Becoming the Shi Ma River by Jane T

becoming the shi ma river

Jane Tsong, Edna Robidas, Greg Dalton Landscape Architecture 512L/ Methods and Applications in Landscape Architecture/ Fall 2012/ Cal Poly Pomona/ Weimin Li

NASA LANDSAT

contents 0 introduction/toward a landscape-based reorganization of the city 1 process and methodology/ course description 2 regional context/ geomorphology, climate, threats to regional water quality 3 land use/ from dike pond systems to the pearl river delta economic zone 4 shi ma river/ three incarnations 5 inventory/ watershed and township boundaries, transportation, topology, land use, population, industry 6 pollutants/ distribution of water contaminants, list of pollutants 7 goals and objectives for design interventions 8 land use typologies/ creating a low impact infrastructure a approaches to urban agriculture/ policy and tiered agriculture b dike pond systems/ branding local agricultural traditions c streets/ low impact infrastructure, regional identity d meanders/ oxbow treatment wetlands e zoning for high density development/ residential, industrial f green corridors/ filter maze 9 appendices/ bibliography, book reviews version 12-29-2012

introduction “Made in China.” Consumer electronics, footwear, clothing, plastics and toys cheaply produced in China fuel consumer lifestyles around the world. 18% of the goods Americans import ($399,361,900,000) originate in China. The dependence is mutual: of China’s top ten export destinations, US is the first, and accounts for 30% of volume. Leading this phenomenon have been cities in the Pearl River Delta Economic Zone whose spectacular growth and influence have been newsworthy for decades. 30% of all Chinese exports come from the Pearl River Delta Economic Zone. However, the spectacular success of the Pearl River Delta Economic Zone has come at a cost. Rapid changes in land use are decimating the natural resources. The quality of water in the Shi Ma River (石马江) exceeds class V- not fit for industrial or agricultural use. Yet water from this river is used to irrigate fields, threatening local food security, as well as the viability of centuries old sustainable agricultural model of Dike Pond Systems. Can the Shi Ma River one day be a demonstration that economic growth need not entail decimation of the natural resources upon which a region’s health depends?

/ a landscape-based reorganization of the city

A report by Greenpeace on Pearl River Delta water quality points out that end of pipe attempts at water treatment are too late. Nor can conventional wastewater treatment methods treat the countless variety of industrial pollutants present in local water. Advanced methods such as flocculation and precipitation of sludge which are increasingly used, can be effective. However, this technology is resource intensive and only defers the problem by creating sludge that needs to be disposed of as toxic waste or further processed for extraction. Urgently, we need to incentivize low impact production methods, including coaching by third parties to evaluate whether approaches to manufacturing that use less chemicals can be used. Third party water quality testing may be a way to hold individual polluters accountable. Most important of all, we need to create demand for sustainably manufactured products in export markets such as the United States. Supplementing these urgent efforts should be a landscape-based reorganization of the city. A low impact infrastructure can improve water quality and quality of life on a site level. Such interventions can buffer against flood, drought and subsidence on a regional level. Shanghai’s Houtan Park by Turenscape (2010) demonstrates how constructed wetlands can improve water quality from Class V to Class III at

a substantial savings from conventional treatment methods while providing cultural and ecological benefits. Recent developments in the greater Pearl River Delta include numerous initiatives to work toward greater integration of transportation, communications, energy, and water infrastructure among cities, including the 9 Pearl River Delta municipalities in Guangdong, as well as Hong Kong and Macau. With such large scale coordination of infrastructure in underway in the Pearl River Delta, we must urgently consider cost effective solutions to water pollution and flooding problems that have an effect on the long term health of the region.

C h

i n a Pe

GUANGDONG PROVINCE l R iv

Taiwan

Hong Kong

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GUANGDONG PROVINCE

Dongguan Shenzhen Hong Kong

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The site is based in the province of Guangdong in the People’s Republic of China in the city of Dongguan. Dongguan is situated near the estuary of the Pearl River, a river whose watershed covers much of southern China.

process and methodology process Design with Nature Ian McHarg

Overlay analysis The structure of natural processes Man in nature

Tomorrow by Design Philip Lewis

Landscape uses and patterns Ecological corridors High priority resource inventories

Design for Human Ecosystems John T. Lyle

Systems thinking Combine ecological and development systems for sustainable design

Process

methodology Methods Research Analysis

Data Collection

This document is prepared as part of the course, Landscape Architecture 512L/ Methods and Applications in Landscape Architecture/ Cal Poly Pomona, with instructor Weimin Li. COURSE DESCRIPTION Application of classic methodologies and techniques to landscape design and planning from site to regional scale. Emphasis on applied ecology, systems techniques, environmental policy and management, design and planning. Specific focus on solving natural and social issues in large metropolitan areas, developing sound landscape and planning responses through GIS analysis, and assessing the strengths and weaknesses of various landscape analysis methodologies. NOTES ON METHODOLOGY In compiling our inventory, we were fortunate to receive water quality data, articles and planning documents provided by local governments via our instructor, which we then supplemented with internet research. Because of a language barrier, our group had limited comprehension of the full value of the data available to us. Additionally, since developments in the Pearl River Delta continue at a rapid pace, it is a challenge to obtain complete up to the minute information. We hope that our interpretation of the information available to us is still useful for providing an overview on the major issues. In an ideal scenario, site research must include numerous site visits. Only through site observation can a designer/planner have

Design

true insight into social behavior, ecology and land use patterns. Interviews with local residents, stakeholders and experts are critical. â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Groundtruthingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; is a necessary supplement to data analysis: to confirm a site is a dike pond rather than a reservoir, to test cultural differences when design comes into play, and to develop useful and practical site-scale solutions. Observation of land use and natural phenomena as they change over the seasons would also be invaluable in a region where water availability changes so dramatically throughout the year. Site visits were not possible in the scope of our study. Another limitation was the incompleteness of Shi Ma River water quality data provided by local officials. This is to be expected when inquiring about potentially incendiary issues in a region where political tensions are high and censorship occurs on an every day level. However, due to the volume of research by scientists on water and sediment pollutants in this region and even in Dongguan, we have a general idea of the scale of industrial pollution. There is no question about the urgency of safeguarding human health and the natural resources of the Pearl River Delta.

geomorphology The Pearl River Delta is the confluence of three deltas: that of the North River, East River, and West River. These drain much of the southern portion of the People’s Republic of China. These rivers have surprisingly subtle gradients: the East River’s slope is a slight .26%, approximately tenfold that of the North and West Rivers. The Delta is surrounded by hills of approximately 500m above mean sea level, and the area within the delta is dotted with hills and terraces approximately 100-300m high, which were once islands. In general, the elevation of delta plains reflects the age of their reclamation, with “higher” plains representing older lands. Numerous tributaries wind through the plains. The natural tendency of delta streambeds to shift and meander due to sediment accretion has been temporarily arrested due to dike building, channelization, and other human manipulations.

20% of the silt naturally discharged by the rivers is deposited in the delta, while the rest runs into the sea. Historically, discharged sediment caused the delta to extend seaward at about 40m/yr. In the 1980s and 90s, however, the seaward extension was measured at 100+m/yr, much of which can be attributed to land reclamation and dike building. Reclamation of land creates extensive areas of lowlands vulnerable to both flooding and salt water intrusion. In recent decades, damming and channelization of rivers upstream prevents sediment reaching and regenerating low lying delta plains. Upstream land uses have a dramatic affect on lowlying lands. Removal of vegetation and proliferation of impermeable surfaces throughout newly urbanized lands prevents rainwaters from being stored and slowly released from soil. Instead, stormwaters flow quickly downstream where water levels rise quickly. All these factors compound the duration and severity of flooding.

/ a delicate balance in a great delta

Subsidence in the delta has been measured and may also become a significant factor in flooding. Subsidence in the Pearl River Delta is pronounced in Guangzhou, Foshan and Dongguan, where urbanization happened particularly quickly. It is not clear what exact mechanism is responsible for subsidence. One researcher cites tectonic movement and compaction. In other deltas throughout the world, extraction of groundwater, gas or petrochemicals is a common cause of subsidence. Because much of the delta is under 1 m in elevation, small changes in sea level can have a destructive effect. Dongguan city, where the Shi Ma River is located, is upstream of the main part of the delta, at an elevation of 21 m. The Shi Ma River has a .61% average slope. Its natural course runs from south to north. Its total length is 73.5 km.

GOOGLE EARTH

a future imperiled

climate

threats to regional water supplies

Dongguan is located in a tropical monsoon climate zone, with long, hot summer and short, mild winter. The average annual rainfall is 69.17 inches, 80% of rainfall comes from the period from April to September with a concentration in the months of May and July. These months are when flooding is most likely to occur. Typhoon season ranges from June to October.

Domestic sewage, agricultural runoff including fertilizers, pesticides, animal excreta, industrial pollution and rare earth mining high up in the watershed are all threats to regional water supplies. Six cities depend on the East River for drinking water supplies, including Hong Kong. The portion of Guangdong dependent on the East River produces over 70% of Guangdongâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s GDP. Because of its relationship to Hong Kong, the East River has been the focus of international attention. A report by Greenpeace (2010) measured shockingly high levels of a variety of chemicals and astonishingly low levels of acidity downstream of several factories situated along the East River.

Precipitation in mm from worldweatheronline

Due to this negative publicity, the companies in question were blacklisted. However it is certain that these companies were not the only parties dumping industrial effluent into rivers.

400 300

Relative Humidity

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Civic Exchange, a Hong Kong thinktank, also published a series of reports centered on the East River (2009-12).

climateconsultant

Typhoon Season June to October

Temperature in Celsius holidaycheck

J F M A M J J A S O N D 30 25 20 15 10 Climate Consultant

optimum temperatures for bioremediation

There exists extensive scientific data on the extent of and movement of contaminants in the air, water, and sediments of the Pearl River Delta. Studies have examined how various pollutants bind to sediment particles, and move into the ocean. The effect of these pollutants on ocean food webs has been inadequately studied.

Others have documented the presence of organic and heavy metal contamination in agricultural fields irrigated with river water and the degree of accumulation in different types of food crops, threatening regional food security and the gulf between those who can access clean food and those who can not. Regional water resources management has lacked effective longterm solutions to water quality problems. A recent policybased relocation of heavy polluters higher up in the watershed seems to point to the certain decimation of clean water sources. Until the core issues that can ensure water quality in the future are dealt with, the gulf between those who access relatively clean water and cleanly grown crops and those who canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t will continue to grow.

land use

/ dike pond systems: a regional form of sustainable agriculture For centuries, people have sought to tame the shifting sediments and meandering channels of the delta tributaries through dike building and land reclamation. The intersection of delta ecology with cultivation of food crops has resulted in Dike Pond Systems, a regionally specific form of agriculture suited to low lying flood-prone lands. Dike Pond Systems integrate agriculture and aquaculture to minimize inputs while maximizing yields of fish and agricultural products.

collected to fertilize the mulberry plants.

In the most celebrated example of the dike pond system, mulberry for silk production is grown on the dikes. Droppings from silkworms are fed to fish. Fish droppings enrich pond sediments, which are then

During the Ming Dynasty, litchi, longan, and mulberry were grown in combination with fish. Sugar cane, banana, orange, litchi, and flowers, are now common. Each combination of crops has particular advantages. Banana and sugarcane can

Growing the two in combination enhances production of both crops. Silkworm droppings are said to have more nitrogen than livestock droppings. Droppings from 1 mu of mulberry trees feed fish in a 1 mu pond. Water is carried to crops planted along dikes through capillary action. This protects crops from both drought and flood. Excess water is easily stored in the ponds.

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Pond dike, Chang Chuang

Mulberry dike pond Mulberry and forest trees, Guangdong

AGRICULTURAL BYPRODUCTS & GRAIN

form layered systems in combination with poultry, melons, mushrooms, mulberry, carp. But flower dike ponds have been shown to have 6% greater fish output, and can be more lucrative than sugarcane or banana systems. Growing different fish species with different feeding ecologies in the same pond maximizes efficient use of resources, and allows harvesting in stages. Pigs, ducks, poultry can also contribute manure to the system. Whatever the particular combination chosen by a farmer for his circumstance, such integrated systems suggest alternatives to the overuse of chemical fertilizers elsewhere in the Delta.

