CHILD-CENTERED, DEMOCRATIC PRESCHOOL CLASSROOMS The Step by Step Approach
CHILD-CENTERED, DEMOCRATIC PRESCHOOL CLASSROOMS The Step by Step Approach
This publication was supported by the Open Society Foundations
Distributed by the International Step by Step Association (ISSA) First published 2019 Š Open Society Foundation London 2019 This publication is protected by copyright laws and treaties around the world. Up to two chapters or thirty pages may be reproduced by any method without fee or prior permission for teaching purposes but not for sale or any commercial purpose. For copying or using in any other circumstances, prior written permission must be obtained from Open Society Foundation London, with requests made via the International Step by Step Association (ISSA).
Cover photo: A group of preschool children playing outside on a fall day. (Photo: FatCamera/iStock by Getty Images)
Design: GrasshopperDesign.net
Contents
Foreword
ix
Acknowledgments
xii
Introduction
1
Section I How Young Children Develop and Learn
11
Chapter 1 A Good Start 12 Nature and Nurture 12 The Developing Brain 13 Attachment and Resiliency 14 Self-Regulation 15 Implications for Preschool Educators 15 Typical Development and Variations 16 Chapter 2 Theories of Development and Learning Used in the Step by Step Approach Age and Stage Theories Sociocultural Theories Constructivism and Social Constructivism Other Major Contributors to the Step by Step Approach The Importance of Play
18 19 21 22 23 26
Section II Family and Community Partnerships
29
Chapter 3 Respecting Families and Communities as Competent Important Beliefs to Have About Families Practices that Build Strong Partnerships with Families Families as Decision Makers Partnerships with Communities
31 31 33 37 39
iii
CHILD-CENTERED, DEMOCRATIC PRESCHOOL CLASSROOMS: THE STEP BY STEP APPROACH
Chapter 4 Respectful and Reciprocal Communication 41 Key Factors in Respectful and Reciprocal Communication 42 Initial Communication with Families: Setting the Stage 43 Ongoing Communication between the Preschool and Family 46 Formal Communication with Individual Families 49 Transitioning from Preschool to Primary School 49 Confidentiality 51 Chapter 5 Family and Community Involvement Expanding the Definition of Involvement Family and Community Members in the Preschool Strengthening Families’ Roles as First Educators
53 54 55 62
Section III Environments Where All Children Thrive
67
Chapter 6 An Environment Where All Belong Environments that Show Respect An Inclusive and Diverse Community Reinforcing Identity Development and Not Stereotypes Expanding Children’s Thinking about Diversity, Bias and Social Justice
70 70 74 77
Chapter 7 A Democratic Culture Establishing Classroom Rules with the Children Conflict Resolution and Reconciliation Promoting Positive Behavior Establishing Routines and Schedules
81 81 85 86 91
Chapter 8 The Learning Environment Setting the Stage for Learning An Environment that Promotes Active Learning The Outdoors and Community as a Learning Environment Adapting the Environment for Children with Special Needs
iv
77
94 95 98 102 104
CONTENTS
Section IV Strategies that Build on Children’s Competences
107
Chapter 9 Observing, Documenting and Reflecting 109 What is Assessment in Early Childhood Education? 110 Observing 110 Documenting and Recording Observations 112 Documenting Learning 117 Reflecting 120 Chapter 10 Responsive Approach to Planning Individualizing and Differentiating Daily, Short-term and Long-term Plans Integration of Curriculum through Play in Learning Centers and through Projects Expanding Required Curriculum Content into Integrated Studies
122 123 127
Chapter 11 Responsive Teaching Strategies Play as a Teaching Strategy Facilitating Higher-Order Thinking Critical Thinking Cooperative Learning
136 137 140 146 147
Section V Professional Development
149
Chapter 12 Critical Reflection as Professional Development What is Critical Reflection? Why Critically Reflect on our Practice? Traditional Professional Development Opportunities Reflection as a Collaborative, Constructive Process Using the ISSA Principles of Quality Pedagogy to Reflect on our Practice
151 152 153 154 155
