the other 99 by James Anderson

The Other 99% Beyond the Shelter James Anderson | 05768619

Refugee [A]ny person who: owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality, and is unable to or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country -United Nations High Comission For Refugees 1951

Internally Displaced Person People or groups of people who have been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of human rights or natural or human-made disasters, and who have not crossed an internationally recognized State border -United Nations 2007

Shelter A place giving temporary protection from bad weather or danger -Oxford English Dictionary

The Other 99% The ingenuity of humanity has ushered in an era of transcendent communication in which the sufficiently technologically advanced nations can piece together an overview of the world with unprecedented detail and connect with more people than ever before. In this modern age the architect is both orchestrator and catalyst, straddling the chasm between an incipient abstraction and tangible reality. The clients often fall under the guise of corporations, developers and the individual. Yet all represent a mere fraction of the global population, the wealthiest 1%.1 Thus the conclusion must be drawn that the majority of architects engage solely with a privileged minority and in doing so fail to meet the needs of society as a whole. Outside a consumerist bubble exists the stark realities of rising global population, a widening gulf between rich and poor2 and the accelerated expansion of unplanned settlements.3 Some have declared such issues beyond the remit of architects stating; “form is our specific contribution to the evolution on world society” and it is “political correctness that is trying to paralyze us with bad conscience.”4 Yet this is more than a call for architects to re-align their moral compasses and help bear the weight of social responsibility. The greatest contribution the discipline can offer lies not in the sky-scrapping cities and beacons of modernity but in the developing world. In this fertile proving ground new lessons to be learnt and innovations to be made. When global challenges are presented clearly before us, we can either help to actualise solutions or remain ignorant, which ultimately will serve to deflate the discipline as a whole. One repercussion that often stems from ideological differences and systemic inequality is an escalating necessity to provide safe refuge for the displaced and disenfranchised.5 Some have already devoted their skills to help elevate what may well prove to be one of the most demanding and urgent problems of our epoch. In this multifaceted and relatively new form of intervention diverging philosophies have emerged. 1 Ban (2013)

2 Currently 1 billion people live in abject poverty with Worldbank (2014) 3 Estimates place 1/7 persons living in unplanned settlements and forecasts predict that by 2026 this number will have risen to 1/3, Sinclair (2006) 4 Schumacher (2014) 5 By end-2013 51.2 million individuals were forcibly displaced worldwide as a result of persecution, conflict and human right violations. if these 51.2 million persons were a nation, they would represent the 26th largest in the world, UNHCR (2014)

Universal Since 1950 The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has deployed the ridged-canvas tent6 to those seeking aid and it has now become a staple ingredient to any major relief effort. A recent update has seen the implementation of lighter hoop-tents that use synthetic material in order to prevent canvas rot whilst stockpiled and increase the overall working lifecycle.7 Nonetheless the fundamental design and typology remain largely unchanged, and that is sort of the problem. Various fields have proposed enhanced incarnations of the UN tent but with the threat of disaster if prototypes fail aid agencies remain hesitant to adopt, thus a universal and somewhat justified abidance to the status quo has prevailed. Lack of innovation aside, there are many good reasons why the tent has become synonymous with refugees; they are simple and economical to produce, stockpile and transport. But most of all they are a hasty response to a problem that demand immediacy. One organisation that has made significant inroads towards improving this antiquated genre is The Ikea Foundation.8 In a partnership with the UNHCR they have devised a ridged shed like shelter9 consisting of lightweight polymer walls supported by a steel-frame, with additional features such as insulation and solar panels to improve living standards. It drastically surpass the longevity of conventional tents with intended use extending to three years10 and repairs during this lifecycle are intend to be straightforward given its modular nature. On the surface this appears to be a great leap forward, but even after mass production has been achieved and the economies of scale weighed, each unit is still estimate to cost within the region of six thousand krona. Furthermore, despite typical Ikea-esque flat-pack credentials, transportation cost will invariably rise to at least half that of manufacturing.11 The Ikea shed is abruptly cast in a less appealing light, perhaps all can be forgiven when taking into account its technologically advanced qualities that permit a larger more durable shelter. But what becomes of it (and the potentially thousands more) when the refugees can return home, what is the procedure if the given climate or topography is detrimental to the intended use? 6 Plate 3 (UNHCR)