Dike Pond Systems in the Pearl River Delta. Making clean water available for agriculture is a first step toward helping to ensure the future of this regional form of sustainable agriculture. Maintaining a Dike Pond System is labor intensive, and more lucrative jobs are attracting a younger generation elsewhere. However, creating cultural capital around this system can make it a valued part of society, bringing more prestige to farmers who continue this tradition. Dike Pond Systems should be promoted as part of the region’s transition toward sustainable land management and growth. Dike Pond Systems are part of the cultural heritage of the Pearl River Delta, an agricultural model that the international community can learn from.

With urbanization, the accumulation of organic pollutants, heavy metals and DDT in the soil are affecting the viability of

cow manure

snails

night seeds soil

night soil

POND

INPUTS

PIGLETS

PLANTS

pig manure

pigs

land crops

mud TABLE FISH

FINGERLINGS

PIGS

OUTPUTS

chart content adapted from FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Chart content adapted from FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

“The peasants of Shunde County estimate that 100,000 kg of pond mud are the equivalent of 50 kg of chemical fertilizers... The mud is better than chemical fertilizer because it is composed of about 5 percent organic matter, which the plants need. In addition, the mud acts as a weed killer, retards water evaporation, and maintains soil fertility for a longer period of time. The effects of the mud on the mulberry trees are particularly noticeable during the dry but still warm months of September and October.” (Lee 2004)

Guangdong fish ponds, piggery, bananas, mulberry, sugar cane

nutrient cycle

pig manure

PELLETS AQUATIC

“Droppings from 1 mu of mulberry trees feed fish in a 1 mu pond.”(Lee 2004)

WEIMIN LI

land use SPECIAL ECONOMIC ZONES In 1978, Deng Xiaoping’s Open Door Policy 1978 opened up the People’s Republic of China to economic liberalization. Aiming to attract foreign investment and technical expertise through tax incentives, Special Economic Zones were formed, several in close proximity to Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan. The Pearl River Delta Economic Zone has been spectacularly successful among the Special Economic Zones. In the early 80s, it was the site of labor-intensive industry, which was supplanted by light industry, and after the 1990s, heavy industry, electronics, chemical products. The region, previously dominated by agriculture and fishing, is now the world’s most important producer of electronics, toys, textiles, and plastic products. 5% of the entire world’s goods are produced there, with total exports of US$289 billion (2001). The Pearl River Delta Economic Zone has only .4% of China’s land area and 3.5% of its population (2005), but accounts for 30% of its trade. Though early investment in the Pearl River Delta Economic Zone was dominated by foreign capital, the influence of Chinese investment is increasing. What’s more, there has been a realization that the rapid rate of growth cannot be sustained if it relies on an influx of cheap labor. Pearl River Delta cities now have the highest per capita GDPs in China, and the development of the Pearl River Delta Economic Zone as a significant consumer base appears to

/ post-1978

Yet there is a divide in resources and influence between Pearl River Delta Economic Zone cities and Hong Kong. Though Dongguan still has a high GPD per capita compared to the rest of the mainland, its per capita GDP is only half of Shenzhen and Guangzhou, and a quarter of that of Hong Kong. FUTURE MEGACITY Together, Pearl River Delta Economic Zone cities constitute a megacity with higher population and density than Tokyo. Guangzhou and Shenzhen are already megacities (with populations over 10 million) and Dongguan may soon join their ranks. Increasingly efforts are underway to coordinate the transportation, water, energy, and communications infrastructure of the region.

Guangzhou

Foshan

attest to the incredible economic success of the PRD economic zone. HONG KONG AND THE PEARL RIVER DELTA ECONOMIC ZONES The fates of the Pearl River Delta Economic Zone and its more affluent neighbor, Hong Kong, have been integrally linked. Many industries relocated to the Pearl River Delta Economic Zone from Hong Kong because of low labor costs and regulatory advantages. Thus, while Hong Kong transformed into a cleaner service-based economy, cities in the Pearl River Delta Economic Zone became centers of manufacture. 90% of Hong Kong manufacturers have their production facilities in the Pearl River Delta Economic Zone, and more than 80% of PRD’s imports and exports are set up through Hong Kong.

GUANGDONG PROVINCE

THE NINE CITIES OF THE PEARL RIVER DELTA ECONOMIC ZONE

Huizhou

pop: 12,700,800

pop: 4,597,000

pop: 7,194,300

Zhaoqing

Dongguan

pop: 3,918,100

pop: 8,220,000

Jiangmen

Shenzhen

pop: 4,448,900

pop: 10,358,000

Zhongshan pop: 3,120,900

Zhuhai pop: 1,560,200

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ThePEARL Pearl River Delta Economic Zone accounts for.... THE RIVER DELTA ACCOUNTS FOR....

8/100,000

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world land area

all consumer products produced in the world (2001)

LOS ANGELES CUSTOMS DISTRICT CHINA’S TOP TEN China's Top Ten Export Destinations 2011 2009 IMPORTS FROM CHINA EXPORT DESTINATIONS 2011 percentage of volume exports Los Angeles Customs District 2009 Imports from China percentage of volume percentage of volume exports NOTE: LACD handles 40% of US-China trade exports Electrical Equipment & Components

Italy Singapore United Kingdom

Germany

20%

23%

India The Netherlands

Other

4% 3%

30% United States 5%

Iron & Steel Products Leather Goods Plastics

2% 2% 3%

Apparel (Knit) 5% South Korea

20% Computer Machinery

7% Apparel (Woven)

5% 6%

Japan

13%

uschina.org/statistics/tradetable.html

23%

Hong Kong

Furniture

6% Footwear

8% Toys

source: Growing Together p.40

LACD handles 40% of US/China Trade and includes LAX, Ports of LA, Long Beach, and Hueneme

the shi ma river

/ three incarnations

1960s

early

the Shi Ma River flows north, joining the East River.

a i M h S

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The highly polluted Shi Ma tributary is now diverted into canals before it meets the East River. A rubber dam directs the water toward two levels of treatment, including precipitated sludge, before it is released into the delta.

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8 pum ping s tations and 6 dam s m ove w ater ups tr eam thr ough the f or m er r iver bed

Despite such dramatic measures and expenditures, neither Hong Kong nor Dongguan is guaranteed clean water. At high tides, contaminated water reaches the intake for Hong Kong’s aqueduct. Greenpeace found 91-1000 times the acceptable level of E. coli in the new closed aqueduct, and 280 times the acceptable limit of mercury.

TO HONG KONG

Rubber dam diverts Shi Ma River from the East River Intake for Hong Kong moves upstream

PRELIMINARY TREATMENT

East Riv r e

D AQUEDUCT

ADDITIONAL TREATMENT BEFORE JOINING OCEAN

Shi

In Dongguan, water from the Shi Ma River is still unfit for either agricultural or industrial use. It has been said that 7 million people do not have access to clean drinking water, and 60% of people in Dongguan get drinking water from bottles.

Guangdong has taken numerous measures to safeguard cleanliness in the closely watched East River. Guangdong has planned to build 13 new wastewater treatment plants (to supplement 11 existing plants) on the East River. These plants are expected to treat 80% of sewage. However, they cannot be expected to treat the

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With continuing decline in the quality of water supplied to Hong Kong, Guangdong spent 4.7 billion yuan on infrastructural improvements completed in 2003, whose centerpiece is a new closed aqueduct for Hong Kong. In return, Hong Kong spends 2.4 billion HK$ (1-1.5% of its GDP) on its water supply contract from Guangdong.

ive aR

For about 4 decades (1960s to 2003), the bed of the Shi Ma River became a mere conduit to convey water from the East River southward to Hong Kong, a system of 6 dams and 8 pump stations forcing water upstream toward Hong Kong.

Numerous high polluting factories were shut down. Hog farming was banned from certain areas. Other polluting factories were relocated higher up in the same watershed (ensuring that the entire waterway is plagued by industrial pollution, instead of simply the lower half).

Because it supplies 70% of Hong Kong’s water, much international attention has focused on the East River. At one time, the Shi Ma tributary provided drinking water to the city of Hong Kong. With a decline in water quality, Hong Kong’s uptake was moved directly to the East River.

countless varieties of pollutants introduced into sewage systems by industrial dumping.

CANAL

Though they both get their water from the East River watershed, there are entirely separate water infrastructures supplying Hong Kong and Dongguan. Political and economic circumstances widen the divide between those who can get relatively clean water, and those who cannot.

TO HONG KONG

From the mid 1960s, Hong Kong uses the Shi Ma riverbed as a conduit to convey water south from the East River. 8 pump stations and 6 dams eventually complete a system which pumps water 46 m up in elevation toward Hong Kong. Water flows at a rate of 80 m3/sec during dry season. In periods of excess water, water is released to generate electricity.

1965

Guangdong completes the DongShen Water Supply Project (东深供水工程), a covered aqueduct meant to protect Hong Kong’s water, allowing the Shi Ma River to flow northward in its own bed again. Since runoff and effluent from the Shi Ma watershed is no longer diluted by water from the East River, flow is reduced to 3.6 m3/sec and water quality has climbed to Class V or worse (not fit for either agricultural or industrial use). During the dry season (when Shi Ma runoff is not diluted by precipitation), Shi Ma water is diverted into the Dongyin and Guancheng Canals. This protects water quality in the East River, which is under the international spotlight. Meanwhile, Shi Ma River water is treated through the precipitated sludge process before being released through Houmen gate into the Pearl River Delta.

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inventory TOWNSHIP AND WATERSHED BOUNDARIES Effective wastershed management is complicated by the fact that watershed boundaries do not coincide with political boundaries. The Shi Ma watershed lies within three separate cities: Dongguan, Huizhou and Shenzhen. Brown outlines indicate borders of Dongguan administrative townships.

Qiaotou 桥头镇

Changping 常平镇

Using catchment basin outlines provided by local governments, an area representing the Dongguan portion of the Shi Ma watershed was generated, and is represented in white. Areas in Dongguan not in the Shi Ma watershed are shown in gray.

Northwest of Dongguan, Tonghu watershed in Huizhou (494 km2) would normally drain into the East River. To protect the quality of water in the East River, the highly polluted Tonghu water is diverted into the Shi Ma and subsequently the Dongyin Canal.

Xiegang 谢岗镇

Zhangmutou 樟木头镇 Huangjiang 黄江镇

Because catchment data was only available to us for Dongguan, we did not include areas in Huizhou or Shenzhen in our analysis. On this map, portions of the Shi Ma watershed in Huizhou and Shenzhen are taken from a 2011 LA 512 analysis of the Shi Ma watershed by Haley, Montano, Russell, and Rodriguez. A significant tributary of the Shi Ma River is the Guanlan River, which originates in Shenzhen. The Guanlan watershed is 256 km2, 73% of which is in Shenzhen. The Guanlan River is well known to contribute heavily to the pollution load of the Shi Ma. Improving Shi Ma water quality cannot happen without the cooperation of Shenzhen.

Huizhou 惠州

Qingxi 清溪镇

Tangxia 塘厦镇

Fenggang 凤岗镇 ShenZhen 深圳

Township boundaries Shi Ma Watershed Outside of Shi Ma Watershed

WEIMIN LI

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TRANSPORTATION

TOPOLOGY

Dongguan has one of Chinaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s highest road densities with total road mileage of 2438 mi within the territory. By the end of 2007 there was an average of 98 miles of class roads per hundred square kilometers. The transport network features a trans-city expressway and city highway.

The Shi Ma watershed is characterized by relatively flat plains surrounded by steep terrain which is largely undeveloped.

