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Beat aBout the Bush Mammals
BY TREVOR CARNABY
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CONTENTS VERTEBRATES MAMMAlS Introduction Mammals’ Taxonomic Chart GENERAl MAMMAl QUESTIONS CARNIVORA (animal product-eaters) Canidae – true dogs Mustelidae – badgers and relatives Felidae – true cats Hyaenidae – hyaenas and aardwolf Viverridae – civets and genets; and Herpestidae – mongooses RUMINANTIA (cud-chewers) Bovidae – buffalo and antelope Giraffidae – giraffe and okapi WhIPPOMORPhA Hippopotamidae – hippopotamus SUIfORMES Suidae – bushpigs and warthogs PERISSODACTYlA (odd-toed ungulates) Rhinocerotidae – hook-lipped (black) and square-lipped (white) rhinoceros Equidae – zebras
4 5 5 6 10 68 68 84 90 125 138 144 144 179 191 191 202 202 211 211 227
In summer, african buffalo are active from late afternoon to well after sunset.
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OThER MAMMAlS Proboscidea – elephants (Family Elephantidae) Pholidota – pangolins (Family Manidae) Primates – monkeys, baboons and galagos / bushbabies (Families Cercopithecidae and Galagidae) Hyracoidea – hyraxes (Family Procaviidae) Lagomorpha – hares and rabbits (Family Leporidae) Tubulidentata – aardvark (Family Orycteropodidae) Chiroptera – bats (multiple Families) Rodentia – rodents: squirrels, springhare and porcupine (Families Sciuridae, Pedetidae and Hystricidae)
239 239 273
ClUES TO ThE PRESENCE Of MAMMAlS Introduction Tracks Dung Behavioural signs COMPARATIVE MAMMAl TABlE
312 312 312 324 336 360
COllECTIVE NAMES Of MAMMAlS
362
ThE ORIGIN Of MAMMAl NAMES
362
GlOSSARY
364
INDEx
366
One-horned impala ram
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Leopard with swainson’s spurfowl
276 291 297 299 303 308
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VERTEBRATES Vertebrates are those animals that have an internal supporting skeleton and an enclosed main nerve chord running down the dorsal (back) length of the body. This chord is protected by the skeleton in the form of bony vertebrae that make up the spine or backbone. The major group or Class of vertebrates discussed in this book is Mammalia – more commonly known as mammals. This, of course, represents an incredibly diverse collection of animals with each Order (grouping within the Class) being defined by its own set of common characteristics. The taxonomic chart on pages 6 to 9 depicts the relationships among the different mammals. The various behaviours, adaptations and characteristics of each group are dealt with individually and, together with comparative charts, will give a little more insight and understanding into how everything is connected.
Vertebrate eyes have characteristic pigmented areas called an iris around the pupil. A white ring of fatty deposits around the iris is indicative of high-cholesterol diets in some animals, but this isn’t the case with this elephant eye.
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MAMMAlS – INTRODUCTION
MAMMAlS Introduction Mammals are the animals that most people come to wilderness areas to see. They range in size from the pygmy shrew (2 g) to the blue whale (120 tonnes). But what makes a mammal a mammal – indeed why is the blue whale not a fish? Broadly defined, mammals: • suckle their young on milk produced in the females’ mammary glands. • are warm-blooded (endothermic), regulating their body temperature by a mechanism in the brain. • have body hair at some time during their development (only in the embryonic stages of some marine mammals). Therefore, a mammal is a warm-blooded vertebrate that suckles its young and has body hair. But it’s not as simple as that! Because of the great diversity of mammals around the world (some are definitely more primitive than others), mammals have been divided into three groups, based upon the means of reproduction and nourishment of the young. • Monotremes – represented by three species all found in Australasia Females lay eggs that are incubated either in a nest or in a body-pouch. The young are nourished by egg-yolk and an air-sac. Upon hatching they crawl into the pouch where they are nourished by milk oozing from slits. Most resemble reptiles. • Marsupials – a number of species found in the Americas and Australasia The young are born at an early stage after a short gestation period. Although they are born blind, they immediately crawl into the pouch (marsupium) on the mother’s abdomen. They are nourished by milk via the mother’s nipple. • Placental mammals – all the mammals other than monotremes and marsupials The young are born at an advanced stage, some more so than others, which results in variations in the amount of parental care required. During pregnancy the foetus is nourished by a special organ called the placenta. It facilitates food and waste transfer via a channel called the umbilical cord without actually mixing the blood systems. After the infants are born, they are nourished by milk via mammary glands with nipples. Only the placental mammals will be dealt with here, because all local mammals belong to this group. The taxonomic chart for mammals is on pages 6 to 9. For convenience, a collection of general questions common to a number of the different mammal Families will be used as a starting point. Thereafter, the questions for each mammal Order are dealt with separately. A comparative table designed to answer questions not dealt with in the text will complete the analysis.
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MAMMAlS’ TAxONOMIC ChART There are 17 naturally occurring Orders of mammals locally, of which all but the Sirenians (dugongs and manatees) are terrestrial (land and ground dwelling) and can be seen in our wilderness areas. Each Order will be dealt with in the following taxonomic chart to demonstrate and explain the relationships between the various species. Taxonomy (the science of classification) is however continually developing, resulting in inevitable changes as our understanding improves. It is therefore advisable that the information in this chart is checked in the future. The numbers in brackets denote the number of local (southern African) species. Please note that sub-species are not included because these are not always universally accepted and are prone to constant revision. With the improvements in genetic techniques it has been discovered that nearly a third of all the recognised placental mammal Orders share a common descent. This ‘group’ has been given the name Afrotheria (a Superorder) and includes the golden moles, elephant shrews, aardvark, hyraxes, elephants, dugongs and manatees. Mammals have traditionally been divided into three Subclasses, namely Protheria (egg-laying), Metatheria (marsupials) and Eutheria (placentals). The latter, being the only indigenous Subclass and now called Placentalia, is dealt with in this section. Placentalia – the placental mammals, formerly called Eutheria Originally thought to be the descendants of the Metatherians (marsupials), which were in turn the descendants of the Protherians (egg-laying mammals). Fossil evidence has however disproven this – separate radiations appearing to have occurred simultaneously. Recent advances in genetic sampling techniques have led to various revisions in mammal taxonomy, from Orders right down to Subfamilies. In addition, there have also been a number of common and scientific name changes. There is every chance that further changes or revisions can occur in the future, but for now the taxonomy is as follows: ORDER PROBOSCIDEA - PROBOSCIS MAMMAlS
ORDER hYRACOIDEA - hYRAxES
Family • Elephantidae - elephants (1): african savanna elephant
Family • Procaviidae - hyraxes or dassies (3): tree, rock, yellow-spotted rock
ORDER CARNIVORA – ANIMAl PRODUCT-EATERS
• Mustelidae - badgers and relatives (5): divided into 3 Subfamilies locally - Mustelinae - weasels (2): african striped weasel, striped polecat - Mellivorinae - honey-eater (1): honey badger - lutrinae - otters (2): african clawless, spotted-necked • Phocidae - true seals (4): southern elephant, crabeater, leopard and weddell • Otariidae - fur seals (3): south african, antarctic and subantarctic • Procyonidae - raccoons and allies, none locally • Ursidae - bears, none locally • Mephitidae - skunks, none locally
Although the marine carnivores have previously been regarded as belonging to a separate Order, (called Pinnepedia) recent evidence suggests that all carnivores, both terrestrial and marine are in fact a single homogenous group. The seals have therefore been included here. For convenience, however, the 2 broad groupings of 'cat' and 'dog' have been maintained based primarily upon differences within the inner ear structure. Suborder Caniformia - the 'dogs' Families • Canidae - true dogs (5): black-backed and side-striped jackal, cape fox, african wild dog, bat-eared fox. This Family was previously divided into 3 Subfamilies but this division was apparently unwarranted.
