming refers to the future which an individual perceives and desires for themselves. As with the other components of happiness, becoming is made up of a number of sub-components. 3.3.1. Confidence in future progress The first component is that of confidence in future progress. This refers to the individualâ&#x20AC;&#x;s belief that s/he will be able to develop in future. Similar to self-efficacy, this confidence has a

Through his experience of successfully completing a PhD and his current progress at work, our hero is aware that he can master new and complicated ideas. Importantly, he has confidence in his ability to operationalise these into products, e.g. a thesis or plans.

The second component is that of retrospective appraisal, or how an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x;s unique experience has indicated how things typically turn out. This component is possibly closely aligned with optimism/ pessimism regarding the future.

3.3.3. Learning and skills The final sub-components are those of learning and skills. Learning refers to accumulated wisdom: what an individual has learned from life experience, including any mistakes and successes. In addition there are both personal and professional skills that are acquired through experience. Together, these represent a residual

knowledge that can be employed in our negotiating the future. Via various learning experiences, our hero is aware that he can integrate accumulated and work–based knowledge, together with a broader understanding of people and nuances of his particular company and line of work. This enables him to have confidence in handling any challenges in his work or life circumstances and to put his Big Ideas into action. Awareness Underlying the above facets is the important factor of awareness. This is relevant to all of the components of happiness. The assumption is that the more aware one is of each of these happiness components, the more control one will have over their manifestation and the more able one will be to influence their successful outcome. Creating awareness is an important intervention objective in the maximisation of happiness.

Diener, E., Suh, E.M., Lucas, R.E & Smith H.L. (1999). Subjective well-being: three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 276-302. Judge, T.A., Thoresen, C.J., Bono, J.E. & Patton, G.K. (2001). The job satisfaction–job performance relationship: A qualitative and quantitative review. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 376-407. King, L.A., Hicks, J.A., Krull, J.L. & Del Gaiso, A.R. (2006). Positive affects and the experience of meaning in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 179-196. Lyubomirsky, S., King, L. & Diener E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803-855. Rogers, C. (1961). On becoming a person: A therapist's view of psychotherapy. London: Constable. Quality of Life Profile, www.utoronto.ca/qol/profile.htm Williams, D. E., & Thompson, J. K. (1993). Biology and behavior: A set-point hypothesis of psychological functioning. Behavior Modification, 17, 43–57.

4. Conclusion The paper has outlined a new approach to happiness research relevant to the workplace (see Fig. 3). By taking this particular approach to the model‟s development, we have managed to arrive at a measurable and workable application. The next step in the process is the development of a measurement instrument that can be applied to this conceptual prototype. Use of such an instrument will inform and likely modify the purely theoretical start that has been made. References Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1999). If we are so rich, why aren‟t we happy? American Psychologist, 54, 821-827. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975). Beyond boredom and anxiety. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Diener, E., Lucas, R.E. & Scollon, C.N. (2006). Beyond the hedonic treadmill: Revising the Adaptation theory of well-being. American Psychologist, 61, 305-314.

Confidence in future progress similar to Self Efficacy

Big ideas actioned

Retrospective appraisal/ learning

MAXIMISED AWARENESS OF EACH COMPONENT IN THE PROCESS

BECOMING (future)

HAPPINESS = â&#x20AC;Ś

Skills

BELONGING (context)

Fluid People Things Values Norms

Restrictive

Enabling

Fixed

BEING (person)

Big Idea and basic drives a

Basic potentials and aptitudes

Relatively stable basic happiness

Figure 3: The Complete Workplace Happiness Model