Arnold, B, Rahimi, M. (2024). Irish primary school leaders’ health and wellbeing: a three-year national study. Melbourne: Research for Educational Impact (REDI), Deakin University.
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The Research Team
Chief Investigators
Dr Ben Arnold
Dr Mark Rahimi
Technical Support
Zoe Wang
Sachin Wasnik
Irish Advisory Group
Shay Bannon (Facilitator)
Brian O’Doherty (IPPN Deputy CEO)
Rachel O’Connor (NAPD Deputy Director)
Acknowledgements
The Educator Health and Wellbeing Research Group at Deakin University are very grateful to the Irish Primary Principals' Network (IPPN) and the National Association of Principals and Deputy Principals (NAPD) for funding this research
We would also like to thank all of the school leaders who participated in this research project Your time and effort helps us to understand the nature of school leaders’ work and wellbeing in Ireland.
Contact info@educatorhealth org
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List of Figures
Figure 1. A research framework for school leaders' work, health and wellbeing
Figure 2. Irish primary school leaders' health and wellbeing in 2022-24
Figure 3 Irish primary school leaders' reported levels of burnout in 2022-24
Figure 4. Irish primary school leaders' reported levels of stress in 2022-24
Figure 5. Irish primary school leaders' health and wellbeing measures in 2022-24
Figure 6. Irish primary school leaders' medical conditions in 2022-24 (%)
Figure 7 Prescription medication use by Irish primary school leaders in 2022-24 (%)
Figure 8. Job satisfaction and work-life conflict in 2022-24
Figure 9. School leaders' average hours spent on school leadership responsibilities during a full working week, 2022-24 (%)
Figure 10. Proportions of working time (%) spent on leadership activities during the last full working week broken by role (pooled data)
Figure 11 Job demands for Irish primary school leaders in 2022-24, and a 'healthy working population'
Figure 12. Measures of work organisation and job contents for Irish primary school leaders in 2022-2024 and a 'healthy working population'
Figure 13 Irish primary school leaders' job resources in 2022-24 compared to a 'healthy working population'
Figure 14. Irish primary school leaders' sources of support in 2022-2024 (%)
Figure 15. Irish primary school leaders' sources of stress in 2022-24
Figure 16 Irish primary school leaders' experiences of offensive behaviours (%) in 2022-24
Figure 17. Workplace violence (%) according to primary school leaders’ gender in 2022-24
Figure 18 Workplace violence (%) broken down by primary school leader role in 2022-24
Figure 19. Irish primary school leaders' satisfaction with departmental support for health and wellbeing (%) in 2024
Figure 20 Irish primary school leaders' feedback on required systemic improvements (%)
Figure 21. Irish primary school leaders' feedback on required system-wide improvements in leadership and recognition in 2024 (%)
Figure 22 Irish primary school leaders' feedback on required professional development and support for teaching practice 2024 (%)
Figure 23. Irish primary school leaders' feedback on required support for student mental health issues and community engagement in 2024 (%)
Figure 24. Irish primary school leaders' feedback on required policy and accountability adjustments in 2024 (%)
Figure 25. Irish primary school leaders' feedback on required school-level improvements in relation to various aspects of operational efficiencies in 2024 (%)
Figure 26 Irish primary school leaders' feedback on required school-level improvements in relation to enhancement of resources in 2024 (%)
Figure 27. Irish primary school leaders' feedback on required school-level improvements in relation to enhancement of leadership and management aspects in 2024 (%)
Figure 28. Irish primary school leaders' feedback on required school-level improvements in relation to enhancement of community and relationships aspects in 2024 (%)
Figure 29. Irish primary school leaders' feedback on wellbeing support at an individual level in 2024 (%)
List of Tables
Table 1. Irish post-primary school leaders' distribution of participants by gender and role in 2022-24
Table 2. Key survey measures of general and psychological health
Table 3. Key survey measures of mental health and wellbeing
Table 4 Survey measures of experiences of work
Table 5. Survey measures of school leaders’ job demands
Table 6. Survey measures of work organisation and job contents
Table 7. Survey measures of job resources
Table 8 Survey measures of workplace violence
Table 9. Categories of proposed changes to enhance school leaders' wellbeing
Table 10. Categories of proposed school-level changes to enhance school leaders' wellbeing
Foreword: IPPN Deputy CEO
In response to concerns that the increasing complexity and workload demands of school leadership roles are impacting on the health and well-being of Irish school leaders, IPPN commissioned a specific piece of research, in partnership with our sister organisation at post-primary level – the National Association of Principals and Deputies (NAPD). The focus of the research project was on the occupational health, safety and well-being of school leaders in Ireland, and was conducted over the three-year period, from 2022 – 2024, by a team from Deakin University, Melbourne The team specialises in such research and has conducted similar projects with school leadership organisations in multiple jurisdictions.
This report is the third and final report of the three-year longitudinal study
Not only does it detail the data gleaned from primary school leaders’ engagement with the survey this spring, but it also charts trends over the three-year period, draws conclusions about what the data is telling us and makes specific recommendations about what needs to happen to impact positively on the health and wellbeing of school leaders.
The aggregated data details the impacts of workload and work environments on the health and wellbeing of school leaders. It is clear that the cumulative emotional and physical burden is taking a significant toll on the wellbeing of Irish school leaders. The extent to which that wellbeing is compromised is detailed in this report
IPPN is indebted to all of the school leaders who took the time to engage with the survey over the three years of the research study. That engagement has provided sobering and impactful data that has underpinned the advocacy work being undertaken to enhance leadership capacity, leadership effectiveness and the sustainability of school leadership roles.
We sincerely thank Dr Ben Arnold, Dr Mark Rahimi and Professor Philip Riley for their professionalism, diligence and insight, and we are deeply grateful for the vital role played by Shay Bannon in liaising between the professional organisations and the research team and in ensuring the project was delivered as seamlessly as it was
The data illustrates the inexorable and worrying increases in the scores for negative health outcomes with the elevated burnout scores being of particular concern. There is a shared responsibility to prioritise actions that will have a positive impact on the health and wellbeing of school leaders in the immediate future. We assure you of IPPN’s ongoing commitment to enhance the experience of the practice of leadership It is our top strategic priority
Brian O’Doherty, IPPN Deputy CEO, Sustainable Leadership Project Lead October 2024
1 Research Summary
Mental health challenges remain significant among primary school leaders in Ireland, with a substantial portion reporting high levels of burnout. Health and wellbeing
Roles and responsibilities
Over the years 2022 to 2024, the roles of primary school leaders in Ireland have been complex and demanding, with administrative tasks often overshadowing core activities like teaching and learning. This persistent imbalance has contributed to a sense of being overwhelmed among the school leaders.