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MAMMAlS – TAxONOMIC ChART Suborder feliformia - the 'cats' Families • felidae - true cats (7): divided locally into 3 Subfamilies - felinae - true cats that 'meow' (4): serval, caracal, blackfooted, african wild cat - Pantherinae - cats that roar (2): lion, leopard - Acinonychinae (1): cheetah • hyaenidae - hyaenas and aardwolf (3), divided into 2 Subfamilies - hyaeninae (2): spotted and brown - Protelinae (1): aardwolf
The previous local Suborders of the Order Artiodactyla (eventoed hoofed mammals) have each been upgraded to Ordinal status based upon recent research. As a result, the name Artiodactyla has become redundant and is replaced as follows: ORDER RUMINANTIA - RUMINANTS (4-ChAMBERED STOMACh fERMENTERS) WITh hORNS Families • Tragulidae - chevrotains, none locally • Moschidae - musk deer, none locally • Cervidae - none naturally locally • Antilocapridae - pronghorn, none locally • Giraffidae - giraffe (1) and okapi (central Africa) • Bovidae - antelope and buffalo (33): the hollow-horned ruminants. There are 2 local Subfamilies (as opposed to 8 previously), namely Bovinae (divided into 2 tribes) and Antilopinae (divided into 8 tribes) - tribes being denoted by the suffix -ini. - Bovinae - cattle group (6) in 2 tribes, namely: Bovini (1): african buffalo; extra incisors replace bottom canines Tragelaphini - the 'spiral-horned antelope' (5): greater kudu, nyala, bushbuck, sitatunga and eland. All have well-developed false hoof glands around digits 2 and 5. - Antilopinae - a diverse group of all the remaining species, divided into 8 tribes as follows: Alcelaphini - hartebeests and relatives (6): red and lichtenstein's hartebeest, black and blue wildebeest (gnu), tsessebe and blesbok (of which bontebok is a subspecies). All have pedal glands between the front hooves only and well-developed preorbital glands in front of the eyes. hippotragini - the 'horse-antelope' (3): sable, roan and gemsbok. Have well-developed pedal glands on all 4 feet.
• Viverridae - civets and genets (5): african civet, (smallspotted, south african large-spotted, common large-spotted and angolan) genets. An additional 2 genet species are now recognised, and the palm civet and mongooses have now been placed in Families of their own. • Nandiniidae (1): african palm civet • herpestidae - mongooses (13): (slender, kaokoland slender, cape grey, bushy-tailed, selous', yellow, large grey, meller's, white-tailed, marsh, banded, dwarf) mongooses and suricate
Reduncini - water-related antelope (5): southern and mountain reedbuck, waterbuck, (red) lechwe and puku. Glands throughout the skin secrete musky oils (especially in waterbuck); reedbuck have subauricular glands below the ear and inguinal glands; puku have inguinal glands and rudimentary pedal glands on the back feet; lechwe have rudimentary inguinal glands only. Although the status of grey rhebok is somewhat unresolved, it has been included in this tribe because it probably belongs here. They have pedal glands in all feet, and males have a preputial gland near the tip of the penis. Cephalophini - duikers (3): common (grey), red and blue. All have preorbital glands while only the blue and common have pedal glands. Common also has inguinal glands. Females tend to be larger than the males. Antilopini - dwarf antelope (6): springbok, steenbok, cape and sharpe's grysbok, oribi, damara dik-dik. Springbok have preorbital and pedal glands (occasionally also inguinals) as well as a dorsal 'glandular patch' with an erectile crest of white hair. Oribi have inguinal, preorbital and subauricular glands as well as pedal glands on all feet. Steenbok have pedal glands on all feet, preorbital glands and a throat gland. The grysboks have pedal glands on all feet and preorbital glands, and the males have preputial glands at the penis tip. Damara dik-dik have preorbital glands and sweat glands in the hooves of all feet. Neotragini - (1): suni, have preorbital glands (not used that much). Aepycerotini - (1): impala (of which the black-faced is a subspecies), have metatarsal glands (glandular patches of skin) just above hooves of the hind legs. Oreotragini - (1): klipspringer, have preorbital glands in front of the eyes.
ORDER MACROSCElIDEA - ElEPhANT-ShREWS/SENGIS
ORDER lAGOMORPhA - hARES, RABBITS, PIKAS
Previously a Family within the Order Insectivora (now Eulipotyphla). Family • Macroscelididae - elephant-shrews (sengis) (8): four-toed, round-eared, eastern rock, western rock, cape rock, bushveld, short-snouted, peters' short-snouted
Families • leporidae - hares, rabbits and red rock rabbits (7): cape and scrub hares, riverine rabbit, (smith's, hewitt's, natal and jameson's) red rock rabbits • Ochotonidae - pikas, none locally
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ORDER PRIMATES - hUMANOIDS From Latin 'prima' meaning 'one of the first, noble, excellent'. This diverse group is divided into 2 Suborders. Suborder 1 haplorhini - simple-nosed true primates (simians): monkeys, apes and humans with 1 Family (and 2 Subfamilies) locally. Family • Tarsiidae - tarsiers, none found locally: do not belong to Superfamilies below Superfamily 1 Catarrhini or Cercopithecoidea - old world monkeys: guenons, mangabeys and baboons Families • Cercopithecidae - (3): vervet and sykes' (samango) monkey, chacma baboon • hylobatidae - gibbons, none locally • hominidae - great apes, humans Superfamily 2 • Platyrrhini - new world monkeys, none locally • Cebidae - squirrel monkeys, tamarins, marmosets, capuchins • Atelidae - howler and spider monkeys, sakis, titis, ukaris Suborder 2 Strepsirhini - turned-nose 'early monkeys' (prosimians): lemurs, lorises, bushbabies (galagos) Superfamily 1 lorisoidea - lorises and allies • lorisidae - lorises and pottos, none locally • Galagidae (previously Galagonidae) - galagos or bushbabies (3): greater (thick-tailed), south african (lesser) and grant's galagos (bushbabies) • Daubentoniidae - aye-ayes, none locally Superfamily 2 lemuroidea - lemurs, none locally • Cheirogaleidae - dwarf and mouse lemurs • lemuridae - lemurs, sometimes includes the Megaladapidae • Megaladapidae - sportive lemurs • Indridae - woolly lemurs and allies
ORDER xENARThRA - ANTEATERS, SlOThS, ARMADIllOS Means 'strange joints', in reference to the special vertebrae. Formerly called Edentata meaning 'toothless' because they lack teeth and were placed with pangolins and the aardvark. None occur locally. Families • Myrmecophagidae - anteaters • Megalonychidae - two-toed sloths • Bradypodidae - three-toed sloths • Dasypodidae - armadillos ORDER PhOlIDOTA - PANGOlINS
ORDER WhIPPOMORPhA - hIPPOS, WhAlES, DOlPhINS, PORPOISES This is a new Order based broadly upon recent evidence which suggests that hippo (formerly part of the Artiodactyla) has alliances with members of the previous Order Cetacea (whales, dolphins). There are 2 Suborders, namely: Suborder 1 Ancodonta Family • hippopotamidae - (1): (common) hippopotamus Suborder 2 Cetacea Cetus' is a Latin name for whale or large sea animal; originates from the Greek 'ketos' for sea monster. It is divided into 2 Infraorders based on dentition. Infraorder 1 Odontoceti - toothed whales, have a single blowhole. Includes whales, dolphins and porpoises. Families • Physeteridae (1): sperm whale • Kogiidae - small sperm whales (2): pygmy and dwarf sperm whales • Ziphiidae - beaked whales (9): divided into 2 Subfamilies, namely: - Ziphiinae (2): arnoux's and cuvier's beaked whales - hyperoodontinae (7): longman's, hector's, true's, gray's, strap-toothed and blainville's beaked whales, southern bottlenose whale • Delphinidae - dolphins, killer, false killer and pilot whales (20): long-finned and short-finned pilot whales; pygmy killer, false killer and killer whales (risso's, humpback, striped, bottlenose, dusky, heaviside's, fraser's, spinner, indian ocean bottlenose, pantropical spotted, long-beaked common, short-beaked common, rough-toothed, southern right whale) dolphins, melon-headed whale Infraorder 2 Mysticeti - baleen whales, have a double blowhole Families • Balaenidae - right whales (1): southern right whale • Neobalaenidae - pygmy right whales (1): pygmy right whale • Balaenopteridae - rorquals (7): humpback, antarctic minke, dwarf minke, sei, bryde's, blue and fin whales ORDER SUIfORMES - PIGS Family • Suidae - pigs (2): represented locally by 2 Subfamilies each with a single species - Suinae - (1) bushpig: have 6 upper incisors, upper canines do not spread widely, more teeth than warthog, mostly nocturnal - Phacochoerinae - (1) common warthog: only 2 upper incisors, upper canines spread widely, less teeth than bushpig, diurnal
