RESEARCH Research is the finding out about the real geographical phenomena for ourselves1. It is a procedure which attempts to find scientific solution of the problems in the societies.
IMPORTANCE OF FIELD RESEARCH i)
It helps to understand the problems facing a specific area and how can you attempt to solve it.
ii)
It helps to solve the conflict between human and environment.
iii)
It helps to relate the problems studied in a small scale and how can help to understand a similar large scale.
iv)
It helps the researcher to involve in a practical learning situation that relaying more on theory only.
v)
It is an important source of Geographical knowledge since is a secondary data source.
AIMS/OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH i)
To solve Geographical problems.
ii)
To develop theories and practical.
iii)
To collect difference records, analysis and interprete the data in order to disc over new facts.
iv)
To find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered.
v)
To prove or disapprove what have been already learnt and experienced.
vi)
To generate new knowledge.
USES OF RESEARCH i)
To solve problems existing in the society.
ii)
To develop principles and theories
iii)
To provide decision makers with accurate information.
iv)
To direct social activities of the society
v)
Enable the member of the society to be well informed about their surroundings.
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CHARACTERISTICS/PRINDIPLES OF A GOOD RESEARCH i)
The collected information should be recorded and reported correctly.
ii)
It should be conducted scientifically and systematically
iii)
A research should be planned in an orderly manner.
iv)
It must be intended to find the solution generate new ideas and prove the existing information
v)
It must be able to generate knowledge
vi)
It must be applicable to be used everywhere in the universe.
PROBLEMS WHICH CAN BE RESEARCHED Research problems include issues of social, Political, Economical and cultural issues, e.g. -
Problem of child labor
-
Population problems
-
Quality of education in the state
-
Quality of social services provided
-
Problems accompanied by circumcisions in the society.
LIMITATION/SETBACKS, DRAWBACKS OF FIELD RESEARCH (Problems facing field research) Field research difficulties (problems) are inevitable some of them are: 1. Language barrier (Problem of language) 2. Problem of transport and communication. 3. Lack of capital. 4. Bad/poor weather and climatic condition to some areas 5. Political instability/problems 6. Lack of knowledge concerning with the research studies. 7. Poor social services.2 TYPES OF RESEARCH
2
i)
Descriptive research
ii)
Applied research
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iii)
Analytical research
iv)
Pure/fundamental research
v)
Quantitative research
vi)
Qualitative research
vii)
Conceptual research
viii)
Empirical research.
i)
Descriptive Research/Applied Research
This is the research which is collected so as to be used by other on an immediate problem. Example, Eruption of a certain diseases may be given solution immediately after its eruption. ii)
Analytical Research
The research has to use facts or information already available and analyses these to make a critical evaluation of the material. iii)
Applied (Basic) Research/Pure Research/Fundamental Research
This also is the type of research conducted so as to develop new knowledge/principles or theories and to modify the pre-existing theories. This type of research is mostly used by Philosophers and Thinkers. iv)
Quantitative Research.
This is the type of research which based on the measurement of amount3 or quality. Is the type of research that involves the collection of statistical data for Geographical phenomenon. NB. It is applicable for the objects which can be measured quantativelly. v)
Qualitative Research.
It is the type of research which is concerned with involving quality or kind of phenomenon. Example, Research on which people prefer to keep a big number of domesticated animals. vi)
Empirical Research
It relates to some aspects of a real situations and deals with the concrete data that provides validity to research results. LUBAMBURA, F
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vii)
Evaluation Research
This is the type of research conducted so as to obtain the information (data) for decision making. It is aimed to develop the policies such as Industrial Policies, Management4 Policies etc.
Systematic Research It is structured with specified steps in accordance with the well defined set of rules.
Logical Research It is guarded by the rules of logical reasoning of and logical process of induction and deduction. ADVANTAGES OF RESEARCH i)
It led to the generation of new ideas and knowledge.
ii)
It led to the solution to problems which have no answer.
iii)
It helps the learner to have the mind of investigation and enquiry.
iv)
Principles of scientific laws are helpful in on daily life.
DISADVANTAGES OF RESEARCH i)
It is expensive if conducted in its nature.
ii)
It consume much time.
iii)
The large amount may appear unnecessary and confuse the researcher.
iv)
Normally research base or concentrates on single problem and other problem may be left away.
RESEARCH TOOLS: Tools are the means by which are searcher is enabled to collect the data. Research tool is any device which is used by the researcher in the course of data collection in the field. Also, Research tools refer to a method of collecting or gathering data for research purpose. These research tools include; pencil, notebook, camera, tape recorder, topographical maps.
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There are five mainly research tools or methods of data collection as follows; i)
Interview methods
ii)
Questionnaire method
iii)
Fields observation methods
iv)
Focus group discussion
v)
Literature review.
I.
INTERVIEW METHOD
This is the research work in which there is face to face communication between the researcher and the respondent. It is the method of data collection that involves asking of questions verbally by a researcher and the respondent answer them accordingly. Face to face interaction led to the production of a report by the researcher.
