Living Screen // robotic fabrication of algae based gels// by Irina Shaklova

Living Screen Robotic fabrication of algae based gels

Student Supervisor Institution Master program

Irina Shaklova Marcos Cruz IAAC MAA02 1

Living Screen Robotic fabrication of algae based gels ________________________________________

Student Supervisor Institution Master program

Irina Shaklova Marcos Cruz IAAC MAA02

Thesis presented to obtain the qualification of Master Degree from the Institute of Advanced Architecture of Catalunya Barcelona, September 2015 3

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Life is our subject, client, and purpose; we build for living people. But is life our material? Can we engineer life? Are our buildings truly alive?â&#x20AC;? Alex Haw

ABSTRACT

The debate linked to a more responsive architecture, connected to nature, has been growing since the 1960s. Notwithstanding this fact, to this day, architecture is somewhat conservative: following the same principles with the belief in rigidity, solidity, and longevity. Bio-inspiration highlights a sensitive observation of biological processes and their transfer into novel design methodologies for the creation of innovative architectural explorations. This research proposed to explore the possibilities of creating living systems by means of novel fabrication techniques (robotics) using algae as a biomaterial, thus raising the question of how to design with a material that lives, grows and dies. The experiments developed were based on aerial algae, which obtains very similar properties in terms of photosynthesis comparing to aquatic algae, but does not need constant flow of water - although a certain humidity level must be maintained - in order to stay alive. Another interesting feature of algae is that when environmental conditions are adverse, algae goes into a form of hibernation until conditions are once again favorable. With this being said, aerial algae is much better suited for use in terms of maintenance. So the decision was taken to 3D print algae medium with an embedded culture, using a robotic arm fitted with a pump extruder. To maintain the algae alive, 2 types of medium were tested â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 1) Agar agar medium; and 2) Methylcellulose (powder hydrogel) with sodium alginate. Thereby methylcellulose was chosen for further tests with a robotic arm, including tests on different printing parameters (pressure, speed, line thickness, etc), as well as deflation/ deformation tests in order to understand the behavior of the material while drying. The final result represents the first large scale hydrogel print with the size of 1.5m x 4m. It was designed according to previous material tests. It was demonstrated that better results can be achieved by printing a pattern with one continuous line, creating so called nodes (line intersections) enhancing the structural capabilities of the screen. For the final print the pattern (approx. 1.8 km) was divided into equal parts in order to fit the available printing area (0.5m x 2m). Moreover this fabrication method demonstrated some advantages when compared to a typical water pump systems that are using aquatic algae. - Fabrication time is faster - Reduction of overall system complexity (does not call for large amounts of technical detail) - Maintenance is relatively simple

***Key words: algae, biomaterial, methylcellulose, sodium alginate, robotics, computation, environmental control, 3d printing, 7

INDEX

ABSTRACT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

PREFACE

INTRODUCTION Algae curtain Living Screen Research problem Research question Hypothesis Objectives Main features of the project

14 17 18 19 19 19 19 20

METHODS AND MATERIALS • Algae • Algae Projects/ Case studies BIQ House Algae Urban Folly WaterLily 2.0 • Algae classification • Algae growth mediums Agar / nutrients Methyl Cellulose / Sodium Alginate

22 24 27 27 29 29 30 31 34 36

MATERIAL TESTS • Extrusion tests with a syringe • Growing algae • Testing algae growth in gels • Algae growth cycle

38 40 44 48 50

ROBOTIC FABRICATION • Additive manufacturing • Defining parameters • First tests • Helixes • Volume expansion tests • Grids • Grids catalogue • Printing tests - Continious line • Printing tests - Multiple lines • Printing on MDF board • Finalizing the design • Final printing • Final printing parameters • Final prints

54 56 57 60 64 68 70 72 74 76 78 82 86 88 90

CONTROL • Response to environmental conditions • Dormant/ Active state • Symbiosis

96 98 100 102

FORM FINDING / PATTERN EXPLORATION • Inspiration from nature/ Synthetic biology • Turing patterns • Vascular morphology • Growth simulation

104 106 108 110 112

DISCUSSIONS/ CONCLUSIONS • Discussions • Symbiotic system • Biophotovoltaics • Air quality mapping • Printing on 3D surfaces • Programmed material deformation

114 116 116 116 118 120 121

CONCLUSIONS

122

BIBLIOGRAPHY

124

PICTURE REFERENCES

126

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to especially thank Marcos Cruz, from the Bartlett UCL, for his great supervision and guidance throughout this project, for his dedication and inspirational talks. His comments and suggestions were very much appreciated and without him I would never achieve the final result. I would also like to thank Sofoklis Giannakopoulos for his tremendous patience and immense help with the robotic fabrication. Finally, I am grateful to all the IAAC staff, my groupmates and everyone who assisted me throughout this project.

PREFACE What does this mean for architecture to be “alive”? Nature has always been an immense source of inspiration for architects. This can be observed through the entire history of architecture - ancient Egypt columns ornamented with lotus flowers, Roman Corinthian capitals decorated with acanthus leaves or baroque churches bringing flourishing vegetation in all its beauty and glory – all of these propose link to biology. The idea of a biological connection has been used in turn by traditional architects, modernists, postmodernists, deconstructivists, and naturally, the “organic form” architects. For instance, Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959) promoted the harmony between human environments and the natural world through an architecture where essentially every element of the building was sought to relate to the other, reflecting the symbiotic ordering systems of nature. “So here I stand before you preaching organic architecture: declaring organic architecture to be the modern ideal and the teaching so much needed if we are to see the whole of life, and to now serve the whole of life, holding no traditions essential to the great TRADITION. Nor cherishing any preconceived form fixing upon us either past, present or future, but instead exalting the simple laws of common sense or of super-sense if you prefer determining form by way of the nature of materials.”1 Another great mind of the 20th century - Richard Buckminster Fuller (1895-1983) related to the environment more literally. The idea of a human as a part of the nature made him look closely at the environment, so he was trying to understand nature’s principles in order to use them as design guidelines. From these observations he developed lightweight, dynamic, and flexible shelter systems, but also concepts for biospheres - autonomous ecosystems, and microclimates for energy reduction and control. Thereby we can see the shift towards new way of thinking about nature’s role in architecture in the 20th century – from blind imitation of biological forms (e.g. vegetation) for decorative purposes to including nature’s principles into the built environment. But even then, this link affected mostly the idea of how the building should look like not how it should perform. The debate linked to a more responsive architecture, connected to nature, has been growing since the 1960s. Notwithstanding this fact, to this day, architecture is somewhat conservative: following the same principles with the belief in rigidity, solidity, and longevity. Philip Beesley claims that “architecture has consistently been conceived as a counter-form to nature staying deliberately distinct from the living world and preferring instead the role of a stripped stage that supports the living world by means of clear restraint.” 2 Despite the fact that today we can speak about the “biologicalization of our environment”3, which can be observed in many science fields, shown by the emergence of such terms as bio-technology, bio-robotics, bio-chemistry, bio-mimicry and bio-architecture, the architectural analogy to nature happens predominantly on a formal level. 12

So called biomimetic principles (i.e. processes that can be observed in or among living organisms) are adapted and implemented mostly for form-finding methods and simulations, when “on a structural or material level the interaction is rather limited”.4 Questions concerning temporality and decay, or concepts dealing with the performance, feedback, and progression, are generally not explored. “Architects tussle with nature” 5 “Buildings are great heaps of relocated nature” 6 As it is stated by Alex Haw, we “deploy natural materials to build”, which is contradicting to the principles of nature. As a solution I think we need to stop doing that, and instead use living materials in order to create new types of habitats for the future. So what is the role and relationship between architecture, nature, and life today? In my opinion, bio-inspiration highlights a sensitive observation of biological processes and their transfer into novel design methodologies for the creation of innovative architectural explorations. This is why we need to change this mindset for the rigid and static architecture and start building with nature. By that I mean the actual implementation of living matter, where nature becomes an inherent part of design process and life becomes a building material. This is what I was aiming to do in my thesis - to go beyond traditional definition of architecture and explore the possibilities of creating artificial ecosystems. Thereby pushing the architectural discipline toward an integrated, cooperative , and cross-disciplinary practice that responds to natural evolution though more than formally adapting it.7 For my thesis, I wanted to go beyond the classical understanding of architecture and explore the potential of biology in architecture in a speculative and experimental way, opening a discussion on temporality, decay, aesthetics and performance. This research proposed to explore the possibilities of creating living systems by means of novel fabrication techniques (robotics) using algae as a biomaterial, thus raising the question of how to design with a material that lives, grows and dies.