Only 1 Family and it has no relation to armadillos. Family • Manidae (1): ground (cape) pangolin
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MAMMAlS – TAxONOMIC ChART ORDER SIRENIA - DUGONGS AND MANATEES
ORDER ChIROPTERA - BATS
Families • Dugongidae (1): dugong. Found off the coast of Moçambique • Trichechidae - manatees, none in local waters
Means 'hand-wing'. The Order is divided into 2 Suborders based upon diet (and resultant anatomical differences), as follows: Suborder 1
ORDER TUBUlIDENTATA - AARDVARK
Microchiroptera - the small or ‘micro-bats’ that primarily eat insects. Locally, there are 6 Families totalling 68 species and because these are too many to name in the limited space available, only the numbers for each Family are given. Families • Emballonuridae - sheath-tailed bats: (3) • Molossidae - free-tailed bats: (14) • Nycteridae - slit-faced bats: (6) • hipposideridae - leaf-nosed and trident bats: (4) • Rhinolophidae - horseshoe bats: (10) • Vespertilionidae - vesper bats: (32), divided into 3 Subfamilies as follows: - Vespertilioninae: pipistrelle’s; serotine, house, yellow, hairy and long-eared and other bats (27) - Miniopterinae: long-fingered bats (3) - Kerivoulinae: woolly bats (2) Suborder 2
Means 'tubular teeth' - thin dentine tubes without enamel bound by cementum Family • Orycteropodidae (1): aardvark (antbear) ORDER AfROSORICIDA - GOlDEN MOlES Previously a Family within the old Order Insectivora (now Eulipotyphla) Family • Chrysochloridae - golden moles (18), divided in to 2 Subfamilies as follows: - Chrysochlorinae (10): giant, rough-haired, de winton’s, van zyl’s, cape, visagie's, grant’s, arends’, sclater’s, duthie’s - Amblysominae (8): juliana’s, fynbos, yellow, gunning's, hottentot, highveld, robust, marley's ORDER EUlIPOTYPhlA - INSECT-EATERS The Order is divided into 2 Suborders based upon total permanent tooth numbers, and whether or not the back is covered with spines. Suborder Soricomorpha – max: 32 teeth Families • Soricidae - shrews (17): divided into 2 Subfamilies as follows: - Myosoricinae - forest shrews (4): forest shrew; long-tailed, sclater's and dark-footed forest shrews. - Crocidurinae - dwarf, musk and climbing shrews (13): least, lesser and greater dwarf shrews; climbing shrew; (maquassie, giant, lesser grey-brown, greater grey-brown, tiny, greater red, lesser red, swamp and reddish-grey) musk shrews. • Talpidae - true moles and shrew moles, none locally: • Solenodontidae - solenodons, none locally Suborder Erinaceomorpha – max: 36 - 44 teeth Family • Erinaceidae - hedgehogs (1): southern african hedgehog
Megachiroptera - the large or ‘mega-bats’ that are primarily nectar and fruit-eaters. Only a single Family comprising 8 species occurs locally. Family • Pteropodidae - fruit bats (8): (wahlberg’s, angolan, gambian) epauletted fruit bats; dobson’s, straw-coloured, bocage’s and east african little-collared; egyptian rousette. ORDER RODENTIA - RODENTS This diverse group is divided into 2 Suborders Suborder 1 hystricognathi - porcupine-like lower jaw: porcupines, canerats, mole-rats and the dassie rat families • hystricidae - porcupines (1): cape (southern african) porcupine • Bathyergidae - mole-rats (6): cape dune, namaqua dune, african, damaraland, mashona, cape • Thryonomyidae - canerats (2): greater and lesser • Petromuridae - (1): dassie rat Suborder 2
ORDER PERISSODACTYlA - ODD-TOED hOOfED MAMMAlS Families • Rhinocerotidae - rhinoceroses (2): white and black rhinoceros • Equidae - zebras and relatives (2): plains and mountain zebras (cape and hartmann's are both subspecies of the latter). Note: burchell's zebra is confined to East Africa and does not occur locally • Tapiridae - tapirs, none locally
Sciurognathi - squirrel-like lower jaw: dormice, squirrels, springhare, rats, mice families • Sciuridae - tree and ground squirrels (6): south african and damara ground squirrels, mutable sun, striped tree, red bush and tree squirrels. Gray squirrel is introduced. • Muridae - rats and mice (64): gerbils, whistling rats, vlei rats, climbing and rock mice, rats, mice. This Family is divided into 7 Subfamilies locally - the taxonomy is complex and therefore omitted. • Pedetidae - (1): springhare • Myoxidae - dormice (4): spectacled, rock, woodland, lesser savanna
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GENERAl MAMMAl QUESTIONS What types of mating systems are there? Mating system is used to describe the ways in which animal societies are structured in relation to sexual behaviour. There are only two types of breeding/mating systems based on the number of exclusive, dedicated partners. Where the different sexes choose only one dedicated partner, the resulting partnership is called a pair-bond, and the mating system is termed monogamy. The word monogamy is derived from monos (Gr), meaning single, and gomos (Gr), meaning marriage, and is usually used to describe the practice of remaining with one partner for sexual reproduction and raising of young. Many animals, however, are not dedicated to just one partner and the mating system is then termed polygamy. The word polygamy is similarly derived from poly (Gr), meaning many, and gomos (Gr), meaning marriage. The complication now arises in that polygamy can have various different scenarios depending on which sex has many partners or indeed whether both sexes have numerous partners. Polygamy is therefore divided into three basic categories or types: • Polygyny This means ‘many women’ and is a system where a single male exclusively has many females. This system is most common in mammals – both in territorial and non-territorial species. • Polyandry This means ‘many men’ and is a system where a single female (usually the dominant sex) exclusively has many males. This system is more common in birds than mammals. • Polyganandry This is where multiple males and multiple females share each other i.e. where one male has various female partners but where each female in turn has more than one male partner. This system is evident in mammals such as lion where there are no real hierarchies within the social groups of each sex (i.e. male coalitions and female kin groups/prides). Mating is generally on a first-come, first-served basis. Promiscuity is a term used when any male within the social group mates with any female. It is the practice of making relatively unselective, casual and indiscriminate choices. It is important to remember that in reality there are many variables that dictate these mating systems – some of which are food availability, population densities and habitat variability. 10
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MAMMAlS – GENERAl QUESTIONS
Below is a list of the more common species indicating their dominant (usual) mating system. These may be different, or may appear to be different, if casually observed. It is notoriously difficult to observe constant sexual behaviour within a species (unless studying the species). Casual observations and conclusions are therefore (usually) incorrectly based on social relationships rather than sexual relationships – these are two very different things! MONOGAMY
African wild dog Banded mongoose Bat-eared fox Black-backed jackal Blue duiker Cape fox
Common (grey) duiker Dwarf mongoose Elephant-shrews Grysbok Klipspringer Oribi
Porcupine Red duiker Side-striped jackal Steenbok Suni
Impala Mountain reedbuck Mountain zebra Plains zebra Puku Red lechwe Roan Sable
Southern reedbuck Sykes’ monkey Tsessebe Vervet monkey Waterbuck Wildebeest
Giraffe Golden moles Hares Hedgehogs Honey badger Hyaenas Kudu Leopard Lion Nyala Otters Pangolin
Rabbits Rhinos Savanna elephant Serval Shrews Sitatunga Slender mongoose Springhare Squirrels Striped polecat
POlYGYNY
Bushbabies (galagos) Bushpig Common warthog Gemsbok Grey rhebok Hartebeest Hippo Hyrax POlYGANANDRY
Aardvark African buffalo African civet African striped weasel African wild cat Bats (usually) Black-footed cat Bushbuck Caracal Chacma baboon Cheetah Genets
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CARNIVORA (animal product-eaters) Canidae – true dogs What social structure do canids have and are they territorial? The basic core of canid social organisation is a pair-bond, although there are subtle variations within the five local species. Jackals are the most territorial, foxes less so (having small territories around the den-site), while wild dogs are non-territorial.