Impervious cover dominates urban and suburban areas. When rain falls on the city, it creates urban runoff that can cause flooding, erosion, and water pollution. Storm water runoff from parking lots, streets, and a building roofs are found to produce excess lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), and iron (Fe). During storms, rainwater flows across these impervious surfaces, mobilizing contaminants. The pollutants carried in runoff originate from a variety of urban and suburban no point sources. Oil, gasoline, and automotive fluids drip from vehicles onto roads and parking lots. Landscaping by homeowners, around businesses, and on public grounds contributes sediment, pesticides, fertilizers, and nutrients to runoff. (www.epa.gov/safewater/sourcewater/pubs/ fs_swpp_stormwater.pdf)

Roads Major roads

Low density= low slope

Railroads

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inventory AGRICULTURE 2006 AGRICULTURE 2020 (projected) Agriculture has long been the predominant land use in the Dongguan region, particularly because of the fertile land in the Pearl River Delta. Currently the area is known for producing litchi, citrus, sugar cane, vegetables, and aquatic products. There is also livestock farming, as well as poultry, but the predominant production is in produce. Along with agriculture comes agriculture by-products and pollutants in the form of fertilizers, pesticides, and organic matter. Because of the low-lying nature of the region and historic land uses, much of the agriculture is near some sort of water body or water way. Run-off from agriculture contributes to high nitrogen and phosphorous levels. In some cases, testing is even discovering fresh applications of banned pesticides such as DDT in the waterways. Contaminated river water is used to irrigate

crops, introducing harmful chemicals to the food system. Although agriculture is culturally and historically an important aspect of this region, development and urbanization has rapidly decreased the amount of agricultural land and production, and is projected to decrease to an even larger extent in the coming years. This means that agricultural production will increasingly be moved to more rural areas, further and further away from the city centers where produce is needed. This increases the transportation required to distribute food in the region, and a higher carbon footprint than if agricultural land and production were protected in more urbanized and urbanizing areas.

2006 Projected Agricultural Land

2012 Projected Agricultural Land

Agricultural Land

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Agricultural fields adjacent to a reservoir that supplies drinking water to Dongguan

WEIMIN LI

Due to rapid growth in the Pearl River Delta, the region of Dongguan has experienced massive land use changes in only twenty years. What once was largely agriculture and undeveloped land is now vastly urbanized and developed, with only the mountainous areas untouched due to their unsuitability for development.

1988 1993

1997

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2006

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NASA LANDSAT7 imagery of the Pearl River Delta show vegetation as red, and buildings and paved surfaces in grey. Over twenty four years, vegetated landscapes have been replaced by the impermeable surfaces of an urban landscape, exacerbating downstream flooding and the transfer of pollutants into water bodies.

inventory RESIDENT POPULATION TEMPORARY FOREIGN POPULATION Dongguan has a population density of 3,300 people per km2, approximately the same density as Los Angeles, California. Temporary foreign residents are a significant population in the Pearl River Delta region. These range from citizens of Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, and other overseas Chinese to a sizable migrant worker population. Migrant workers come from rural areas to work in numerous factories and live in the region for at least six months out of the year while calling other places their permanent residence. It is estimated that China has a total of 240 million migrant workers. There are vastly more temporary foreign workers than permanent residents in Dongguan, with around 1.75 million temporary foreign residents, and 5.2 million permanent residents, demonstrating the dependence of the factory economy on temporary foreign workers. Planning and the design of public spaces should take into account the needs of migrant workers.

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2006 Residential Population Density per km2

0-500 501-1000

Figures from Guangdong Water Resources and Electric Power Survey and Design Institute, 2009

1001-1500

301-400

1501-2000

401-500

2001-2500

501-600

2501-3000

601-700

3001-3500

2006 Temporary Foreign Population Density per km2

includes Migrant Factory Workers, Taiwanese, Hong Kong and Macau citizens, and Overseas Chinese Figures from Guangdong Water Resources and Electric Power Survey and Design Institute, 2009

4001-4500

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3501-4000

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PHOTOMICHAELWOLF/THE REAL TOY STORY FACTORIES

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT

2006 GDP in millions of yuan per km2

Figures from Guangdong Water Resources and Electric Power Survey and Design Institute, 2009

0-20 21-40 41-60 61-80 81-100 101-120

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9 km

Disposable income per capita in Dongguan rises in relation to that of other cities in the Pearl River Delta. (Fung Global Institute/ Fundacion Metropoli)

inventory WATER QUALITY CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND AMMONIA NITROGEN While the Shima River is tested for 28 pollutants to determine which class it falls in according to National Standards, only three measures of water quality were released to us: Ammonia Nitrogen, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), and Phosphorus. This data shows that the Shi Ma River exceeds Class V standards, rendering it unfit for either industrial or agricultural use. According to Guangdong Water Resources and Electric Power Survey and Design Institute (2009), on the average, throughout its length, the river exceeds COD standards by 1.6 times, total phosphorus by 12.5 times and ammonia by 6.9 times. Pollution levels are so high that government goals for improving water quality are to bring tributaries up to Class V (neither suitable for agricultural nor industrial use) and and the main river to Class IV (suitable for agricultural and industrial use, but not suitable for human contact). Chemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of how much oxygen is needed to oxidize any quantity of organic compounds in water. Chemical Oxygen Demand in mg/l, 2005

Figures from Guangdong Water Resources and Electric Power Survey and Design Institute, 2009

Ammonia Nitrogen in mg/l, 2005

Pollutant Figures from Guangdong Water Resources and Electric Power Survey and Design Institute, 2009

0-25

Meets Class V standard (suitable for industrial or agricultural use, not suitable for human contact)

0-1.5

Meets EPA standard for aquatic life at 20째 at moderate Ph

25.0001-50

Exceeds Class V up to 2-fold

1.5-7.5

Exceeds standard up to 5-fold

50.0001-75

Exceeds Class V up to 3-fold

7.5-15

Exceeds standard up to 15-fold

75.0001-100

Exceeds Class V up to 4-fold

15+

Exceeds standard by more than 15-fold

100.0001-125

Exceeds Class V up to 5-fold

125+

Exceeds Class V more than 5-fold

1.5

9 km

1.5

9 km

FUNG GLOBAL INSTITUTE / FUNDATION METROPOLI

PHOSPHORUS Water Quality Goals for Shi Ma River and Tributaries

Source: Guangdong Water Resources and Electric Power Survey and Design Institute (2009)

Grade I/II (drinkable) Grade III (suitable for drinking, swimming) Grade IV (for industrial and agricultural use only, not suitable for human contact) Grade V (for agricultural and landscape use only) Exceeding Grade V (not suitable for either industrial or agricultural use) Data not available for smaller tributaries

Regional water quality context: major Pearl River Delta tributaries as they measure against the National Standards. Class I, II and III are considered to be drinkable and are indicated as blue and green. 1.5above 3 6 suitable 9 kmfor human contact) are shown as Class IV0and (not yellow, orange, and red. In recent decades, China has become the world’s most prolific producer of rare earth oxides. Rare earth oxides occur throughout the US, however, mining these oxides is a highly destructive chemicalintensive process, and therefore limited in scale in the US.

MAJOR SOURCES OF POLLUTION IN THE PEARL RIVER DELTA

Figures from Guangdong Water Resources and Electric Power Survey and Design Institute, 2009

0- .20

Meets Class V standard (suitable for industrial or agricultural use, not suitable for human contact)

.20001-2

Exceeds Class V up to 10-fold

2.0001-4

Exceeds Class V up to 20-fold

4.0001-6

Exceeds Class V up to 20-fold

6.0001+

Exceeds Class V more than 20-fold

1.5

9 km

GLOBAL PRODUCTION RARE EARTH OXIDES 1950-2000 source: Wikipedia “Mountain Pass Rare Earth Production”

nates i m o d China rare earth global on ti produc

80 70

Production in kt

Phosphorus in mg/l, 2005

Industrial dumping Domestic Sewage Agriculture Rare Earth Mining Erosion (deforestation) Transportation The urban environment

60 50

China

40 30

USA

20 10 0 1950

Other 1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

pollutants PARTIAL LIST OF CONTAMINANTS Tens of thousands of chemicals are used by industry to create products we use every day: electronics, clothing, toys, plastics, pharmaceuticals. Though some of these chemicals have been tested for their effects on human health, we do not know their longterm effects on ourselves or on the ecosystems that surround us. A far greater number of chemicals commonly used in manufacturing have never been tested (Greenpeace 2010). Below is a very partial list of contaminants found by various studies to be present in Pearl River Delta water and sediments. Many persist

in the environment and accumulate in the food chain. Conventional wastewater treatment plants are not designed to remove such pollutants from our waste stream. National Standards which rate water quality in the Peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Republic of China test water bodies for 28 pollutants. Officials have only released the figures for three contaminants of the Shi Ma River. In contrast, Hong Kong tests for 83 contaminants at the MukWu pumping station upstream of the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s intake, near the confluence of the Shi Ma and East Rivers.

TRANSPOR

MINING AGRICULTURE Typical byproducts of rare earth mining left in tailing ponds likely to cause contamination of water sources

tooth damage, bone disease, ulcers, arthritis, thyroid disease, and infertility

radioactive, and accumulates in bones, increases risk of cancer

Fluorine

Phosphorus promotes algal blooms, which consume oxygen as it decomposes, suffocating fish and shellfish populations

Carbon oxidizes into CO2, absorbs heat in the atmosphere, contributing to global warming

Nitrogen promotes algal blooms, which consume oxygen as it decomposes, suffocating fish and shellfish populations

Thorium

NH4-N Ammonium Nitrogen

Nitrogen

fertilizers promotes algal blooms, which consume oxygen as they decompose, suffocating fish and shellfish populations

HCH

fertilizers promotes

pesticides accumulates in

algal blooms, which consume oxygen as it decomposes, affecting fish and shellfish populations

sediment despite being banned in 1983 reproductive and neurotoxic impairments, various forms of HCH may be carcinogenic

Phosphorus

Hexachlorocyclohexanes

in warm temperatures, this turns into nitrates, which promote algal blooms, which consume oxygen as it decomposes, killing off fish and shellfish populations

Acids

such as oxalic, hydrochloric, or sulfuric acid, pumped through holes drilled into rocky mountainsides to extract ores lowered Ph of water can increase bioavailability of heavy metals and their accumulation in living organisms

DDT Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethanes

pesticides accumulates in sediment despite being banned in 1983. Endocrine disruptor, with potential genotoxicity, bioaccumulates It breaks down into DDD and DDE, which is an antiandrogen

PAHs

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

from the incomplete combustion of petrochemicals accumulates in sediment 18 separate PAHs are registered with the Agency for Toxic Subtances and Disease Registry. As a group, PAHs are generally associated with birth defects, mutations, cancer, anxiety, depression, and developmental delays

ed t c e p s su ine r c o d n e ors t p u r s di

TBT

Butyltin compounds

biocide used in marine paints persists in environment, bioaccumulates causes immunosuppression and hearing damage in marine mammals, causes invertebrates to develop sex organs opposite of thier gender

used in metal alloys and as lubricant for drilling for oil or water

metal alloys, opacifier

Barium

RTATION INDUSTRY PCDF

Polychlorinated dibenzofurans

from vehicular emissions with leaded petrol Causes birth defects, mutations, and cancer, and have a high potential for bioaccumulation

PCDD

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins “dioxins”

created in waste incineration, combustion and manufacture of PVC, bleaching of paper, vehicular emissions Bioaccumulates, may be carcinogenic, immunotoxin, causes birth defects in animals, persists in environment

PCBs

Polychlorinated biphenyls

insulation products in electrical equipment, combustion of chlorine-containing wastes, vehicular emissions endocrine disruptor, neurotoxin, carcinogen

2,4,6-TBP benzophenones 2,4,6- Tribromophenol wood

compounds that cure inks, images, and coatings, blocks UV light transmission though clear plastic packaging

preservative (anti fungal), emissions from vehicles using leaded petrol, used in creating flame retardantsneurotoxin, endocrine

a component of polycarbonate

such as Octyl phenol and nonyl phenol

used to create detergents, as additives to fuels, polymers, resins, and are used to make fragrances, chemicals, and fire retardant materials Persistent, bioaccumulative endocrine disruptor

TBBPA Tetrabromobisphenol-A

Brominated flame retardants endocrine disruptor, degrades into Bisphenol A

TEHP

bisphenol-A

alkyl phenols

Tris (2-ethylhexyl) phosphate

flame retardant and solvent Toxic to mammals, carcinogen

First used as an artificial estrogen for women and a growth enhancer for livestock, now used as a hardener in plastics. Endocrine disruptor. Impacts brain development, thyroid function of mammals and promotes growth of neuroblastoma cells

DEHP, DnBP

Phthalates

used to create flexible plastics toxic to reproductive development of mammals. Damages liver, kidney, lungs.

known ine r c o d n e ors t p u r s di

Zirconium

Soluble zirconium is readily taken up by aquatic plants

Mn Manganese

used in the manufacture of metal alloys, batteries, fertilizers neurotoxin, headaches, tremors, stiffness, impotence

Toxic effects on livers and kidneys of mammals. Endocrine disruptor.

disruptor. Evidence of toxicity to marine organisms, bioaccumulates. Evidence of disruption to fish fertility and reproductive success

If water soluble Barium compounds are formed and ingested, increased blood pressure, heart rhythm changes, changes in nerve reflexes, kidney and heart damage, swelling of brain and liver

Sulfur

a byproduct of coal burning sulfur dioxide, and sulfuric acid are byproducs of rare earth mining acid rain

Nickel

metal alloys allergic contact dermatitis can be caused by ingestion, carcinogen, interferes with absorption of essential minerals, accumulates in aquatic biota

dichloromethane Pb methylene chloride industrial solvent Possible carcinogen.