Chapter 13 Professional Development Portfolios and Action Research The Professional Development Portfolio Organizing our Portfolio using the ISSA Principles of Quality Pedagogy Sharing our Portfolios Action/Educator Research
v
129 134
161
163 163 168 169 169
CHILD-CENTERED, DEMOCRATIC PRESCHOOL CLASSROOMS: THE STEP BY STEP APPROACH
Section VI The Step by Step Approach in Practice: Core Content Competences and Integrated Learning Centers Chapter 14 Language and Literacy Competences The Role of Interacting with Children (Listening and Speaking) in Emergent Literacy How Literacy Competences Develop Supporting Children’s Interest, Learning and Development in Literacy Setting up Literacy Centers How to Work with Children who are Learning to Speak a New Language Integrating Language and Literacy in Developmental Domains and other Academic Content Areas Including Families and Communities in Children’s Language and Literacy Development Chapter 15 Mathematical Competences How Mathematical Competences Develop Supporting Children’s Interest, Learning and Development in Mathematics Setting up a Mathematics Center Integrating Mathematics in Developmental Domains and other Academic Content Areas Including Families and Communities in Children’s Mathematical Development Chapter 16 Civic and Cultural Competences through Social Imaginative Play What is Social Imaginative Play? How Social Imaginative Play Develops Supporting Children’s Interest, Learning and Development in Social Imaginative Play Setting up Social Imaginative Play Centers Integrating Social Imaginative Play in Developmental Domains and other Academic Content Areas Including Families and Communities in Children’s Civic and Cultural Development
vi
173 175 176 177 179 183 185 186 188 190 191 192 195 198 200
201 202 203 204 207 210 213
CONTENTS
Chapter 17 Science Competences How Science Competences Develop Supporting Children’s Interest, Learning and Development in Science Science All Around Setting up Science Discovery Centers Integrating Science in Developmental Domains and other Academic Content Areas Including Families and Communities in Children’s Science Development
214 215 215 217 218 219 223
Chapter 18 Creative Arts Competences 225 How Competences in the Creative Arts Develop 225 The Visual Arts 226 Supporting Children’s Interest, Learning and Development in the Creative Arts 227 Setting up a Visual Arts Center 230 Integrating the Visual Arts in Developmental Domains and other Academic Content Areas 232 Music 234 Supporting Children’s Interest, Learning and Development in Music 234 Integrating Music in Developmental Domains and other Academic Content Areas 237 Creative Movement 239 Supporting Children’s Interest, Learning and Development in Creative Movement 239 Integrating Creative Movement in Developmental Domains and other Academic Content Areas 241 Including Families and Communities in Children’s Creative Arts Development 243 Chapter 19 Technology Competences Concerns with Technology and Interactive Media Recommendations on Using Technology and Interactive Media in Early Childhood Programs Supporting Children’s Interest, Learning and Development in Technology Integrating Technology in Developmental Domains and other Academic Content Areas Including Families and Communities in Children’s Technology Development
vii
244 245 246 247 249 253
CHILD-CENTERED, DEMOCRATIC PRESCHOOL CLASSROOMS: THE STEP BY STEP APPROACH
Chapter 20 Physical Competences in the Outdoors (or Sports Hall) Observing Children’s Physical Development and Interest in the Outdoors Teaching Children to Care for the Environment Setting up and Using the Outdoor Physical Play Area Special Considerations for Outdoor Play Setting up and Using the Inside Physical Play Area Cooperative Games Instead of Competition Ensuring Children’s Safety Integrating Physical Play in Developmental Domains and other Academic Content Areas Including Families and Communities in Children’s Physical Development
254 255 256 256 261 261 262 263 264 267
Chapter 21 Other Integrated Centers: Blocks and Sand/Water The Block Center Supporting Children’s Interest, Learning and Development in Block Play Setting up the Block Center Integrating Blocks in Developmental Domains and other Academic Content Areas The Sand and Water Center Supporting Children’s Interest, Learning and Development in Sand and Water Play Setting up the Sand and Water Centers Integrating Sand and Water Play in Developmental Domains and other Academic Content Areas