7 Architecture for Humanity (2006) 8 The Ikea Foundation (2014) 9 Plate 4 (ibid) 10 On average a refugee will require shelter for 12 years, Ikea Foundation (2014) 11 Architecture for Humanity (2006) p.67

Perhaps the issue that inherently befouls all universal shelters is that by providing a one size fits all solution they oversimplify a vastly complex issue. To elaborate, this approach has a tendency to give an answer for a statistic as opposed to the human being. Although these shelters are the product of years of research and careful deliberation they are still fundamentally based on prediction and assumption of what people will require. For example during UNHCR’s initial attempt to provide shelter for Byumba Refugees in Rwanda, they supplied rudimentary materials to build shelter. The supporting poles were of some monetary value and so the refugees promptly sold the aluminium poles and cut down neighbouring trees in order to replace them, significantly contributing to deforestation in the area.12 This could have been avoided if organisations had tried to create an environment that caters for needs beyond primary shelter. To emphasis the point we can look to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory.13 It establishes a set of stratified requirements that, to varying degrees are interlinked and supported by one and other. An individual must build upon each level in order to facilitate a healthy mental state.14 Evaluating a typical shelter environment within these parameters the conclusion must be drawn that only base level physiological and security needs are addressed, thereby leaving out many socio and psychological needs such as belonging, self-esteem and self-actualisation. At this point the question of depth and where to draw the line must be posed, what additional needs is it reasonable to assume a settlement can respond to? A source of monitory income for example is hard to sustain because refugee camps are consistently isolated from host nation populous, thus any attempt to generate a form of economy will ultimately end with collapse. Furthermore there exists an underlying fear that by providing too much, refugees will become over reliant on the relief agencies. Magnifying the scale beyond the singular shelter, aid workers are challenged with the bewildering question of how to arrange each structure to provide optimum urban space. Given the lightweight characteristics of tents it could be argued that settlements are alterable over a period of time. However in practical terms, and bearing in mind the sheer scale that some settlements can reach, this is unrealistic

12 Architecture for Humanity (2006) p.67 13 Maslow (2014) 14 Plate 2

tactic. The basic grid syntax15 that is currently employed has certain security and accessibility benefits, such as intersecting vehicular routes and the ability to install modular fences between shelters when necessary.16 These attributes are no doubt important but are they more useful to the relief organisations as opposed to the people they are there to help? This is not to say that other factors are wholly disregarded; for example in order to provide better privacy all shelters are orientated in such a way that no two openings face onto each other. Eventually though, the myriad of longterm societal and educational needs must be confronted and perhaps present layouts fall sort in providing the fertile soil for these aspects to flourish. History suggests that it is not possible to artificially stimulate a sense of community but it is feasible to lay down a better framework for it to thrive. But in what form, merely a larger tent? Thus the question remains; are positive urban environments ever truly achievable in the tent city, or are they fundamentally flawed? As discussed governments prefer to keep refugees at an arms length, well away from their own nations cities and towns. The upshot of this means there is often more land available for refugees than is used. There are however good reasons why camps tend to be denser than what is apparently necessary. By keeping sites within tried and tested parameters they can better cope with the adoption of new arrivals. The costs of infrastructure is minimised and aid workers can gain the clearest overview of proceedings. However research conducted by Chora architecture and urbanism research office has suggested by deliberately implanting multiple urban ‘testbeds’ separate from each other, but still within relatively close proximity they will coevolve and react together, eventually creating positive urban space and fluid interactions between testbeds.17 Theoretically the same methodology could be extended to refugee camps by inserting sparsely arranged nodes that could act as social hubs. From each central node, multiple camps could grow and co-evolve18. Once one camp has reached its maximum size new nodes could be established and react with old ones.