Demands at Work
Demands at work for Irish primary school leaders have intensified over the years, placing them at greater risk of experiencing negative consequences for their health and well-being. They grapple with c workload, cognitive and emotional pressures in their roles
Job resources
While some school leaders experience quality leadership from their superiors and receive collegial support, these aspects are not consistently provided. Generally, school leaders encounter a collaborative atmosphere, high levels of trust, and a sense of justice, although there is variation in these experiences.
Work and health
Over the three-year period, the health landscape for Irish primary school leaders has revealed both persistent and emerging medical challenges that demand attention. The stressors 'sheer quantity of work' and 'a lack of time to focus on teaching and learning' were reported as the most significant sources of stress.
Work-life conflict
Over the period from 2022 to 2024, Irish primary school leaders reported difficulties in managing work-life balance, with mean scores indicating a sustained trend above the thresholds typically associated with healthy work-life dynamics.
2 Key Findings
Allocation of working time (school term)
Between 2022 and 2024, around 64% of Irish primary school leaders engaged in work for more than 40 hours each week. Furthermore, over 42% of them experienced workweeks extending beyond 45 hours, with around 11% dedicating more than 55 hours weekly to their professional responsibilities
Demands at Work
During 2022 to 2024, Irish primary school leaders experienced increased job demands surpassing those typically observed in a 'healthy working population' (Denmark)’, characterised by accelerated work pace, heightened emotional demands, and greater workload intensity.
Healthy working population
Irish primary school leaders
(Means out of 100, Average across three years)
Health and Wellbeing of School Leaders
Major Sources of Stress
Across the three years, the sheer volume of work remained the most prominent stressor, exacerbated by increased work pace and workload demands. Following closely is the heightened stress from a lack of time to focus on core leadership tasks like teaching and learning. The third leading source of stress was ‘resourcing needs’
Access to support
On average across the three years, the majority of school leaders (77%) reported that their partner was a source of support Additionally, colleagues from their own workplace, along with colleagues from other schools, were identified as significant sources of support by a high proportion of primary school leaders
Introduction 3
Irish school leaders are essential in ensuring the quality, stability and effective operation of schools. However, in the wake of the global pandemic, and significant political shifts, climate crises, conflicts, rising mental health issues among young people, and rapid economic changes, both schools and their leaders are confronting unprecedented challenges. These pressures have heightened the demand for systemic transformation across the education sector in Ireland and elsewhere. Central to the challenges faced by school leaders are the competing demands of managing administrative responsibilities, meeting system requirements and addressing the diverse needs of students and staff, all while maintaining their own wellbeing. In this context, while many leaders remain passionate about their roles, a significant number find the demands of school leadership increasingly stressful and unsustainable.
To promote a healthy and sustainable school leadership role, it is essential to understand the challenges and opportunities that leaders face in their work and to map out the nature of the leadership role as it is experienced by leaders in their schools This understanding can guide the development of clear and manageable responsibilities, administrative tasks, and workloads, ensuring that systems and policies enable leaders to focus on what matters most to their schools and communities
The Irish Principal and Deputy Principal Health and Wellbeing Survey
This report presents findings from the a three-year longitudinal study of Irish principals work, health and wellbeing. The report provides an overview of the current state of school leaders’ working conditions, roles and health and wellbeing in 2022, 2023 (Arnold, Rahimi, Horwood & Riley, 2023; Rahimi & Arnold, 2022) and 2024 surveys. The analysis is intended to provide robust evidence to inform policy-making and system development to ensure safe, healthy, and sustainable working conditions for Ireland's school leaders.
Measuring Irish school leaders' work, health and wellbeing
The measures utilised in the survey were informed by our research framework, which focuses on the work and health of teachers and school leaders (see Figure 1). Therefore, the survey covers the following key dimensions of leaders’ health and wellbeing at work: health and wellbeing
experiences of their work
working conditions and the work environment
leader characteristics
school characteristics
Figure 1. A research framework for school leaders' work, health and wellbeing (adapted from Sorenson et al., 2016)
The first part of the results (section 5) presents the analysis of school leader health and wellbeing. This includes an examination of the extent of mental health issues such as stress, burnout, sleep disturbances, depressive symptoms, and selfefficacy. The report also assesses physical health and work-related attitudes, such as job satisfaction and work-life balance.
The next part (section 6) investigates school leaders' working conditions and work environments. The section begins with an analysis of school leaders' working hours, the allocation of their working time and their perceptions of the amount of time they must fulfil their main duties The analysis then focuses on school leaders' perceptions of the psychosocial work environment (the conditions under which they perform their work in schools), including the major demands and resources at work The section concludes with the analysis of the relationship between the psychosocial work environment and school leader health and wellbeing.
The following section of the results (section 7) focuses on work-related violence against Irish school leaders, highlighting experiences of different forms over the last 12 months The final section of results (section 8) examines potential changes at both the systemic and school level that could make school leadership roles more manageable and sustainable.
In each section, average scores for Irish school leaders in 2022, 2023 and 2024 are compared with a 'healthy working population' (Denmark). Most of the measures in our survey are drawn from the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire (COPSOQ-III). This questionnaire is regarded as the “gold standard” in occupational health and safety self-report measures. The structure of the COPSOQ-III consists of higher order domains and contributing subdomains/scales 1
The COPSOQ-III is structured with broad domains and specific subdomains or scales These elements are well-validated and provide stable metrics for evaluating both the psychosocial work environment and individual health and wellbeing (Burr, et al., 2019; Burr, Albertsen, Rugulies, & Hannerz, 2010; Dicke et al , 2018; Kiss, De Meester, Kruse, Chavee, & Braeckman, 2013; Thorsen & Bjorner, 2010). For ease of comparison across different areas, all COPSOQ domain scores are converted to a 0-100 scale.
4 Survey Participants
Each year, from 2022 to 2024, the Irish Primary Principals’ Network (IPPN) disseminated survey invitations to principal and deputy principal members in February to April. The findings presented are drawn from a collective pool of 1117 survey records Over the three years, there were 405, 372, and 340 participants each year, respectively. Out of these, 346 in 2022, 321 in 2023, and 298 in 2024 completed the survey entirely Additionally, 59 participants in 2022, 51 in 2023, and 42 in 2024 were recorded as having partially completed the survey, making it only halfway through Among the 1,117 participants who engaged with the survey during this period, about 10% participated in all three years, 29% took part two times, and 61% participated only once
The survey's participant distribution were relatively consistent over the three years, revealing a gender imbalance with a significantly higher representation of females at 73-74%, compared to males at 26-27%. In terms of roles, the majority are principals, comprising around 77-79%, while deputies or acting principals make up about 21-23%
Table 1. Irish primary school leaders' distribution of participants by gender and role in 2022-24
5 Primary school leaders’ health and wellbeing
This chapter analyses the health and wellbeing of Irish primary school leaders, with a focus on general health and psychological wellbeing In the report, psychological wellbeing is defined as an individual's ability to effectively manage the demands of both personal and professional life. This encompasses not only the absence of negative mental health conditions, such as stress and depression, but also the presence of key positive attributes, such as self-efficacy, which contribute to a sense of wellbeing and effective functioning in their roles.