TYPES OF INTERVIEW There about two types of Interview as; i)
Rigid interview
ii)
Open ended interview
a) Closed or Rigid Interview This is the type of interview which involves the situation where the respondent is required to give yes or no answer. b) Open Ended Interview This is the type of interview where the respondent is free to express his/her ideas. N.B: The information obtained in this interview is always 5 recorded in recorders like tape records. CONDITIONS FOR THE SUCCESSIFUL INTERVIEW: 1. There must be good or friendly situation or atmosphere with the respondent. 2. Encourages him/her to speak with simple question. 3. Avoid questions with touch an internal feeling of the respondent directly. 4. Ensure the respondent that the information has a secret between you and him. 5
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ADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEW METHODS 1. New information may be obtained from that particular person 2. Comparison ideas may be made to get true information 3. Interview brings people into relationship 4. Feedback may be obtained in interview 5. It is the fastest method of data collection 6. There is high rate of responses as people are willing to talk than to write 7. It involve a whole population life both literate and illiterate people 8. Additional questions may be asked depending on the response given
DISADVANTAGES/LIMITATIONS/SETBARKS/PRONS/DEMEITS: 1. It may be hindered by language problems 2. The method involve the wastage of time 3. If not careful conducted the respondents may give wrong information 4. It is disadvantages to people who do not prefer talking rather than writing 5. The respondent is not given enough time to think about the answers 6. Many date may be collected by this method but difficult in data analysis 7. It is costful in terms of money.
II.
QUESTIONNAIRES MATHOD
Questionnaire is the consists of the sets of questions which are in written form provided to respondent6 The questionnaire should relate to the topic to be deal with and objectives of the problems.
TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE MATHOD There are two types of questionnaire namely a. Open questionnaires b. Closed/fixed questionnaires
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a) Open ended Questionnaires Open ended is the type of questionnaire where by the respondent is asked to write answers freely using his/her own records. E.g. what are the possible causes of soil erosion?
b) Closed ended/fixed Questionnaires Here the respondent is asked to pick, circle or choose the appropriate answer. E.g. How far is your home from Kamhanga Sec. School? (a) 100m
(b) 250m
(c) 300m
(d) 80 (e) more than 300m
CRITERIA FOR GOOD QUESTIONNAIRES i.
Should relate to the topic and objectives
ii.
Questions should be simple clear and direct
iii.
Avoid questions which may touch on internal feeling of the respondent
iv.
Questions should range from simple to complex
ADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRES i.
It serves time in administration
ii.
They may give various information from various place
iii.
Respondent7 who don’t like to speak may have time to express their ideas through writing.
iv.
Similar questions are used to all people.
v.
It may reduce field Work
vi.
The respondent is given enough time to think carefully.
DISADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONAIRES i.
It is more time consuming
ii.
Additional question can not be asked
iii.
It involves only the literate population
iv.
It is very expensive to be conducted.
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III.
OBSERVATION METHODS:
It is a research tool which a researcher collect data at the real situation environment. OR. Observation is the direct visual of Geographical phenomenon. This is the method of data collection which is done by a researcher looking over the phenomenon in a field. It is an effective methods used when the factors to be researched can not be communicated verbally. It must be recorded immediately so that they can not be forgotten. It is useful for a study of plant growth, soil erosion, animal behavior etc.
TYPES OF OBSERVATION There are two types of observation as follows:a) Participant Observation In this type of research the researcher become normal member of the group and is involved to activities that respondents do. In this type of observation the true identity and the rule of the researcher may not be known to the respondents. b) Non-Participant (Indirect) Observation It is the type of observation in which a researcher does not engage in the rules and work of the group but remains distanced from their action. Advantages of Observation Methods i.
It involves active learning and participation and accurate8 data can be gathered.
ii.
The methods help to develop skills as it involves observation.
iii.
It is the good method of data collection from sensitive uses.
iv.
It overcomes the problem of language barriers.
Disadvantages of Observation Methods i)
It involves extensing traveling
ii)
Past data can not be seen except present
iii)
One may record data wrongly
iv)
It consume a lot of time
v)
It is very expensive to conduct
vi)
It is limited to small population
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IV.
LITARATURE REVIEW (LIBRARY RESEARCH)
This is the method of data collection which involves the collection of secondary data by reading the written resources. This means, the reading of other works of research done by other researchers on the same problems. Literature review can be reviewed from the library to get the knowledge on the problems.
Advantages of Literature Review i.
Data collection is easy because the information are already analyzed
ii.
Document define data which cannot be easily obtained from the field e.g. Past events
iii.
It serves time that the data is already obtained.
Disadvantages of Literature Review Methods i.
The researcher may obtain out data information
ii.
There is a problems of analysis hence the researcher may not get the whole picture
iii.
The researcher may have under information from the document as the data may have been incomplete.
iv.
It is expensive.
V.
FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION
This is the method of data collection which a researcher9 collects data by organizing discussion with some respondent on a certain topic. In this method the researcher guides the discussion and records data from what is discussed by the member.
Advantages of Focus Group Discussion i.
Allow critical thinking to the participants
ii.
Make the participants to understand each other
iii.
Researchers become active person in population.
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Disadvantages of Focus Group Discussion i.
It is time consuming
ii.
Some participants may be dominated
iii.
There is a difficult in data analysis.
STAGES/POCEDURES OF RESEARCH (a) Problems Identification The first thing in research process involves identification of the problem. This can be done from map through observing relationship of variables by reading various literatures or by experience. Example the problem of circumcision in Tarime District, The problem should end up with the solution or answer.