Bat-eared foxes are one of the few species where paternal care is evident. The male will help provision the young and the mother at the den.
Š Albert Froneman/AfriPics.com
Foxes The bat-eared fox and cape fox occur locally. Both species appear to form monogamous pairs that stay together for life, although clear evidence of this is still lacking in the cape fox. Overlapping home ranges in areas with rich food supplies are the norm, each containing a small territory within the vicinity of the den. Both sexes use calls and scentmarking with urine, faeces or glands to demarcate the range, but only the territory is actively defended, particularly against members of the same sex. The cape fox is usually seen foraging alone, whereas bateared foxes usually do so in pairs, or occasionally in small family groups before the young disperse. The males of both species will help raise the pups and, when denning occurs, will guard the young and provision the female. Bat-eared fox males may spend a lot of time on guard allowing the female enough time to feed and sustain lactation. Bat-eared fox young are weaned later than in other species because insects are not easily regurgitated. Milk is therefore a more reliable food-source for the young until they are strong enough to forage. Unlike jackals, the young foxes disperse after a few months, and do not stay to help the parents
The cape fox is the only true fox in the subregion. It prefers an arid habitat and is quite at home in the southern kalahari. It can easily be differentiated from the bat-eared fox by its smaller size, smaller ears and goldengrey, rather than pure grey, colour. The fur seems shorter, but the tail bushier than that of their insectivorous cousin. They are the least social of all the canids, pairs even avoiding each other except when mating.
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MAMMAls – tRue dOgs
with the rearing of more pups. The latter may occasionally happen with the cape fox but is the exception rather than the rule. There have also been records of two females to one male (termed polygany) in certain areas – this is again the exception, and the second female is possibly a daughter that for some obscure reason has not dispersed. Jackals Black-backed and side-striped jackals occur locally. The pairs form a monogamous bond for life and only find another mate should one partner die. Both sexes actively mark and defend a territory that tends to be far larger than those of foxes, and is in essence their entire home range with very little, if no, overlap with neighbours. They tend to spend their entire time subsisting in this area, even if conditions become desperate, because aggression towards trespassers is extreme. They only leave these territories occasionally to get water, if it is not present in their own area, and to feed on large carcasses. The latter scenario causes territorial boundaries to disintegrate as jackals from all over are attracted. Even strangers then appear to be met with very little hostility. Once this food supply is depleted, aggressive competition once again sets in and individuals return to their territories. The males actively participate in parenting and provisioning females that are confined to the den. They are very often aided by so-called helpers – previous offspring who delay dispersal for a season or two. In so doing, they form a small social group whose collective energy is focused on the new litter. This scenario reduces mortality. An advantage of these young adults helping to raise a litter other than their own is that, genetically speaking, they are as closely related to the next litter as to their own, and therefore are ensuring propagation of their own genes and a successful lineage of survivors. In all animals it is essentially the survival of the species, not the individual, that counts! Foraging is done singly or in pairs with small social family groups spreading out individually. There is often food sharing, especially among the mated pair.
Do all canids form packs? No – moving in packs is considered an advanced form of social organisation. In wild species it is the exception rather than the norm, occurring most notably in the wolf and african wild dog. Moving in packs has probably evolved in larger species primarily as a more efficient way of procuring prey. This co-operative survival improves reproductive success and defensive capability, and therefore lowers mortality. In the smaller species monogamy is generally the rule with the young sometimes
Although the coat pattern of wild dogs can vary considerably, the tail tips are always white – a clear communication beacon.
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staying on to help raise new litters. These family groups are temporary and not cohesive packs as such, lacking a definite individual sex hierarchy as is prevalent in packs. They do not actively hunt as a pack. However, certain ecological conditions, most notably an abundant food supply, promote sociality and pack formation. Jackals may, for example, develop preferences for certain prey – even if only seasonally – such as antelope fawns, where co-operative hunting and ‘pack’ formation promote hunting success. As mentioned, these social groups are unstable, and disintegrate with changing conditions.
Black-backed jackals occasionally form unstable ‘packs’, consisting of the adults with offspring that delay their emigration temporarily.
The wild dog is the only local canid to have developed a pack system to such an extent that it is necessary for survival. The pack is led by a monogamous pair. This pair is in most cases the only one to breed. The wild dog social unit is unusual for mammals in that the males are related, and stay in the natal pack while females emigrate. This is an excellent way to prevent inbreeding. Sometimes males will emigrate as well, but generally only if a few brothers from the same litter do so together. There are individual sex hierarchies within the pack. Wild dogs tend to be nomadic in most areas, occupying home ranges that vary enormously in size. Range size is based primarily on distribution of a suitable food-source and the concentration of other larger predators – most notably lions. Wild dogs do not defend territories although pack members, and particularly the alpha pair, will defend den-sites from enemies. Urine-marking is almost absent in this species and is virtually confined to the alpha pair and females in oestrus. This indicates that it serves a reproductive and dominance, rather than territorial, function. Interestingly, the alpha pair urine-mark the same spot, the male often resorting to contortionism to do so at the same time. The wild dog has evolved pack hunting and specialisation on medium-sized ungulates to such an extent that the survival chances of solitary individuals, pairs or even trios is extremely tenuous. Hunting efficiency, a reliable food supply for all members, and reproductive success generally improve with increasing pack size. Large packs have also drastically reduced mortality due to pack mobbing defence, dogs always on guard at the den while others hunt, and the provisioning of all dogs, pups and minders not involved in hunts by means of regurgitation. In fact, the wild dog has taken submissive behaviour to the extreme. Other than for reproduction it may be better to be lower on the hierarchy as submissive displays are a way of soliciting ‘donations’ of food. This behaviour becomes entrenched as pups, begging being the catalyst for adults to regurgitate food. It is common, therefore, to see two dogs at a 70
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MAMMAls – tRue CAts
How do you visually tell the difference between cheetah and leopard? This question is answered by the six photos and captions as follows:
Although being less robust than leopard in terms of size and mass, adult cheetah usually stand taller. The longer legs enable greater strides to run prey down, and the general body shape is streamlined for speed. They have a more pronounced chest area and a smaller head than their larger cousin. The broader, rudder-like tail is usually white-tipped with the spots forming black rings towards the end.
Characteristic bib
Leopards have the stocky, muscular body and shorter, powerful limbs adapted to a stalking and pouncing hunting technique where the prey is overwhelmed with sheer brute force. The larger head and neck are essential for holding, subduing and hoisting prey up trees. The more slender tail, although white-tipped, is not usually ringed in black towards the end. In silhouette, or from a distance, they are easily mistaken for lion.
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Cheetahs have no spots on the face whatsoever (including the whisker area). They have a characteristic black line (called the tear-mark) that runs from the inside corner of the eye to the outside corner of the mouth. Its function is unknown but could conceivably aid in accentuating facial expressions or reducing daylight glare to the eyes. The whiskers are shorter, and the eyes more amber than those of leopard. Inset: Baby cheetah are easily recognisable with their ‘tear-marks’.
Unlike cheetah, leopards have the entire face spotted (except for a narrow band on top of the nose). The whisker bases are also spotted, their unique patterns used for identification of individuals. There is a narrow, white band below each eye that, although of uncertain function, conceivably helps reflect ambient light into the eyes for improved nocturnal vision. It also accentuates the eyes in social encounters. Eyes are usually blue-grey / green – not amber.
Cheetahs have single black spots throughout the body. The spots tend to be smaller and closer together on the legs, underside, neck and upper head. In the king cheetah, many of the spots on the sides of the body and the back coalesce to form black stripes of varying length.
The coat on the sides of the body, back and upper tail of leopard is made up of three to six spots grouped into circles called rosettes. Although variable, the fur inside these rosettes is usually darker than that on the outside. The rest of the body has single spots – larger on the belly and smaller on the legs and neck. Spots of the lower front neck often form a characteristic ‘necklace’ or ‘bib’.