268 269
References
282
Annexes
289
Annex 1 Annex 2 Annex 3 Annex 4 Annex 5 Annex 6 Annex 7 Annex 8 Annex 9 Annex 10
Family Interest Survey Sample Daily Routine Checklist for Promoting Cultural Diversity and Cultural Competency in the Physical Environment Resources in the ISSA Quality Resource Pack Possible Materials for Language and Literacy Centers Possible Materials for Maths Manipulative Centers Ideas for Social Imaginative Play Themes Possible Materials for Science Discovery Centers Possible Materials for Visual Art Centers Possible Materials for Sand and Water Centers
viii
270 273 274 277 277 278 279
290 292 295 298 300 301 302 303 305 307
CHILD-CENTERED, DEMOCRATIC PRESCHOOL CLASSROOMS: THE STEP BY STEP APPROACH
What is Critical Reflection? Critical reflection is the process of analyzing, evaluating, reconsidering and questioning experiences and knowledge within a broad context of issues (e.g. those related to social justice, curriculum development, learning theories, politics and culture). It steps away from the more technical aspects of teaching; in other words, instead of answering “how?” questions, we explore “why?” questions. By asking “why?”, we avoid routine teaching, and introduce true reflective practice into our classroom. Asking “what?” questions also allows us to extend our reflection on a dilemma we may have. Critical, reflective “why” questions could include: “Why do children need to learn these facts or skills?” Or, “Why are they important in today’s world?” (For example, “Why do we teach the topic of the four seasons year after year?”) We could then follow with a “what” question, such as: “What would make this topic more meaningful or interesting for the children?” Reflection also involves connecting what a child is capable of doing developmentally with what we teach, as well as how we teach it. “Why are we teaching this content if a child is not developmentally ready for it?” “Why would this content not be in a child’s zone of proximal development or why may it be too easy?” “If we try to teach certain skills, such as reading, too soon, are we developing a disposition to love to read?” “Why do some children acquire certain knowledge while others do not?” “What” questions such as, “What do I need to do differently to reach a particular child?” can then follow. Reflective teaching is a concept introduced by Dewey (1933) when he made the distinction between routine action and action that is reflective. Routine action is guided primarily by impulse, tradition and authority. This means that educators try to solve problems based on a collective code (this is how we do things). Reflective action involves active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or practice in light of the reasons that support it and the further consequences to which it leads (Brajkovic, 2014.) Dewey (1933) spoke of three preconditions for reflection: openness of mind, responsibility and commitment. Openness of mind refers to actively listening to different points of view, giving full attention to alternatives, and recognizing possible mistakes in our beliefs, even those we are especially fond of. To be open means to search actively for indicators that prove to be the opposite of the ones we find ‘correct’ or ‘true’. Responsibility presumes thinking about multiple consequences of teaching: the impact on children’s self-image and intellectual development, and the social consequences on children’s lives. Reflection should encourage us to think and act differently. It is the stimulus for continued growth. In the process of reflection, we confront our understandings and subjective theories that were formed from repeated experience, and critically re-check them. Reflection is important because it is how we, as early childhood professionals, can reshape and remake our working experiences, learn from them, and integrate them back into our practice. In reflection processes, we help ourselves to form questions that guide our thinking and lead us to the construction of new knowledge, practices and values.