Irish primary school leaders’ general health and psychological wellbeing: Key indicators
The analysis begins with an assessment of general health, as self-assessed by respondents, followed by a detailed exploration of three key psychological wellbeing measures: burnout, stress, and sleep troubles (see Table 2)
Table 2. Key survey measures of general health and psychological wellbeing
Self-rated Health measures the school leader’s overall assessment of their general health
Burnout assesses the degree of physical and mental fatigue/exhaustion.
Stress assesses the tension or strain resulting from exposure to adverse or demanding circumstances.
Sleeping troubles assesses sleep length and interruptions during sleep.
As indicated by Figure 2, the general (self-rated) health of Irish primary school leaders declined slightly in 2023 and remained stable over the last year. In terms of psychological wellbeing, burnout levels have remained persistently high, particularly in 2023, with only a slight improvement in 2024. Stress levels and reports of sleep disturbances have also remained high. Compared to a healthy working population, these findings indicate that Irish school leaders experience significantly higher levels of burnout, stress, and sleep difficulties.
Figure 2. Irish primary school
Levels of stress and burnout among Irish primary school leaders
Stress and burnout are important indicators of mental health and wellbeing High levels of these factors are closely linked to a range of negative psychological and physical health outcomes (Salvagioni, Melanda, Mesas, González, Gabani, & Andrade, 2017).
Over the three-year period, burnout has remained a persistent problem for Irish school leaders. In 2022, 38% of leaders experienced high levels of burnout, with 7% reporting severe burnout The situation worsened in 2023, with high burnout rising to 43% and severe burnout increasing to 11%. By 2024, while severe burnout saw a slight decrease to 9%, almost 50% of leaders reported high or severe burnout. These results highlight that burnout is a significant issue for school leaders.
Over the three-year period of the survey, most Irish primary school leaders reported moderate levels of stress (Figure 4). Although severe stress remained limited, the proportion of leaders experiencing high or severe stress increased to almost a quarter in 2023 and remains at one in five in 2024. This demonstrates that stress remains a critical issue for school leaders, particularly given the implications chronic stress has for long-term health
Figure 4. Irish primary school leaders' reported levels of stress in 2022-24
Figure 3 Irish primary school leaders' reported levels of burnout in 2022-24
Irish primary school leaders’ psychological wellbeing: additional indicators
This section analyses additional measures of psychological wellbeing through several 'negative' outcomes depressive symptoms, somatic stress, and cognitive stress alongside one 'positive' indicator, self-efficacy (see Table 3).
Table 3. Key survey measures of mental health and wellbeing
Depressive Symptoms measures the degree of depressive symptoms.
Somatic Stress assesses physical indicators of a sustained stress reaction.
Cognitive Stress assesses cognitive indicators of a sustained stress reaction.
Self-efficacy assesses self-confidence or the individual's faith in their own ability to solve the problems they face in life.
Levels of depression and stress among Irish primary school leaders remained consistent over the three-year period, with a slight increase in 2023, especially in depressive symptoms and cognitive stress. Self-efficacy remained consistent across the three years Compared to a healthy working population, Irish school leaders reported significantly higher levels of negative mental health indicators and slightly lower self-efficacy (see Figure 5).
Figure 5. Irish primary school leaders' additional health and wellbeing measures 2022-24 (mean scores out of 100)
Irish
primary
school leaders’ health: medical conditions and use of medication
Over the three-year period, approximately half of all Irish primary school leaders reported no chronic health conditions, although this percentage decreased each year (Figure 6). The most frequently reported conditions include thyroid disease, respiratory and gastrointestinal issues, and cardiovascular disease, with small variations across the years The proportion of leaders with a psychological health problems quadrupled over the three years and the proportion of leaders experiencing chronic pain doubled over the same period.
Over the three-year period, the number of Irish primary school leaders reporting the use of prescription medication has increased significantly. There has been a steady rise in certain conditions, with ‘other’ forms of medication, cholesterol and blood pressure management becoming increasingly prevalent Additionally, prescriptions for mental health related conditions such as anxiety, depression and sleep have increased, raising growing concerns about psychological well-being (see Figure 7).
Health and wellbeing: Insights from primary leaders
“I frequently have to work during break times as a result I am over hungry when I get home. When I start eating I don't know when to stop. Long days at school- at times 13 hours in the school building, on top of an hour to work and an hour home from work. This has impacted my exercise routine and during the week I find it difficult to get out for a walk. I have gained a lot of weight and have developed high blood pressure. This is difficult to target until I get holidays” (Irish primary principal, 2024).
Figure 6. Irish primary school leaders' medical conditions in 2023 (%)
Figure 7. Prescription medication use by Irish primary school leaders in 2022-24 (%)
Primary school leaders’ experiences of work
In addition to assessing mental and physical well-being, the report provides an assessment of leaders’ evaluations of their jobs and its influence on personal life outside of school This section specifically explores two important elements of school leaders' professional experience: job satisfaction and work-life conflict (see Table 4).
Table 4. Survey measures of experiences of work
Job Satisfaction assesses the degree of pleasure or positive emotions that school leaders experience as a result of their work.
Work-life conflict measures the consequences of work on family/personal life
While Irish school leaders maintain a reasonable level of job satisfaction, they experience significant challenges in balancing work and personal life.
Job satisfaction: Insights from primary leaders
“I loved my job and delighted in seeing children grow and flourish under my care” (An Irish primary principal, 2024).
“Work life balance is impossible, never 'off the clock', people text you and call you about work all hours of day and night. Holiday periods spent sick, recovering from school. Very poor quality of sleep thinking about/worrying about school. Exhausted when home from work as trying to run a school in a fulltime teaching role, no energy left to exercise or socialise” (An Irish primary principal, 2024).
Job satisfaction among Irish primary school leaders remained relatively stable across the three years, at a similar level to a healthy working population However, work-life conflict consistently remained much higher for Irish school leaders compared to a healthy population, with a noticeable spike in 2023 (see Figure 8).