15 Plate 7-8

16 UNHCR typically and proposed tent layouts 17 Buschoten, Smart Cities + Utopias: The Choreography +Co-evolution of Low Carbon Urban Incubators (2011) 18 Plate 9

Ad Hoc Another approach to accommodating the vulnerable finds solutions by focusing on each scenario independently in of itself, much in the way a traditional feasibility study will take place. Japanese architect Shiguri Ban has championed this philosophy for quite sometime. Ban gets under the skin of the community with public led consultations to clarify what drives them. After the Tsunami Relocation Project19 in Kirinda, Sri Lanka, Ban set to work on developing 100 small homes for displaced Islamic fishermen. The principle building material was compressed earth block; abundant, inexpensive and locally sourced it was the most pragmatic choice. Moreover this material could be stacked like lego bricks, requiring no technical expertise, allowing locals to build for themselves whist simultaneously helping to alleviate a fragile economy. By taking the vernacular as precedent each homes have been specifically attuned to the environment. But more than this, Ban has integrated folding partitions into open plan spaces, this was crucial as in accordance with religious beliefs it is necessary for women to avoid being viewed by guests. The homes themselves have also been arranged to allow communal entertainment spaces. It is clear Ban is listening to the needs of the clients, tailoring the designs specifically for them. He does not see the people as victims, instead enlists them to help with the project, making it their own. This of course is not applicable to all circumstances, the relatively small number of fishermen, although displaced still had some notion of home and belonging. Whereas the refugees who have fled their nation to seek asylum elsewhere are acutely aware they are on borrowed time and therefore possess a different outlook.20 It is clear that for the human condition to achieve some level comfort, conditions must exceed what is required purely for survival; essentially “everybody wants the same thing, rich or poor, not only a warm, dry room, but a shelter for the soul.”21

19 Plate 5

20 In the 1930’s Hassan Fathy’s early ‘self-build’ resettlement experiments in Egypt were largely deemed failures as Fathy had not fully comprehended the extent of public opposition against the project as a whole, thus eventually Fathy would concede and seek outsource a labour force (Architects for Humanity) P.42 21 Samuel Mockbee, founder of Rural Studio; an architectural education program that uses low-cost, innovative building techniques to provide community buildings and homes for poor rural neighborhoods

So we have seemingly reached a paradox, host nations demand temporary camps whereas architects aim to provide stability and ultimately a sense of place for the displaced; a transient permanence of sorts. However Ban states “a buildings permanence has nothing to do with its material; a concrete building can be torn down by a developer in a day as easily as a paper tube structure can be disassembled.”22 Thus we can extrapolate upon the same design philosophy and incorporate the same principles when designing for the mass exodus of a people by using closed loop systems, local labour where possible. Indeed even small, seemingly insignificant interventions combined together will make a substantial difference. A pointedly more ephemeral instance of Ban’s philosophy at work can be seen in his response to the 2011 tsunami that struck his native Japan.23 People who had lost their homes were taking refuge in facilities such as gymnasiums and schools. It was intended to be a temporary measure, but as too often is the case, this provisional measure had to be endured much longer than first anticipated. Families had to live in close quarters for months and this caused both psychological and physical harm. Bearing in mind that Japanese culture places great emphasis on the necessity for privacy, Shigiru Ban erected cardboard tubes to form simple grids within the gymnasium and then used canvas sheets as partitions. This ingeniously simple intervention required little effort, expense or resource but made a considerable difference to people’s lives. This was the fourth incarnation of the paper partition system24 and so he had used previous experience to tweak his design and enhance the concept. It is clear that in order to deliver positive solutions for people (no matter the situation) architects must first understand the fabric of a community; by taking the time to peer deep a complex tapestry is revealed highlighting where previously unforeseen threads are intricately woven together. But anyone attempting to relieve refugees will encounter a conflicting scenario in which to fully grasp a culture it is necessary to cultivate both time and communication, two commodities that are scarce in states of crisis.