Prolonged skin contact can dissolve fatty tissue in the skin resulting in irritation or chemical burns. Metabolized by the body into carbon monoxide, leading to carbon monoxide poisoning

thioxanthones

compounds that induce polymerization used to manufacture chips and printed circuits May cause longterm effects in aquatic organisms at low concentrations. Though it is unregulated , the EPA considers it to have high aquatic toxicity

metals

Lead

lead-acid batteries damages nervous and reproductive systems, kidneys, impairs learning ability

Co Cobalt

used in manufacture of electronics high levels can bioaccumulate. many aquatic organisms are sensitive to even low concentrations

Cu Copper

bioaccumulates. toxic to many aquatic plants and animals, with effects at even very low levels. longterm exposure can cause liver and kidney damage in humans

Cd Cadmium heavy metal

As Arsenic

heavy metal

Be Beryllium

product of coal burning, also used in electronics possible carcinogen. According to World Health Organization, ‘there is no reliable data on the oral toxicity of beryllium in humans’

Hg Mercury heavy metal

can be d e c u d e Cr r Chromium ough used in metal thr ion t a alloys and l u c coatings, floc paints and dyes

if not processed, can turn into hexavalent chromium, which is toxic and causes mutations

Zinc

metal alloys, galvanizing, white pigment bioaccumulates. High doses can cause impaired immune responses, pancreatic damage, anemia, gastric erosion

inventory INDUSTRY !! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !!! !!!! ! !! !! ! ! ! !! !!!! ! ! ! !! !! ! !! ! ! !! ! !!! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !!!!!!!! ! !! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!! ! ! ! !!! !! ! ! !!! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !!!!!! !!! ! !! !!!!!!! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! !!! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! !! ! !!! ! !!! !! !! ! ! ! ! !!! !! ! ! !!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! !! ! !!!! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !!! ! !! ! ! ! !!! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !!! ! !!! ! !! ! !!! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !!! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! !! !! !!! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! !! !! !! ! ! !! !!! !! ! ! ! !!! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! !!!!!! !!! ! ! ! ! !!!! !! !!! !! !! !! !! ! ! ! ! !!!! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!! ! !! !!! ! !!!

DEVELOPMENT

! ! ! !! !!! ! !!!!!! !! ! !!! ! !! ! ! ! !! !

! ! ! !! ! !! ! !!!! !! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! !

! !!

! !! ! ! ! ! !!

!! !

!!!! ! !!! ! !

! ! !! ! ! !! ! !!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! !! ! !!!! ! !!! !! ! !!!!!!! !! ! ! ! !! !!!!!! !!!! ! !!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !!! ! ! !!!! ! ! ! ! ! !!! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !!!!! !! ! !!! !! ! !! ! ! ! !!!! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !!! !!! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! !!! !! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !!! ! ! !!!!!!! !!! !! ! !! !!! ! !! !! ! !!! ! !!!! ! ! ! !! !! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! !! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !!! ! !!!! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! !!!!! !! !! ! !! !!!!!!!! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !!!!! ! !!! !!! ! ! !! !!!! ! !! ! ! !! !! !!! !! ! ! ! ! !!!! ! !! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! !!!! ! !! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! !!! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! !!! ! !! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! !!!! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !!! !! ! ! !!!!!!! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !!!! !!! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! !!! ! ! !!! !!! !! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! !! !! !! ! ! !! ! !! !!!! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! !!! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !!! !!! ! ! ! ! !!! !! ! !!!! ! !!! !! ! !! ! !!! !! ! !! ! !!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !!!! ! !! ! ! !! !! !! !!! ! ! ! ! !!! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! !! !! ! !! ! !! ! !!! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! !!! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !!! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !!! !!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! !!!! ! !!! ! !! ! !!!! ! !! ! !!! ! !!! !! ! ! ! ! !!! !!! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!! ! !!! !!! ! ! ! ! ! !

! ! ! ! ! !! !

! ! !

Appa re l

Ma chine ry

Automobile

P a pe r

Che mica l

P la s tic

Ele ctro nics

P rinting

Furniture

P ha rm a ce utica l

Ha rdwa re

Wood Toy

0.5

3 km

DETAIL OF INSET SHOWING TYPE OF INDUSTRY !

! ! !

Factory and Industries, listed on googlemaps (each dot represents one company) 0

1.5

9 km

Data from searches for “Industry” and “Factory” on googlemaps was entered into GIS and categorized according to type of industry.

With the massive urbanization of Dongguan, development has spread in increasing rates. Historically developments and settlements occur close to waterways and water sources, leading to the logical expansion of development in areas very close to waterways. Development, which occurs first in the flattest and most easily constructed upon lands, has corresponded with the extensive stream system and its flood plain. This results in high levels of urban runoff and pollutants, as well as industrial pollution from the large number of factories that are part of the developing landscape.

Developed Land Developing Land

1.5

9 km

goals and objectives GOALS Provide clean water for drinking and irrigation of agricultural crops

OBJECTIVES Policy > Enforcement of existing water quality measures > Development of agricultural policy in regard to food security > Building institutional support for traditional and urban agriculture > Build coalition between local users and international community, for more effective approaches to third party pollution monitoring of illegal activity, involvement of international stakeholders in funding third party monitoring

Storm water management

> Separate domestic sewage, stormwater and industrial effluent infrastructures

Safeguard the longterm environmental health of the region

> Aggressively preserve undeveloped land as sources of clean water > Flood control

Planned development

> Separate zoning for industrial, residential, and agricultural uses > Land-use-specific solutions to water quality control > Industrial effluent centralized for monitoring and treatment > Landscape buffers to protect water quality from agricultural runoff > Green corridors

Increase public access to rivers > Development of waterways as public space will help

create interest in enforcement of water quality measures > Public spaces that create appreciation of regional environment and history

land use typologies BUILDING BLOCKS FOR

high density development

SUSTAINABLE INFRASTRUCTURE Considering the information culled from inventory, land units, and GIS analysis, land typologies were identified that have potential for integration into low impact infrastructure. Such typologies occur throughout the watershed, as indicated by circled areas. The effectiveness of low impact infrastructure depends on decentralization. Maximizing the surface area of plant roots and slowing the speed of water will increase the effectiveness of low impact water treatment. Discussion centered around finding sites higher up in the watershed rather than in the main Shi Ma River channel. Smaller volumes of water in tributaries offer realistic opportunities to slow water down. When considered as an infrastructural network, tributaries offer more surface area available for treatment interventions, than the main river channel.

landscape interventions on water quality. It is expected that over time, the effectiveness of such landscape interventions can be improved with careful assessment and adjustment. Within the dark blue rectangle is a confluence of multiple land typologies along one of the Qingxi tributary of the Shi Ma River. Typologies within this area include green corridor, meander paths, stepped agricultural fields, and streets with wide greenways. Most of the following conceptual designs are illustrated with specific sites chosen from this area.

green corridor stepped fields

Dike fish ponds, however, occur only at the northern end of the Shi Ma watershed. The many broad streets with adjacent parkways that occur throughout the Shi Ma watershed are a typology not marked on the map.

In addition, concentration of treatments along a single tributary simplifies the prospect of measuring the effect of

streets GOOGLEEARTH

Throughout the watershed, streets flanked by broad greenways offer potential for low impact infrastructure 0

2 .5

7 .5

1 0 km

meander paths GOOGLEEARTH

In low lying flat lands, meandering tributaries interweave with channelized waterways

dike fish ponds

In low lying flood-prone lands, a confluence of agriculture and flood plain ecology

stepped agriculture Where undeveloped mountains meet the lowlands

green corridor GOOGLEEARTH

GOOGLEEARTH

Green spaces punctuating areas of dense development hold potential to link adjacent mountainous areas

GOOGLEEARTH

high density development GOOGLEEARTH

In low lying flat lands, heavy industrial and residential development has taken place

agricultural policy working toward a sustainable agriculture In order to encourage the presence of agriculture in Dongguan and the Shima River Watershed, we are proposing different policy and action recommendations. This will hopefully ensure that agriculture production is kept near the cities where it is needed, and that increasingly innovative ways to produce crops are explored.

Cooperative Create a network of small and urban farmers to fascilitate the exchange of techniques, ideas, collaboration, and advocacy.

History

Incentives

Provide incentives for organic farming, as well as low or non-toxic pesticide and fertilizer use in order to encourage the reduction of pollutant runoff.

Encourage the use of historic intensive permaculture agriculture practices such as the Mulberry Dike Pond System.

Experiment Invest in new and experimental agriculture technologies, such as vertical farms, hydroponics, and agriculture science parks.

One concept for a more systematic approach toward agriculture is to encourage a coordination of the types of produce grown in urban farms to make transportation more efficient. With perishable items grown closer to the city center, it is easier to get them to city markets rather than if they were grown further away. Hardier produce such as potatoes and carrots that are easily transported greater distances should be grown further away in order to leave space in cities to grow more perishable crops. An example of this type of production system can be seen in Shenzhen, a city directly south of the Shima River watershed.

Collaborate Expand collaborations between local farms and universities, such as the partnership at the Fong Lau Chee Experimental Farm in Dongguan, to explore new agriculture technologies.

hardy produce

perishable city center

E p t p c m a a g f t t S

land use typologies vertical farming

http://www.evolo.us/architecture/vertical-farm-2/

Investment in vertical gardening structures can keep agriculture in the city while minimizing its land footprint. The government in Dongguan is looking to invest a good deal of money in future thinking agriculture technologies, and this would be a perfect undertaking for that initiative. Many of these grow structures have been theoretically designed and discussed, and some small experimental structures have been built, however nothing fully operational has been put into production yet. China, as such a technologically savvy country, would be a natural fit to build the first one.

The system is a fully contained one, collecting rainwater and filtering it for irrigation, and so agricultural run-off would be eliminated, as well as the potential for irrigating with polluted river water. They can be very versatile buildings, designed to incorporate many uses, such as offices or apartments, and can be used for the cultivation of crops or livestock. The grow systems within the structure can be designed to support many types of agriculture, from trees to small vegetables and vines.

land use typologies terraced farming: stepped bioremediation Terraced farming is large part of agriculture in China. With the many mountains and hills, terraces increase the amount of arable land, and also help to reduce erosion by slowing down the rate of run-off during storm events. In many areas much of the terraced farming is used as rice paddies, flooding the terrace in order for the staple crop to grow in areas it naturally would not. In the Shima River watershed, terraces are used instead to grow the regions cash crop, Lychee, and other orchard crops. These terraces and other hillside farming potentially contribute a lot of the agriculture pollution in waterways because of their slope. Relatively clean rainwater falls, or waterways originate in the mountains, and flow down over the hillside agriculture, passing on to run into the streams, rivers, and reservoirs. This also makes the terraced farming a very unique target for design solutions. This typology design keeps the agriculture use of the terraces intact, while also providing a way to clean the water of any pesticides or fertilizers it may have picked up. Rainwater or irrigation water enters the terrace system, flowing down through the already existing set up from one terrace to the next, however in this system the water is also collected in vegetated swales and directed into a retention basin before it can leave the site. Here it is held and bio-filtrated by grasses, shrubs and other vegetation. Berms hold the water in place and allow for greater catchment in storm events that are common in the rainy season of the Dongguan region. The water can then be used again as irrigation, or released into surrounding waterways.