Figure 8. Job satisfaction and work-life conflict in 2022-24 (means out of 100)
Summary
The survey results highlight persistent challenges related to Irish primary school leaders’ mental health. Burnout levels remained elevated throughout this period. On negative mental health indicators such as stress, depressive symptoms, somatic stress, and cognitive stress, school leaders consistently scored higher than a healthy working population
On average, levels of job satisfaction remained relatively stable across the three years. However, levels of work-life conflict were consistently high reflecting the difficulties leaders face in balancing their professional and personal responsibilities
Use of medication and the proportion of leaders with diagnosed medical conditions increased over the three years, pointing to the deteriorating general health of the primary school leadership workforce. These findings highlight the need for systemic change and targeted interventions to address the health challenges faced by Irish school leaders and promote healthy, sustainable leadership roles
6 Primary school leaders' psychosocial work environments
The term ‘psychosocial work environment’ refers to the conditions in which school leaders perform their duties, including factors such as workload, leadership quality, and peer support. Various psychosocial elements, or 'dimensions,' interact to shape the overall work experience of employees While some of these factors remain consistent, others can be more variable or seasonal in nature. Certain psychosocial dimensions are identified as 'risks' or 'hazards' due to their known negative impacts on employee health and well-being For example, long working hours, heavy workloads, and limited autonomy have been associated with harmful health outcomes (Rahimi & Arnold, 2024; Stansfeld & Candy, 2006). Conversely, positive psychosocial factors such as supportive social relationships and greater autonomy can contribute to improved health and wellbeing (Rahimi & Arnold, 2024; Stansfeld & Candy, 2006).
This section of the report provides an analysis of the psychosocial work environments of Irish primary school leaders over three years. It begins by examining leaders' average working hours and time allocation, followed by an analysis of key aspects of their work settings, such as job demands, interpersonal relationships, and organisational structure.
Primary leaders’ average working hours
The analysis of pooled data from Irish primary school leaders reveals that a large portion of leaders work far beyond the standard full-time schedule. Only a quarter of leaders work 35 hours or less per week, and 15.6% maintain a 36-40 hour workweek A considerable proportion of primary school leaders (41 5%) work more than 45 hours, with nearly 19.6% working 46-50 hours and nearly 11% working more than 55 hours per week (see Figure 9)
This section breaks down school leaders’ working time by the proportion of time spent on different tasks and responsibilities during the last full working week (see Figure 10). The analysis demonstrates that primary school leaders spend the largest proportion of their time on teaching and related tasks, particularly if they are among the 54% of principals who teach full-time in addition to their leadership role, or are deputy principals On the other hand, administrative principals dedicate a greater portion of their time to administrative duties within the school, which includes managing regulations, reporting, and budgeting. Leadership and management activities also occupy a substantial amount of time for both roles, encompassing strategic planning and staff meetings. Other areas such as student interactions, performance management, and administrative dealings with external bodies are also notable but take up less time in comparison. Overall, these results demonstrate that Irish school leaders have complex roles, in which the majority of their time is not spend on leadership and management within the school. Instead, they must juggle multiple roles and responsibilities to fulfil their duties and address the needs of different members of the community
Figure 10. Proportion of working time (%) spent on leadership activities during the last full working week broken by role (pooled data)
Primary school leaders’ work environments: job demands
This section of the report examines the demands that leaders face within schools. Job demands refer to the different aspects of work that require leaders to exert sustained physical, cognitive, or emotional effort. These demands can arise from organisational, social, physical, or psychological factors Irish school leaders were asked to reflect on their experiences with five primary job demands: the overall workload they manage (quantitative demands), the speed at which tasks must be completed (work pace), the mental complexity of tasks (cognitive demands), emotional challenges (emotional demands), and the necessity to control or suppress emotions while at work (demands for hiding emotions) (see Table 5)
Table 5 Survey measures of school leaders’ job demands
Quantitative Demands reflect the amount of work an individual experiences relative to their ability to complete that work. They can be assessed as an incongruity between the number of tasks and the time available to perform the tasks in a satisfactory manner.
Work Pace assesses the speed at which tasks must be performed. It is a measure of the intensity of work.
Cognitive Demands assesses demands involving the cognitive abilities of school leaders. The relationship between Cognitive Demands and wellbeing is complex Facing new tasks or overcoming new challenges triggers strain but because it involves task variation or learning, it can also increase job satisfaction and facilitate personal development
Emotional Demands assesses when school leaders must deal with or are confronted with other people’s feelings at work or placed in emotionally demanding situations. Other people comprise both people not employed at the workplace (e.g., parents and students) and people employed at the workplace (e g , colleagues, superiors or subordinates)
Demands for Hiding Emotions assesses when an employee must conceal their own feelings at work from other people. Other people comprise both people not employed at the workplace (e.g., parents and students) and people employed at the workplace (e g , colleagues, superiors, or subordinates). The scale shows the amount of time individuals spend in surface acting (pretending an emotion that is not felt) or down-regulating (hiding) felt emotions
The analysis reveals consistently high job demands for Irish primary school leaders over the three-year period. Leaders reported facing heavy workloads and high work intensity throughout these years. The cognitive and emotional demands of their roles also increased over time When compared to a healthy working population, it is evident that Irish school leaders consistently face greater demands in all areas, highlighting the considerable pressures within their professional environments (see Figure 11). Overall, this analysis underscores the intense and sustained workload, as well as the cognitive and emotional demands placed on school leaders
Job Demands: Insights from primary leaders
“Building maintenance and Improvement, irregular funding programmes by the government with significant paperwork commitments and demands through the build. Following the technical guidance documents provided I felt that I needed engineering or architectural qualifications. As we had no caretaker for nearly 3 years, (in year 4 I managed to get a part-time caretaker for 10 hours a month share with another school) I was the one fixing blocked toilets or sinks, doing gardening task, bringing out the bins, as we couldn't afford to pay people to do them or couldn't wait for the caretaker to come in. I genuinely tackled a blocked sewer in my first year and swept a flat room several times to try prevent leaks” (Irish primary principal, 2024).
“Lack of resources- funding and staff, is a big stressor. It can be very difficult to get sub cover. You can easily spend an hour trying to contact subs in the morning and with no success. The you may have to take the class yourself, if you are not teaching. Your workload will pile up and you usually end up completing the necessary after school hours. Most days I work 10 hours! I get paid for 5” (Irish primary principal, 2024)
Figure 11. Job demands for Irish primary school leaders in 2022-24, and a 'healthy working population' (mean score out of 100)
Primary school leaders' work environments: job resources
The term ‘job resources’ refers to various factors within school leaders' work environments that can support them to fulfil their roles. These resources may be physical or social in nature, including aspects like strong workplace relationships, open leadership, and a culture of trust In this section, the analysis focuses on the extent to which Irish school leaders experience the different types of job resources that can support school leaders
Job resources: the organisation of school leaders' work
This section of the report explores the planning, organisation, and management aspects of school leaders' roles within educational settings. The analysis focuses on four key areas: the autonomy or influence of the school leader, opportunities for professional development, the variety of work tasks and the sense of purpose in their work. In school environments where school leaders experience greater autonomy, access to skill and knowledge development, and a strong sense of meaning, their health and well-being are likely to be positively impacted (see Table 6).