152
CHAPTER 12 CRITICAL REFLECTION AS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Why Critically Reflect on our Practice? Engaging in critical reflection is important because it helps us to work more effectively in ever-changing and complex environments. The reality is that we did not learn everything we need to know about how to be an educator of young children in our pre-teacher training. We also learn from our own experiences and the experiences of others. Learning is a lifelong process because change and new challenges are always occurring. Just as we expect our medical practitioners, lawyers, engineers and technicians to keep up to date with the latest research and practices, we, as early childhood professionals, also have to stay current with the research, knowledge and skills that help us to help children learn, develop and be successful in a world that is changing at an increasingly faster rate. We should understand what is the right and ethical thing to do, and be able to apply new knowledge across different circumstances. Critically reflecting on new knowledge ourselves and with our colleagues helps us deal with the increasingly complex and diverse conditions in which we work. A person who is a lifelong learner voluntarily participates in learning activities, is self-directive and reflective, and is excited about learning and changing. Lifelong learners recognize that learning should never stop. Being a professional working with young children is not just about having qualifications, skills, knowledge and experience. It is also about attitudes and values, ideology and beliefs, having a code of ethics, autonomy to interpret the best for children and families, commitment, and enjoyment of and a passion for working with children and for learning. It is essential that, as professionals working with young children, we are committed, enthusiastic, interested and enjoy our work. This will permeate the lives of the children we work with and of our colleagues. We need to demonstrate to the children we work with that critical reflection is part of the lifelong learning process. When children see us struggling to find the right response to a particular situation, it lets them know that there may be more than one right answer for different circumstances and different people. It also lets them know that learning requires taking risks and seeking out new solutions to problems. The Step by Step Approach is not about doing things in a prescribed way where everything is scripted and there is little room to make adaptations. Using pre-packaged lesson plans, textbooks, and work sheets does not address children’s individual needs or interests. Neither does having a prepared answer for all questions and challenges address the complexity of most situations. Critical reflection is necessary to understand that if we find an easy solution to a problem, it may be the wrong solution.
153
CHILD-CENTERED, DEMOCRATIC PRESCHOOL CLASSROOMS: THE STEP BY STEP APPROACH
Traditional Professional Development Opportunities Many of us will have been involved in different professional development activities after completing our initial training, such as attending workshops and conferences, taking additional courses to increase our qualifications, and even engaging in self-assessment. However, although training workshops and seminars make it easy to relay information to larger groups of people, this is not always the most effective way to improve what happens in the early childhood classroom. This is because, as professionals, we need a social support system around us to help us make changes. Otherwise we can easily revert back to old habits. Sharing and reflecting on what we have learned with others helps us to remember what we have learned and add new thinking and activities to our practice. We may also have taken professional development courses, gained certificates or received training in a specialism, such as teaching children with special needs. Some of us will have been proactive in our own professional development by reading about or researching activities that could help us be more successful as an educator. Staying current with the literature on early childhood development is an important part of providing high-quality early childhood education. However, we need to do more than just seek out new information. We also need to critically reflect on what we have learned in a workshop/seminar/conference or self-study. By asking questions such as the ones below, we have a better chance of implementing what we have learned: • “How does this information fit with my particular circumstances?” • “Does it need to be adapted to work for me?” • “Who would benefit or may even be negatively affected from a new idea proposed?” • “Is this something I can do myself or do I need to seek out colleagues to support me?” The goal of reflection is to seek new understanding and new ways to improve the quality of our practice rather than simply reviewing our current daily practice. It is more than just trying out nice new ideas on a one-off basis (Brajkovic, 2014). It is about examining the constant dilemmas we face in our practice because of the assumptions and values we bring to teaching as well as the institutional and cultural context in which the teaching occurs.
154
CHAPTER 12 CRITICAL REFLECTION AS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Reflection as a Collaborative, Constructive Process Critical reflection is a skill that can best be developed and supported with our colleagues. Just as children learn through social construction processes, so we as adults learn through reflecting together. When we ask each other for advice, ideas and help, we learn more. Our colleagues not only help us to solve problems, they are one of our best resources in becoming better educators. Historically, teaching has been done in isolation behind closed doors, with the exception of occasionally having an administrator or inspector evaluate us. Increasingly, researchers and policymakers have looked at teamwork as a way to improve teaching. Feeling supported by others can bring new ideas, motivation, energy and commitment to our work. It helps to reduce stress, and feelings of isolation and despair. Through sharing our own experiences, knowledge, skills and values with others, we become more confident in our work. By asking others for their opinions, views and experiences, and actively listening to their comments, we learn new things and become closer as a community that is working together to support the development and learning of the children we work with.