Conventional Rain Water (Relatively Clean)

Terrac e

d Farm

Run-off Farming on slopes and terraces contributes fertilizer and pesticide pollution to the run-off

(Polluted)

Run-off already polluted by farming by-products picks up surface pollutants

Bioremediation Rain Water (Relatively Clean)

Terrac e

Street Surfaces

Shima River (Polluted)

d Farm

Run-off (Polluted)

Swales

Vegetated swales carry run-off and irrigation to a retention basin for bio-filtration

Retention Basin (Additional Cleaning)

Berms Retention B

Swales

asin

land use typologies dike pond systems: branding local agricultural traditions Agriculture is the cultural heart of the region. Cultural and agricultural policy can ensure Dike Pond Systems’ smooth transition into a contemporary world. Retaining the presence of sustainable agriculture in a rapidly industrializing region provides an urgent incentive to clean up pollutants that threaten the region.

Morus alba Mulberry

Nelumbo nucifera Water lotus

Agricultural extension programs, research institutions, scientists, and government might seek collaborative ways to support Dike Pond farmers while researching bioremediation in contaminated ponds. Taking advantage of international interest in traditional methods of sustainable agriculture, partnerships with international agricultural internship systems like WWOOF (Worldwide Opportunities on Organic Farms) can provide additional income to farmers. Most importantly, the interest of international interns can enhance the cultural status of sustainable agriculture, encouraging a younger generation to continue and innovate within this tradition.

东

桑莞基鱼塘

A sustainable agriculture self-guided walking tour takes young urbanites and tourists on a tour of the agricultural heritage of the region. The walking tour route also functions as an unusual public space in a society in which public spaces are few and restricted in scope.

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GOOGLEEARTH

land use typologies streets: low impact infrastructure, regional identity Dongguan is serviced by a combined sewer system, where storm drains and sewage share the same below-ground infrastructure. This system was not meant to handle the capacity that rapid development has incurred. During the rainy season, domestic and industrial sewage overflow into the river. Such deluges also strain the capacity of wastewater treatment plants.

n or e f tio al llec sw o fc

bi o ro o

Scirpus lacustris

Miscanthus sinensis

Tabermontanus bulrush

Chinese Silvergrass

Dongguanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s numerous streets with wide parkways offer an opportunity to create an extensive above-ground bioswale network that can absorb much excess stormwater. Separating stormwater from sewage will keep domestic and industrial effluent out of streams, while providing important flood control benefits downstream. Such a low impact drainage infrastructure offers esthetic, pollutant and flood control benefits at relatively low cost. Because the tributary network is so vast, there are relatively frequent opportunities to link such a bioswale network with tributaries.

r o f e l wa off Plants may be chosen to enhance regional s o bi t run cultural identity (see overleaf). Such a low ee r impact infrastructure is an opportunity t s for bioremediation. This will require regular harvesting and processing of contaminated biomass.

A bioswale between sidewalk and buildings absorbs stormwater from rooftops. Meanwhile another bioswale between the road and sidewalk absorbs pollutants and runoff from roadways. Plants can be chosen for their cultural meanings, creating a low impact infrastructure that adds to a sense of cultural identity.

Dongguan’s numerous streets with wide parkways offer an opportunity to create an extensive above-ground bioswale network that absorbs excess stormwater, while separating stormwater from below-ground sewage. Because the tributary network is so vast, there are relatively frequent opportunities to link such a bioswale network with tributaries. GOOGLEEARTH

combined sewer system rainy season scenario

storm water exceeds capacity of system, causing sewage to overflow into river

sewage

water sewage and storm

storm water combined with sewage exceeds capacity of wastewater treatment plants

wherever possible, stormwater is absorbed by a network of bioswales. excess runs into tributaries, not into underground pipes

separated sewer system rainy season scenario aboveground bioswales slow stormwater and collect nutrients and pollutants

sewage 12’

12’

50’

12’

stormwater only

12’

sewage only

er t at lan w p te nt as e w tm to rea t s

to local tributaries

storm water infiltration

groundwater infiltration

wetlands kidneys of the earth, soul of Dongguan

Low impact infrastructure is an opportunity to build regional identity

Scirpus lacustris

Nelumbo nucifera

According to some, Dongguan (东莞) may be named after a locally native reed, "guan" (莞). Tabermontanus bulrush once grew throughout Guangdong and was woven into mats.

For centuries throughout China and India, Lotus has been a buddhist symbol of purity rising from unclean waters. In the Pearl River Delta, lotus is an important plant used in the early stages of land reclamation, when fields are too still too saline for other crops.

syn: Schoenoplectus lacustris, Scirpus validus, Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani

Because it is used in Chinese medicine and its seeds, pods, roots in cooking, any use of this plant for heavy metal uptake should be labelled to prevent consumption.

东莞

Ni, Cr, Co, Zn, Mn, Pb, Cd, Cu, Hg, Fe victorian flora

Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani victorian flora

scirpus lacustris

Cd, Cu, Ammonia

oflickr 331128

Miscanthus

Nymphaea

Various species of Miscanthus are native to parts of East Asia. Some have been tested for bioremediation and for use as a biofuel.

Water Lily is unrelated to the lotus, but also has significance in Buddhist lore. Native and exotic species are both common in Guangdong.

Miscanthus condensatus has high salt tolerance.

Nymphaea violacea and spontanea have been tested for use in bioremediation.

The sterile hybrid Miscanthus giganteus produces biomass rapidly and is used for heat and electricity generation in Europe. It is being tested on a commercial basis in the US. Miscanthus biomass can supplement coal at in some coal burning plants without modification of the existing setup.

Though not the most efficient accumulator of hexavalent Chromium, Choo et al (2006) found that Nymphaea spontanea can be grown alongside fish and other crops without becoming a maintenance problem as other hyperaccumulators (duckweeds) do.

Use of metal accumulators as biofuels runs the risk of recontamination of the environment, so these two uses may not be compatible. Though both parents of Miscanthus giganteus are native to Asia, the hybrid, like any non-native plants used in the landscape, should be tested for detrimental environmental effects before widespread use.

Nymphaea nouchali wikipedia

U, Cr-6 , Th radionuclides wikipedia

zhangye chinadaily_com

horatziu1977

heavy metals, biofuel production

land use typologies meanders: oxbow treatment wetlands These former meanders have been converted into fish or irrigation ponds

Meander paths are a major feature of the flat plains of the Shi Ma watershed. Patterns of sediment accretion that attest to the ongoing process of meander formation can be clearly seen in satellite photos. River meanders have a natural tendency over time to become wider and wider, until meanders separate into â&#x20AC;&#x153;oxbow lakes.â&#x20AC;? Some meander paths in the Shi Ma watershed have been reclaimed for other uses. In other locations, humans attempt to preserve existing land uses by fighting erosion and dredging sediment. Patterns of sediment deposition that lead to formation of meanders are part of a natural cycle that cannot be permanently obstructed without continual inputs from humans.

Main flow diverted into treatment wetlands. Rainy season overflow prefers the main, straightened channel, because its slope is greater and unobstructed.

At the same time, the increased surface area of meanders offers opportunities for treatment wetlands that absorb and slow stormwater, remove pollutants, and improve flood control downstream. The main river channel can be graded with a low flow channel so that most treatment dry season flow is forced into treatment wetlands wetlands. Because the slope and water speed of meanders will always be less than in a straightened stream, the majority of wet season flow will have a natural tendency to keep to the main channel, which is relatively frictionless, steeper, and unobstructed.

amount of stormwater entering wetlands, if necessary.

MEANDERS BECOME

at entry to each wetland is a low tech Sediment settling pondsdiversion are situated at structure, the beginning of each wetland and can be weir and sediment cleaned out regularly. settling basin

treatment wetlands Original zig zag meanders

Diversion walls and adjustable weirs are lowtech ways to further control the

These former meanders have been converted into fish or irrigation ponds

Main flow diverted into treatment wetlands. Rainy season overflow prefers the main, straightened channel, because its slope is greater and unobstructed.

GOOGLEEARTH

treatment wetlands

MEANDERS RECONNECTED TO FORM TREATMENT WETLANDS

WETLANDS, WITH ADDITION OF A STRAIGHTENED CHANNEL

treatment wetlands

treatment wetlands treatment wetlands

at entry to each wetland is a low tech diversion structure, weir and sediment settling basin

ADDITION OF STRAIGHT CHANNEL

RIVER CHANNEL is graded to force mĂ¸st low flow into treatment wetland at entry to each wetland is a low tech diversion structure, weir and sediment settling basin

During rainy season, flood water may tend to flow through the main straightened channel, because it is relatively frictionless and unobstructed, and its slope greater than the meanders. However, a low tech adjustable weir will help regulate water entry into wetland if necessary. ADJUSTABLE WEIR allows low flow to pass underneath into oxbow wetland while limiting rainy season flow into wetland

SEDIMENT SETTLING BASIN widening of the channel forces sediment to settle

ADJUSTABLE WEIR allows a constant flow to pass underneath

OXBOW WETLAND

MAIN CHANNEL

treatment wetlands

Original zig zag meanders

SEDIMENT SETTLING BASIN

DRY SEASON

MAIN CHANNEL

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land use typologies zoning for high density industrial and residential uses Further development is expected in the Shi Ma River watershed. Though we cannot stop further development in the watershed, we can zone to restrict building to areas that are already urbanized. Mountainous areas are the source of clean water, and their preservation is necessary to ensure water quality. Concentrating like land uses together allows for cost effective infrastructure specific to land use types. It can allow for more effective monitoring of individual pollution sources, and solutions tailored to specific land use types. Opportunities that result from clustering residential and industrial uses densely are shown on these pages.

water from several rooftops collects in a common wetland

RESIDENTIAL

Clustering high density housing allows the efficient collection of rainwater from rooves into common wetlands parks, which can ease the burden on sewage infrastructure.

Collection of rooftop rain collection into common wetland parks ease the burden on sewage infrastructure

WEIMIN LI

diagram adapted from ABC Waters Design Guidelines

owly wetlands and sl by ed sh li po is water s drains e ground. Exces infiltrates into th k. bioswale networ into low impact

Real time data from pretreated industrial effluent made available on internet, tickerboards in public locations, and published in newspapers.

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Without effective monitoring of point source pollution, individual polluters are not held accountable for lack of action. Clustering industrial uses together makes more effective monitoring and centralized pollution-control infrastructure possible. In this scenario, sensors pick up real-time pollutant data from industrial effluent. The data is available on the internet, posted on electronic tickerboards, and published in newspapers.

distilled water for reuse

WEIMIN LI

Effluent then travels to a common collection basin, where further testing can take place. Evaporation, aided by solar radiation, distills clean water for reuse while concentrating pollutants for more efficient treatment and possible reharvesting of metals.

Evaporation, aided by solar gain, distills water to be reused, concentrating pollutants for more efficient treatment or reharvesting of metals

land use typologies green corridors: filter maze ECOLOGICAL CORRIDORS While industry and urban development continue to encroach upon undeveloped and agricultural land, green corridors can help to connect these remaining agricultural and open spaces to larger natural regions such as surrounding mountains. On a regional scale mountain corridors can help to offer a link between humans and their environment, reconnected smaller natural reserves to larger mountain regions. They can also restore and create new species habitats, and revitalize and improve existing eco systems. By incorporating existing transportation routes as connectors these corridor can help to create a network of open spaces for recreation and adaptive reuse, provide cultural facilities to connect different uses in a common space, as well as filter and treat storm-water in order to release cleaner water to the Shi Ma River. Open land preservation, street tree planting and bioswales can connect these corridors. Bioswales can help street polluted urban runoff before it runs into sewers and surrounding water sources.