Table 6. Survey measures of work organisation and job contents
Influence at work assesses the degree of control or influence that school leaders have over their work role, tasks and activities. Possibilities for Development assesses the opportunities for school leaders to develop and apply their personal and professional knowledge/skills in their work.
Variation of work assesses the extent that school leaders' tasks and activities are varied
Meaning of Work assesses the meaning that school leaders find in their work.
The analysis of the three-year data indicates that Irish primary school leaders consistently report a higher sense of influence, professional development opportunities, and meaningful work compared to the healthy working population (see Figure 12) While there has been a slight decrease in influence between 2022 and 2024, it remains above the comparison group. Opportunities for professional growth and work variation have remained steady over the three years and are also higher than in the healthy working population. The most significant difference is observed in the "Meaning of Work" category, where Irish school leaders report a strong and consistent sense of purpose, well above the healthy working population. This suggests that school leaders experience meaningful work, opportunities for growth, and diverse responsibilities, which may help sustain their engagement and performance if the demands of the role are manageable.
Figure 12. Measures of work organisation and job contents for Irish primary school leaders in 2022-2024 and a 'healthy working population' (means out of 100)
Job resources: Relationships and Leadership
In this section, the analysis focuses on other job resources accessible to school leaders, including their perceptions concerning the competency of their superiors, the quality of their relationships with colleagues, prevailing levels of trust among staff, the sense of community and the presence of fairness in their schools (see Table 7).
Table 7. Survey measures of job resources
Quality of Leadership assesses the leadership quality of school leaders' superiors.
Social Support from Colleagues Inside and Outside of School assesses the extent to which school leaders can obtain support from colleagues if they need it.
Sense of Community at Work assesses whether there is a feeling of being part of the group of employees at the workplace (e g , if employee relations are good and if they work well together).
Trust Regarding Management (Vertical Trust) assesses whether employees can trust management and vice versa. Vertical trust can be observed in the communication between the management and the employees.
Mutual Trust between Employees (Horizontal Trust) assesses whether employees can trust each other in daily work or not. Trust can be observed in the communication in the workplace, e.g., if one freely can express attitudes and feelings without fear of negative reactions
Justice assesses whether workers are treated fairly or not.
Over the three years, there has been an improvement in the perceived quality of leadership and a slight increase in the sense of justice in schools. However, there was a significant decrease in trust between employees in 2024. All other aspects remained stable throughout the three-year period Trust in management and perceptions of organisational justice were consistently higher than in the healthy working population (see Figure 13) All other aspects were comparable to levels observed in the healthy population.
Relationships and leadership: Insights from primary leaders
“Unfortunately, despite being a relatively young school leader, there is a real challenge in trying to maintain in a state of positive physical and mental health. The importance of having a support network is huge and this is something the IPPN have been superb and the DES less so. Having to make lots of decisions throughout the day (at various levels of importance) is a real challenge and means that mentally you are working all day so at the end of the day- which extends for hours beyond the pupils and staff leaving - there's a time needed to refocus before coming home to a family” (An Irish primary principal, 2024)
Figure 13. Irish primary school leaders' job resources in 2022-24 compared to a 'healthy working population' (means out of 100)
Primary school leaders' sources of support
Analysis of the leaders’ sources of support between 2022 to 2024 reveals that the majority have a wide range of support sources (see Figure 14). Partners consistently emerged as the most common source of support, with over threequarters of respondents indicating this each year Other important sources of support were relationships with colleagues, both within the same workplace and in different settings, as well as family members and friends. In addition, there was a significant increase in the proportion of leaders reporting a member of the Board of Management as a source of support.
Figure 14. Primary school leaders' sources of support in 2022-2024 (%)
School leaders' sources of stress
Primary school leaders were asked to rate their main sources of stress at work on a scale from 1 to 10. Across the three years between 2022 and 2024, the "sheer quantity of work" was the most significant stressor, consistently scoring nearly 9 out of 10. The next major stressor, was the stress associated with the lack of time for leaders to focus on teaching and learning in their schools. Stress related to "resourcing needs" and "government initiatives" was also reported as considerable (see Figure 15). However, between 2022 and 2024, teacher shortages significantly decreased as a source of stress for school leaders. Overall, the data points to a combination of workload, resourcing issues and insufficient time to focus on core activities as the primary stressors for school leaders.
Figure 15 Irish primary school leaders' sources of stress in 2022-24 (mean scores out of 10)
Summary: The nature of work for Irish primary school leaders
Analysis of the survey data from 2022-2024, demonstrates that school leaders operate in complex and demanding environments. Primary school leadership in Ireland is cognitively and emotionally demanding, intense, and involves managing significant workloads. Despite slight variations, the pressure on school leaders remained consistently high throughout the three years
While the emotional, cognitive, and workload demands of the role are considerable, school leaders consistently reported a strong sense of meaning and opportunties for development in their roles. In addition, the strong social capital within schools, as evidenced by a strong sense of community, strong leadership, trust in management and organisational justice, can support school leaders to do their work and cope with the challenges of their role.
The findings from 2022 to 2024 suggest that while Irish primary school leaders continue to demonstrate resilience and maintain strong relationships within their schools, they work in highly demanding roles that are both psychologically and physically taxing. Many leaders face heavy workloads and operate in emotionally and cognitively demanding environments, which are associated with negative mental and physical health outcomes. This highlights the urgent need to review the roles and responsibilities of school leaders and explore strategies to make their work healthier and more sustainable.
7 Workplace violence against school leaders
‘Workplace violence' or 'occupational violence and aggression' refers to aggressive or hostile actions aimed at school leaders while they perform their duties. This form of violence encompasses situations where employees face verbal abuse, threats, or physical attacks in work-related contexts, which pose an explicit or implicit threat to their safety and well-being (Health and Safety Authority of Ireland, 2007, p 1)
This section of the report provides a longitudinal analysis of the experiences of primary school leaders concerning four specific types of offensive behaviours over the past year: bullying, cyber bullying, threats of violence, physical violence (see Table 8).
Table 8. Measures of Workplace violence
Bullying refers to the repeated exposure to unpleasant or degrading treatment at work.
Cyber Bullying assesses the experience of online harassment or abusive behaviours in a work-related context.
Threats of Violence assesses the exposure to the threats of physical violence in the workplace.
Physical Violence is exposure to physical violence in the workplace.