1 - Frank Lloyd Wright. The Natural House (New York: Bramhall House), p3 2 - Philip Beesley, “Quasiperiodic Near-Living Systems: Paradigms for Form-Language”, Alive – Advancements in Adaptive Architecture, p26 3 - Marcos Cruz, “Neoplasmatic Architecture”, IaaC lecture series spring 2013 4 - P. Gruber, Biomimetics in Architecture: Architecture of Life and Buildings, 2011, p190 5 - Alex Haw, “Building Nature: On Sex and Ducks, Chicken and Shit, Architecture and Apples”, p 49 6 - Alex Haw, “Building Nature: On Sex and Ducks, Chicken and Shit, Architecture and Apples”, p 49 7 - Manuel Kretzer Alive – Advancements in Adaptive Architecture, p26 13

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION// ALGAE CURTAIN

In the very beginning of the research the aim was to create an inflatable system (Algae Curtain) which would be a flexible micro algae bioreactor. Therefore, a series of tests was carried out: 1) Creating different types of patterns based on water fluidity principles so that a dynamic system could be created in order to provide a constant movement for aquatic algae (Chlorella vulgaris) to maintain it alive and evenly exposed to light. 2) Testing different techniques of welding PVC plastic sheets such as - gluing - using different types of glues (UV glue, glue for flexible plastics, super glue, etc); the best results were achieved using a glue for flexible plastics, but even so the consistency of the glue was too thick to obtain very thin lines for creation of that type of pattern sophistication and delicacy that I was pursuing; the connection between PVC sheets was not strong enough to hold the necessary amount of water without leakage. - Laser cutting â&#x20AC;&#x201C; using a laser cutter with very low speed and power in order to melt PVC sheets and thus solder them together; the results were not great due to under performance of the machine since it has to be perfectly calibrated and the material surface has to be completely flat to avoid its cutting. The process was also very time consuming (3 hours for a piece of 30x40sm) 3) Cultivating algae culture in - Distilled water (negative growth results) - Tap water (positive growth results) - Rain water (positive growth results) 4) Testing water flow in fabricated inflatables During the first two months of my thesis I worked with aquatic algae trying to create an algae curtain (membrane) that would be a delicate, flexible, and aesthetically pleasing version of a bioreactor, but I faced a variety of problems during its fabrication. The problems that I faced included welding plastic sheets in a precise way (since I needed to create inflatables with complex patterns), leaking water, and air and water pumps having the capacity to maintain the system at a larger scale. In order to advance in my research I had to change its direction. Thus, I decided to keep working with algae, and continue this line of research - intersection of design and biology but at a slightly different angle.

INTRODUCTION// LIVING SCREEN

After failing in this direction of the research (creating inflatable structures for algae cultivation) I went a few steps back and started looking into different types of microalgae existing in nature. And it turned out that there are 7 kinds of algae according to their habitat, and Hydrophilus (aquatic) algae is just one of them. My attention was caught by Edaphic (terrestrial) and Aerial algae which obtain very similar properties in terms of photosynthesis comparing to aquatic algae, but do not need constant flow of water - although a certain humidity level must be maintained in order to stay alive. Another interesting feature of these forms of algae is that when environmental conditions are adverse, algae go into a form of hibernation until conditions are once again favorable. So the decision was taken to 3D print algae medium (natural biodegradable hydrogel) with an embedded culture, using a robotic arm fitted with a pump extruder. There were no precedents in the field of architecture on such kind of work, but luckily 2 weeks before I changed the direction of my project a scientific paper on green bioprinting was published in the Engineering in Life Sciences journal. In this article it is said how researchers at the Institute of Food Technology and Bioprocess Engineering, Technische Universität Dresden, in Dresden, Germany have teamed with the Centre for Translational Bone, Joint and Soft Tissue Research, at the University Hospital and Faculty of Medicine of Technische Universität Dresden to do just that — 3D print algae-laden hydrogel scaffolds for possible medical applications and uses with 3D printed human tissue. In this research scientists managed to prove that it was possible to 3D print growing, living microalgae. “The application of RP [rapid prototyping] methods for encapsulation of microalgae can be expected to open new and interesting possibilities for diverse applications,”1 So far, this is the only one known example of 3d printing algae and it was done for biotechnological and medical applications, when in my thesis I wanted to bring it to a larger scale, proving that this technology has the potential not only in medical field, but also in the field of architecture. My research is based on a deductive scientific methodology, since it implies obtainment of general rules out of particular tests. Also there were no precedents in architectural field on 3d printing algae based gels, so I had to prove this statement.

1 - Green bioprinting: Fabrication of photosynthetic algae-laden hydrogel scaffolds for biotechnological and medical applications (2015) – Engineering in Life Sciences, Eng. Life Sci. 2015, 15, 177–183 18

INTRODUCTION// ALGAE CURTAIN

Research problem Bio-inspiration highlights a sensitive observation of biological processes and their transfer into novel design methodologies for the creation of innovative architectural explorations. And in my thesis I would like to propose a bio solution to architectural problems, such as air purification, shading, and aesthetics. Research question Exploration of designing with a living material by means of new digital fabrication techniques. My research begins with the question of how to design with a biomaterial that lives, grows and dies. The first steps for this research have precedents, especially the exploration of algae’s potential use within the realm of architecture. But so far all the examples of realized projects, while not many, are very complex systems including a rigorous amount of technical detail. For my project, I would like to explore the possibilities of creating living systems by means of novel fabrication techniques (additive manufacturing and robotics) that allow to produce biodegradable objects combining natural hydrogels and microalgae. Hypothesis With the emergence of 3d printing technology (additive manufacturing) and computation currently aiding design and architecture, combining these technologies with bio solutions such as algae and hydrogel could simplify the process of manufacturing artificial ecosystems that could be used as efficient CO2 capture systems, as well as biophotovoltaic systems for green energy generation. Objectives When work is done in a lab, perfect conditions are created for a living matter to thrive and grow, but when it comes to a scale of architecture those rules do not apply, because you simply cannot control all the conditions such as temperature, humidity and light intensity. The challenge faced was the practicality of living structures that I was going to create. In my research I wanted to investigate - Living matter as a design material - combination of empirical and practical design approaches. - Durability and life span of printed structures - Their response to existing conditions (such as temperature, humidity, etc) - Environmental conditions that allow systems to grow - To understand the limits of printing with alge based gels – how tall can the structure be, how complex, time of printing and complexity of fabrication - Materiability that is not based on the “sandwich”, but with the embedded variety of functions (natural intelligence).

MAIN FEATURES OF THE PROJECT

Aerial Algae non-aquatic forms of algae Found upon trunks of trees, walls, fencing wires, rocks and animals

Sodium Alginate a gum extracted from the cell walls of brown algae food and skin safe

Methyl Cellulose a chemical compound derived from cellulose not digestible, not toxic, not an allergen

ALGAE BASED PASTE

ROBOTIC FABRICATION

Consists of 3 components: - Methyl Cellulose (powder hydrogel) - Sodium Alginate (gelling agent) - Aerial algae (donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t require constant water flow, hibernate when not exposed to a certain humidity level)

3D printing of algae based gel using a pneumatic extruder attached to a robotic arm

OFF

PATTERN

CONTROL

Generating different types of patterns regarding opacity of the screen, deformation of the material (shrinking), size of the final piece, etc. Taking into consideration humidity levels and sun exposure.

Environmentally controlled system that can be switched on/off simply by exposure to water/sun.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

METHODS AND MATERIALS// ALGAE Algae (singular alga) are a large and diverse group of photosynthetic, eukaryotic, plant-like organisms that use chlorophyll in capturing light energy, but lack characteristic plant structures such as leaves, roots, flowers, vascular tissue, and seeds.1 Algae range from single-celled organisms to multi-cellular organisms. In my thesis I will focuse of the application of micro-algae in architecture. Microalgae - are microscopic algae, typically found in freshwater and marine systems 2. They are unicellular species which exist individually, or in chains or groups. Depending on the species, their sizes can range from a few micrometers (碌m) to a few hundreds of micrometers. Today microalgae are of great interest in the fields of biotechnology and architecture: they belong to one of the most promising sources of alternative energy because they convert sunlight into biomass more efficiently than higher plants. This phenomena can be explained by the fact that they are unicellular organisms and each single cell is involved in the process of photosynthesis. Simultaneously algae use the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) to grow photoautotrophically (using light as the energy source in the synthesis of food from inorganic matter). It is believed that micro algae produce approximately half of the atmospheric oxygen. REACTION OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS 6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2 Moreover, algae are helpful in reducing pollutants, since they live on a high concentration of carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide, released by automobiles, cement plants, breweries, fertilizer plants, steel plants, etc. These pollutants serve as nutrients for the algae, thus making this biomaterial very attractive for purposes of air purification and biofiltration (the removal of nutrients, heavy metals, and industrial pollutants from wastewater) 3 .