(b) Hypothesis Formulation The problem identified for research should be written in form of possible outcome. Hypothesis – are possible outcome.
(c) Data Collection This is the stage where the researcher has done all the preparation, now he/she is in the field, collecting data through arranged procedures.
(d) Data Analysis/Organization Means that the amount of data of different kind may be collected and now the researcher needs to put them in groups of similar categories; the collected data may be in form of graphs, maps, tables, photographs10, words analyzed to facilitate easy understanding.
(e) Data Recording and Presentation The analyzed are now interpreted or compared. In this stage the researcher should be able to know every item in the data, so as to eliminate or includes them in the last step of competition. LUBAMBURA, F.
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(f) Testing Hypothesis In this stage the imagined answer o the real situation through practical is now compared to know the truth. Normally, if the hypothesis testing does not match with the ideas set that means that thee is complication. So, one must either check back or has to make it a fresh.
(g) Report Writing, Summary or Conclusion On all what has been done by the researcher in the course of his/her study. What has been written has to be kept for other people to read or to verify.
RESEARCH DATA
This is the body of information collected systematically through a researcher procedure to explain a research problem.
Types of Research Data. There are two types of research data namely, i.
Primary data
ii.
Secondary data.
i.
Primary Data/Origin data or Raw Data
They are fresh data collected for the first time by a researcher in a field11. Normally this type of data have not been collected by other researches and also not published in the document.
ii.
Secondary Data/ Essential
Is the type of data which has been collected by reading written sources (documents). The document sources include books, newspaper, etc.
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SAMPLING Sampling12 is a process of forming a sample from a large population. Sample; is a small part of a population that contains the elements of the whole population.
Importance of Sampling i.
It serves time staying huge population.
ii.
It minimizes the cost of doing the researcher as limited portion is taken in the study.
iii.
It can be conducted over a whole area.
TYPES OF SAMPLING. 2. Random Sampling 3. Systematic sampling 4. Cluster Sampling
1. Random Sampling This refers to a sampling method in which the selection of sample from the large population is done randomly by6 chance. By this method every person has an equal chance of being included into the sample.
2. Systematic Sampling It is the method of obtaining sample from the large population using a fractional method. For example, The interested research area has total number of 100 people and the required sample size is 10 hence the selection is done as follows; K = N/n Where N = 100 N = 10 K = 100/10
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Hence the sample has to be picked from the sample with fraction interval of 10 hence the members of the sample will be 1, 11, 21, 31, 41, 51, 61, 71, 81, 91.
3. Stratified Sampling It is the method of obtaining the sample in which the sample13 is selected from different areas. This method combines both random sampling as follows;
X=
x X
Where
X = size of sample to be formed x = Number of number of individual in a particular area. x = Total number of individual in all area.
Example; A researcher intends to have a sample of 20 students from five schools below; a) Mzumbe
= 250 students
b) Kamhanga = 1000 students c) Arusha
= 100 students
d) Nyehunge = 600 students e) Geita
= 400 students
Then, X = 250+1000+100+600+400 = 2350
Mzumbe
=
250
x
20
=
2
1000 x
20
=
9
20
=
1
2350 Kamhanga
=
2350 Arusha
=
100
x
2350
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Nyehunge
=
600
x
20
=
5
x
20
=
3
2350
Geita
=
400 2350
Total sample =
2+9+1+5+3
=
20 Students
4. Cluster Sampling This is the process of obtaining a sample from every large population in which the large population is subdivided into small convenient14 groups and sample is selected from the groups by either sample random or systematic sampling.
Non-Probability Sampling This is the type of sampling in which the selection of sample is done not by chance. NonProbability Sampling includes the following types; a)
Purposive Sampling
Its in which a research uses his/her own knowledge to choose the sample.
b)
Accidental Sampling
It is the type of non-probability sampling in which the respondents are included into the sample as they come into contact with the researches accidentally.
RESEARCH PROPOSAL It is the systematic plan which brings together in organized from the preliminary planning that will be needed to accomplish the objectives (purpose) of the project research.
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Functions of Research Proposal a)
It is the guidelines to the research as to show how he/she will proceed with the research project.
b)
It provides the means by which the study can later be calculated.
c)
It shows the boundary of what research should end.
Research Design Is the plan or structure which direct towards obtaining answers to research questions.
Reconnaissance This is an investigation or research done for military purpose in a certain areas or location.
Content Analysis Method Is the methods involves the analysis of the available document in the library, reports, survey, and articles, sources of information may be library, national museums, and Achieves.
Methodology Formulation This is the situation where the researcher selected the suitable methods in which the data will be collected15. E.g. Interview, Observation and other instruments to be used.
TYPES OF EVALUATION RESEARCH There are three types of Evaluation Research as follows:-
i)
i)
Needs assessment evaluation research
ii)
Formative evaluation Research
iii)
Summative evaluation Research
Need assessment Research
It is the evaluation conducted so as to obtain ideas for developing new program. It involves the collection of new ideas for the possibilities of establishing defined program. LUBAMBURA, F.
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ii)
Formative Evaluation Research.
This is evaluation research that involves the collection of information so as to develop the program which is in progress.
iii)
Summative Evaluation Research
Summative is the type of evaluation research that deals with the collection of information (data) for the program which has fully developed so as to determine the merits and demerits of the program. Generally, summative evaluation is the evaluation done at the end of the program as the conclusion16 (Jaledi 2011).