Irish school leaders' experiences of workplace violence
The trends in Irish primary school leaders’ experiences of workplace violence between 2022 to 2024 indicates a concerning escalation, particularly in physical violence and threats of violence which have dramatically increased over the period. While experiences of bullying have fluctuated, cyberbullying has remained relatively stable (see Figure 16)
Figure 16. Irish primary school leaders' experiences of workplace violence (%) in 2022-24
Workplace violence against school leaders: gender
Over the three years period, female primary school leaders consistently experienced higher rates of bullying, threats of violence, and physical violence compared to their male counterparts. The data reflects a concerning trend where incidents of physical violence have risen significantly for both genders by 2024, doubling for females Cyberbullying shows a slight decrease among females, while fluctuating among males, suggesting differing patterns of digital harassment across genders The consistently higher percentages among female leaders across all categories underscore the acute need for targeted interventions to address gender-specific vulnerabilities within the school leadership environment (see Figure 17).
Workplace violence against school leaders: job role
Between 2022 and 2024, principals consistently reported higher rates of cyber bullying and threats of violence, with a notable increase in threats peaking in 2024. Conversely, deputy/acting principals faced higher rates of physical violence, despite a consistent increase in this form of violence against principals over the three years The rates of bullying for both roles fluctuated slightly but remained significant. The significant variations according to job role highlight the different exposure leaders face in accordance and the need for interventions that address the specific risks they face (see Figure 18).
Figure 17. Workplace violence (%) according to school leaders’ gender in 2022-24
Figure 18. Workplace violence (%) broken down by primary school leader role (2022-24)
Summary
The analysis across three years revealed a persistent and concerning presence of workplace violence in schools. In 2024, the data shows an increase in reported cases across all categories, particularly physical violence and threats, which have reached the highest levels since the survey began. Bullying remains a significant concern, with a notable number of leaders reporting such incidents, though there has been a slight decrease in reported cases of cyber bullying
Female leaders consistently reported higher incidents of all forms of violence compared to their male counterparts, with particularly high rates of physical violence. Deputy and acting principals reported more bullying and physical violence than principals, suggesting variations in exposure based on role.
8 Primary leaders' perspectives on wellbeing improvements
In this section of the report, the analysis focuses on the potential systemic and school-level changes that could help to make the school leadership more manageable and sustainable This chapter aims to investigate a range of suggested interventions that, according to school leaders themselves, would support their health and wellbeing effectively. Through a detailed analysis of 2024 data (N = 297) from primary leaders’ feedback across several domains organisational support, leadership recognition, professional development, and mental health support this section provides a comprehensive review of the strategies that could transform the working environment of school leaders into one that promotes satisfaction and sustainability By examining both systemic reforms and more localized adjustments within schools, we seek to draw a clear roadmap towards fostering a healthier work life for these pivotal educators. At the end, primary leaders’ feedback and their preferences on wellbeing support at an individual level has been analysed.
System changes
School leaders' satisfaction with departmental support for health and wellbeing
The data from 297 respondents regarding satisfaction with the Department's strategies and supports for health and wellbeing at work reveals a predominantly negative view A significant majority of participants express discontent, with 33% marking themselves as 'Very unsatisfied' and a combined 38.1% rating their satisfaction within the lower spectrum (ratings 1 and 2) Only a marginal 1 7% feel 'Very satisfied,' underscoring a critical need for reevaluating and potentially enhancing the support structures currently in place. The overall sentiment indicates that current measures may not be effectively addressing the concerns and needs of the workforce regarding their wellbeing at work (see Figure 19).
Figure 19 Irish school leaders' satisfaction with departmental support for health and wellbeing (%) in 2024
Primary school leaders responded to 17 items rated on a scale to gauge the extent to which various changes to the school system would support their health and wellbeing at work. These items were organised into five categories as shown in Table 9.
Organisational/structural support includes items like funding, administrative staff, and reduced reporting expectations.
Leadership and recognition focuses on recognition and role clarity for school leaders.
Professional development and support for teaching practice deals with the recruitment process and support for integrating technology.
Mental health and wellbeing support addresses mental health and community engagement.
Policy and accountability adjustments involves test scores, evaluation systems, and leadership release time.
Organisational/structural support
The analysis of the data revealed a strong desire in primary school leaders for systemic improvements, with a significant majority of respondents indicating that more funding and resources would greatly enhance their wellbeing, as evidenced by the high proportions rating this "To a very large extent" (61 8%) Support for reducing demands from departmental rules and enhancing governance structures also received strong backing, which underscores a need for reducing administrative burden and improving operational flexibility This suggests that addressing structural inefficiencies and resource constraints is seen as a critical lever for enhancing staff wellbeing (see Figure 20)
Figure 20. Irish primary school leaders' feedback on required systemic improvements (%) 2024
Table 9 Categories of proposed changes to enhance school leaders' wellbeing
Leadership and recognition
System-wide improvements in leadership and recognition were highly valued by primary leaders, with a substantial proportion of respondents feeling that greater role clarity and capacity to share leadership would significantly support their health and wellbeing, as highlighted by high scores in "To a very large extent" for these items (72.2% and 64.3%, respectively). This indicates a clear need for improved communication, defined responsibilities, more dedicated time for leadership and the sharing of leadership and shared leadership roles, which could help mitigate feelings of isolation and stress among school leaders (see Figure 21).
Professional development and support for teaching practice
There is a notable emphasis on the need for better recruitment practices and integrating technology into teaching, with a significant number of respondents indicating these factors impact their wellbeing "To a very large extent" (36.6% and 24 9%, respectively) The high score for support in addressing the diverse needs of students (60.5% "To a very large extent") particularly emphasises the need for targeted support in managing increasingly diverse classrooms, suggesting that professional development and teaching support can play major roles in reducing work-related stress (see Figure 22).
Student mental health and wellbeing support
More than half of the responses highlighted the importance of addressing student mental health issues "To a very large extent" (51 9%) This underscores the growing recognition of the impact of student wellbeing on staff health and highlights the importance of community involvement in creating supportive educational environments (see Figure 23).
Figure 22. Irish primary school leaders' feedback on required professional development and support for teaching practice 2024 (%)
Figure 21. Irish primary school leaders' feedback on required system wide improvements in leadership and recognition in 2024 (%)
Policy and accountability adjustments
A majority of respondants indicated that having a greater voice in policy decisions would support their wellbeing "To a very large extent" (49.8%). The highest score in "To a very large extent" for more leadership release time (80.2%) strongly points to the need for more time to manage responsibilities effectively, suggesting that reducing administrative and policy-driven pressures could substantially benefit staff wellbeing (see Figure 24)
Figure 24 Irish primary school leaders' feedback on required policy and accountability adjustments in 2024 (%)
Figure 23. Irish primary school leaders' feedback on required support for student mental health issues and community engagement in 2024 (%)
Changes at school level
Primary school leaders responded to 14 items rated on a scale to gauge the extent to which various changes at the school level would support their working conditions and health and wellbeing at work These items were organised into five categories as shown in Table 10.