O2 Sunlight +

CO2

Algae Biomass

1 - New World Encyclopedia, http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Algae 2 - Thurman, H. V. (1997). Introductory Oceanography. New Jersey, USA 3 - Microalgae As Sources of High Added-Value Compounds, BIOTECHNOLOGY PROGRESS 27(3):597-613 路 MAY 2011 25

BIQ House, Hamburg Splitterwerk, 2013

ALGAE PROJECTS // Algae have been in the sight of architects for quite a while, and there are plenty of conceptual projects (e.g. Eco-Pods by Howler + Yoon Architects, HydroNet by IwamotoScott Architecture, etc) proposing its usage on architectural scale, but there are only a few of them that were brought to life. Among them experimental projects presented at Milan Expo 2015 - Urban Algae Folly (EcoLogic Studio, London) and Water Lily 2.0 (Cesario Griffa, Torino), and an innovative residential building - BIQ House (Splitterwerk, Hamburg). BIQ House Hamburg, Splitterwerk, Arup (2013) BIQ House is the world’s first algae-powered building opened in Hamburg in 2013 in the frame of the International Building Exhibition (IBA) as a “Smart Material House”. It combines intelligent materials and technologies with new typologies of living. The sides of the building that face the sun have a second outer shell that is set into the façade itself. Microalgae are cultivated within this shell, thus enabling the house to supply its own energy. They are continuously supplied with liquid nutrients and carbon dioxide via a separate water circuit running through the façade. With the aid of sunlight, the algae can photosynthesise and grow1. The main concept of the project is that algae grow and reproduce in a regular cycle until they can be harvested. After that the biomass is separated from the rest of the algae and transferred as a thick pulp to the technical room of the BIQ. Afterwards algae can be fermented in an external biogas plant and thus re-used for the generation of biogas. Microalgae are especially well-suited to this process because, compared with soil-grown plants, they produce up to five times as much biomass per hectare and contain an especially large proportion of oils that can be used to generate energy. The BIQ house indeed has a holistic energy concept - it is able to supply itself with its own energy and heat that are generated from renewable sources, so fossil fuels remain untouched. - energy generation from algae biomass harvested from its own facade; - energy collection from the sun by absorbing the light which is not used by algae (direct heating or heat storage in borehole heat exchangers); This remarkably sustainable energy concept is therefore capable of creating a cycle of solar thermal energy, geothermal energy, a condensing boiler, local heat, and the capture of biomass using the bio-reactor façade.2 Today this is the only example of a building using this latest technology of application algae as a renewable source of energy. It not only demonstrates what facades of buildings can do when new technologies are implemented, but also sets new standards for the future.

1 - IBA Hamburg, http://www.iba-hamburg.de/en/themes-projects/the-building-exhibition-within-the-building-exhibition/smart-material-houses/biq/projekt/biq.html 2 - Algae House: About the First Building with A Bioreactor Façade (2014) – Splitterwerk & Arup, Olaf Scholz 27

Urban ALgae Folly Ecologic Studio, 2014

WaterLilly 2.0 Cesare Griffa, 2014

Urban Algae Folly Milan Expo 2015, EcoLogic Studio This project designed by the London-based ecoLogic Studio explores algae potential for future food and energy production. “Microalgae, in this instance Spirulina, are exceptional photosynthetic machines,” writes ecoLogicStudio. “They contain nutrients that are fundamental to the human body, such as minerals and vegetable proteins; microalgae also oxygenate the air and can absorb CO2 from the urban atmosphere ten times more effectively than large trees”1. In order to provide algae with ideal conditions for growth and reproduction architects used ETFE panels to create so-called “skin system”. *ETFE (Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene) - a fluorine based plastic, was designed to have high corrosion resistance and strength over a wide temperature range. ETFE has a relatively high melting temperature, excellent chemical, electrical and high-energy radiation resistance properties.2

In any given moment the effective translucency, the color, the reflectivity, the sound and productivity of the Urban Algae Folly are the result of the symbiotic relationship of climate, microalgae, humans and digital control systems. With this project architects wanted to explore new form of interaction between people and products, re-imagine producer-consumer relationship and, thereby, bring a new vision of sustainable green future.

Water Lily 2.0 Milan Expo 2015, Cesario Griffa Waterlilly 2.0 was created by italian architect Cesaro Griffa as a system for cultivating microalgae on architectural facades. The prototype is based on the previuos experience and installation of the architect and it was shown at Milan Expo in 2015. Just like the work of EcoLogic Studio Water Lily 2.0 is also based on micro algae high photosynthetic activity, which results in great capacity to degrage carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. The project suggests to employ the waste water from domestic use, which contains nitrates and phosphates needed to fertilize algae. Thereby cultivating micro algae in the urban environment can help to purify air and water. Microalgae grow to saturate the water solution. At that stage, they need to be collected and the biomass obtained can be used for the production of proteins for the food industry, omega 3 and amino acids for the nutraceutical industry, cosmetic and pharmaceutical molecules, bioplastics and biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel. Meanwhile, the culture starts again, and within a few weeks you can proceed to a new crop.3

1 - ecoLogic Studio; http://www.ecologicstudio.com/v2/project.php?idcat=3&idsubcat=71&idproj=147 2 - Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ETFE

ALGAE CHALLENGES After overviewing the previous experience of algae projects in architecture, it becomes clear that all of them are using aquitic forms of microalgae that are usually contained in systems of tubes, plastic bags, or panels (so-called bioreactors). Technologically bioreactors are highly complicated systems based on usage of aquatic algae, including water and air pumps, integrated systems of CO2 supply, nutrient feeding systems, etc., which makes their manufacturing and maintanance a very challenging task . Thatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s why all these systems that seem to be innovative and have an intelligent and progressive technology behind them are really difficult to realize on a big scale. During the first two months of my thesis I worked with aquatic algae trying to create an algae curtain (membrane) that would be a delicate, flexible, and aesthetically pleasing version of a bioreactor, but I faced a variety of problems during its fabrication. The problems that I faced included welding plastic sheets in a precise way since I needed to create inflatables with complex patterns, leaking water, and air and water pumps having the capacity to maintain the system at a larger scale. After failing in this direction of the research I went a few steps back and started looking into different types of microalgae existing in nature. And it turned that there are 7 kinds of algae according to their habitat, and Hydrophilus (aquatic) algae is just one of them. My attention was caught by Edaphic (terrestrial) and Aerial algae which obtain very similar properties in terms of photosynthesis comparing to aquatic algae, but do not need constant flow of water - although a certain humidity level must be maintained - in order to stay alive. Another interesting feature of these forms of algae is that when environmental conditions are adverse, algae go into a form of hibernation until conditions are once again favorable. So the decision was taken to 3D print algae medium with an embedded culture, using a robotic arm fitted with a pump extruder.

Food

Air purification

Biofiltration

Bio-fuel

Energy

Cosmetics

ACCORDING TO THEIR HABITAT ALGAE ARE CLASSIFIED INTO SEVEN GROUPS: 1. Hydrophilus algae: These are aquatic, free floating or completely submerged algae. 2. Edaphic algae: Terestial algae are called Edaphic algae. They live upon or inside the surface of earth. Edaphic algae are classified into two types, · Saprophytes E.g. Mesotaemium, Botryduium · Crypyophytes E.g. Nostoc, Anabaena 3. Aerial algae: These are aerial forms of algae. They are found upon trunks of trees, walls, fencing wire, rocks and animals. Aerial algae are classified into four types. They are, · Epiphyllophytes E.g. Trentepohlia · Epiphloephytes · Epizoophytes E.g. Chaetophorales · Lithophytes E.g. Sctonema, Vaucheria, Nostoc 4. Cryophytic algae: Algae living on ice and snow are called cryophytes or cryophytic algae. Eg. Chlamydomonas, Ankistrodesmus and Mesotaenium. 5. Symbionts or Endophytes: Algae growing in symbiotic association with other plants are called symbionts. There are three types. They are, · Symbiotic with fungi E.g. Chroococcus, Nostoc, Chlorella and palmella · Lives inside the pteridophyte Azolla. Eg. Anabaena azollae. · Found in the corolloid roots of Cycas. Eg. Anabaena cicadae. 6. Endozoic algae: Algae living inside the body of animals are called Endozoic algae. · Inside fresh water sponges · Inside Hydra 7. Parasites Algae live as parasites on other plants. Eg.Cephaleuros virescens.

A GENERALIZED SET OF CONDITIONS FOR CULTURING MICRO-ALGAE Parameters Range Optima Temperature (C) Salinity (g.l-1) Light intensity (lux) Photoperiod (light: dark, hours)

16-27 12-40 1,000-10,000 (depends on volume and density)

7-9

18-24 20-24 2,500-5,000 16:8 (minimum) 24:0 (maximum) 8.2-8.7

METHODS AND MATERIALS// GROWTH MEDIUMS For the past decade, additive manufacturing of hydrogels has become a rapidly evolving technique to produce nano-featured biocompatible tissue scaffolds for tissue engineering purposes.1 In my research I was aiming to use these materials for microalgae cultivation. To maintain the algae alive, 2 types of medium were tested: 1) Agar medium; 2) Methylcellulose (powder hydrogel) with sodium alginate. 1) Agar medium Agar is a jelly-like substance, obtained from algae. Agar is derived from the polysaccharide agarose, which forms the supporting structure in the cell walls of certain species of algae, and which is released on boiling. Agar is indigestible for many organisms so that microbial growth does not affect the gel used and it remains stable. 2)* Methylcellulose + Sodium Alginate Methylcellulose is a chemical compound derived from cellulose. It is a hydrophilic white powder in pure form and dissolves in cold water, forming a clear viscous solution or gel. Like cellulose, it is not digestible, not toxic, and not an allergen. Sodium Alginate is a gum, extracted from the cell walls of brown algae, through binding with water it forms a viscous gum. The chemical compound sodium alginate is the sodium salt of alginic acid, also called algin or alginate. Sodium alginate has a wide use across a wide variety of industries including food, textile printing and pharmaceutical. Alginate is both food and skin safe. The first showed good algae growth rate, but some constraints were identified â&#x20AC;&#x201C; such as extrusion temperature and algae insertion, which can be only done after having completed the printing of the medium. The second medium, on the contrary, forms a homogeneous mass that can be extruded at room temperature, having added the algae to the mix prior to printing. *The medium #2 eventually was chosen for extrusion with a robotic arm.