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mammals – GiRaffe and okapi
Giraffidae – giraffe and okapi (a central african species) How do you sex giraffe, and is there any dimorphism?
If the head and horns are not visible, then the belly area is the next best way to sex giraffe. Males have a pronounced penile bump on the mid-belly.
The horns of male giraffe generally grow parallel to each other or outwards at a slight angle. They are robust and encircled (not tufted to a point) with black hairs that become less conspicuous with age as the horns are rounded and polished by fighting. Females have a more rounded belly with no bump at all.
Female giraffe have narrow horns (ossicles) that are totally covered at the tips with small, pointed tufts of black hair.
Yes, there most certainly is! Besides males being more massive in all respects with much thicker necks and larger, heavier heads, the horns (or ossicles) are also markedly different. Those of males tend to be broader and more heavily built (though not longer) than those of females. In addition, they are usually devoid of skin at the top – in older, more mature specimens anyway. This reveals shiny, rounded domes of bone surrounded by a ring of blackish hair that tends to stand up in a ringed crest (not tufted to a point) in younger males. In older males this ring of hair is 179
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much shorter or absent due to hair loss and fighting. The ossicles of females are far narrower, often point slightly in toward each other and are tufted with long, blackish hair to a point so that no exposed bone is visible. Males also quite conspicuously have the penis mid-belly (in common with most larger hoofed mammals, making access to the vulva easier when mating). This reveals a marked bump that can be seen from a distance. Females on the other hand have the four teats tucked in tightly between the hind legs so that the belly is unadorned. On average, mature males tend to be about two feet taller.
How many types of giraffe are there? Many people will often debate the number of different giraffe in Africa. In fact, there is actually only one species, and it is divided into a number of different subspecies based upon various colour and pattern variations that are no doubt the result of differing geographical locations (separations). They are all, however, able to interbreed successfully to produce viable offspring, and are therefore merely races (subspecies). At present, nine major races are generally considered and accepted – although there is no complete consensus on this and some scientists recognise more and some less. The giraffe is confined to the African continent, and the races are therefore distributed wherever populations are widely separated or exposed to differing conditions. These races and their geographical occurrence are as follows: • Southern african giraffe – occurs in South Africa, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia and Swaziland • Thornicroft’s giraffe – occurs in eastern Zambia • Rothschild’s or ugandan or baringo giraffe – occurs in Uganda and north Central Kenya. • Angolan or smokey giraffe – occurs in Angola and western Zambia • Masai or kilimanjaro giraffe – occurs in central to southern Kenya and in Tanzania • Nubian giraffe – occurs in north-eastern Congo and eastern Sudan • Kordofan giraffe – occurs in Sudan • Reticulated or somali giraffe – occurs in Somalia, Ethiopia and north-east Kenya • West african or nigerian giraffe – occurs in Chad
How many neck (cervical) vertebrae do giraffe have? Seven, as is the case with most mammals. They are, however, a lot longer than the rest of the vertebrae, resulting in the illusion that there are more. The point where the last vertebra articulates with the skull, called the atlas / axis joint, is modified to allow the head to move straight up to the vertical. This is uncommon in other mammals, and is an adaptation allowing giraffe to utilize even more of the uppermost strata of trees, which are out of reach to most animals except the elephant.
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mammals – GiRaffe and okapi
a B skull C d a
B
The belly of males (A) slopes up towards the chest, whereas that of females slopes up towards the groin (B). The back of males (C) goes up at a constant angle, whereas that of females (D) starts off more or less flat and then curves upwards.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
This dead giraffe shows that there are only a few long, narrow neck vertebrae as opposed to the ‘many’ that are believed to make up the giraffe neck. Despite the limited number of vertebrae, giraffes have flexible necks that are able to turn back in a tight circle, enabling the head to reach the shoulder and flanks when grooming. Inset: vertebrae comparison between giraffe (A) and buffalo (B).
Are they related to camels? No, this Family only contains one other species called the okapi, which lives in the dense forest of the Congo River basin. Although their faces superficially resemble those of camels, the two Families are not even closely related. In fact, although camels are ruminants, this digestive system is thought to have evolved separately (but in parallel) to rumination in ‘true ruminants’, and as a result is slightly different. It would appear that the giraffe evolved from an animal that looked very much like the okapi. Giraffe have longer legs, a longer neck and a different colouration as well as other secondary factors which evolved as they moved out of the forests into the savannah areas.
Are giraffe mute? No – this belief arose because they are silent animals for the most part, not using vocalisations in normal everyday communications which are dominated by visual signs. In this respect they are not too dissimilar to bovids. They have a well-developed voicebox and are capable of various sounds ranging from bleats, squeals or whistles to bellows, snorts and even hissing – all of which are mostly uttered under conditions of stress. There is a good chance that they also communicate by infra- or ultrasound at frequencies beyond the range of human hearing. This is still to be confirmed.
Why do they splay their legs when drinking? Owing to the anatomical design of the body, it is necessary for the legs to bend or be splayed in order for the head to reach the ground.
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Whippomorpha hippopotamidae – hippopotamus Are hippos good swimmers? No! In fact, they cannot swim at all – at least not as we classify it (see page 21).
Because baby hippos cannot swim, they are reliant on the mother for support in deep water. They can often be seen clambering along her body as is the case here, or occasionally resting on her back!
This is borne out by the fact that, in sharp contrast to other aquatic animals that swim, they lack certain adaptations: although their smooth skin facilitates movement in water, they are by no means streamlined. They also lack webbing on the feet and powerful appendages such as flippers or a tail for propulsion. Hippos have instead evolved as bottom dwellers. They thus fulfil a vital function as dredgers. They keep The movement of hippos in water helps to maintain slow-moving waterways open by channels threatened by siltation and vegetation growth. minimizing the effects of siltation. They wear pathways along the bottom and when ‘running’ along these can sometimes have all limbs off the ground for a while, owing to the buoyancy effect. They can also push their way to the surface in deep water and slowly return to the bottom. This is not swimming, however, as buoyancy cannot be controlled, and they cannot propel themselves along the surface in deep water. In fact, hippos can only stay under for about five minutes, and in fast-flowing water or water too deep to reach the surface for air, they will drown! A habitat prerequisite is, therefore, slow-moving water that is deep enough for them to submerge but not so deep as to make surfacing for air impossible. 191
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How long can hippos stay underwater? As they cannot breathe underwater, they can only stay under for about five minutes on a single breath. They are air-breathing mammals with lungs, and do not possess any mechanisms – gills or otherwise – that obtain oxygen from water. Buoyancy effectively reduces their body weight in water, thereby lessening the ‘load’ on the heart and lungs. As a result their pulse rates drop by two-thirds (from 60 to 20 beats per minute) and breathing from between 7 and 10 breaths to 0,2 per minute (when submerged). Similarly, their slower metabolism expends far less energy, and therefore requires far less fuel for operation. Consequently the The broad nostrils are oblong, allowing them to fold hippo can subsist on about a third neatly and tightly shut when submerging. of the food required by other terrestrial animals of similar size. This would explain how they satisfy their dietary needs in a relatively short time at night when good forage is freely available.
How do hippos mate? Conventional mounting occurs in water where the buoyancy effect alleviates the bulk that would make mating on land too cumbersome, if not life-threatening for the females, as the males’ hind legs are not long or strong enough to support his weight during mounting. The buoyancy effect helps the female cope with a mate that can constitute as much as twice her weight and bulk. Mounting is only attempted in the shallows, or in slightly deeper water where the female literally has to fight her way free to gasp for air – quite comical to watch! The dominant male is extremely aggressive when consorting with a female in oestrus, and will savagely attack other males in the vicinity, even the juvenile sons of the female in question, a fair number of which are killed in these encounters. Males at this time engage in frequent visual threatdisplays such as yawning, porpoising (where they come out of the water, then dive in a wave-like motion) and mock charges with mouth open creating a bow-wave.
What are the big teeth used for? They are used in visual displays (yawning shows them off to would-be competitors or intruders) and for fighting, against either each other or enemies.
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Other mammals Proboscidea – elephants (Family elephantidae) Why do elephants rhythmically flap their ears? Primarily to cool the body and rid themselves of irritating insects (mostly flies). Flapping ears do not always express anger as is commonly believed.