Table 10. Categories of proposed school level changes to enhance school leaders' wellbeing
Operational efficiencies focus on reducing workload and improving operational systems within the school.
Resource enhancement concentrate on improving physical and educational resources.
Community and relationships aim at enhancing interpersonal relationships and external recognitions.
Leadership and management focus on structural changes and leadership dynamics.
Operational efficiencies
A notable 78 1% of respondents believe that "Increased staffing" would support their health and wellbeing "To a large" or "To a very large extent." Similarly, "More leadership release time" sees 78.4% of respondents appreciating it to a significant degree, highlighting the critical need for reducing administrative burdens and allowing more time for leadership responsibilities to manage stress and enhance job satisfaction effectively (see Figure 25)
Figure 25. Irish primary school leaders feedback on required school level improvements in relation to various aspects of operational efficiencies in 2024 (%)
Resource enhancement
"Increased learning resources" viewed favourably by a combined 80.8% of respondents "To a large" or "To a very large extent," indicating a strong consensus on the importance of adequate resources in supporting effective teaching and staff wellbeing. The physical work environment also sees significant support, with 41 4% rating improvements as highly beneficial, reflecting the importance of a conducive physical setting in promoting a healthy work atmosphere (see Figure 26)
on required school level improvements in relation to enhancement of resources in 2024(%)
Leadership and management
Around 70% of respondents supported "Greater capacity to share leadership" "To a large" or "To a very large extent." This indicates a robust desire for more democratic and shared leadership structures Additionally, "Increased support for student behaviour management" is also highly rated by 63.6%, underscoring the importance of effective discipline strategies in creating a supportive educational environment (see Figure 27).
school level improvements
to enhancement of leadership and management aspects in 2024 (%)
Community and relationships
"More recognition from colleagues" is seen as beneficial "To a large" or "To a very large extent" by 28.6% of respondents, suggesting that while improvements in social dynamics are appreciated, they are perceived as less impactful on immediate wellbeing compared to more tangible changes (see Figure 28).
on required school level improvements in relation to enhancement of community and relationships aspects in 2024 (%)
Figure 27. Irish primary school leaders' feedback on required
in relation
Figure 26. Irish primary school leaders' feedback
Figure 28. Irish primary school leaders' feedback
Wellbeing support at an individual level
Primary school leaders responded to eight items rated on a scale to gauge the extent to which various forms of wellbeing support at an individual level would improve their health and wellbeing at work.
As indicated by Figure 29, a substantial portion of leaders sees high value in support groups with other school leaders, with over 70% affirming that such groups would support their wellbeing to a large or very large extent. Similarly, positive leadership training and sessions with a qualified psychologist are highly valued, suggesting a significant appreciation for strategies that foster leadership skills and provide direct psychological support.
Other training areas like mental health, stress management, and sustaining a positive school climate also received strong endorsements, indicating a broad recognition of their impact on staff wellbeing The least emphasis was placed on mindfulness training, although a sizable fraction still acknowledged its potential benefits. The diversity in responses underscores the varied needs and preferences among school leaders concerning wellbeing support, pointing to the necessity for tailored approaches in addressing mental health and leadership challenges in educational settings
Figure 29. Irish primary school leaders' feedback on wellbeing support at an individual level in 2024 (%)
Summary
At the system level, primary school leaders highlight the need for structural and organisational support, particularly through additional administrative staff, increased funding, more resources, better governance, and reduced compliance demands from the Department. Additionally, clarifying roles, enabling leaders to share leadership responsibilities, providing support for students’ needs, increasing leadership release time, and giving leaders a stronger voice in policymaking are seen as crucial for reducing administrative burdens and ensuring leaders have the necessary resources to perform their roles effectively. These changes would ultimately reduce stress and improve the sustainability of school leadership roles. According to school leaders, changes at this level are by far the most important
At the school level, leaders express a clear demand for operational improvements and resource enhancements. Reducing working hours and administrative tasks, as well as increasing staffing and leadership release time, are seen as key to improving their wellbeing Leaders also highlight the importance of improving physical resources and the learning environment.
On an individual level, there is a strong demand for group mental health support, professional psychological support, and positive leadership training. These initiatives are viewed as vital for supporting post-primary school leaders' health and wellbeing, equipping them with the networks and relationships needed to manage the pressures of their roles effectively
9 Conclusion and recommendations
The three years of results demonstrate that Irish primary school leaders face numerous work-related challenges that impact their health and wellbeing. While they report experiencing meaningful work and community trust within their schools, they navigate a range of stressors, including high workloads and roles that are cognitively and emotionally demanding. The diverse responsibilities school leaders manage often prevent them from dedicating sufficient time to key leadership tasks. Furthermore, the evidence in this report shows that many leaders work in environments and roles that put their health and wellbeing at risk This is evidenced by the significant reports of burnout and health issues, which highlight the urgent need for interventions to create healthier and more sustainable work conditions for school leaders.
Based on the findings of this analysis, the authors offer several key recommendations to promote the health and wellbeing of school leaders and provide them with the conditions necessary to succeed in their roles.
1. Ensure that systems enable rather than constrain school leaders
The results demonstrate that urgent action is required to address the challenging nature of the school leadership role. Over 70% of school leaders report being highly unsatisfied with the existing support from the Department. Leaders have made it clear that system-wide changes to the leadership role are necessary to make their work healthier and more sustainable. In particular, the administrative challenges leaders face, combined with a lack of resources, make it difficult for them to focus on key leadership tasks. This imbalance not only increases stress and places leaders at increased risk of health problems but also undermines their ability to lead in their schools
A significant contributory factor to this dynamic is the fact that the employer, the Board of Management, has no control over the work demands placed on their employees which compromises their capacity to exercise their duty of care to their employees Despite not being the employer, the Department cannot ignore its responsibility to ensure that the workload demands of school leadership are reasonable, achievable and sustainable
1a) Alleviate the workload demands leaders face
Implement reforms to alleviate workload demands, particularly administrative and compliance requirements, and provide the necessary resources/capacity to enable school leaders to focus more on leading teaching and learning within their schools.
1b) Clarify roles and responsibilities
To ensure leadership roles that are both effective and sustainable, the responsibilities of school leaders' must be clearly defined, aligned with realistic expectations and achievable within standard working hours. The current scope of leadership roles places an unrealistic and unsustainable burden on school leaders.
1c) Allocate more time for leadership
There is a chronic need for additional discrete time for leadership to be allocated to schools to ensure school leaders, particularly teaching principals and deputy principals, have the capacity to the meet significant work demands placed upon them
1d) Listen to leaders
It is essential that the Department leads the development and implementation of a School Leader Workforce Plan to ensure that leadership in schools is sustainable A working group composed of school leaders, their representatives and the Department would enable leaders to provide direct input into decisions affecting their work.