22 Naomi Pollock http://www.kcrw.com 23 Ban (2014) 24 Plate 6

Plugging in Arguably humanitarian efforts differ from other forms of aid by the intensity and duration of direct intervention. It maybe an oversimplification to advocate direct monetary contributions alone, but perhaps there is a middle ground. Contemplate a future where the tools for settlement are donated but a pointedly more laissez-faire attitude is adopted. What if every individual becomes the designer of his or her temporary abode? What if these shelters could be assembled with unprecedented speed whilst minimising labour? Cameron Sinclair, co-founder of Architecture for Humanity acknowledges the need for specific solutions to specific problems. Sinclair developed a potentially unlimited crowd-sourced database25 in which architects and other professions can upload their designs into a creative commons.26 Now consider within an infinite library is a subcategory for temporary shelters where a single file can be downloaded and replicated, on mass by 3D printers all in the same day. In lieu of such a dominating relief presence is it possible that once basic infrastructure has been laid out, then a hypothetical urban layout could grow and develop of its own accord? Would this have more in common with an unplanned settlement, resembling (albeit on a smaller scale) the shantytowns of Karachi and Mumbai? Would this be a positive or negative development, assumedly this settlement would be lacking in certain accessibility aspects, but could they better nurture certain social qualities? This is perhaps verging on the utopian, with the influx of any large-scale population there will always be xenophobic concerns, particularly from host nations so true freereign is not an option. But the principles, although ahead of their time are sound. Complimenting the open source concept and taking the printable element a stage further is global architecture and design firm Gensler. They have been developing prototype drone hexicopters27 and fitted them with 3D printers. The aim, to design a scalable remotely controlled aircraft that, among other things can reach crisis stricken areas and essentially print shelters. Given the embryonic stage of development there are significant criticisms to be made. The most obvious being the potential hazards associated with remotely flying and landing a substantial large vehicle into a region. But less discernible technical concerns also arise; for example a 3D printer head 25 Sinclair (2006)

26 The database can be contributed to here http://openarchitecturenetwork.org/about 27 http://www.gensler.com

requires a certain temperature range to function and given the infancy of the technology itself there are perhaps too many parts that can go wrong. Despite the notably less wasteful additive process of manufacture there remain few polymers that possess both durable and biodegradable properties. Even with such drawbacks there remains potential and as the technologies reach maturity this genuinely could be a viable option with further reaching connotations beyond the humanitarian sector, especially in the developing world. Presently, in the event of a humanitarian emergency, certain practical requirements must be met before international aid workers can even step foot within a given country. These include but are not limited to; the procurement of security, work permits and visas.28 At best this can be considered an unavoidable yet brief bureaucratic hindrance, at worst they can be exploited to serve political agendas and stagnate a relief effort. Crises of this kind, by their very nature can be chaotic, even anarchical environments. However this atmosphere can be further inflamed by the initial flurry of humanitarian agencies converging together. Many will have varying objectives and convoluted strategies for achieving them. The inevitable result is a delayed, disorganised and incongruous response. By the time resources have been distributed and shelters assembled, the overall result is a standard grid layout, this is of course born of its simplicity and ease of implementation, but this will also be the urban environment for many hundreds of people for an unforeseeable amount of time and must be conceived to preform for the duration. Raoul Buschoten, founder of the Chora has a fresh perspective on creating urban spaces within a city. He argues that incubator design spaces act as test-beds in which new ideas can be examined and different variables installed. The outcome of which is a toolbox of scenarios and programmes that can be plugged into a smart grid where processes can be analysed much like a smartphone and subsequently improved upon.29 On the surface this seems rather technologically advanced and entirely ill-fitted to mass refugee shelters, but what if the incubators are initially developed in locations away from disasters where the stakes are far lower and opportunity for experimentation abundant? Music festivals for example share some primary DNA with typical relief projects. Granted these events are not expected to endure anywhere close to that of a refugee camp but 28 Architecture for Humanity (2006) p.64

29 Buschoten, Smart Cities + Utopias:The Choreography +Co-evolution of LowCarbon Urban Incubators (2011)

they share some basic qualities and can be as diverse in location as sun-bleached Burning Man in the Nevada Desert to Glastonbury nestled within flood-prone English countryside. In the same vein architectural competitions should be staged with briefs associated with the underlying conditions of a relief efforts. Successes and failures here could not only upload to an open-source database for the likes of UNHCR to make use of, but would act as an indispensible real-world training tool for the urban planners, engineers and architects who wish to focus on relief work. This is of particular note when considering that the training within these professions is overwhelmingly within a modern world setting. With time the database will expand, and the refugee camps will progress in parallel. Eventually technology will be democratised to the point where it is plausible for every shelter within every temporary settlement to be transmitting data that can be monitored and eventually quantified into strengths and weaknesses thus further catalysing evolution.