1 - Melchels FPW, Domingos MAN, Klein TJ - â&#x20AC;&#x153;Additive manufacturing of tissues and organsâ&#x20AC;?- Progr Polym Sci 2011 33

// GROWTH MEDIUMS// AGAR + NUTRIENTS

Agar Agar

// GROWTH MEDIUMS// AGAR + NUTRIENTS

heat Agar Agar

+ Water

+ Nutrients

100 C

cool down Mixture

37 C

Print at t=37 C

boiling

Algae Culture Agar Composition Ingredients

Gms / Litre

Sodium nitrate Dipotassium phosphate Magnesium sulphate Ammonium chloride Calcium chloride Ferric chloride Agar Final pH ( at 25Â°C)

1.000 0.250 0.513 0.050 0.058 0.003 15.000 7.0Âą0.2

Inject algae culture

Conclusions// + Good growth rate of algae + Aesthetically pleasing appearance - Needs boiling for preparation - Extrusion can be done at t=37 C, which means that the extruder has to be equipped with a system for temperature control - Algae is put into the medium after deposition (medium preparation t=100 C, algae do not withstand high temperatures and even 37 C can cause a thermal shock)

// GROWTH MEDIUMS// METHYL CELLULOSE + SODIUM ALGINATE

Water + Algae

Sodium Alginate

Methyl cellulose

// GROWTH MEDIUMS// METHYL CELLULOSE + SODIUM ALGINATE

Sodium alginate

Water with algae

dissolve approx. 1 hour

swelling of methylcellulose Mixture + Methyl + Nutrients cellulose approx. 2 gours

Print at room t

Crosslink components in CaCl2

An alginate/methylcellulose blend was used as printing material. Thirty milligrams per milliliter alginic acid sodium salt was dissolved in water containing algae culture in it. This provides algae with necessary nutrients and ph in order for them to grow. Methylcellulose powder was added to the solution in a methylcellulose:alginate ratio of 3:1 based on the dry mass of the compounds. The mixture was thoroughly stirred to obtain a homogenous plotting paste and incubated for 2 h at room temperature to allow swelling of the methylcellulose. After plotting, the prints were transferred into a 100mMCaCl2 solution and incubated for 10 min in order to crosslink the alginate component of the scaffolds. The entire fabrication process was conducted at room temperature.

Conclusions // - Needs extra treatment after printing (crosslinking + nutrients) - Material preparation is time consuming (approximately 3 hours) + Homogeneous mass that can be extruded at a room temperature + Algae is put into the printing paste prior printing

MATERIAL TESTS

MATERIAL TESTS// EXTRUSION TESTS WITH A SYRINGE Material tests with a syringe Firstly, materials had to be tested on their printability. So a regular syringe was used for that purpose. For this experiment 2 syringes with different volumes and tip diameters were used as well as 2 types of gel: methylcellulose/sodium alginate and agar based mixtures. The objective was to study how many layers can be constructed before the srtucture collapses and what conditions are required for printing.

Agar 1 layer

Agar 3 layers

Agar 5 layers

Methyl cellulose

Agar

Material has high viscosity, thus higher extruding pressure is needed, thereby allowing printing more layers than with agar. Also, the heating is not required for the process of extrusion. After drying the structure deflates up to 90% forming a flat rigid piece. The rigidity depends on the initial amount of layers - the piece is more rigid when it has more layers in it.

Material has fine homogeneous texture which benefits extrusion, but the optimum printing temperature for agar medium is 37 degrees Celcius, otherwise material cools down and solidifies which causes crumbling while printing, which in its turn prevents different layers from bonding with each other

Methylcellulose after plotting

Methylcellulose after 2 days

Methylcellulose after plotting

Methylcellulose after 2 days

Agar after 1 day

Agar after 3 days

Methylcellulose after extruding

Methylcellulose after 3 days

MATERIAL TESTS// GROWING ALGAE

Simultaneously with testinng extrusion capabilities of growth mediums for algae cultivation, I was testing the growth of algae culture Chlorella Vulgaris in different kinds of water in order to explore the needs and requirements of the material I was working with. Cultivating algae culture in - Distilled water (negative growth results) Distilled water has the ph 0, which is not suitable for algae. In this case all the nutrients had to be added to the water to maintain the culture alive. - Tap water (positive growth results) - Rain water (positive growth results) Rain water provides nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus required for algae growth. An air pump was used to circulate algae solution and to provide ample â&#x20AC;&#x153;dirtyâ&#x20AC;? air including CO2.

Algae cells under the microscope

Centrifuge

In order not to damage algae cells, centrifuging samples should be done at a speed of 4000 rpm for 5 min at 4째C

8 hours of centrifuging in order to fill one container with condensed algae culture

Condensed algae culture 46

Before and after centrifuging

concentrated algae cells

Algae samples after centrifuging

MATERIAL TESTS// TESTING ALGAE GROWTH IN GELS

Testing algae growth rate within gel substances was crucial for further development of the research, because it was very important to understand if microalgae could survive and reproduce in the environment different from their natural habitat. To conduct this experiment 2 different types of the growth medium were prepared: 1) agar based medium 2) methylcellulose/sodium alginate mixture Both of them are are compatible with algae cells. As well as the translucent nature of gel materials is beneficial for light transmittance. Growth mediums were extruded with a syringe onto methacrylate plates which eventually were placed in transparent boxes to provide algae culture with extensive sunlight. Syringes with different tip diameter were used to see if algae growth rate depends on the amount of the growth medium, its thickness and quality. After exrtuding the medium onto plates, condensed algae culture was injected via syringe. Afterwards boxes were kept in the reach of sunlight and sprayed with water every 3 days to keep the gel moisturized. Observation of the boxes lasted for more than a month. This test showed positive results on algae growth and demonstrated that microalgae culture can be embedded in 3d scaffolds with predesigned geometry by the additive technique. The alginate matrix has proven its suitability for cultivation of the embedded algaeâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;as indicated by cell growth.

Algae clusters // Day 10 50

MATERIAL TESTS// TESTING ALGAE GROWTH Algae growth cycle Algae culture was injected into 4 different growth mediums and was put into plexi glass boxes in order to prevent gels from drying out. Water was sprayed onto patterns every 3 days to maintain humidity levels. Pictures were taken on the 1st, 10th, 20th and 40th days of the experiment. Day 1 - Algae culture was inserted into the growth mediums with a syringe. Color of the patterns is white (methylcellulose) or translucent (agar); Day 10 - immense algae growth observed in agar mediums; moderate growth observed in methylcellulose mediums; Day 20 - agar medium aquired yellow tint which means that nutrients were depleting by that moment, which caused the death of algae culture; Day 40 - yellow color is observed in agar mediums which meant that algae reached the end of its life cycle because of the nutrientsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; depletion - thereby algae had no ability to reproduce. Conclusions As it can be seen, the test showed positive results, which proved the statement that algae could grow in gel substances with nutrients added to the mixture. The fact the algae were able to reproduce in biodegradable polymers, thus forming a synthetic ecosystem, is truly fascinating, since this synergy doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t occur in nature. Also this experiment raises the inevitable question of a life cycle of living organisms. Unlike traditional architectural materials, bio materials operate within a different set of variable states. When working with bio materials, the dimension of time, variation, and decay become new material-defining properties.

Day 1

Agar medium 1

Hydrogel medium 2

Hydrogel medium 1

Agar medium 2

Day 20

Hydrogel medium 2

Agar medium 1

Hydrogel medium 1

Agar medium 2

Day 10

Hydrogel medium 2

Agar medium 1

Agar medium 2

Hydrogel medium 1

Day 40

Agar medium 1

Hydrogel medium 2

Agar medium 2 Hydrogel medium 1

ROBOTIC FABRICATION

ROBOTIC FABRICATION// ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING

“While industrial manufacturing has for decades focused on substractive technologies, carving parts out of raw materials; Nature employs additive strategies to form diverse and complex structures.”1 Additive manufacturing is a term used to describe any one of various processes used to synthesize a three-dimensional object. In 3D printing, successive layers of material are laid down under computer control. These objects can be of almost any shape or geometry, and are produced from a 3D model or other electronic data source.2

Since I was aiming to 3D print an unconventional in all senses material (methyl cellulose/ sodium alginate mixture) on a large scale, the desicion to use an industrial robot was taken. A robotic arm available at IAAC is an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose manipulator programmable in six axes, which gives high precision, speed and power control during the printing process. It allows to achieve a better, more precise and safer realization of designs that are based on the algorithms of the available software. Additive manufacturing allows to generate 3D physical objects out of 3D digital models through the deposition of material in a layer-by-layer fashion. Early use of 3D printing in the form of rapid prototyping focused on preproduction of visualization models. More recently, additive manufacturing is being used to fabricate enduse products in aircraft, dental restorations, medical implants, automobiles, and even fashion products. Within the fields of engineering and industrial design, the shift from prototyping towards direct manufacturing was mainly driven by improvements in materials. This shift is much more difficult when we try to build architecture instead of architectural models through additive fabrication. Scale is one of the main differences between industrial design and architecture. In addition to that, “additive manufacturing for regenerated biomaterials is still in its infancy”3, which means that one of the challanges of the project was to explore the possibilities of 3D printing of raw biodegradable natural polymers (methyl cellulose/ sodium alginate) taking into acount their mechanical properties, availability, and biodegradability. Despite the fact that 3D printing technique provides the ability to print highly complex geometrical forms, a print’s size usually constrained by the dimensions of the printing base. This is one of the main limitations of additive manufacturing. And in the case of my project, the deposition of the material was confined in in X and Y dimensions (ize of the base 1m by 0.7m). In order to solve this problem and achieve the biggest prin’t size possible, a new printing base was constructed. This project is an example of a new design approach. It involves robotically controlled additive manufacturing of natural hydrogel composites through an extrusion system in order to produce large-scale biodegradable objects, combining natural hydrogels and algae, thus forming a living architectural system that doesn’t exist in nature.