1e) Ensure school leaders have the right to disconnect
To ensure school leaders have sufficient time to recuperate and are able to maintain a healthy work-life balance, they must be guaranteed the right to disconnect In addition, efforts should be made to reduce workload during peak periods of the school year by preventing additional pressures, such as inspections, from being scheduled during these times.
2.Provide support for mental health problems and healthy school leadership
The survey results demonstrate a clear need for action to address the mental health challenges faced by Irish primary school leaders. From 2022 to 2024, leaders consistently reported high average levels of stress, burnout, and sleeprelated issues, with a noticeable increase in 2024. While severe cases of stress and burnout were less common, the persistence of high burnout levels and the reduction in leaders experiencing low levels of stress highlight the ongoing pressures within the profession. These findings suggest that without intervention, the mental health of school leaders will continue to deteriorate, impacting both their wellbeing and their ability to remain in their roles.
2a) Create and facilitate peer-support networks
Create facilitated group support sessions where school leaders can regularly meet (virtually or in person) to share experiences, discuss challenges and receive peerto-peer professional and emotional support. These sessions should be supported by trained mental health professionals to ensure they are effective and supportive
2b) Provide access to qualified psychological support
Offer personalised, one-on-one support from qualified mental health professionals to allow leaders to address mental health challenges related to their work Principals that experience mental health problems should have access to confidential counselling and support services.
2c) Provide access to reliable training in leading healthy school environments
Provide school leaders with access to empirically validated strategies and interventions to create healthy school environments. Current coaching programmes, such as those provided through the Department of Education’s OIDE service, should be fully resourced and expanded to ensure equitable and consistent access for all principals, deputy principals and school leadership teams.
3. Assess, identify and evaluate school leader wellbeing
The evidence in this report highlights the urgent need for a formal system to assess and evaluate the wellbeing of school leaders in Ireland. Making school leader wellbeing a policy priority requires regular monitoring and evaluation to ensure their challenges are properly addressed and improvements are made.
3a) Develop a Wellbeing Assessment Framework
In partnership with professional associations (IPPN & NAPD), employers should ensure that they regularly assess and identify the key issues affecting school leaders’ wellbeing. While interest in principal wellbeing has grown, there is currently no formal process for identifying stressors such as mental health challenges and work-life balance issues. A structured assessment will help early detection and guide timely interventions
3b) Evaluate wellbeing strategies
The Department should collaborate with leaders, their representatives and wellbeing experts to evaluate initiatives to promote school leader wellbeing. This will assess the success and value for money of strategies and ensure they address school leaders' needs and improve their wellbeing over time.
3c) Implement a formal system for ongoing assessment and reporting of workplace violence
In response to the growing reports of bullying, threats, and violence against school leaders, a formal reporting and support system should be established. The Department should develop a safe and confidential mechanism for school leaders to report incidents of offensive behaviours. This system would not only provide immediate support to affected leaders, but also contribute to the ongoing assessment of workplace challenges, helping to inform policies and interventions aimed at ensuring a safe and supportive environment for all school leaders.
3d) Commission research to understand the scope and impact of violence against school leaders
It is essential to conduct in-depth research that explores the nature, frequency, and impact of offensive behaviours on school leaders’ health and wellbeing. Collaboration with professional associations (IPPN & NAPD) and academic institutions should be prioritised to gather research-informed evidence on the root causes, effects, and strategies for preventing violence in educational settings Such studies would guide the development of targeted, evidenceinformed policies and interventions to enhance school leaders’ safety and wellbeing
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Appendix
Participant care
Each participant received an interactive, user-specific report of their survey responses benchmarked against responses of their peers and members of the general population upon their completion of the survey. Returning participants were also provided with a comparison of their 2024 results against their results from previous years
The survey included the assessment of three “red flag” risk indicators: Self-harm; Quality of Life; and Occupational Health. The red flag indicators are calculated as follows:
Self-harm – a participant response of “sometimes”, “often” or “all the time” to the question “Do you ever feel like hurting yourself?”
Quality of Life – when aggregate scores on quality of life items fell two standard deviations below the mean for the school leader population.
Occupational Health – when the composite psychosocial risk score fell into the high or very high-risk groups.
The report of any individual or combination of the three triggers resulted in the participant receiving a red flag notification, informing them of the indicator(s). The notification also included links to Employee Assistance Programs and local support services
The survey
The survey captured three types of information drawn from existing robust and widely used instruments.
1
Comprehensive school demographic items drawn from:
a.
The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS; Williams, et al., 2007).
Program for International Student Assessment (PISA; Thomson, et al , 2011)
c.
b International Confederation of Principals surveys were used to capture differences in occupational health and safety (OH&S) associated with the diversity of school settings and types.
2.
3.
Personal demographic and historical information.
School leaders’ quality of life and psychosocial coping were investigated by employing two widely used measures:
The Assessment of Quality of Life – 8D (AQoL-8D; Richardson, et al , 2009; Richardson, Iezzi & Maxwell, 2014).
The Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire-III (COPSOQ-III; Burr, et al., 2019).
The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT: Babour et al., 2001), developed for the World Health Organization.
b. The Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS: Watson, Clark, and Tellegen, 1988).
c Basic Psychological Needs at Work Scale (BPNWS: Deci & Ryan, 2004; Van den Broeck, Ferris, Chang, & Rosen, 2016).
d ‘Life Events’. e.
COVID-19 related questions were added f Primary leaders' perspectives on wellbeing improvements were added in 2024. g.
The combination of items from these instruments allows for a comprehensive analysis of variation in both occupational health, safety, and wellbeing, as a function of geolocation, school type, sector differences and the personal attributes of the school leaders themselves.
Our survey instrument relies heavily on the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire (COPSOQ-III). This questionnaire is regarded as the “gold standard” in occupational health and safety self-report measures. It has been translated into more than 25 languages and is filled out by hundreds of thousands of workers each year. The structure of the COPSOQ consists of higher order domains and contributing subdomains/scales. These have been found to be very robust and stable measures, by both ourselves (Burr, et al , 2019; Dicke et al , 2018) and others (Burr, Albertsen, Rugulies, & Hannerz, 2010; Kiss, De Meester, Kruse, Chavee, & Braeckman, 2013; Thorsen & Bjorner, 2010). All COPSOQ domain scores are transformed to 0-100 aiding comparisons across domains
To maintain the participant anonymity, aggregate data is reported at demographic grouping levels. Some subgroups were unable to be reported due to insufficient sample size. Reporting results of subgroups of insufficient size may not provide a true reflection of the subgroup; and risk identifying primary school leaders if reported by the small subgroup. As some participants only partially completed the survey, some of the participant numbers for domains and subscales may vary Subgroup distributions will be reported as a percentage of the data sample size.