MOUNTAIN CONNECTIONS ECOLOGICAL CORRIDORS

TRANSPORTATION ECOLOGICAL CORRIDOR WITH VEGETATED BUFFER

AGRICULTURAL PRESERVATION BIOSWALES AND TREE PLANTINGS

Stormwater Filter Maze Bio Swale System

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SECTION SHOWING STORM WATER TREATMENT PROCESS Inflow stormwater

Gabion retaining walls filter larger matter

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Stormwater Filter Maze

Grading declines 6 in to 1 foot per wall to increase water flow in rainy seasons

Seasonal Filtration Pools

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This plan creates a series of bioswales that help to clean urban and agricultural runoff on its way to the Shi Ma River by pulling that water into a â&#x20AC;&#x153;Filter Maze.â&#x20AC;? This filter will clean the water as it travels through seasonal phyto remediation ponds. The maze like walls, are made with gabion construction, these permeable rock walls double as filter as well as supports for a walkway. Visitors and surrounding workers can come to stroll through the walkways to see the treatment process first hand. The meandering form of the walls as well as the descending grade help to insure the continual movement of the water through the treatment maze in the heavy rainfall seasons.

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appendices bibliography Dong Xuefeng. 2011.“Dongguan Shima River sewage treatment rate to over 85% by the end of the year.” Dongguan Daily. news.timedg.com/2011-07/19/ content_5300350.htm Dongguan City Bureau of Water Resources. 2009. “Shi Ma River Vicissitudes of History and Future Prospects.” dgwater.dg.gov. cn/GGKF/index/view.asp?sn id=20090106105538_16231786059459 accessed Sept- Dec 2012. Dongkeng Youth League. 2010. Dongkeng: environmental protection volunteers to carry out field surveys Shima River pollution. zyz.dgyouth.gd.cn/ show.aspx?id=7212&cid=17 Duan L. 2011. “Shima River water quality gradually improved.” Nanfang Daily.

Improvement Plan. Haley, Eric, Michele Montano, Viviana Rodriguez and Mike Russell. 2011. The ShiMa River Watershed Project. Final project for Landscape Architecture 540, Instructor Weimin Li, Cal Poly Pomona. Li, Weimin. 2011-12. Data, photos, articles and personal communications. Liao Yi-wen. 2003. “Dongguan Dongjiang water quality improvement Shima River sewage started.” news.h2o-china.com/ society/wastewater/238201071960240_1. shtml National Standards of the People’s Republic of China Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water english.mep.gov.cn/SOE/soechina1997/ water/standard.htm

India.” Reviews in Fisheries Science. 19(2):85-118, 2011. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. n.d. “Fish Culture Practices.” fao.org/docrep/X5686E/ x5686e06.htm Hu Bao-tong and Yang Hua-zhu. 1984. “The Integration of Mulberry Cultivation, Sericulture and fish farming.” fao.org/ docrep/field/003/AC241E/AC241E00.htm Lee, Yok-shiu F. 2004. “Mulberry dyke fish pond model, China: a sustainable traditional method of landwater ecosystem.” enviroscope.iges. or.jp/contents/APEIS/RISPO/inventory/ db/pdf/0152.pdf Proposal for research, statistics on ratio between mulberry trees and pond size Li, S. F. 2001. “Aquaculture Research and its Relation to Development in China.” Agricultural Development and the Opportunities for Aquatic Resources Research in China. Penang, Malaysia: 2001.

Guangzhou Daily News. 2011. “Five Measures to Improve River water quality in Mission Hills.” 2011-09-15. news.dayoo.com/ shenzhen/201109/15/73439_19266032. htm

Radio Free Asia. 2011. “Cry of the East River.” rfa.org

Guangdong Water Resources and Electric Power Survey and Design Institute. 2009. “Dongguan City Shima River Valley Comprehensive Improvement River Water Environment Remediation Planning” (to be issued).

Wang Zixiong. 2011. “Dongguan, Huizhou and Shenzhen, three cities works together in the remediation of Shima River.” News Center: Dongguan News. news.sun0769.com/dg/video/201109/ t20110914_1121873.shtml

Network of Aquaculture Centers in Asia. 1985. “Integrated fish farming in China. Training manual.” CAO Corporate Document Repository. Bangkok, Thailand. http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/003/ AC233E/AC233E07.htm

Guangdong Hydropower Planning and Design Institute. ca. 2011. Dongguan City Shima River Valley Comprehensive Treatment River Water Environment

AQUACULTURE Bagchi, Anita and Prithwiraj Jha. 2011. “Fish and Fisheries in Indian Heritage and Development of Pisciculture in

Weng Qihao. 2007. “A historical perspective of river basin management in the Pearl River Delta of China.” Journal of Environmental Management 85 (2007).

State Environmental Protection Administration. 2002. “People’s Republic of Surface Water Quality Standards.”

Zhong, Gong Fu, Zeng Qi Wang, Hou Shui Wu. 1997. Land-water Interactions of the Dike-pond System. Belgium, Presses Universitaires de Namur, 1997. p. 105+ BIOREMEDIATION Billore, S. K., Prashant and J. K. Sharma. 2009. Treatment performance of artificial floating reed beds in an experimental mesocosm to improve the water quality of river Kshipra. Water Science & Technology. 60.11 2009. Headley, T. R. and C. C. Tanner. 2006. “Application of Floating Wetlands for Enhanced Stormwater Treatment: A Review.” Auckland Regional Council Technical Publication. NIWA Client Report: HAM2006-13. November 2006. Helmer, Richard and Ivanildo Hespanhol. n.d. “Water Pollution Control- A Guide to the Use of Water Quality Management Principles.” World Health Organization. London: Thomson Professional, n.d. Li Shuo, Liu Yun-Guo, Li Yong-Li, Xu WeiHua, LI Xin. 2002. The hyperaccumulating of Scirpus tabernaemontani to Cd and its potential for phytoremediation. en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTOTALGXZW200702011.htm Lu, Xiaomei, Maleeya Kruatrachue, Prayad Pokethitiyook and Kunaportn Homyok. 2004. “Removal of Cadmium and Zinc by Water Hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes.” ScienceAsia 30(2004): 93-113. Prasad, M.N.V., n.d. Emerging

phytotechnologies for remediation of heavy meal contaminated/ polluted soil and water. wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/ biodiversity/sahyadri_enews/newsletter/ issue25/article2.htm Seymour et al. 2009. “Assessing Lotus for bioremediation.” Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. Australian Government. Shukla, Keshav Prasad, Nand Kumar Singh, Shivesh Sharma. “Bioremediation: Developments, Current Practices and Perspectives.” 2010. Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Journal. Astonjournals.com Warren, Paula. 2004. Chromium-6 and Bioremediation. Powerpoint available online. accessed 12-1-2012. STATISTICS AND REGULATION Los Angeles County Economic Development Corporation. 2011. Growing Together: China and Los Angeles County. US Census. 2011. Press Release. census. gov/foreign-trade/Press-Release/2011pr/ final_revisions/exh13tl.pdf Accessed fall 2012. US China Business Council. “US-China Trade Statistics and China’s World TradeStatistics.” 2012. uschina.org/ statistics/tradetable.html Accessed fall 2012. Wikipedia. 2012. “Dong Guan” “Special Economic Zones” “Pearl River Delta”

“Dong Shen Water Supply Project.” Accessed fall 2012. POLLUTION Cai, Limei, Zhencheng Xu, Mingzhong Ren, Qingwei Guo, Xibang Hu, Guocheng Hu, Hongfu Wan and Pingan Peng. 2010. “Source identification of eight hazardous heavy metals in agricultural soils of Huizhou, Guangdong Province, China.” Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 78 (2012) 2-8. Chau, K.W. 2006. Persistent organic pollution characterization of sediments in Pearl River Estuary. Chemosphere 24 (2006) 1545-1549. Chinadialogue. 2011. Report on Environmental Health in the Pearl River Delta eu-china.net/web/cms/upload/pdf/ materialien/11-06-09_2011_06_09_ chinadialogue_environmental_health.pdf Goldberg, 2009. “Black Pearl - The Threat of Water Pollution to Guangdong’s Future.” State for EAP/CM and OES/PCI, EPA for Office of International Affairs. Wikileaks wikileaks.org/ cable/2009/01/09GUANGZHOU10.html Greenpeace. 2010. “Poisoning the Pearl River 2nd edition. ” No direct mention of Shima river. One Dongguan site tested, with data. Interviews with local people, summary of common industrial contaminants. Most of the info is the same as the 2009 report. greenpeace.org/eastasia/publications/ reports/toxics/2010/pearl-river-report2009-2nd/ Hurst, Cindy. 2010. “The Rare Earth Dilemma” The Cutting Edge. thecuttingedgenews.com/index. php?article=21777. November 15, 2010. Kaufmann et al. 2006. “Climate Response

to Urban Growth: Evidence of HumanInduced Precipitation Deficit.” American Meteorological Society. May 2007. McLendon, Russell. 2011. “What are rare earth metals.” Mother Nature Network. mnn.com/earth-matters/translatinguncle-sam/stories/what-are-rare-earthmetals Tam, Fiona. 2012. “Dongguan authorities admit water from Dongjiang not fit to drink.” South China Morning Post. Aug 22, 2012. scmp.com/news/china/ article/1020422/dongguan-authoritiesadmit-water-dongjiang-not-fit-drink Wang, Shanshan, Zhimin Cao, Dongzhao Lan, Zhichang Zheng, Guihai Li. 2008. “Concentration of distribution and assessment of several heavy metals in sediments of west-four Pearl River Estuary. Environ Geol (2008) 55:963-975. Xia, Yun-sheng, Li Fangbai, Wan Hongfu, Ma Jin, Yang Guoyi, Zhang Tian-bin, Luo Wei. 2004. “Spatial distribution of heavy metals in agricultural soils in Dongguan, China.” Journal of Environmental Sciences vol. 16, No. 6. 2004. Yeh, Pat. 2004. “Pollution Estimation for the entire East River Basin.” Contains estimate of agricultural non point source pollution, summary of history of Hong Kong water source. hydro.iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~patyeh/FYP.html HONG KONG WATER SUPPLY Baidu. 2012. “东深供水工程.” baike. baidu.com/view/1087108.htm

Liu Su, et all. 2011-12. Liquid Assetts IIIA and IIIB. Civic Exchange.

year. 2009. old.dongguantoday.com/newsc. asp?id=1438

Peoples Daily Online, 2012. “Chinese lawmakers urge drinking water legislation”. June 29, 2012 english. people.com.cn/90785/7860150.html

Faculty of Architecture. The University of Hong Kong. 2012. Counterpart Cities. counterpartcities.org/research/ freshwater-resource

Water Supplies Department, The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. 2012. Dongjiang Water Quality for the Period of April 2011 - March 2012 Period as received in Hong Kong at Muk Wu Pumping Station. wsd.gov.hk/filemanager/en/content_135/ dongjiang_b-e.pdf and wsd.gov.hk/en/ water_resources/raw_water_sources/ water_sources_in_hong_kong/water_ from_dongjiang_at_guangdong/index. html

Klako Group, 2004. “China’s Pearl River Delta.” klakogroup.com/en/china-investmonthly-newsletter/chinas-pearl-riverdelta

Water Supplies Department, The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. 2012. wsd.gov.hk/ en/water_resources/raw_water_sources/ dongjiang_raw_water/index.html LAND USE HISTORY Bureau of Foreign Affairs and Overseas Chinese Affairs of Dongguan City. 2012. fao.dg.gov.cn/en/articledetail. asp?articleid=767&categoryid=13 Origin of the name “Dongguan” China Daily. 2012. “Policies of China’s Rare Earth Industry.” 6-21-2012. chinadaily.com.cn/cndy/2012-06/21/ content_15515969.htm

Cheung Chi-fai, 2004. “Dongjiang drinking water ‘high in E coli” South China Morning Post. April 9, 2004. scmp. com/article/451522/dongjiang-drinkingwater-high-e-coli

Cox, Wendell. 2009. “China’s Metropolitan Regions:Moving toward High Income Status.” Newsgeography. Accessed 12-2012. newgeography.com/ content/001007-china%E2%80%99smetropolitan-regions-moving-towardhigh-income-status

Liu Su, et all. 2012. Liquid Assetts II. Civic Exchange.