Heads (not ears) are often shaken when showing off, the ear sometimes smacking audibly against the head.
Ears are thin and richly supplied with blood. Wear and bacterial action result in the irregular perimeter and small holes in the ear.
An animal of this size, with no sweat glands and a dark body colour, can easily overheat in African conditions. Besides their natural cooling mechanisms of standing in the shade, resting at midday and coating the body with mud, soil or water, elephants have another trick. The ears are richly supplied with blood in an extensive venous network that dilates in hot weather. The skin of the ears is relatively thin, and the total surface area of both ears could account for as much as 20% of the entire body surface area. The blood flowing rapidly through the veins and capillaries is enough to allow heat to dissipate, but heat loss and blood cooling are significantly enhanced by the flapping which causes cooling currents of air to pass over the veins. The cooled blood helps keep the body core cool. The wind caused by the flapping also helps chase away biting and / or irritating flies, many of which can and do draw blood from areas of thin skin (insides of legs, ears, the genital area). Horse flies and bee flies are often the most problematic. The ears may also sometimes be held out and swayed gently to shade the eyes from direct sunlight. 239
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Aggressive or startled elephants may give a sudden headshake resulting in the ears ‘slapping’ the side of the head, often in a cloud of dust, but this is not rhythmic flapping (see pages, 261/262). Musth elephant bulls may sometimes ‘swagger’ in the ‘musth walk’ with their ears held out and flapping (see ‘What is musth?’, page 259).
How do elephants sleep? They can doze lightly while on their feet, but they lie down in order to sleep soundly.
Slight inclines, like this grass-covered termite mound, make lying down and getting up easier – but are not a necessity for this activity!
Dozing is done while standing, often in shade during the heat of the day. Big tuskers, like this Kruger bull, may find lying down more difficult.
Contrary to popular belief, elephants can and do lie down of their own free will. They will spend a few hours every night lying down and sleeping soundly, some prone to bouts of snoring and dreaming during which they may make vocalisations. They will also often lie down for an hour or two, singly or in groups, in the heat of the day. Calves often lie in the shade cast by the mother and other herd members. In Chobe I Elephants lie down to rest or sleep deeply, as these have observed exhausted calves do this calves are doing. Entire herds can sometimes be after a trek from inland feeding. They seen lying flat in this way. will often make use of slight inclines such as earth-banks or termite mounds for this purpose (it may be easier to get down and up, especially for bulls with tusks that are long or have a wide spread) but they are definitely not dependent on the slopes. Flat ground is entirely suitable. There is a belief that when elephants stand up, they have locking mechanisms in the legs to stop them falling over, but this is not true. They have cancillous (reinforced) bone, without a central marrow cavity, in the legs. The four or five hours spent sleeping 240
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mammals – elePhants
every night are not continuous, being broken by bouts of feeding and ablutions. An elephant on its side is, therefore, no reason to call the vet.
What are elephants’ tusks used for? The tusks are principally used for obtaining certain food items, for fighting (among males), and for defence.
The red on the tusk is not blood, but cambium from tree bark obtained by stripping bark from trees.
notch
Smaller, tougher branches that cannot be broken off with the trunk are levered and snapped by holding the branch tip with the trunk, and then placing a tusk underneath the branch and moving the head upwards. This is also a good way to prize bark off smaller limbs.
The tusks are the upper incisor teeth that continually grow and are honed and kept sharp by abrasion against various substrates. Milk tusks, with which the animal is born, often do not become visible externally, and are A notch gets worn into the upper surface of the replaced with permanent ones at about tusk when it is consistently used to lever and one year old. These usually become snap vegetation. See photo top left of page 242. externally visible before the elephant is two years old. The tusks are said to be ivory, which is actually a patterned form of dentine (when seen in cross section) that is capped with enamel. The enamel tends to come off with wear. The tusks are deeply rooted and have a large pulp cavity, but are remarkably solid and heavy. When broken off, they can be worked into a point over a remarkably short period of time. They are used as tools for obtaining food and extensively employed as leverage to break bark, grass, branches and roots. Tusks are also used to loosen soil (particularly at water / mudholes). They may also be used for moving obstacles (or in the case of young bulls, playing with heavy stumps, branches or dead trees). This frequently results in breakages to the tusks. 241
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Tusk abnormalities like this can hinder feeding.
Unusual situation of the tusk piercing the ‘lip’ – tusks usually protrude below the lip line, but this tusk may simply have grown through it (see adjacent photo).
Feet, trunk and tusks are used simultaneously for feeding. Note how the tusk is used as a lever, while the trunk pulls the palm that is secured with the foot.
An injury sustained when the tusk was still short could possibly have caused it to pierce the lip and then continue to grow through it.
In fighting, males often use their tusks to ‘measure each other’s weapon length’ in head-to-head encounters. In serious encounters they are used to great effect as stabbing weapons, and this sometimes results in death. As a sign of a serious threat, elephants will drop onto their front ‘knees’ (see ‘Do elephants have four knees?’, page 247) and gouge the ground deeply in a warning display. I have encountered this on two occasions in the Sabi Sands where mature musth bulls exhibited this phenomenon when I refused to move my vehicle. In both encounters I had been stationary and had not been on any pathway or particular route they were following. 242
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CLUES TO THE PRESENCE OF MaMMaLS Introduction One need not necessarily see mammals to be aware of their presence. Evidence of their existence abounds in myriad ways. The many unidentified clues they leave provoke many unanswered questions, and because one is not constantly seeing mammals the identification and interpretation of these clues could enhance and make any visit to a game park more exciting and enjoyable. These signs or clues can broadly be divided into three categories, namely tracks, dung and behavioural signs indicative of feeding and other social behaviours.
Tracks This mechanism of identification broadly refers to markings or impressions left in soil or mud. This section is by no means a comprehensive guide to spoor identification. It is rather a description of those tracks that are easy to spot, even from vehicles. The major differences and interesting facets of each are also discussed. These tracks are most usually noticed in soft, fine sand or mud. Arrows on photos indicate direction of movement. For an idea on how mammals walk, see page 20.
What are the major foot structures / tracks? What follows here is a collection of the most common mammal foot designs and their resultant tracks, likely to be encountered on an average visit to the bush. Mammal feet can have a maximum of five digits or toes. They are numbered from 1 on the inside, to 5 on the outside. The basic types of feet are as follows: • Hoofed This is where the toe is covered in a broad, flat nail. It occurs in 1 digit (zebra only), 2 digits (many small antelope that lack the so-called ‘false hooves’) or 4 digits (most antelope). Antelope have digit number 1 (the inner toe) missing. The false hooves (numbers 2 and 5), although usually present, are not in contact with the ground and do not show in the tracks unless the substrate is soft. Zebra
False hoof
True hoof
This side view of a warthog clearly depicts the nonfunctional false hooves – over time they have moved up off the ground to make movement more efficient, and it is conceivable that in the distant future they will disappear altogether.The sharp lower canines can also be seen where they occlude with the upper canines.
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CLUES TO THE PRESENCE OF MaMMaLS – TRaCkS
False hoof
The false hooves (digits 2 and 5) can clearly be seen as the pointed projections that don’t touch the ground above the hoof of this common warthog.
3
4
±15c
m
Direc
True hoof
tion
5
2
Direction
Many antelope, pigs and buffalo (track of latter depicted here) have what are called false hooves. These are the outer toes (numbers 2 and 5) that are behind and above the so-called true hoof (toes 3 and 4), and do not come in contact with the ground. However, in soft sand or mud the feet sink in enough to enable these false hooves to make an impression (as seen here).
Antelope have the typical cloven-hoofed, ‘heartshaped’ track with the pointed end being the front of the foot. A gland is often situated between the two parts (toes 3 and 4) of the hoof and is called a pedal gland. This is the track of an impala.
F
Di
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57c m
Toe 3
a
Zebra have a typical horseshoe-shape track (toe 3). Very often one or two small triangular marks can be seen along the trailing edge (A). Contrary to popular belief, these are not toes but an organ (footpad) that is commonly referred to as a ‘frog’, and probably functions as a pressure-pump to help with blood circulation in the foot and leg.