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PHOTOGRAPH READING AND INTERPRETATION By Definition; Photography is an image of an object, person, recorded by a camera inform of print with a photosensitive materials. It is the picture of image of an object taken by different types of camera.
PHOTOGRAMETRY This is the branch of photography in which the images and plans changes scale maps are prepared from measurements taken from photographs. This is the science of taking topographic images from (in) an aerial photograph (Jaledi 2011)
TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHS They are classified according to their view point from which they are taken. Their classes are as follows:i)
Ground Photography (Horizontal)
ii)
Aerial Photography (Vertical)
iii)
Oblique Photography
i)
Ground Level Photographs
These are taken when the camera is hold horizontally. These are photographs taken from the ground by a camera held at the level17 of the object the person taking the photograph stands in a position where can see the objects directly in front of him. In this type of photographs the size of the features decreases from the foreground to back ground. However the object near the camera appears big and clear. An area hidden from the eye of the camera by an object is called DEAD GROUND. In this category, there are two sub-types of ground photographs, LUBAMBURA, F.
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These are:a) Ground Close-up Photographs b) Ground General View Photographs a)
Ground Close-Up Photographs
They are taken when the photographers intends to take one major objects. Being this is the case; the photographers should be very close (near) with the object. Automatically the images (pictures) appear very big. So it will tend to obscure other objects. b)
Ground General View Photographs
This is taken when the photographers is at a certain distance. It is taken when the photographers is at a certain distance. So everything within the limit of the lens of the camera is taken. The 18images will be decreasing as the distance increases from the lens of the camera. Characteristics of Ground Level Photography -
All types of Ground Photographs shows horizontal images
-
The scale of the ground photographs changes, the features near the camera appears big and those away from the camera appear small.
-
They show the dead Ground
-
They are taken on Ground
-
Ground Photographs shows the sooty front view.
Advantages of Ground Photographs •
A clear photographs provide an instant records of the landscape at a given time
•
All objects as seen from the photographic view points as recorded.
•
The familiar pictures is represented in contrast to unfamiliar view in aerial photographs
•
The point can replace a great deal of verbal description
•
The ground short can be used as an aid to field sketching (Good and to field Sketching)
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Disadvantages of Ground Level Photographs •
Not all objects in the landscape can be seen as near objects may obscure the back feature.
•
It is difficult to judge the scale of the field unless familiar objects are included.
•
A camera recorded all objects but right not be required in the analysis.
•
Due to desire depth only certain parts of the photographs will be in focus.
ii)
Aerial/Vertical Photographs
This is the type of photographs taken from the air where the photographer is always in the plan. It was by first taken from the ‘ballon’ by the French man19.
Characteristics of Vertical Level Photograph a)
Objects seems to be dwarf
b)
Never show dead ground
c)
Never show the dead horizon
d)
Not easy to interpret
e)
Features are shown vertically.
Advantages of Aerial/Vertical Photographs •
Vertical photos are used in map making
•
They can be used to survey dense forest
•
They can be used for record Keeping
Disadvantages of Vertical Level Photographs •
They are difficult to interpret
•
They are expensive to produce.
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iii)
Oblique Photographs
This is the type of photographs that, when the plan is flying at the low level and the camera are lighted at an angle to cover a large area. This sometimes occurs when the photographers is either on top of the house or a hill. The object near the camera are large than those far away. They do not appear in side away other objects are also observed.
PARTS OF PHOTOGRAPHS A photograph is divided into three main parts namely:- Fore Ground; this is the part nearest to the camera. - Middle Ground; the part in the centre of the camera - Back Ground; the furthest part from the camera. Each of these parts is divided into left middle and right.
Photograph Interpretation Examine different photographs in order to identify objects and asses their use in their particular location. Features to be interpreted on a certain photos are like physical features i.e. Hills, valleys, drainage feature as well as man made features such as farmers, bridges, roads, and houses.
LOCATION OF THE PHOTOGRAPHS In order to determine the location of photographs we use the following features20 to know the location of a photographs e.g. i)
Water falls.
This indicates that the photograph was taken in the area having waterfalls like Owen falls in Uganda, Victoria Falls in Zimbabwe. ii)
Coffee Estate.
This indicates that the photographs was taken in the area growing coffee like Bukoba, Arusha, Moshi, Usambara in Tanzania and Thika, Kiambu, Makuru, in Kenya and Northern part of Mount Elgon at the border of Kenya and Uganda. LUBAMBURA, F.
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iii)
Tea Estates.
This indicates that a photograph was taken in the area growing tea, e.g. MufindiRungwe (Southern Highland), Usambara in Tanzania and Kericho, Limuru in Kenya.
Similarities between Maps and Photos i)
Both uses scale
ii)
Both shows man made things and natural things
Differences of Maps and Photos i)
Maps are selective while photos are not selective
ii)
Maps scale are constant while photo scale are changed
iii)
Maps are expensive to make while photos are cheap
GROUND AND OBLIQUE PHOTO INTERPRETATION a) Study the fore, middle, and back ground making notes of important features. b) Try to identify the types of objects i.e. natural and artificial features e.g. Settlement, roads, houses, etc. c) In interpreting agriculture activities be careful looking:COTTON Cotton agriculture is known by observing people harvesting they put on urrapped clothes, their bodies when harvesting21.