Mentoring Another type of formal professional development is mentoring. Many of us may have been mentored by a more experienced educator during our first year. Mentors are especially helpful because they have had similar experiences and can help the new preschool educator understand how to put theory into practice. Mentors can also support new educators with simple classroom management strategies. Effective mentors help new educators to believe in themselves and boost their confidence. An effective mentor asks questions and challenges the new educator, while providing guidance and encouragement. Unfortunately, intensive one-on-one mentoring over long periods is expensive, both in terms of time and human resources, so many of us may not get the opportunity to continue to get this support after our first year(s). Mentoring can, however, continue to benefit us and support us in trying new things and reflecting on what may or may not work better. Many experienced teachers introduced to the Step by Step Approach have been mentored by other practitioners who have supported them in implementing new teaching strategies. If we are unable to engage in ongoing mentoring, we can ask others we work with to give us feedback after observing us in the classroom. This process is even more helpful if we say what we want them to pay attention to during an observation, such as “Which children are talking the most?” or “What openended questions did I ask during the last 30 minutes?” The point of these kinds of observations is not to get general advice on our practice, but to help us reflect on the consequences of our actions so that we can get the results that we want. The more we can define our concerns and our ultimate goals, the easier it will be for a colleague to support us in a peer-coaching process. If a colleague has asked us to observe them, once again our role is not to give advice, demonstrate how to do something, or offer constructive criticism but to help the educator express their experiences, feelings, needs, ambitions and goals and to help build on their strengths and aspirations.
155
CHILD-CENTERED, DEMOCRATIC PRESCHOOL CLASSROOMS: THE STEP BY STEP APPROACH
Professional learning communities Another approach to reflection in groups that help educators further explore “why” and “what” questions regarding their practice is to work together as a professional learning community. Meeting with colleagues to talk about what we are doing in our classrooms is not a new idea. Most educators are required to participate in team meetings to plan lessons, share material, problem-solve, improve performance or learn a new strategy. A professional learning community is more, however, than a group of professionals that meet regularly, for example, for staff meetings or training. It is a group of educators who come together to cooperate and communicate with each other, who trust each other, and who have a sense of interdependence through combining their talents and capacities. They develop a shared vision and seek answers to the following questions: “What do we want to create?” “What kind of a preschool do we wish to become?” “What kind of a preschool do we want for our children?” “Why do we exist?” “How are we going to know when we have achieved our vision?” Professional learning communities can consist of groups of educators who work at the same preschool, groups of preschools or even online communities. They tend to be characterized by a number of core beliefs: (1) that professional development is critical to children’s learning; (2) that professional development is most effective when it is collaborative; and (3) the collaborative work should involve inquiry and problem-solving about daily teaching practice in our particular teaching context (Servage, 2008). Educators in the community share responsibility for their and their children’s learning. They test new ideas and turn their own learning into actions that improve children’s learning and development. Professional learning communities are democratic processes that work to include the voices of all of their members. Professional learning community meetings can look different depending on what the group has decided to explore. Some meetings begin with a cooperative warm-up exercise to establish a sense of unity among the group members. Then one educator (or a group of educators) may present, for example, activities they have done with their children, dilemmas they have faced, or ideas they have explored to improve their practice. Group members ask questions, seek clarification, and offer ideas for improvement, solutions, etc. There can also be discussion on a quality indicator, an article in a professional journal, a book, or video. Each member of the group then writes a SMART (specific, measureable, attainable, realistic and/or relevant and time-bound) goal to share with the others in the group (Brajkovic, 2014). A professional learning community meeting can be simplified to: • members presenting dilemmas or problems they encounter in their work • discussion of a single case from those presented by the group • group members asking open, non-interpretive questions of the person whose case was chosen to help him or her explain what they wanted to happen
156
CHAPTER 12 CRITICAL REFLECTION AS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