Dongguan Today. 2009. 7 modern agricultural parks to be completed this

Ng, Mee Kam. 2008. “Urban System Planning in China: The Case of the Pearl River Delta.” un.org/esa/population/meetings/EGM_ PopDist/Ng.pdf NASA Landsat imagery from 1979-2003 earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view. php?id=7949 Parham, Walter E. 2005. “Art and the Pearl River Delta Region.” Federation of American Scientists International Symposium on Environment and Society in Chinese History, Washington D.C. fas.org/china_lands/art.pdf “Public Digest” and “Chapter 6: Ecological and Environmental Protection Plans.” Planning Study on the Coordinated Development of the Greater Pearl River Delta Townships. 2009. Vidal, John. 2010. “UN report: World’s biggest cities merging into ‘megaregions’”. The Guardian. March 22, 2010. guardian.co.uk/world/2010/mar/22/uncities-mega-regions Wang, Yuhai. 2012. “Pearl River Delta Comprehensive Regulation Planning.” China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research. 2012 World

appendices methodologies in landscape architecture USING TECHNOLOGY TO DESIGN WITH NATURE/ DESIGN WITH NATURE / IAN MCHARG Ian McHarg helped move landscape architecture beyond designing decorative gardens for an elite class. McHarg’s ecological planning approach is the core of the Landscape Architecture education at CSU Pomona. Since it is so completely absorbed into our school’s approach and seems the only logical way to do analysis, it is a surprise to learn this is a relatively recent approach, which originated in a specific historic moment: just a handful of years after the wake up call of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring. Some aspects of McHarg’s methodology seem as relevant now as then: • Acknowledging ecological health as an economic value at the core of what motivates a designer/planner • Desire for an alternative to the approach of engineers and administrators (the approach exemplified by highway engineers) • a rational planning methodology examining regional scale even when the ultimate impact has a limited site • using graphics and overlays to analyze and present data spatially, such as presenting suitability analysis through overlays and “matrix” chart • using these overlays and suitability analysis to maximize social and

ecological value and health in the long term • Using these documents to appeal to the client’s rationality, almost certainly going beyond what the client originally asked for-- dealing with larger context of site scale design • Precursor to emphasis on ecological “performance” of designed/ planned landscapes • Desire to preserve important functions of a natural landscape on a regional scale Technology has developed dramatically since Design with Nature was published, and it’s exciting to see how GIS solves some of the limitations of detail that McHarg pointed out as inherent in the hand-drawn overlays. In GIS, however, these limits merely extend into more murky territory. Use of GIS can still be limited by detail, but also by accuracy and availability of data. GIS’ subjective limits are even more challenging to recognize than the limits presented by quality of data. As pointed out by Susan Herrington (2010), even McHarg’s map overlays are not objective: the decision of what data to include and not include is inherently subjective: what one chooses to gather data on, and how that data is organized and presented. Slick and attractive presentation easily belies faulty logic or misrepresentation of data. Extraordinary visuals can gloss over hasty and incomplete analysis. GIS

is such a powerful tool that it sharpens such contradictions very dramatically. It appears to have the guise of objectivity, as criticized by Herrington. Moreover, McHarg could not have foreseen that use of this powerful technology would be so easily available to all. In these circumstances, ensuring quality of analysis becomes a challenge. If the technology’s use is not backed up by rigorous and thorough research and knowledge, it can be easily misused. It will be increasingly the public’s job to inform ourselves so that we can discern quality analysis. McHarg’s book emphasizes that subtle knowledge of landscape processes is necessary to begin analysis: the second chapter is a very detailed analysis of coastal sand dunes in New Jersey. For the GIS user, knowing what datasets may be useful, and creating them if necessary-- still depends on subtle knowledge of the ecosystem in question. In the future, science will continue to clarify aspects of the environmental processes we can only imagine. GIS will become more and more powerful. 3d graphic representations of of the inner workings of a thunderstorm cloud will be accessible and easy to manipulate by junior high school students. Without subtle knowledge and consideration of complex natural processes, the mystification of high tech GIS and fancy graphic representation can easily be used to bolster the uni-dimensional approach of the highway engineers

McHarg criticizes-- the very approach that McHarg’s overlay analysis was supposed to guard against. But perhaps the opposite can also happen-- that understanding of subtle environmental analysis will be more appreciated and widespread! McHarg was a great communicator. He clothed his ideas with passionate rhetoric, everyday language, and a common sense approach that is appealing even to non-specialists. Hosting a television show, the House We Live In, shows that he had a populist approach. Because he was appealing to a broad audience, it is natural that his rhetoric seems dated today. There are elements of fiction in some chapters, and his statements on how Japanese people and Native Americans live in harmony with nature seem especially dated! Yet these images moved his audience deeply at the time the book was published. His ability to move people emotionally are probably part of how he became so influential. Though details of his language and imagery seem dated, what remains relevant is his plea to take care of our natural resources, to develop wisely, and his desire to communicate this message broadly. Herrington points out how many think of McHarg as a scientist, despite that he misinterpreted the scientific theories that he used frequently. Science should not be confused with activism. Science is incredibly detail oriented, methodical, and cautious in approach. Scientific truths are often very complex and incomplete. We still understand shockingly little about many simple ecological processes and some common wildlife species. Even the most enlightened efforts to manage wildlife habitat is based on limited

understanding of interrelationships. Understanding that planning and activism are not true science can help us limit our expectations of what can be accomplished through environmental planning. Herrington points out McHarg’s misinterpretation of Darwinism and how designers’ obsession with native plants is influenced by his logic. MacHarg probably would be shocked to learn that as global warming has increased at pace, the ranges of plant species are changing so rapidly that some natives will become more fragile in their original ranges than certain introduced species. What constitutes appropriate plantings in a given area will soon be a controversial question. To solve this question, GIS presents an incredibly important tool. In a restoration area of the future, one in which conditions prevent us from a true historical “restoration”, one could analyze soil types, slope, aspect, and climate data to match to optimal plant species (that may or may not be native). Moreover, in other specific instances where development has completely altered the natural processes (impermeable surfaces changing hydrology, or industrial operations contaminating water and soil) complex approaches are needed. GIS or overlays can still be an invaluable tool, but its usefulness will be limited by the insight and sensitivity of its users. Herrington is right to point out that McHarg demonizes cities, and has a clear preference for low density land uses. 35 years after publication of Design with Nature, there is still a need for society to invest in preserving the land’s natural function on a regional scale. At the same time, we also now know that areas with great population density can allow for relatively sustainable lifestyles compared to rural areas. Urban development

creates enough population density to support public transportation, biking, and walking, and urban dwellers have a lower carbon footprint overall. Cities are now an important testing ground for how to organize life sustainably. The need to promote stewardship of the environment also now begins in cities. A contemporary challenge is that the majority of our population will never experience wilderness, or subtle natural processes. Urban parks, no matter how degraded when compared to a historical state, are now important “Public Relations” for ecology for city dwellers. The appreciation of just one single tree is education. Landscape Architecture is the city dwellers’ PR for ecology. McHarg could not have anticipated any of this. Technology, values, and ecological crises issues have changed. But his rational systematic approach is still a relevant model. The value of thorough research and common sense is still useful. Interdisciplinarity, calling upon scientists and specialists of various fields to help evaluate, and calling upon the public process to implement large scale shifts in thinking through policy and regulation. At the core of Design for Nature is the desire to work for the public good, through thoughtfully planning of urban development while safeguarding ecological resources. Though his language is old fashioned, and his values increasingly nostalgic, his heart and intent still guide the profession. Stephanie Landregan articulates a sentiment that seems common in this field and may be influenced by McHarg: “Landscape Architecture is the only profession where your job is to be a steward of the earth.”

and slick graphics, our challenge is to make sure we use this powerful technology in harmony with McHarg’s intention, which is to thoughtfully and responsibly apply knowledge from all realms to analysis, design and planning, and consider natural processes within a long term vision for any design no matter what scale. Jane Tsong Herrington, Susan. 2010. “The Nature of Ian McHarg’s Science,” Landscape Journal 29:1-10. McHarg, I.L. 1969. Design with Nature, Natural History Press. /// AN APPROACH TO REGIONAL PLANNING/ TOMORROW BY DESIGN/ PHILLIP LEWIS Tomorrow by Design by author Philip Lewis puts forward a regional design process to guide land use, design, development and restoration. His process integrates resource value inventory, creative analysis, synthesis of two-and three-dimensional design options, and a specific educational effort, to assure citizens a role in the decision-making process. He states that the regional planning process can and should be linked to ideas relating to sustainability. To attain sustainability it is important for both designers and members of the public to change their attitudes towards nature and it various types of landscapes.

Lewis feels that process of regional design and open space planning should be holistic and interdisciplinary. Experts from various disciplines such as geography, geology, biology. landscape ecology, and architecture should work However, in this time when the profession hand in hand with the open space is easily seduced by novel technologies planners. Along with these ideas on

the practice of planning, he talks about how the complex patterns and textures of the landscape should be treated as a work of art. Like a work of art, these interconnected landscape patterns should be preserved and respected. This is because these landscape patterns are linked to a larger pattern within which they are embedded, and to the smaller patterns that are embedded in it. The regional planning processes Lewis proposes involves protection, restoration, and enhancement of the life support system. He also states the importance of planners guiding human development so that new developments maintain the dynamic balance between natural and cultural resources. Some of the regional patterns to look for while designing include toxic patterns, flood patterns, cropland patterns, aquifer recharge patterns and groundwater patterns. The planning process should have a holistic and interdisciplinary approach, while emphasizing the importance of scale in open space planning. Sustainability should be planned at three scales; the national scale, regional scale and local scale. At the national level, the growth of urban areas should take the form of constellation of stars or donuts, where large open spaces are not only enclosing cities but are also enclosed by it. Such open spaces may include biological reserves and agricultural lands. At a regional level, the urban areas should be connected with transportation corridors and E Ways, and the urban growth should be channeled along these corridors. This will help contain urban sprawl. He suggests using railroads as connecting corridors since they have two important attributes of sustainability. They are economical and consume less energy than any other modes of transportation. At local levels it is important to educate the public about

sustainability by using tools such as E Ways, Awareness Centers and Academies for Sustainable Design. The important regional resources to be considered in the planning process includes food supply, water resources, open spaces, and energy resources. A study of Lewis’ consisting of his writing about the Circle City Urban Constellation encompasses 17 million people in Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota. He calls it a design case study. Although his work involves more people and land than most can comprehend, it is done with an eye for detail and attention to individuals. He deciphers immense landscapes by applying design principles, tools and processes. Lewis maintains that relationships between physical and biological elements should be considered while planning for regional landscapes. The layering of maps for analysis should follow a chronological sequence beginning with the oldest evidence and proceeding towards the present where each layer depends on the underlying ones and each augments the total explanation. Every landscape has a unique structure and pattern. These landscape patterns should be respected while planning for open spaces. The overall landscape structure should be designed for biodiversity and sustainability. It is important to connect large vegetated areas with smaller patches of vegetation or natural corridors. This is because well connected landscapes containing large patches of vegetation will help maintain biodiversity. Small areas of natural vegetation provide home species with smaller home ranges, promote storm water infiltration, filter air pollutants, and act as stepping stones for species movement between large patches of vegetation. Urban, suburban,

and other intensive land uses should be aggregated wherever possible. This is because large patches of natural areas have more ecological benefits than a number of small isolated patches of natural areas. The best agricultural soils should be protected from urbanization. Riparian corridors should be maintained throughout the landscape. Riparian corridors help in connecting independent landscape elements and protect streams from pollution and other kinds of degradation. Protecting streams from pollution will help in maintaining healthy populations of aquatic animals. The Open Space Plan for the Town of Dunn in Wisconsin was done by an interdisciplinary team from University of Wisconsin along with local and regional citizen groups. The plan provides practical solutions for preserving open spaces at county scale. The handbook accompanying the plan also provides guidelines that could be used by other counties to preserve their open spaces. The main goal of this Open Space Plan is natural systems preservation.There are four phases in the open space planning process and these include inventory of resources, open space functions, tools for preservation, and study area analysis. The inventory is done in five steps. The first step in this process is the inventory of the town’s geology and water resources. Under geology and water resources, the items inventoried includes surface geology, subsurface geology, groundwater, and surface water resources.The second step in the inventory process is researching and recording the natural history of the town and the changes that occurred in the town due to development. The third step is the inventory and classification of woodlands in the Town of Dunn and this step involves extensive field studies. The woodland classification is based on the plant