TEA In harvesting people put baskets at their back. Also tea plants are not vertically long having small needle like leaves.
COFFEES Look care fully the coffee trees. Also the people in harvesting use baskets tied in front of their stomach. Sometimes you can see people on the trees and sometimes also the coffee is seen spread down so as get dried. LUBAMBURA, F
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CLIMATE In describing climate look at the clothes worn by the people found in the photographs. If the area suggested then you can know the climate. Also look at the type of crops. E.g.
Cotton
Tropical climate with reliable rainfall with warm temperature
Coffee
Equatorial and Tropical climate with high amount of rains
Banana
Typical equivalent climate or modified equivalateral climate.
Evidence of nomadic Pastoralism look large herds of cattle may suggest a dry savannah climate with low and reliable rainfall. It also indicates high temperature.
OTHER ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES ON PHOTOS They include; a) Manufacturing, it is indicated by building with large Chimneys, factories or people engaged in processing of activities b) Fishing, it is indicated by fish vessels, people casting nets and fish trapes c) Mining, it is indicated by a mine in quarry people undertaking a mining activities or mineral processing of factory.
ESTIMATING THE TIME THE PHOTOS WAS TAKEN In estimating the time the photo was taken, use the length of shadow as follows; i)
Darkness in the Photograph. This shows that the photographs were taken during the night or cloud day if there are some clouds in a photo.
ii)
Long Shadow, these shows that the photos were taken in morning or evening hours.
iii)
No Shadow or a Shortest Shadow, these shows that the22 photograph was taken in noon hours.
Also it is possible to estimate the time of the year when the photograph was taken. E.g. The presence of young crops on the photo could indicate the rainy season, while harvesting could imply season. Using this information23, it is possible to identify specific month when the photo was taken. LUBAMBURA, F VISIT:
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USES OF PHOTOGRAPHS i)
Clear photographs used to show the instant records of landscape at time taken
ii)
By using photos (prints) we replace the use of great deal of verbal description.
iii)
Ground short can be used as an aid of field sketching
iv)
To survey dense forests.
Note: Sometimes you may be asked to determine the season at which the photographs was taken Here we consider two seasons; i)
Dry seasons, if the vegetation (plants, glasses) seems to be dry with little or no leaves.
ii)
Rain Season, if these vegetables have leaves.
Again dry grasses/plants with leaves ranges from white to black (white is dominant) Green Glasses/plants with leaves ranges from black to white (Black is Dominant)
FARMING We do consider farming as including both crop realing and keeping of livestock This can further be classified into small scale and large scale farming. Again should be distinguished from subsistence farming and commercial24 farming.
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Identification of Farming Types.
Farming Type
Evidence to be considered.
1. Plantation
Extensive stretch of the same crop, infrastructure, planted trees on lines along the farms
2. Livestock Farming
Animals, Pad docked, Pastures
3. Commercialized Farming
Presence of Cash crops and evidence of Modern Farming E.g. Machinery, health, hybrid and Livestock
4. Subsistence Farming
Out molded structure e.g. huts, open grazed animals, local breed animals, uses of simple tools i.e. hoe and pangas.
SETTLEMENT IN THE PHOTOGRAPHS In the context of human Geography a settlement is a group of dwellings with some degree of interaction. With this in mind we can divide settlements25 into rural and urban settlements.
Identification of Rural and Urban Settlement in the Photo
No. Rural Settlement 1.
Simple
huts
and
Urban Settlement semi-permanent Permanent structure e.g. Block building
Buildings 2.
being dominant
Evidence of farming (Field like Little evidence of farming or any other Stock)
3.
primary sector activities
Unevenly/unplanned
dwellings Evidence of much other activities e.g.
primary sector activities e.g. Fishing many motor vehicles and busy streets, and Lumbering.
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FLYING HEIGHT, FOCAL LENGTH AND PHOTO SCALE The vertical distance between the air crafts and the ground below is known as FLYING HEIGHT (H). The scale26 of the photographs is calculated from the height (h) and the focal length (f) of the camera used.
S
=
f h
Where,
S
=
Scale
F
=
focal length
h
=
Height
NB. In Scale calculation both ‘f’ and ‘h’ must be in the same units of measurements (because usually ‘f’ is given in millimeters and ‘h’ is given in meters. It is mostly practical to convert the meters into millimeters by multiplying by 1000.
QUESTION 1: By using the focal length of 15000mm, find the scale of the photographs taken at a flying height of 4500m.
Solution, Data Given:
Focal length (h)
=
15000mm
Flying height (f)
=
4500m
Scale
=
?
1m
=
1000mm
S
=
f
But,
h
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S
=
15000mm 4500x1000
=
15 4500
=
1 300
Therefore, Scale = 27
1: 300 or 1/300
QUESTION 2.
To determine the focal length of a camera which shoots on the air at 600m above and the ground taken was on 3900m. If the scale of the photograph is 1: 14000
Solution, Data Given:Scale of the Photo
=
1: 14000
Distance from the Air plane (h)
=
600m
Distance from the lower ground (f) =
3900m
Actual Flying Height (F)
?
=
Steps, S
=
F h-f
1
=
14000 1
(6000-4900) m =
1400 14000f
f.
f . 2100
=
14000
2100m 14000mm
=
2100000 14000
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f
=
21000 140
Therefore, Focal length
=
150mm.