• an exploration of the reasons why those involved in the dilemma may have behaved in the way they did. (“What significance could this situation have for them?” “What could the various parties be thinking, feeling, and wanting?”) • a brainstorm of possible solutions. It is important in this process to ensure that the learning question and advice is not about changing others. For example, the desired solution cannot be, “I want the mother to behave differently.” It has to be about changing our perspective on the situation. For example we can state, “I want to be able to communicate better with this mother.” Reflection is incorporated in the structure of learning community meetings on three levels, as described by Cowan (1998). 1. Reflection in action: During meetings, the educators (based on previous experience and an understanding of certain elements of high-quality teaching) plan activities. During the execution of these activities, they observe children’s reactions. This is called reflection in action, reflection during action, or reflection on the first level. Recording a journal while they are making observations may help the educator while he or she is reflecting in action. 2. Reflection on action: Immediately after teaching, educators reflect on whether they have carried out activities as planned, whether there were any discrepancies and, finally, what they would do differently next time and why. Once again it is useful to record and analyze reflections in a journal. 3. Reflection on reflection: At the learning community meeting, educators present their thoughts to colleagues after the plan has been carried out. At each community learning meeting, all those in attendance briefly present how they carried out activities in their classrooms, how children reacted, what they would do differently, etc. Then, one educator presents in detail his or her reflections on the implemented activities by answering the following questions: • “Which activities had an effect and which had none?” “On what basis can I say this?” • “Out of the things I tried, which had the greatest impact?” • “What behavior by the children indicated that I was on the right track?” (Brjakovic, 2014) In the Step by Step Approach, professional learning communities are also an opportunity to discuss with others and reflect on the conditions that help all children to become active members of democratic, knowledge-based societies (ISSA, 2010). This requires reflecting on the purpose of early childhood education; discovering our hidden assumptions about how children learn or what it is most important that they learn; evaluating the worth of what we are doing; and imagining other possibilities. It is the place where we can begin to uncover and challenge beliefs and practices that undermine the development of community and democracy. We can transform our preschools into places where every child can thrive and develop to their fullest potential. Being part of a professional learning community promotes our professional development, enhances the overall quality of practice and puts us in a decision
157
CHILD-CENTERED, DEMOCRATIC PRESCHOOL CLASSROOMS: THE STEP BY STEP APPROACH
making role in the early childhood profession. We assume responsibility for our own growth and the consequences of what we do. We are ‘agents of change’ rather than simply followers of others.
Observing Observing oneself and others is a skill that can be developed, and is a vehicle for collaborative professional development that increases shared understanding of high-quality practice. Observing colleagues in a safe and inclusive learning environment makes teaching a public rather than a private act, where all can benefit: the educators who are being observed; the educators doing the observing; and the children in the classroom. However, it is important that the observation is about an exchange of ideas rather than a performance evaluation. We and the educators we are observing must be able to trust we will be reflecting on how children can be more engaged and how they can learn more successfully, rather than focusing on making us or others look good or bad. We develop our observation skills by observing other educators. At the beginning, it is useful to observe in small groups where at least one observer is more experienced. For those of us who are beginners, it is important to practise observation for short periods of time, and to focus on a small number of issues.
How to observe There are some protocols to follow that make the observation environment safe for those being observed. It is important that observers are as unobtrusive as possible in the class. They should sit as quietly as possible, observe and record. They should not talk with each other, nor ask the person being observed or the children questions. Observers should not move around in the classroom unless this offers them better insight into what is going on between the educator they are observing and the children. All observers and the person being observed should know in advance what they are going to observe, and how they are going to record their observations. Before the observation takes place, the group should define how they will record their observations. Observation as a professional development tool works best when expectations are clear and the observers and person observed understand how to use and benefit from the process. Observers should be trained in different ways of recording data depending on what is being observed. • Transcribing what people say exactly as they say it and describing behavior, equipment, toys, children’s work, etc., are two of the most common ways. • We can use checklists to help us record if a behavior or action was present during an observation based on codes prepared in advance by the observers. Developing behavioral categories can in itself be a good opportunity to learn from each other and decide what it is important to include or not include.
158
About ISSA
www.issa.nl
At ISSA we commit ourselves to the holistic development of every young child, across all domains. Ever since ISSA was founded as a membership association in 1999, we have grown significantly— sharing knowledge and tools to improve the quality of Early Childhood Development services and to support their workforce. In (pre)schools, crèches, kindergartens and daycare centers across Europe and Central Asia, and in other services for young children and their families. As a network, we gather and generate resources, studies and insights on child development and learning and convey them to our peers, member organizations and policymakers, so they can put them to good use.