appendices methodologies in landscape architecture community type. Trees species in each of these woodland communities are noted. The fourth step in the open space planning process is to inventory existing wetlands. The Town of Dunn has a sizable number of wetlands, hence a detailed inventory of the wetlands is done.The inventory includes a detailed description of each wetland in the town. The study also describes the potential threats faced by each of these wetlands. The wetlands of Dunn support significant wildlife populations. The fifth step involves the inventory of wetland wildlife. Location of major bird flight corridors in the town are noted. This part of Wisconsin is renowned for its fishes and has a sizable fish population in its numerous freshwater lakes and streams. An inventory of fishes is done for each one of these lakes and streams.The last step in the inventory process is the inventory of historic and archaeological sites in the town. The important archaeological sites inventoried includes effigy mounds, cemeteries, camp sites and villages. The primary purpose of the Town of Dunn Open Space Plan is natural systems preservation. Wildlife is an important element in any natural system. Wildlife can be protected by preserving its overall habitat including places of movement. The habitat to be preserved for wildlife includes feeding, nesting, resting, burrowing, wintering and migratory sites. It is very important to protect the corridors used for movement by these species. Wildlife species chosen for the study are those that are familiar to people. The broad categories of wildlife

studied are birds of prey, song birds, waterfowl, upland game birds, marsh and shore birds, rodents, game fish, pan fish, rough fish, snakes, turtles, frogs, salamander and invertebrates. A wildlife habitat matrix is prepared for identifying land use impacts on the wildlife. The goal to preserve plant and animal habitats is based on the assumption that plant and animal diversity are needed for long term stability. Animals are viewed as an important part of Town of Dunn’s community since they play an important part in the overall ecological process. The second purpose for preparing the open space plan is the aesthetic quality preservation. This involves preservation of hedgerows, roadside vegetation, and views to and from the wetlands. The study recommends preserving high quality vistas to the lake, and the use of natural colors and materials near open space resources. The plan also recommends avoiding concentration of night lights in the dark rural areas. The third purpose of the open space plan is to protect surface water quality. Surface water quality can be protected by preserving open space resources and by creating hedgerows, vegetative buffer strips along streams and intermittent drainage ways and safeguarding wetlands. It is also important to control runoff problem at the source. The study recommends the use of non-structural flood control methods to prevent floods or flood impacts. The hundred-year flood area is considered appropriate to achieve this purpose.

According to Town of Dunn open space planners, for an open space plan to be successful, it should also provide education and spiritual enrichment for the residents. Close and regular contact with natural landscapes or landscape elements will result in growth of emotional ties to the land and help in re-establishment of important relationship existing between man and natural processes. It is also important to preserve historic and cultural resources. The resources that are recommended for protection includes outstanding architecture, traditional American Indian campsites, and early farmsteads. The plan also recommends using physical elements of landscapes to limit the growth the community. Use of natural boundaries will help to define the edge of the town, prevent urban sprawl, and assist in preserving the identity of the town.

environment around the existing water bodies, geology, fire patterns, and ecology seem to be the ideal way to go about planning a well balanced city. While I feel these strategies are a tremendously beneficial solution for combatting contemporary problems such as urban heat island effect and anxiety and stress caused by overpopulation, it also brings up complex ethical questions about the our interaction with the natural environment. For example the urban pollution of fragile ecosystems and agriculture is a major issue in contemporary cities. A lot of people would like to have urban farms but more often than not, it is not commercially or environmentally sustainable. Often the pollution from nearby storm water runoff and automobiles make the edible fruits and vegetables that are grown there undesirable. Another contemporary issue with urban agriculture that we have seen in recent years is that the planting of edible trees in public spaces is often prohibited by the city for reasons such as cleanliness and maintenance. These unfortunate realities cause design issues that need to be addressed.

Lewis writes about E Ways as stretches of planted land ecologies that maintain While reading Tomorrow by Design the indigenous environmental systems. one learns about landscape pattens, While this concept seems attainable landscape personalities, and the different as well environmentally and ethically processes for the planning process we responsible, it also has practical are impressed by Lewis’ passion for the ramifications. Some issues concerning subject as well as the detail in which he E Ways include endangering animals by has chosen to analyze the natural systems placing them in contact with automobiles involved. He writes extensively about and other industrial machines. I feel urban plans at various scales concerned that there is a historical precedence primarily with green open space for the for keeping the urban and natural preservation of plant and wildlife species. environment separate from each other. His ideas on using a green infrastructure While the Olmsteadean view of relieving as central open space upon which to the stresses of the working class by plan for transportation and eco tourism providing them with clean green public are both innovative and seem plausible space is of course an enticing one, the in a optimistic future. His harmonious issues listed above provide real world visions of piecing together the urban

challenges for these kind of planning strategies. Another issue that this text has brought up for me is that it is a basic human need to be separated from vegetation, insect and animal species for safety reasons. The ancient human need for cleanliness, disease, and personal safety have always been a concern with the design of highly populated urban spaces. Lewis offers no specific solutions for dealing with these types of issues, and also does not attempt to analyze the human scale and it’s relationship to wild plants and animals with any kind of objective realism. While Lewis does address some social issues involved in the planning process more than his ecological planning predecessor, Ian Mcharg, I feel that nature is still being used as a cure all remedy for commerce and industrialization. Also like Mcharg, the prioritizing of the landscape ecology above the human experience still seems prevalent. There are major social issues that I feel have been neglected in his book. While I do not feel that the ecology of a place needs to conflict with these interests, Tomorrow by Design does fail to integrate crucial human social issues and landscape ecology as a design strategies. Greg Dalton /// DESIGN FOR HUMAN ECOSYSTEMS/ JOHN T. LYLE In order to understand John T. Lyle’s book Design for Human Ecosystems fully, one must first understand the historical context in which it was written. The environmental movement had already begun two decades before, so in order to speak about environmental issues in a design book, one did not have to proselytize and convince the reader of

its importance first, but could really delve into the meat and bones of the issues one was truly concerned about. Also, in the 1980s when this book was written, a deeper and broader connection to the environment was beginning to form, and sustainability issues were beginning to come to the forefront of everyone’s minds, in the public as well as within the design disciplines. Sustainability, and more specifically regenerative ecosystems- in which energy flows within a closed-loop system, creating and replacing the energy and resources used up by that same system- were John T. Lyle’s specialty focus area, and while regenerative systems are not the focus of this book of his, it’s important to note it as this work was a forerunner to his regenerative ecosystems focus and later book on the topic. While Design for Human Ecosystems does briefly touch on closed-loop systems thinking, it is primarily a book on design approach- how to look at problems from different vantage points and perspectives in order to come up with the best, most comprehensive solution, and one that won’t cause more problems than the original one somewhere down the road. In general Lyle advocates for a systems thinking approach, one that respects the ecosystems that existed previously, as well as the ecosystems that will exist in the future after development has occurred. He introduces the concept of “human ecosystems,” which are what results when development systems collide and are combined with natural systems, to drive home the point that new ecosystems will result from designing the land, and by recognizing this we can use it to our advantage, by purposefully and deliberately designing sustainable human ecosystems when development is called for. He then uses the rest of the book to go through design approaches that look at scale, the design

process, and ecosystem order, to come up with comprehensive design solutions. There’s one great example that Lyle gives towards the beginning of the book that gives a great snapshot of how he looks at design issues. There’s a piece of marsh land at a river mouth near San Diego that is being fought over by groups that want to develop the land, and groups that want to preserve it. Lyle advocates for a combination of the two, arguing that if the land is only used for development, there will be systematic issues with the ecosystem, however if the land is only used for preservation, and no action whatsoever is taken, sediments from developments upriver will eventually wash down and drastically alter the ecosystem in ways just as detrimental as development (done wrongly) would. He instead proposes as a solution the development of a new sewage treatment facility (to replace an outdated one located nearby) that will work with the marsh ecosystem to filter and restore water system function as well as to treat the wastewater that the original plant dealt with. After establishing this means to restore the function of the marsh, he was able to plan for selective urban development as well as recreational areas and preservation / conservation areas. By looking at the bigger picture and considering all aspects of ecosystem function, Lyle was able to come up with a plan for a new human ecosystem that integrated the need for development with the need for environmental preservation. The biggest selling point of this book and Lyle’s design approach is the pragmatism he treats all design issues with. It’s a very logical method of thinking, and a very logical book. To say, “hey look, development is going to occur whether we like it or not, and that development is going to create new ecosystems whether we acknowledge

it or not, so why don’t we just simply acknowledge that this is going to happen so that we can have some semblance of control over the systems and so that we can design them sustainably?” is an extremely realistic way of looking at things that is all to often thrown to the wayside. Only by being pragmatic and realistic are we going to be able to face the complex planning and design issuesthat will only be growing more and more complex- in order to create more sustainable and healthy landscapes. It’s realism that will be able to ground landscape design in substantive issues, and divest with the romanticism that often plagues environmental issues. As human populations continue to grow, advocating for pure preservation of lands will continue to grow less and less realistic. Some preservation of sensitive areas will always be necessary, but if one advocates for preservation of huge or larger areas than necessary, regulatory or planning groups, or the population at large, might begin to think that preservation is too ridiculous, too cumbersome, and too advocated for. If one really sits down and evaluates the spaces that truly need preservation, rather than advocating for no development anywhere, it lends so much more meaning to the sustainability movement, and more legitimacy as well. Lyle also keeps the book relevant for future generations by talking about the virtues of new (at the time) technologies such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and computer modeling, so that, nearly 3 decades after the book has been first published, it still deals with technologies that we are using today, which in light of the constant technological advances within that timeframe, is quite remarkable. I see this as being well thought out by Lyle, in an effort to keep the book contemporaneous at the time, and relevant far into the future. It also lends

another level of legitimacy to the book, because it can be seen as being written by such a competent practitioner- one who kept up with the technologies of the time that would help him be a better designer and instructor. Another point that Lyle talks about later in the book is how the design process is such a complex brain activity. It utilizes both hemispheres of the brain, calling on the right side to come up with ideas and solutions, and the left side to evaluate them for their correctness, completeness, and workability. Not only is there a continual proposal (right side) and disposal (left side) of ideas process, but in evaluating the proposed solutions, the right / creative side works to fully explore all possible side effects and encounterable issues to each solution, so the whole design process is a very complicated one for the brain to work out. Maybe it’s for this reason that Lyle created such a technical book. Since he viewed the design process as so complicated, he wanted to spell out every detail that he saw as being a part of the design process. To some degree this may be a valid approach, however to another degree, it becomes a bit over-explained and delineated. His most memorable and meaningful points are the ones made sufficiently in the introduction, about human ecosystems, and in other topic introductions and summaries. Another thing about this book is that it is very much process and ecosystem focused, and does not really delve much into the aesthetics of design. It mentions it briefly in reference to forms blending into their surrounding landscape, and also stakeholders’ distaste of wind farms due to a desire to maintain views of the mountains, but other than these practical issues, aesthetics really are not touched on at all. I do not believe this to be a huge drawback, but it may have

some readers wishing for a bit more introduction of this topic in a landscape architecture / design book. I would be curious to know how Lyle felt design aesthetics would interact with his other design processes, and how he would approach the subject in his own designs. However it could be entirely possible that I could encounter the topic in some of his other books or publications, as this is the only one of his I have read through so far. In all, I feel that Design for Human Ecosystems is still an entirely relevant book on how to approach design from an ecological system standpoint, and how to assess issues in order to propose comprehensive sustainable solutions. It takes a highly pragmatic and practical approach to sustainability and systems thinking, which I personally greatly appreciate as I sometimes become jaded easily with the nostalgia of strictly environmental approaches to eco-friendly designing. It also gives a great overview on how to approach complicated design problems that involve multiple systems, and provides a way to break the design process into manageable sections and steps, which is always a productive starting place. Edna Robidas Lyle, John T. 1985. Design for Human Ecosystems. New York, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc.

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