QUESTION 3. A 28camera in an aircraft at an Altitude of 1600metres was used to take a photograph. Determine the focal length of the camera if the scale of the photograph is 1: 50,000 Solution, Data Given Scale
=
1:50000
Focal length (f)
=
?
Height (h)
=
1600m
S
=
f. h
=
1 50000
50000f
f.. 1600m
=
50000
1600m 50000
f
=
1600000 50000
=
32mm
=
32mm
Therefore,
Focal length
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SURVEYING By Definition, Surveying is the science of measuring distance, angles, and height on the earth surface. This is the process of making measurements in the field from which the maps are drawn For instance, Measuring the distance from point A to B
B
A
B
For Angles
Observers
BRANCHES OF SURVEY There are four branches29 of survey, those are; a) Geological Survey, the branch of survey which deals with rocks (mineralsMining) b) Hydrological Survey, the one which deals with water bodies c) Aerial Survey, it deals with aircrafts d) Cartographic survey, that deals with map making
TYPES OF SURVEY There are three types of surveying namely i)
Simple chain Survey
ii)
Plane Table Survey
iii)
Prismatic Compass Survey
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1: SIMPLE CHAIN SURVEY It is sometimes called Chain or Tape survey. It is the type of survey where by the major work is mainly carried out by a chain. OR, This also is a particularly method of surveying in which no angle are measured only line measurements are taken in the field. It is the one which deals with linear measurements NB: A Chain Surveying is suitable in small areas with fair visibility and relatively flat30.
Qualities of a Simple Chain Survey It is useful for measurement of small areas. E.g. School, plantation, etc. the major instrument is CHAIN.
Tools (Equipments) used in Chain Survey
•
-
Chain
-
Measuring Rod
-
Tape
-
Surveyor Band
-
Ranging Pole
-
Pen
-
Arrows
-
Spirit Level
-
Pegs
-
Cross stuff
-
Pocket Compass
-
Note book
Chain or Tape
They are used for taking linear measurements and measuring the distance from one point to another point.
Bench Mark
10m
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•
Ranging Pole/Ranging rod
They are used for making stations and are painted black, white and red so as to be seen easier. It is made either in metal or wood. They are used for ranging purpose for instance they are used for finding straight lines and offset.
•
Arrows
A long narrow piece of iron rod coited at one and painted at one end. It is used to make the position temporally during surveying activity.
•
Pegs
They are used to mark position permanently during the process of surveying31. They are put after the arrows have been removed.
•
Cross Stuff/Optical Square
It is used to determine the right angles from the main chain of survey (line of traverse) to the offsets. Line of Traverse A
B
12m
19m
Stone (OFFSET)
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•
Measuring rod
They are used to measuring offset. •
Note book.
They are used to recording all the information obtained from the field. •
Surveyor Band
They are used for linear measurements
STEPS (STAGES) OR PRINCIPLES IN CHAIN SURVEY: A.
Preliminary survey
This is the first stage which is done to make the choice of the area to be surveyed, The main line is made.
B.
Triangulation Chain Survey
Division of the area into triangle starting with the major triangles32 by the base line then secondary triangle by the help of check line. OR. The division of the area to be surveyed into many triangles for the surveying purpose.
F
E
G A D B
C.
C
Booking In Chain Survey
It involves the entering in the field noting various measurements taken in the field, i.e. It should include the necessary features e.g. rivers, houses, ponds, fence, etc. It is done as follows; Construct a double vertical line half an inch apart in the middle page.
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NB: Field notes should include the following i.
The name and allocation of the areas surveyed
ii.
Description and references number of items used e.g. type of chain (1 Unit)
iii.
The date of survey should be recorded
iv.
The names of the partnership
v.
A sketch of the layout of the survey during the preliminary survey.
D.
Plotting/Drawing the plane of the Map:
This is plotting of details. i.e. map making In conducting the chain survey three people make up the team survey. -landing (Chairperson) -The follower - The surveyor or Booker.
OBSTACLES IN CHAIN SURVEY: An obstacle is anything which may hinder the penetration along the line of survey33. Obstacles in chain survey are:-
A Pond
-
A river
-
Building
-
Hills or mountains etc.
Note: Choose the line of traverse which avoids obstacles. But sometimes they are unavoidable.
CHAIN TRAVERSE Traverse involves laying of legs (is an extension of the method of fixing a point by a distance and bearing instead of fixing a single point. Traverse is applied in the survey pf linear objects such as roads, school boundary, farms etc.
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Types of Chain Traverse There are two types of traverse i.
Open traverse
ii.
Closed traverse
i.
Open traverse
This is the one which starts from one point to another point34.
A
B
OR:B
A
C ii.
Closed Traverse.
This is the kind of survey which started at a certain point and end at a same point.
G
E F
D
A
C B NB. One length of the surveyed area is called a single leg.
Uses/Application of Survey i.
Used for map making (for cartographer)
ii.
Used in military activities
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iii.
Used for mining activities
iv.
Used for construction of building, H.E.P, Statory road etc.
v.
Used for fixing boundaries.
vi.
Used for plan the best use of land (agriculture, industries)
Advantages/merits (cons) of chain survey i.
it is a simplest method of all methods (even less skills full person can conduct)
ii.