B
Common warthog tracks are almost rectangular and are miniature versions of giraffe tracks. The midline of the cloven hoof is clearly visible. The track is narrower and more rounded in front (F) than back (B), indicating direction of movement.
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COMPaRaTIvE MaMMaL TaBLE Only the more common species are represented here. Except for the number of teats and young, all the other values are dependent on a variety of parameters, most notably prevailing conditions (both social and ecological) and can therefore be highly variable. Carnivora – dogs Species African wild dog Black-backed jackal Side-striped jackal Bat-eared fox Cape fox Honey badger African striped weasel Striped polecat African clawless otter Spotted-necked otter
Number of teats 12 to 14 6 to 8 4 4 4 4 4 to 6 4 4 4
Oestrus (days)
Gestation (months) Number of young
7 7 7 7 7 5 to 7 4 4 2 to 4 2 to 4
2.5 2+ 2 to 2.5 2 to 2.5 1.5 to 2 1.5 to 2 1+ 1+ 2 2
6 to 16 2 to 6 3 to 6 1 to 6 1 to 5 1 to 4 1 to 3 1 to 3 2 to 3 1 to 3
Weaning complete (months) 1+ 3 to 3.5 3 to 3.5 3.5 2.5 to 3 4 to 6 2.5 2 2 to 3 2 to 3
Birth interval (months) 12 to 14 12 9 to 12 12 11 to 12 18 to 24 8 to 12 12 10 to 12 10 to 12
Carnivora – cats Species Lion Leopard Cheetah African wild cat Black-footed cat Caracal Serval Spotted hyaena Brown hyaena Aardwolf African civet Small-spotted genet Large-spotted genet Dwarf mongoose Banded mongoose Slender mongoose White-tailed mongoose
Number of teats 4 4 12 8 6 6 6 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 4 6
Oestrus (days)
Gestation (months) Number of young
4 to 7 7 7+ 4 1.5 3 to 6 3 to 5 14 14+ 7+ 5 3 to 4 3 to 4 4 6 4 to 6 4 to 6
3.5 3+ 3 2 2+ 2.5 2.5 3 to 4 3 to 4 3 to 3.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 1+ 2 2 2
1 to 6 1 to 3 1 to 8 2 to 5 1 to 3 1 to 4 1 to 5 usually 2 1 to 4 1 to 5 1 to 4 1 to 4 1 to 5 1 to 6 1 to 8 1 to 3 1 to 4
Weaning complete (months) 7 to 10 3+ 3 2 2 4 to 6 5 12 15 3 to 4 3.5 to 5 3 to 4 3 to 4 1.5+ 1.5 to 2 1.5 to 2 2
Birth interval (months) 20 to 30 18 to 24 21 12 4 12 12 24 12 to 36 12 8 to 12 7 to 12 9 to 12 8 to 11 8 to 12 5 to 12 10 to 12
Ungulates – hollow-horned ruminants (the bovids) All have the teats between the hind legs (inguinal area) Species African buffalo Eland Greater kudu Nyala Sitatunga Bushbuck Waterbuck Southern reedbuck Mountain reedbuck
Number of teats 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Estrus (days) 14 3 2 2 1 to 2 1 to 2 1 1 1
Gestation (months) Number of young 11 to 11.5 8 to 9 9 7 7.5 6 to 7 8 to 8.5 7.5 7.5
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Weaning complete (months) 12 4 to 6 6 4 to 6 4 to 6 4 to 6 6 to 8 5+ 5+
Birth interval (months) 15 to 24 12 to 24 11 to 12 10 10 to 12 9 to 12 11 to 12 10 to 12 9 to 12
(Continued on following page)
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MaMMaLS – COMPaRaTIvE TaBLE Ungulates (continued) Species Red lechwe Puku Sable Roan Gemsbok Blue wildebeest Black wildebeest Red hartebeest Tsessebe Lichtenstein’s hartebeest Blesbok Bontebok Impala Grey rhebok Suni Steenbok Sharpe’s grysbok Cape grysbok Damara dik-dik Red duiker Common (grey) duiker Blue duiker Oribi Springbok Klipspringer
Number of teats
Oestrus (days)
4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 (rarely 4) 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1+ 1 1 1 1+ 2 to 3 1 1 1+ 1 2 1 1+ 1 2 1 7
Gestation (months) Number of young 7 to 8 7 to 8 8 9 to 9.5 8.5 8 to 8.5 8 to 8.5 8 8 8 8 8 6.5 7 5 to 7 5.5 to 6 5.5 to 6 5.5 to 6 6 5.5 to 6.5 5.5 to 6 4 to 4.5 6.5 to 7 6.5 to 7 5.5 to 6.5
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 or 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Weaning complete (months) 5 to 6 7 6 to 8 6 6+ 5 5 4 to 5 4 4 to 5 4 4 4.5 6 to 8 3 3 3 3+ 3 4 3 3 to 4 4 to 5 4 3 to 4
Birth interval (months) 10 to 12 10 to 12 12 10 to 11 12+ 11 to 12 11 to 12 12+ 11 to 12 11 to 12 11 to 12 11 to 12 11 to 13 12 8 to 10 8 to 10 8 to 10 9 to 12 9 to 12 7.5 7 to 8 7 to 9 9 to 12 11 to 13 10 to 12
General mammals (various Orders) Species
Number of teats
Oestrus (days)
African savanna elephant Hyraxes
3 to 7 (16-week cycle) 2 2 pectoral – 4-inguinal (groin) Black rhino 5+ 2 White rhino 5+ 2 Plains zebra 5 2 Cape mountain zebra 5 2 Hippo 2 2 Common warthog 3 4 Bushpig 3 6 Giraffe 2 4 Pangolin 1 to 2 2 Aardvark – 2 Cape porcupine 4 Few hours; Springhare 2 4-6 day Tree squirrel 4 cycle; mole South african ground squirrel 4 rats induced Common mole-rat 6 ovulators Vlei rats 6 Scrub hare 4 Induced Cape hare 4 ovulators Riverine rabbit 4 Red rock rabbits 4 Insect-eating bats – 2 Fruit-eating bats – 2 Chacma baboon 10 2 Vervet monkey 6 to 8 2 Greater galago 3 to 5 2 to 6 (varied areas) South african galago 3 to 5 2 pectoral 4 inguinal (groin)
}
}
Gestation (months) Number of young
Weaning complete (months)
Birth interval (months)
22 7 to 8
1 1 to 4
18 to 24 3
36 to 48+ 10 to 12
15.5 16 12 12 7.5 to 8.5 5.5 to 6 4 14 to 15 4.5 7 3 2.5 2 1.5 2 1.5 1.5 1.5 1 1 to 1.5 2 to 8 4 to 6 6 5 to 5.5 4.5 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 to 8 1 to 6 1 or 2 1 1 1 to 4 1 1 to 3 1 to 3 1 to 4 1 to 5 1 to 3 1 to 3 1 to 2 1 to 2 1 or 2 1 or 2 1 1 1 to 3 2
12 to 24 12 11 12 + 8 6 2.5 to 5 12 – – 3 to 4 1.5 to 2 1.5 1.5 – – 1 1 ±1 ±1 1.5 to 2 1.5 to 2 3 to 5 3 to 5 – –
30 to 48 30 to 48 12 13 to 18 24 to 42 12 11 to 12 18 9 to 12 10 to 12 8 to 12 6 6 to 12 6 to 12 6 1 3 to 6 3 to 4 – 6 to 12 12 12 24 12 + 12 6
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COLLECTIvE NaMES OF MaMMaLS This is by no means a comprehensive list as not all the mammals appear to have collective names, or if they do they have long been lost to obscurity. This list is simply a collection of those that are still known, with some still in common use. Mammals Species Antelopes Apes Asses Baboons
Collective noun Herd (cluster, tribe) Shrewdness (troop) Pace (drove, coffle) Troop (flange, congress, troup) Badgers Cete (colony) Bats Cloud (colony) Bears Sloth (sleuth) Beavers Family (lodge, colony) Bison Gang (herd) Bloodhounds Sute Buffalo Obstinacy (gang, herd) Camels Flock (caravan, train) Cat cubs Litter Cats (domestic) Clowder (glaring, cluster) Cats (wild) Destruction (dowt, dout) Cattle Drove (drift, mob) Cheetah Coalition Colts Rake (rag, rack) Deer Herd (rangale, leash, mob) Dogs Pack (kennel) Dolphins Pod Donkeys Drove Eland Herd Elephant Parade (herd) Ferrets Business Foxes Skulk (lead, earth)
Species Gerbils Giraffe Goats Gorillas Greyhounds Guineapigs Hamsters Hares Hartebeest Hedgehogs Hippopotamus Hogs Horses Hyaena Hyraxes Impala Jackal Jackrabbits Kangaroos Kittens Leopard Leverets (baby hares) Lion Mares Mice Moles Monkeys
Collective noun Horde Tower (corps, journey, group) Trip Band (whoop) Leash Group Horde Drove (husk, kindle, trace, down) Herd Array (prickle) Raft (pod, bloat, thunder, school) Drift (parcel) Stable (harras, remuda, string) Clan Bury (colony) Rank Skulk Husk Mob (troop) Kindle (litter) Leap (lepe) Kindle Pride (sault, sowse) Stud Nest (horde, mischief) Labour (company) Shrewdness (cartload, troop, troup)