1 - Water-based Robotic Fabrication: Large-Scale Additive Manufacturing of Functionally-Graded Hydrogel Composites via Multi-Chamber Extrusion. (2014) – Laia Mogas-Soldevila, Jorge Duro-Royo, Neri Oxman; MIT Media Lab 2 - 3D printing. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_printing 3 - Water-based Robotic Fabrication: Large-Scale Additive Manufacturing of Functionally-Graded Hydrogel Composites via Multi-Chamber Extrusion. 56

ROBOTIC FABRICATION// DEFINING PARAMETERS

Pressure

Hight above printing surface

Hight of the layer

Speed

Capacity of the tank

Line thickness

In order to start fabrication tests with an industrial robot some parameters were to be defined:

Pressure - the optimum pressure for the pump extruder to create a constant flow of material; Speed - the optimum speed for extrusion in order to achieve constant flow of material during the deposition; Hight above printing surface - a parameter that affects the quality of printing, because incorrect settings of this parameter might cause poor quality of the print Capacity of the tank - define the total lenght of the line that can be extruded without refilling the tank of the extruder; Hight of the layer - the optimum hight of the layer in order to achieve best wuality of the print Line thickness - optimum thickness of the line so that a delicate and neat pattern can be created.

ROBOTIC FABRICATION// DEFINING PARAMETERS

Pressure

Hight above printing surface

Hight of the layer

Speed

Capacity of the tank

Line thickness

The extrusion system was attached to a Kuka 6-axis robotic arm in order to take advantage of its high precision displacement and repeatability capabilities. The extruder design was done by Sofoklis Giannakopoulos. Since the aim was to print a fine and a subtle screen, the approximate line thickness was set as 2 mm. As long as the pump extruder that was intended to be used had the diameter of 10 mm, it was needed to add a nozzle to it in order to reduce the diameter of the tip of the extruder. Therefore, I created a set of customized 3d printed nozzles. Further tests were conducted in order to define all these parameters so that the best quality of the print could be achieved and then most control over the extruding process could be obtained.

3D printed nozzle for the extruder #1

3D printed nozzle for the extruder #2

Diameter 2mmw

Clamps to fix the nozzle

Day 1

Color change Deflation

Day 2

Deflation

Color change

Day 3

ROBOTIC FABRICATION// FIRST TESTS First printing tests with a robotic arm First tests on the printing of a small part of the pattern were conducted in order to specify printing parameters. A continious line of 10 meters long was taken as a sample. Prints were done at a different speed (varying from 20 to 100 of the manual mode of the Kuka) and different pressure (from 4 to 6 bars). This difference explains different appearance of the same line, which can be seen on the pictures on the left.

On the 2nd day changes in the material could be seen: - color change: the color of the print became more transparent - deflation: lines shrank keeping overall shape

On the 3rd day changes occured more obvious - color: print resembled a piece of a thin translucent film - deflation: material shrinked up to 50%

ROBOTIC GABRICATION // FIRST TESTS//

PRINTING TEST //HELIXES// AFTER PRINTING

PRINTING TEST //HELIXES// AFTER DRYING

ROBOTIC FABRICATION// HELIXES

The next step for the experimentation was to understant the limits of the material in terms of structural height how many layers can be printed on top of each other before the structure collapses. So I decided to test it by printing helixes of different diameters ( ranging from 50 mm to 200 mm) with different distances between layers (ranging from 0.5 mm to 2 mm). As it turned out, with the given line thickness of 2 mm after reaching the hight of approximately 10 mm printed structure starts to collapse, because methylcellulose/sodium alginate mixture is too jelly and viscous to be capable of holding its own weight. Thereby, an array of helixes printed within each other transformed into one. After 3 days of drying one of the samples (which initially was 2 dimensional) transformed into a curved 3 dimensional shape. This can be explained by the difference in material distribution while printing - areas with less material dried faster and lifted up. Whereas the sample with relatively homoginiously spread hydrogel remained 2 dimensional. The phenomenon of deflation (becoming flat) is common for all the samples.

PRINTING TEST //HELIXES// AFTER PRINTING

PRINTING TEST //HELIXES// AFTER DRYING

ROBOTIC FABRICATION// VOLUME EXPANSION TEST

A volume expansion test was conducted during the research in order to understand water absorbing capabilities of the material after drying. 75 ml of water was injected onto a dry hydrogel sample. After being exposed to water, methylcellulose/ sodium alginate pixture started swelling at a slow pace. Volume expansion is moderate (up to 5 times) compared to insoluble polymers. After repeat drying the shape of the sample changed in an unpredictable way, forming a double curved surface geometry.

ROBOTIC FABRICATION// GRIDS

After understanding the limitation o the material in terms of 3 dimensionality I decided to start exploring different geometries that could be 3d printed. As well as the behaviour of the printing mixture in patterns. Thereby a simple spider-like grid was chosen due to different distances between lines’ intersections towards the center. Eventually 4 samples with different distances between layers (1.5-2mm) and different amount of layers (2-3) were printed in order to see how the methylcellulose/ alginate mixture would behave when drying. Also, in the first print gaps between lines were filled with methylcellulose without adding sodium alginate. Pure methylcellulose creates translucent plastic. Conclusions After 6 days of observation all the prints dried and thus deflated. Samples with 3 layers deformed in a linear way - one side of the print lifted up. Samples with 2 layers created 3 dimensional irregular shapes. Methylcellulose in the first sample started blending with the edges of the grid (methlcellulose/ sodium alginate), so it didn’t give clear transparent plastic when it dried. Probably this woulnd’t happen if the components of the mixture of the grid were crosslinked.

Amount of layers - 2

Amount of layers - 3

Amount of layers - 2

Amount of layers - 3

Distance between layers - 1.5mm

Distance between layers - 2mm

ROBOTIC FABRICATION// GRIDS CATALOG

Day 1 methylcellulose + sodium alginate 2 layers / 1.5 mm gaps filled with hydrogel

methylcellulose + sodium alginate 3 layers / 1.5 mm

methylcellulose + sodium alginate 2 layers / 2 mm

methylcellulose + sodium alginate 3 layers / 2 mm

Day 2

Day 4

Day 6

Day 6 (Deflation/ Deformation)

2D pattern generated in rhino/ gh

Robotically fabricated hydrogel pattern *right after printing

Hydrogel print after drying out *components of the mixture were not crosslinked

ROBOTIC FABRICATION//PRINTING TESTS// CONTINIOUS LINE

1 continious line Printing test To conduct this test a pattern was generated using rhinoceros + grasshopper. Requirements were to create a pattern with one continious line in order to reduce printing time, as well as lines were distorted with attractor points (the strength of attractors - medium) so that a dynamic pattern with multiple openings could be generated. After 3 weeks of drying some metamorphosis were observed - since the components of the compound were not crosslinked in the solution of calcium chloride, material deliquesced (deliquescence - to dissolve and become liquid by absorbing moisture from the air), but seeing that the humidity levels in the air were not too high, it didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t form a liquid solution, but dried out, making a deformed plain hydrogel sheet. Analizing this piece it can be concluded that drying process starts from edges, moving towards the center of the print. When drying, corners of the print start to lift up. Also, thin single lines tend to dry faster thus creating arches, and areas where a lot of material is concentrated create rigid parts of the print. All these observations, even though seeming to be insignificant, can be taken into consideration for future development of 3d geometries out of 2d printed pieces.

Printing parameters Pressure Printing Time (1 layer) Layer Thikness Total Height Amount of layers Size Line lengthth (1 layer) Printing speed

6 Bars 15 min 30 sec 2 mm 4 mm 2 540x740 mm 124280 mm 133 mm/sec

Conclusions when the pattern is generated as one single line + printing is fast + final result is clean and neat -

deliquescence of the material if components are not crosslinked

2D pattern generated in rhino/ gh

Robotically fabricated hydrogel pattern *right after printing

Hydrogel print after drying out

ROBOTIC FABRICATION//PRINTING TESTS// MULTIPLE LINES

Multiple lines

For this test a pattern out of many lines was generated in rhinoceros and grasshopper. The pattern consisted out of more than 1000 separate lines The mathematical logic behind the pattern was also different - the pattern was generated on a 3d surface and projected on a horizontal plane. Unlike the previous example, hydrogel didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t deliquesce (hydrogel and sodium alginate were not crosslinked after printing). The key factor why this did not happen is the distance between lines. In this case line length was halved, nevertheless printing time of one layer was tripled.