Its equipments are cheap and easily obtained.
iii.
It does not include the knowledge of mathematics35 because there is no angles are measured.
iv.
It is out of the quickest method of surveying. E.g. In army
v.
It require few person at least two one enough ( a leader and a follower)
vi.
It is an accurate method.
Disadvantages/demerits (prons) of chain survey i.
it is limited when used in densely wooded area
ii.
it is limited when the ground is wet
iii.
it is only used for small ground area
iv.
It is particularly slow especially when surveyors are not skillful in the selecting the line of traverse.
2:
v.
A chain itself is heavy equipment. (not easily portable)
vi.
Over long distance it’s likely accumulated (Gross errors) uncalculated.
PRISMATIC COMPASS SURVEY:
Is the method in which the position of the object in the field is fixed by measuring angles between the line of magnetic north and the line of the sight to the object. OR: It is the method of surveying which involves the utilization of prismatic compass.
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MN MN
GN
TN
80° Line of sight
TN = True North GN = Grid North MN = Magnetic North
True North (Geographical North) It is the direction given always in maps
Magnetic North It is the direction of magnetic pole where the needle of magnetic compass point is said to be near i.e. both near. It is constant normally keep on changing from time to time. Normally the place and data where the magnetic North Pole is taken should be indicated36.
Grid North The vertical lines drawn on the map does the grid north. Three types of Bearing are:a) True Bearing b) Magnetic Bearing c) Magnetic declination or Magnetic Variation
a) True Bearing This is an angle of distance point taken from the observer’s position in the relation to the line pointing to the true north. LUBAMBURA, F.
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b) Magnetic Bearing This is an angle of distance point taken from the observer’s position in relation to the line pointing to the magnetic north.
c) Magnetic Declination or Variation or Angle of Declination: This is the angle between the true north and the magnetic north. It refers to as an angle of declination normally does not exceed 11° and is not constant due to changing of magnetic North.
MN(Magnetic North)
TN(True North)
P(Distance Point)
MB MD(AD)
TB
Observers TB = True Bearing MD = Magnetic Declination AD = Angle of Declination MB = Magnetic Bearing
TB = MB – AD MB = TB + AD AD = MB – TB
NB:
BEARING is the angle of distance point taken from the observers’ position in
relation to the line pointing to the North Direction. This angle is usually measured in degrees clockwise37.
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A. Forward Bearing This is the degree reading to an object in front of observers along a line of sight. It is a bearing of a point taken from the observer’s station in relation to the distant station.
B. Back Bearing This is the bearing (angle) from the object station in relation to the distant observers position. Object MN O 50° 340° A
B
NOTE: If the forward bearing is greater than 180° subtract so as to get the back bearing. If forward bearing is less than 180° then add 180° to get the back bearing.
How to avoid errors in compass survey a) Avoid wearing metals, spectacles, metal bangles, steel watches and related when vocing compass. b) Avoid areas with metal gates railway lines, steel structure these will influence38 the reading c) Ensure booker takes a reading accurately by asking him/her to speak. PRISMATIC EQUIPMENTS: i.
Prismatic compass, it is used to find north to south direction
ii.
Chain/tape, is used to measure the base line during a process of surveying
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iii.
Chain Arrows, used to mark the position temporarily
iv.
Field notebook, it is used to record the information obtained in the field
v.
Traverse Sheet, is the paper which have different lines to draw graphs.
vi.
Mathematical set
vii.
Drawing materials, (ruler, rubber, drawing papers)
Advantages of prismatic Compass Survey i.
The equipments are easily portable
ii.
Near and distant objects can be taken accurately
iii.
Accumulative errors is reduced and can be easily rectified
iv.
It is fairly rapid method in the field
v.
It can be combined with other methods e.g. chain and plane table survey
Disadvantages of prismatic compass survey i.
Over long distance compass observation cannot be checked by back bearing unless transport is provided
ii.
Presence of one world affect reading
iii.
It is difficult to hold the compass steady thus human errors is involved in taking observation.
iv.
It involve complication mathematics
3. PLANE TABLE SURVEY A plane table survey is an accurate and rapid way of fixing the position of distant objects by intersection. It is a geographical method of providing topographical details in an open country. In a plane tabling only one linear measurement is made. A plane table survey is used in military operations for unmapped country or exploration39.
Branches of Plane Table Survey i.
Radiation Method
ii.
Intersection Method
iii.
Resection Method
iv.
Plane Table Traversing Method
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Equipments used in Plane Table Surveying i.
Table, is used a simple drawings board, when the table used is covered with the drawing paper. It has a socket underside which allows it to be fixed mounted on a tripod stand
ii.
Tripod Stand, it has the three lagged framework on which the table is mounted
iii.
Plumb Bob, this is tied to the clamping screw and the plumb-bob hangs down wards pointing on the pig which marks a station during plane tabling.
iv.
Telescopic Alidade, this is used for long sight observation
v.
Chain or Tape, this is used to measure the base line during a process of surveying
vi.
Trough Compass, is used to find the magnetic meridian in the field (north to south direction)
vii.
Drawing Materials, (paper, ruler, pencil)
viii.
Alidade, is used for sighting the points
ix.
Spirit Level, for leveling the table.