Species Mongoose Mules
Collective noun Business Barren (pack, span, rake) Otters Family (romp, raft) Oxen Team (span, yoke) Piglets Farrow Pigs (domestic) Drove (flock, herd) Pigs (wild) Sounder Polar bears Aurora Polecats Chine Ponies String Porpoises School (gam) Rabbits Warren (wrack, flick, kindle, trace) Raccoons Gaze Rats Horde (mischief, colony) Rhinoceros Crash (stubbornness, herd) Seals Colony Skunks Surfeit Squirrels Dray (scurry) Tigers Streak (ambush) Unicorns Blessing Walruses Huddle (ugly) Warthog Sounder Weasels Sneak (gang) Whales Pod (school) Wild dog Pack Wildebeest (gnu) Implausibility (herd) Wolves Pack (rout) Zebra Dazzle (zeal, cohort)
THE ORIGIN OF MaMMaL NaMES Many of the common names are obviously descriptive, for example ‘black-backed jackal’, and have therefore been omitted. Mammals Species name aardvark aardwolf african wild cat Bat-eared fox Bats Blesbok Bontebok Buffalo Bushbaby Bushbuck Bushpig Caracal
Origin of common or scientific name Afrikaans word, translated to ‘earth-pig’; burrows a lot; the ears and nose resemble those of a pig Afrikaans word, translated to ‘earthwolf’ - from habit of living in burrows Description of the ‘wild tabby’ from Africa Descriptive of the big ears, thought to particularly resemble those of the egyptian slit-faced bat From the old Scandinavian word ‘bakka’, denoting a flying mouse species Afrikaans word, translated to ‘bald buck’ - a reference to the white facial blaze Afrikaans word, translated to ‘pied buck’ - a reference to the two-coloured coat From the Portuguese name ‘bufalo’ for these bovines From the habitat (the bush) and the call that sounds like a human baby crying Descriptive of the habitat it prefers, namely thick riverine bush Descriptive of its favoured habitat - dense undergrowth From the Turkish name ‘garah-gulak’ meaning black ear - a reference to the black ear-tufts
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MaMMaL – NaMES Chacma baboon Cheetah Civet Dik-dik Duiker Eland Galago Elephant Galago Gemsbok Genet Giraffe Gnu Grysbok Hare Hartebeest Hedgehog Hippopotamus Honey badger Hyaena Hyrax/dassie Impala Jackal klipspringer kudu Leopard Lion Mongoose Nyala Oribi Otter Pangolin Polecat Porcupine Puku Rabbit Ratel Red lechwe Reedbuck Rhebok Rhinoceros Roan antelope Sable antelope Samango monkey Serval Sitatunga Small spotted cat Springbok Springhare Squirrel Steenbok Suni Suricate Tsessebe vervet monkey Warthog Waterbuck Weasel Wild dog Wildebeest Zebra
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Baboon of uncertain origin; chacma a French colloquial name - early 19th century From the Hindu word Chita meaning ‘spotted one’ Of French origin - status uncertain; ‘civet’ an old word to do with perfumery Derived from the ‘ghuss-ghuss’ or ‘gzig-gzig’ sound of the call Afrikaans word, translated to 'diver' from the diving action when running away The Dutch name for elk; thought to have been related or similar The name applied to the animal in Senegal Derived from the Greek word ‘elephas’ and the Latin word 'elephantus' for the species The name applied to the animal in Senegal From the Dutch word ‘gems’ for a chamois - possibly a reference to similarity in colour Name of an area frequented by the species in Spain - 18th century From the Arabic word ‘xirapha’, meaning ‘one who walks swiftly’ Khoikhoi name for the species - a reference to the sound of the call Afrikaans word, translated to ‘grey buck’ - wispy white hairs give the coat a greyish appearance Origin uncertain Afrikaans word, translated to ‘heart cow’ - a reference to the heart-shape made by the horns Descriptive; forages like a small hog in the undergrowth and leaflitter (hedges) From Greek ‘(h)ippo’ meaning horse and ‘pot-amus’, meaning flowing river - literally a river horse Descriptive of eating honey; badger from the French word ‘becheur’ meaning a digger Origin uncertain Hyrax - scientific definition of species; dassie from Dutch ‘das’ meaning badger From the Zulu name ‘imphala’ and the Tswana name ‘phala’ for the species From the Persian name ‘sagal’, for the golden jackal Afrikaans word, translated to ‘stone jumper’ - from the habit of bounding in rocky habitat Khoikhoi name for the species From the Greek words ‘pardus’ for panther and ‘leon’ for lion - leon+pardus shortened to leopard From the Greek word ‘leon’ for the species From the Indian (Marathi) name ‘mangus’ for the species Derived from the Zulu name ‘iNxala’ for the species From the Khoikhoi name ‘orabi’ for the species German word for the species – derived from the Latin ‘lutra’ for the species From the Malay name ‘peng-goling’ for the species; means ‘the roller’ from habit of rolling into a ball From the French word ‘poule’ meaning chicken - a reference to these animals being poultry killers From the Greek ‘porcos’ meaning pig and ‘spina’ meaning spines - literally a spined pig From the Tswana name ‘puku’ for the species From the Flemish or Walloon name ‘robett’ for the species - 14th century Derived from the Dutch word ‘raat’ for honey comb From the reddish coloured coat and the Tswana name ‘leche’ for the species Descriptive of their habitat preference - marshy areas with reedbeds From the Dutch word for roe deer; genus Pelea derived from Tswana name ‘phele’ for the species From the Greek 'rhis' meaning nose and ‘keras’ meaning horn - literally ‘nose-horn’ - 14th century The coat has a strawberry tinge to it - a colour called roan Old males are a dark, shiny blackish colour called sable From the Zulu name ‘iNsimango’ for the species Derived from the Portuguese name ‘lobo-cerval’ for the european lynx Llozi tribe of the Zambian regions name for the species Descriptive - very small, spotted cat Afrikaans word, translated to ‘jumping buck’ - a reference to their unique jumping called 'pronking' Descriptive - jumps with a springing gait like a kangaroo and looks facially like a hare From the Greek name ‘skiouros’ (skia = shade, oura = tail), meaning shade or shadow tail Afrikaans word, translated to ‘stone buck’ - a reference to the brick or stone colour of the coat East African tribal names for the species; Kikuyu name ‘kasuni’ and Wachagga name ‘suni’. Supposedly a French derivation of a Dutch word bastardised from a tribal name for the species From the Tswana name ‘tshêsêbe’ French vernacular name ‘cercopitheque vervet’ - 17th century; monkey of uncertain origin, 15th century Descriptive of the epidermal outgrowths or ‘warts’ on the face Descriptive of its preference to stay close to water Of uncertain origin Descriptive of it being a ‘wild dog’ species; scientific name means ‘painted wolf’ Afrikaans word, translated to ‘wild cow’ - descriptive of the appearance Italian or Portuguese name given to the species in the Congo region
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