Printing parameters Pressure Printing Time (1 layer) Layer Thikness Total Height Amount of layers Size Line lengthth (1 layer) Printing speed

6 Bars 40 min 2 mm 2 mm 1 540x740 mm 58153 mm 24 mm/sec

Conclusions when the pattern is generated with multiple lines - printing speed is slow, thus printing time increases - flaws in the print due to the viscosity of the material + more complex shapes can be achieved +minimal deformation during the process of drying 77

ROBOTIC FABRICATION//PRINTING ON MDF BOARD One of the printing tests was to 3d print hydrogel paste on MDF board to see the behaviour of the material when printed on a different kind of material rather than on a plastic sheet. When the print is dry it can be easily taken off from a plastic base, but when printed on MDF (compressed wooden chips) hydrogel tends to stay moisturized longer than on plastic and when it dries, it forms a solid composite with MDF board without being deformed during the process of drying. This test shows that methylcellulose / sodium alginate and algae mix can be printed on wood, which absorbs water from the hydrogel, but at the same time keeps the material wet. This feature of the material can be used for fabricating systems in less humid areas and not requiring deformation of overall structure during the proces of drying.

ROBOTIC FABRICATION

Grasshopper definition for generating the pattern

Grasshopper script for generating the code for the Kuka

Path simulation in rhino 82

ROBOTIC FABRICATION// FINALIZING THE DESIGN

For the final design all the previous tests had to be taken into consideration. As it was discovered it was hard to achieve 3-dimensional objects when printing with hydrogel based material. Therefore I chose the direction of creating a 2d pattern with a focuse on achieving the maximum size of the print. In addition to that, I created several variations of the final design. The main features had to be as follows: - printing with one continious line in order to reduce the printing time and achieve a neat final result; - placing attractor points when generating the pattern in order to create distorted lines and thus achieve a grid-looking result; at the same time atrractor points helped to make nodes where the concentration of the printing mix would be higher and thereby that would help to maintain the final print as a whole piece without falling apart; - gradient distribution of attractor points from top to bottom to increase structural capabilities of the screen. Bigger amount of points in the bottom part of the print helped to create more openwork appearance with less material used and thereby reduced weight of the lower part of the screen - so upper part of the print was heavier than the bottom one. Various machine paths were tested and evaluated for extrusion consistency before the final print was done.

4 meters

Upper part

Lower part

Divided into equal parts in appliance with defined printing parameters

3 meters

Total linesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; lenght is 1800 m

Distance between lines is more than 2 mm

Nodes to increase structural capabilities of the screen

part 1

part 2

part 3

part 4

part 5

part 6

part 5

part 4

part 3

FINAL PRINTING

ROBOTIC FABRICATION// FINAL PRINTING

Despite the ability provided by additive manufacturing to print highly complex geometrical forms, a print’s size was generally confined by the base’s size defining the deposition in X and Y dimensions. Since the dimensions of the base in front of the robotic arm didn’t meet requirements needed for the large scale material deposition, a new base with the dimensions of 1.22mx2.44m was costructed. Prior final printing, the designed pattern was divided into equal parts (with the equal line lenght), so that each part would fit the avalaible printing area. The goal was to print a screen with the size of 3m by 4m (total are 12m2). Due to technical problems with the pump extruder 6 parts of the screen were eventually 3D printed. Each piece was the size of 2 m by 0.5 m, constisted of 2 layers. The size of the final screen is 4m by 1.5 m with total area of 6 m2. Printing time of each piece was 42 min, which means that the printing speed was 120 mm/sec. The use of the industrial robot with provides high precision and control over printing geometry. The viscosity of the mix ensures high printing speed, much faster than it is associated with conventional 3D printing technique.

FINAL PRINTING// PARAMETERS

Printing parameters Pressure Printing Time (1 layer) Layer Thikness Total Height Amount of layers Size Line length (1 layer) Area

6 Bars 21 min 2.5 mm 5 mm 2 500x2000 mm 151 407 mm 1 m2

Final print Printing Time - 1 piece - total Size Line length (total) Area

42 min 4 hours 12 min 1500x4000 mm 1 816 882 mm = 1.8 km 6 m2

FINAL IAAC EXHIBITION

FINAL PRINT

FINAL EXHIBITION

CONTROL

CONTROL// RESPONSE TO ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

Biology is the science of life. It concerns itself with the living. “The long-proclaimed biological paradigm for architectural design must for this reason go beyond using shallow biological metaphors or a superficial biomorphic formal repertoire”.1 The consequence is a literal understanding of the design product as a synthetic lifeform embedded within dynamic and generative ecological relations. Ecology is the branch of biological science that studies the distribution and abundance of living organisms, as well as the interactions between organisms and their environment. Environment is a collective term for the conditions in which an organism lives. It encompasses the complex physical, chemical and biological surroundings that make up the habitat of an organism at any given time.2 “It is precisely the complex and dynamic exchange between an organism and its environment, and the functionality that evolves from it, that makes synthetic life interesting for architecture. Understandably, the very notion of architecture that is alive may sound scary to some and blasphemous to others. However, what is proposed here is not a version of Mary Shelley’s Modern Prometheus. Instead, it involves embedding into buildings the biochemical processes and functionality of life for the advantage of humans, other species and the environment.”3 The objective of this research was to create an environmentally controlled ecosytem which would be in equilibrium with its surroundings, responding to its changes and adapting to it. To do so, I intented to use aerial algae integrated into the growth medium as a biomaterial in order to create a living screen, that would react to changes in the enviroment. As it was stated above, one of the key features of aerial algae in comparison with aquatic forms is that when environmental conditions are adverse, algae goes into a form of hibernation (a state of inactivity and metabolic depression)4 until conditions are once again favorable. This is a very important characteristic in the realm of architecture in those climate zones where the temperature difference between seasons is sufficiently big. Which means that in order to stay alive, algae must adapt to survive long periods of metabolic inactivity either in a desiccated state at temperatures above 0ºC or frozen at temperatures below 0ºC. Moreover, micro algae must be able to survive the transition from a desiccated or frozen state to an active hydrated condition without loss of cellular integrity and viability. These transitions often occur repeatedly over short time spans. Terrestrial, aerial and subaerial algae possess a number of genes that code for specific substances that maintain cellular integrity, structure, and viability through these extreme transitions. Another distinctive attribute of aerial forms of algae is that some species can remain active without liquid water, provided that the amount of water vapor in the air (the relative humidity) is above 70%.5 In other words, aerial algae are much better suited for use in terms of maintenance, since it doesn’t require a constant flow of water. As a result, there’s no need to use water pumps (to supply algae with liquid water) and air pumps (to supply organisms with air and movement, that are vital for aquatic forms) to keep the system alive. So here we can speak about environmentally contolled system that can be switched on and off simply by exposure to certain levels of humidity, sun exposure and temperature. 98

With this being said, it becomes clear that the artificial peseravtion of the system, e.g. water pumps (to supply algae with liquid water) and air pumps (to supply organisms with air and movement, that are vital for aquatic forms), is no longer needed. This means that aerial algae are much better suited for use in terms of maintenance, because they dont have to deal with this artificiality which is in my opinion one of the biggest flaws of the current algae cultivation technology - it is too complex. In my thesis I propose a relatively simple system, that is controlled by the environment without being damaged. An extra devices of course can be added into it, in order to make it “smarter” (humudity/temperaure/ CO2 sensor to obtain data on air quialuty). All these factors combined together give an idea of an extremly intelligent and environmentally responsive biological system that could be integrated in the built environment, where a living material becomes a design material thus transforming a building into a biotechnological object. And vulnerability and life cycle of biomaterials become new design tools, and influence the way in which we are challenging “living architecture” .The intelligence of this system is represented not by technological asstes but by nature itself. This could be seen as a “nervous system” embedded into the bio material.