Advantages of Plane Table Survey a. a map can be produced immediately b. Does not require filling the information in the field note book c. The method id quick, accurate and permit rapid sketching of details d. The techniques used is an excellent discipline in observation e. It serves time because a map is produced; therefore minimize the official the official work.
Disadvantages of Plane Table Survey a. The method can’t be used during rain season because the paper will get water40 or wet b. It is very difficult to survey in the area with many obstacles c. the method is limited in a small and slight flat area
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d. It is very difficult to select the base line other wise the intersection will take place outside of the paper.
Difference between a Simple Chain Survey and A Plane Table Survey
A Simple Chain Survey
i.
A Plane Table Survey
i.
Simple equipments are used e.g.
A complex equipments are used e.g. tripod,
ranging pole, pegs, arrows
telescopic alidade etc. ii.
ii.
Its equipments are very easy to
easy to carry.
carry iii.
Its equipments are not
iii.
Its easy to survey the area of
It is not easy to survey the area of obstacles
obstacles
because will under direct indivisibility of the objects iv.
iv.
It is much more to accurate in
It is less accurate method of fixing the
fixing the boundary of the area.
boundary of the area.
LEVELING: This is the process of measuring the height differences between points on the ground surface41. It is the procedure by which the heights of the points on the earth surface are determined. LUBAMBURA, F LUBAMBURA, F. VISIT:
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Types of leveling There are two kinds of leveling a. Differential Leveling b. Profile Leveling a. Differential Leveling This involve in the determination of difference in height between the two points OR. It is the determination of the vertical height between two points on the ground.
b. Profile Leveling This deals with the determination of the elevation of a series of points measured at intervals. Horizontal line of staff sight
A Level
Tripod stand Leveling staff Leveling Level line The process of measuring42 height different is done by using a level and a staff
Equipments used in Leveling i.
Chain or Tape, Are mainly used for measurement of distant and are the same equipments used in chain surveying.
ii.
Pegs, are used for marking permanently station or points at a certain field where by the leveling process is taken
41
iii.
Spirit level, these are used in leveling and it consist of a telescope and the lot mounted on a tripod and free to rotate on a horizontal plane about a vertical axis.
iv.
The Clio meter, is used for measuring angles of elevation or depression
v.
Tripod Stand, for supporting spirit level
vi.
Telescope, with spirit level used for sighting
vii.
Leveling staff/Telescopic staff, is a wooden or light metal staff 2 meters to 4 meters long with measurements in meters used for recording differences in height between points and determining the height of contouring
viii.
Note book
ix.
The Hand Level, are used to conduct leveling and it consists of the front a perture on the tube a small spirit level is mounted.
x.
The Aneroid Barometer, is the normal instrument used for measuring of pressure therefore it is used in leveling in area.
USES OF LEVELING a. It is used for the production of contour lines, after establishing spot height, trigonometric station or bench mark b. It can be used to determine the elevation of the land, e.g. Hill c. It is used to produce longitudinal station d. It can be used for location and determination of hosing foundation, industrial sites, and the routes of communication and sitting of building. Advantages of Leveling a. It is used to obtain across section of man made and natural features43 b. It is used in the production of contour maps c. It is used to determining the height of a point above the seal level.
Disadvantages of Leveling a. It needs skills to be conducted b. It consume time, because its needs to be done accurately. LUBAMBURA, F
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Methods of Leveling Are two simple methods which can be used to determine the difference in level between two points height of one point among two have to be known44 easily.
i.
The rise and fall method
Leveling instruments in the rise and fall method can be placed as shown in the diagram.
Horizontal line of sight 3.561
A Level 1.352
Tripod Stand Leveling Staff
637.771 635.362 A
X
B Level line
Figure above the level is set upon its tripod stand at X the leveling is erected at A and reading to it (3.561m) the level is then surveying around in a horizontal plane the leveling staff is set up and a second reading taken (1.352m). Difference in level between A and B is rise of 3.561m minus 1.352m which is equal to 2.200m as height is known as 635.562m+2.209m above the datum i.e. 3.561m - 1.352m = 2.209m ii.
Collimation Method
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Changing Points
Tripod Stand
635.782 635.861
636.284
A
B
637.263
636.202
X
C
D
E Horizontal
18m
29m
30m
34m
Distance
The above level is set up on its tripod at X. the leveling staff is erected at A and a reading. The height of collimation line is found by adding the staff reading of a point known level to those points known height in the above figure. In the above figure the height of collimation is as height of 635.562m in plus 1.743m which is equal to 637.305m. The level45 of all other points is calculated by deducting the staff reading of those points from the height of collimation for example BS height is 637.305m minus 1.02m which is equal to 636.284m. i.e. 637.305m -
1.02m
= 636.284m Consider this method of Leveling:
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FIGURE FOR LEVELING METHOD BOTH RISE AND FALL; AND COLLIMATION METHOD. DRAWN BY: JALEDI SOSPETER
THE PROCEDURES OF TAKING LEVELING The following are the procedures of taking leveling46 i.
a staff is put at station one or base station
ii.
the sighting instrument (1-6) is put in the direction of travel, a back sight is recorded
iii.
The distance from base station to the instrument is measured
iv.
The staff is moved a head of the sighting instrument at an equal distance as before. This will be station two; a foresight is taken and recorded.
v.
The sight instrument is moved a head of the staff and a back sight taken and recorded
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