1 - “Tecnhiques and Technologies in Morphogenetic Design”, Michael Hensel (Editor), Achim Menges (Editor), Michael Weinstock (Editor), 2006, p18 2 - “Tecnhiques and Technologies in Morphogenetic Design”, Michael Hensel (Editor), Achim Menges (Editor), Michael Weinstock (Editor), 2006, p25 3 - “Tecnhiques and Technologies in Morphogenetic Design”, Michael Hensel (Editor), Achim Menges (Editor), Michael Weinstock (Editor), 2006, p25 4 - Hibernation, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hibernation 5 - http://www.botany.wisc.edu/graham/algae/chapter23terrestrialalgalecology.html

DRY ENVIRONMENT// DORMANT STATE

100

HUMID ENVIRONMENT// ACTIVE STATE

101

CONTROL// SYMBIOSIS

As it was mentioned above, algae can form a symbiotic relationship with different kinds of organisms, e.g. fungi thereby forming a hybrid form of life named lichens. “Lichens are fungi that have discovered agriculture.”1 Most of the fungi in this relationship are not able to survive without an algal partner. Unlike fungi, algae have the ability to produce their own food through the process photosynthesis. This is very useful for the fungal part of the lichen, since it needs this food to survive. The fungus harvests it, sending out chemicals to help them diffuse through the permeable cell walls of the algae. Algae in its turn benefits by being protected from the environment by the filaments of the fungi, which also gather moisture and nutrients from the environment, and (usually) provide an anchor to it. Despite the fact that most of the algae can survive on their own, when cohabiting with the fungus they can significantly extend the range of the environments they can live in. Thus, lichens are located on every continent on Earth, including both the Arctic and Antarctic. They survive in all climates and altitudes. Specific lichens have their specific requirements, but in general they need three things - undisturbed surfaces, time, and clean air. That’s the reason why lichens have been used worldwide as air pollution monitors because they concentrate a variety of pollutants in their tissues. Even relatively low levels of sulfur, nitrogen, and fluorine-containing pollutants (especially SO2 and F gas, and acidic or fertilizing compounds), adversely affect many species, altering lichen community composition, growth rates, reproduction, and morphological appearance2. Put simply, lichens make air quality visible. In addition to that, lichens are easy and inexpensive to collect for tissue analysis. Thereby, these organisms can be used as a natural source of data collection for determining spatial distribution of pollutants either locally or over a broad area. Because of their association with cyanobacteria, lichens can provide themselves with nitrogen compounds. Lichens contribute to the nitrogen cycle by converting the nitrogen in the air into nitrates that contribute to their growth and development. Their ability to “fix” atmospheric nitrogen is beneficial to other plant life as well. When it rains, nitrogen is leached from both living and dead lichens and is available to plant life in the immediate areas. When lichens die, “they contribute decayed organic matter to the area they inhabited, which enables mosses and seeds from vascular plants to begin developing among the pockets of new soil”3, which transforms “Living Screen” into a platform for new bio proccesses to appear, rather than just complete its life cycle.

1 - http://www.botany.wisc.edu/graham/algae/chapter23terrestrialalgalecology.html 2-Air Pollution-Related Lichen Monitoring in National Parks, Forests, and Refuges: Guidelines for Studies Intended for Regulatory and Management Purposes, Tamara Blett, Ellen Porter, Linda Geiser, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Department of Agriculture, June 2003 3 - “Lichen Biology and the Environment”, Lichens of North America Information, Sylvia and Stephen Sharnoff, [12] 102

103

104

FORM FINDING// PATTERN EXPLORATION

105

106

PATTERN EXPLORATION// SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY

When working with a bio material it seems logical to refer to nature as a source of inspiration when searching for a solution in terms of form finding. And since algae are a common phenomenon in natural ecosystems, I started looking into different shapes they take in their habitats. That led me to the discovery of the phenomenon of algae blooms which happens in aquatic ecosystems due to high concentration of algae in a certain area. I tried to understand the rules of patterns’ formation and logics behind them. “The harmony of the world is made manifest in Form and Number, and the heart and soul and all the poetry of Natural Philosophy are embodied in the concept of mathematical beauty.”1 It is also stated by Alan Turing that any biological pattern cn be described mathematically. Taking that into account, it can be presumed that with means of computational design the development of a living organism can be predicted and simulated. With the emergence of these tools it becomes possible to fuse biology, mathematics and architecture in a new speculative way . Hence making an attempt to create living systems and integrate biological principles and nature’s intelligence, which can be translated into numbers, in architecture. Of course it’s hard to predict weather conditions that affect the growth of algae (or any other biological substance), but using new methodologies and strategies of design such as parametric thinking we can shift from pure formalism in terms of nature’s role in architecture towards creation truly living and evolving systems (so called synthetic biology). And to pursue seriously the proposition of synthetic-life architectures it is important to take a close look at biological processes and materials taking place in ecosystems, all the way down to the molecular scale, involving biochemistry in the understanding of the advanced functionality and performance capacity of biological organisms, where central role is played by processes of self-organisation and the functional properties that emerge from them. 2 In its turn self-organisation is a process in which the internal organisation of a system increases automatically without being guided or managed by an external source. It is central to the description of biological systems, from subcellular to ecosystems. Self-organising systems typically display emergent properties, which arise when a number of simple entities or agents cooperate in an environment, forming more complex behaviours as a collective. Emergent properties arise when a complex system reaches a combined threshold of diversity, organisation and connectivity. Thereby the goal of my research was to create a novel biological ecosystem that does not occure naturally, but has the capability of self-organisation due to its ability to replicate and behave in accordance with the environmental conditions.

1 - “On Growth abd Form”, D’Arcy Wentworth Thompson 2 - “Tecnhiques and Technologies in Morphogenetic Design”, Michael Hensel (Editor), Achim Menges (Editor), Michael Weinstock (Editor), 2006, p19 107

108

PATTERN EXPLORATION// TURING PATTERNS

During my research I referred to studies done on pattern exploration in nature done by Alan Turing. Alan Turing was not a biologist, but a mathematician and the founder of computer science. In his article “The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis” Turing describes the way in which non-uniformity (natural patterns such as stripes, spots and spirals) may arise naturally out of a homogeneous, uniform state. He believed development could be reduced to mathematical axioms and physical laws. The central idea behind the theory is that two homogeneously distributed substances within a certain space, one “locally activated” and the other capable of “longrange inhibition,” can produce novel shapes and gradients. The results of these substance interactions are dependent on just four variables per morphogen – the rate of production, the rate of degradation, the rate of diffusion and the strength of their activating/inhibiting interactions. What is special about such a model is that it can explain pattern formation without a preformed pattern. That is, the reaction-diffusion model can explain how those initial patterns form in the first place. While fly development begins with a maternal injection of bicoid into the oocyte, a reaction-diffusion system can theoretically give rise to a pattern without an initial asymmetry.1 Another reason for the interest in reaction-diffusion systems is that although they represent nonlinear partial differential equations, there are often possibilities for an analytical treatment. So taking that into account I developed a series of tests using Processing for pattern formation and growth simulation in order to explore possible ways of biological development that can occure in the living system I created. These tests don’t give an answer on how the system is going to evolve, but rather show what can be done in terms of computational design.

1 - “The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis””, Alan Turing, 1952

109

PATTERN EXPLORATION// VASCULAR MORPHOLOGY

Swirl

Linearity

110

Gravity

Films vs Tubes

111

FORM FINDING// GROWTH SIMULATION

112

113

114

DISCUSSIONS// CONCLUSIONS

115

DISCUSSIONS // I believe that 3D printing of natural polymers such as methylcellulose and sodium alginate (or other material compositions) with encapsulated micro algae culture opens new frontiers not only for tissue engineering, but also for the emerging field of “living” architecture, where design happens at the intersection of technology and biology. Based on information obtained during the project I see several possible ways of continuing the research. One of them could be an application of algae based prints on typical building materials (eg walls made of tinder or concrete/ brick) to create a living envelope. There’s an ongoing research by Sandra Manso in The Structural Technology Group at the Universitat Politèctica de Catalunya (UPC) in Barcelona, where scientists are developing a multilayered concrete panel system designed to support the growth of mosses, fungi, and lichens. The so-called biological concrete is based on the use of two types of cement: conventional Portland cement and magnesium phosphate cement (MPC)—which has a slight acidity and supports biological growth. I propose integration of algae instead of moss and fungi or simultaneous usage of those organisms since they can create a symbiotic system.

Another direction for the research would be investigation of the potential of 3d printed photovoltaic systems in order to produce energy using algae embedded in hydrogel. As it is described in “Biophotovoltaics: Energy from Algae”, biophotovoltaic (BPV) devices are biological solar cells that generate electricity from the photosynthetic activity of living microorganisms (e.g. algae). When light falls on the algae, a series of reactions take place which split water into protons (hydrogen ions, H+), electrons and oxygen. These are vital ingredients for transforming carbon dioxide and other inorganic materials into things like carbohydrates and proteins which allow the algae to grow. Biophotovoltaic devices exploit this charge separation to generate electrical energy. This is achieved by placing the algae inside one of two electrode-containing chambers separated by a membrane that only allows protons to pass through it. Electrons produced during photosynthesis flow through an external circuit in order to re-combine with protons and oxygen at the reductive electrode (cathode) to form water. The resultant current flowing in the external circuit can be used to power electronic devices.1

1 - “Biophotovoltaics: Energy from Algae”, Alex Driver, Paolo Bombelli, Catalyst, April 2011 2 - “Tecnhiques and Technologies in Morphogenetic Design”, Michael Hensel (Editor), Achim Menges (Editor), Michael Weinstock (Editor), 2006, p19 116

117

Light sensor

CO2 sensor

Data logging shield

Arduino Humidity/ temperature sensor

118

DISCUSSIONS// AIR QUALITY MAPPING

In order to find and appropriate location for the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Living Screenâ&#x20AC;? mapping of the air quiality can be done. Since algae need certain conditions regarding light/humidity/ temperature and CO2 levels, I created a device using Arduino uno with data logging shield welded to it (in order to be able to collect data obtained from sensors on an SD card for further analysis), CO2 sensor, light sensor and humidity/ temperature sensor.

119

DISCUSSIONS// PRINTING ON 3D SURFACES

Based on the results obtained from the described research, one of the possible scenarios for future research would be generation of 3D surfaces with patterns on them using solar exposure, humidity levels, temperature, maximum/minimum surface area and area covered with algae based gel as inputs for pattern generation. This would lead to material tests on 3 dimensional surfaces (that could be fabricated using CNC milling machine) with the robotic arm, when the extrusion of the material is done not on a plain surface but in 3 dimensional space. Patterns could be generated during the processes of solar analysis, shade analysis and humidity levels analysis.

Levels of Transparency Combination of scales -flatness -3dimensionality

120

DISCUSSIONS// PROGRAMMED MATERIAL DEFORMATIONS

Also, the intruguing feature of the project was the behaviour of the material onserved during the process of drying according to its distribution while printing. As it was described above, methylcellulose/ sodium alginate mixture deforms during the process of drying if the print has areas with different amount of the material. The deformation is determined by the difference in layering - for example, areas with less material dry faster and tend to lift up above the printing surface, thus creating a doubllecurved shell. In my opinion, this could be a very interesting topic for a research - how to control these deformations so that a desired shape could be created. In order to achieve that patterns should be created in the software in 2d and then the process of drying has to be simulated. Within the framework of material behavior simulation there can be done an exploration of different types of small elements that can be assembled together for purposes of temporary biodegradable structures. This would involve the development of joinery between these elements, as well as structural analysis of overall system. But, this line of research doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t require the presence of algae in the mixture.

Transparency Maximum Surface Area Sun Exposure Humidity

121

CONCLUSIONS// Throughout the research, an algae living system was developed. During the project I managed to create a new ecosystem that does not occur in nature by combining living organisms (micro algae) with biodegradable organic materials such as methyl cellulose (which is derived from cellulose - a structural component of cell walls of green plants, algae, etc) and sodium alginate (a polysaccharide refined from brown seaweeds). This resulted in the appearance of the first large scale hydrogel print with a size of 1.5 by 4 meters. The main features of the project: - Algae based paste for 3D printing with a robotic arm. The mixture consists of 3 components: Methyl Cellulose (powder hydrogel), Sodium Alginate (gelling agent) and aerial algae (donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t require constant water flow, hibernate when not exposed to a certain humidity level); -Robotic fabrication 3D printing of algae based gels using a pneumatic extruder attached to a 6-axis robotic arm (Kuka); - Pattern formation Generating different types of patterns regarding opacity of the screen, deformation of the material (shrinking/deflation), size of the final piece, etc. Taking into consideration humidity levels and sun exposure.; - Control Environmentally controlled system that can be switched on/off simply by exposure to water/sun. The key point of my research was to investigate the ability of algae to grow and function not only in an aquatic environment but also as a gel-like substance. To prove this, a series of tests were conducted. When microalgae culture was injected via syringe into the growth medium; all samples were contained in transparent plexi-glass boxes. These tests showed positive results on algae growth rate and let define a life cycle of the biomaterial - approximately 1.5 months (after that period of time algae diea due to the depletion of nutrients). The final print resulted in the first large scale hydrogel print with the size of 1.5m x 4m. It was designed according to previous material tests that were conducted in order to specify printing parameters: -Speed -Pressure -Capacity of the tank -Height above printing surface -Height of the layer -Line thickness In the process of material testing with the robotic arm it was established that better printing results can be achieved by printing a pattern with one continuous line, creating so called nodes (line intersections) enhancing the structural capabilities of the screen. For the final print the pattern (approx. 1.8 km) was divided into equal parts in order to fit the available printing area (0.5m x 2m).

122

Moreover this fabrication method demonstrated some advantages when compared to a typical water pump systems that are using aquatic algae: - Fabrication time is faster (4 hours 12 min for 1.8km of lines) - Reduction of overall system complexity (does not call for large amounts of technical detail) - Maintenance of the system is relatively simple (the system is self-organizing; able to create a symbiotic system with other organisms such as fungi and moss). In Conclusion The vision of living architecture seems less distant today than ever before. Nonetheless all the technological developments only indicate one direction into a vast new territory that lies ahead of designers and architects. If we are to initiate the pursuit of actualizing the vision of living architecture, a significant amount of work still needs to be done. Whilst many designers focus on the technological and material challenges, it seems that possibly the biggest challenge often seems to be overlooked: the ways to develop the mechanisms for artificial ecosystems to sustain themselves, develop, adapt, and ultimately coesxist in tight symbiosis with their users and environment. In this sense the project has been an attempt to go beyond traditional definition of architecture (which tends to emphasize stability, solidity and durability) and explore the possibilities of inter-disciplinary work fusing biology, chemistry, architecture and digital fabrication in order to produce innovative architectural solutions. The concept involves an exploration of the possibilities of design with living matter and identification of mechanisms on which artificial ecosystems could operate, self-organize and evolve. What I learned during the research is that the dimension of time, variation, and decay become new material-defining properties, when working with a biomaterial. Thereby the project has shown me that to realize living architectural ecosystems, new approaches and new tools are needed to facilitate the design, evaluation, and deployment of behaviors for complex distributed architectural systems. I wanted to demonstrate that living systems no longer need to be maintained separate from human intervention, but on the contrary it becomes possible to speak about generative involvement of designers into creating them. Undoubtedly it is a tough task due to novelty of this approach, the absence of precursors at an architectural scale, and accordingly a lack of applied knowledge, but I believe that if architects can surpass the fear of â&#x20AC;&#x153;aliveâ&#x20AC;? , living systems can occupy the space of architectural design.

123

BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS 1. ALIVE: Advancements in adaptive architecture (2014) – Manuel Kretzer, Ludger Hovestadt 2. Kinetic Architecture: Design for Active Envelopes (2013) – Russel Fortmeyer, Charles D. Linn 3. On Growth and Form (1915) – D’Arcy Wentworth Thompson 4. A New Kind of Science (2002) – Stephen Wolfram 5. BioDesign: Nature + Science + Creativity (2012) – William Myers 6. Super Cells – Building with Biology (2014) – Nina Tandon, Mitchell Joachim (TED) 7. Algae House: About the First Building with A Bioreactor Façade (2014) – Splitterwerk & Arup, Olaf Scholz 8. Ornament: The Politics of Architecture and Subjectivity – AD Primer (2013) – Wiley John + Sons 9. The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis (from “Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London”) (1952) – Alan Turing 10. Smart Architecture (2003) – Ed van Hinte, Marc Neelen, Jacques Vink, Piet Vollaard 11. Biomimetics in Architecture (2011) – Petra Gruber, Springer Vienna Architecture 12. Tecnhiques and Technologies in Morphogenetic Design (2006) - Michael Hensel, Achim Menges, Michael Weinstock

124

PAPERS 1. Green bioprinting: Fabrication of photosynthetic algae-laden hydrogel scaffolds for biotechnological and medical applications (2015) – Engineering in Life Sciences, Eng. Life Sci. 2015, 15, 177–183 2. The distribution and ecological factors of aerial algae inhabiting stoneworks in Korea (2012) – Mi-Ae Song1, Ok-Jin Kim1 and Ok-Min Lee; Department of Life Science, College of Natural Science, Kyonggi University, Suwon 443-760, Korea 3. Contrast and comparison of aerial algal communities from two distinct regions in the USA, the Great Smokey Mountains National Park (TN) and the Lake Superior region (2013) – Jennifer A. Ress ,Rex L. Lowe; Fottea, Olomouc, 13(2): 165–172, 2013 4. Water-based Robotic Fabrication: Large-Scale Additive Manufacturing of Functionally-Graded Hydrogel Composites via Multi-Chamber Extrusion. (2014) – Laia Mogas-Soldevila, Jorge Duro-Royo, Neri Oxman; MIT Media Lab 5. Air Pollution-Related Lichen Monitoring in National Parks, Forests, and Refuges: Guidelines for Studies Intended for Regulatory and Management Purposes. (2003) – Tamara Blett, Linda Geiser, Ellen Porter; U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service Air Resources Division, Denver, Colorado, U.S. Department of Agriculture U.S. Forest Service, Corvallis, Oregon.w

125

PICTURE REFERENCES PAGE

NAME

BIQ House -http://www.arup.com/Projects/SolarLeaf.aspx -http://syndebio.com/biq-algae-house-splitterwerk/ -https://www.flickr.com/photos/axelschmies/8595564221

Urban Algae Folly -http://inhabitat.com/futuristic-urban-algae-folly-grows-food-fuel-and-shade/ WaterLily 2.0 -http://cesaregriffa.com/2014/04/07/algaetecture-expo-2015-preview-algae-systems-to-design-and-feed-the-city/

103

Lichen ecology -https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Rhizocarpon_geographicum?uselang=ru#/media/File:Map_lichen.jpg

106

Algae blooms -http://flickrhivemind.net/Tags/phosphates/Timeline -http://flickrhivemind.net/Tags/phosphates/Timeline -https://ru.pinterest.com/pin/567946202979220101/ -http://marinelife.about.com/od/plants/p/greenalgae.htm

117

Bio Concrete -http://www.dezeen.com/2013/01/03/spanish-researchers-develop-biological-concrete-for-moss-covered-walls/

BioPhotovoltaics -http://inhabitat.com/designers-display-7-innovative-everyday-uses-for-biophotovoltaic-panels-powered-by-algae/

126

127

128