Synthesis + Evolution In the face of current crises that so often saturate our media, the open-source vision and the revolutionary promises of printers feel suddenly and profoundly more distant. It is clear that the current universal and the ad-hoc strategies have varying goals; the universal has been intended as a short-term solution to perceivably transitory emergencies. The ad-hoc on the other hand provides interventions that respond directly to the specific needs of a community and is predominately aimed at internally displaced people. But perhaps the benefits of these two existing strategies can be fused into a more holistic approach in which technological advantages can be slowly introduced. One potential synthesis could be based on a phased programme30 and implemented methodologically. It is possible to envisage an agreement between nations to have available certain surplus materials that could be used within circulation in order prevent stockpiling, but when required can be utilised as support structures for basic shelter. Phase I would ideally be based on a modular kit of parts that can be interchanged or expanded upon where required. The resources may vary depending on availability and contextual suitability, but qualities of recyclability 30 Plate 10

and/or biodegradability will be highly regarded. In Phase II the kit of parts is assembled to provide the skeleton of dwelling with the advantages of a localised supply chain and rapid implementation. When the dust has settled and some sense of normality can be established Phase III can be initiated. This will introduce consultants from a variety of sectors such as architecture that can work with communities in order to apply flesh to the skeletons of shelter and form more long-term dwellings. Phase IIII relates to the maintenance and ultimately the disassembly dwellings. Once a known kit of part has reached the end of useful life it can be replaced, due to its modular nature and given that most parts will have been installed on similar timescales, up-keep is widely systematic and this could be further refined by the eventual implementation of technologies that can relay constant feedback. When the dwellings are no longer required the materials can be disassembled, recycled or reused. Certainly there are problems with this concept; refugees are often forced to relocate due to geo-political instability, consequently neighbouring countries and region may have emerging economies or indeed be unstable themselves, therefore they are unable to supply the necessary provisions. This issue could be overcome by wealthier counties incentivising the amassing of Phase I kit of part in the form of donations that will also serve to strengthen economies. Perhaps the largest and most temperamental obstacle is the requirement of collaboration not only between community, consultant and relief organisation but also a unified front between governments and nations. Perhaps this serves to highlight the need for the current bloated and reactionary humanitarian machine to be streamlined. With the assimilation of smaller cogs and intentions clarified a more cohesive and progressive response can be delivered. The cynical will dismiss many of these ideas as idealistic even deluded, however the intimidating truth is in some ways they are right. There are no easy resolutions here, no perfect conclusions to be drawn. Only in designing, testing and collaborating will progress be made. It is unlikely that a radical all-encompassing solution will prevail. Instead the amalgamation of small interventions developed over time will eventually become greater than the sum of all their parts. Architects possess necessary tools to accelerate the process. By simplifying complexities into coherent and pragmatic solutions new ideas will more readily be adopted. For now the most realistic solution is to reach some compromise between the universal and ad-hoc, both have their merits and combined will provide an altogether more robust and holistic solution. Â

10 Â

Within the discipline an awakening needs to take place. We must step away from the absolute association with the commodified product of ‘building’. Architecture is a malleable profession and it’s plasticity permits manipulation well beyond the established remits that convention may dictate. Architects instinctively want to improve the built environment, with the ultimate aim of enhancing people’s lives, surely this should account for the entirety of humanity, in all circumstances and all walks of life, not just those who are present within our most privileged of locales? The humanitarian effort is, in a lot of ways the most fundamental and pure form of intervention because it dismisses the superfluous and focuses on the essence of the human condition. By its very nature it forces us to re-examine the notions of permanence, both internally and existentially. Ripples made here will eventually help inform us of better building techniques and materials. From climate change to global overpopulation, humanity will have to confront considerable stresses in the coming years. And so the resulting innovations and research produced in this field is relevant for everyone and will ultimately be adapted, enhanced and applied throughout the developed and developing world, impacting the 100%

Recorded Refugee and IDP Populations by Year

Internally Dispaced Person

- Data from UNHCR (2013) Plate 1

Refugee

15 In Million 10

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

Year

3 year lifespan of average tent

Average number of years refugee will remain in tempoary shelter | 12 years - Ikea Foundation (2014) Plate 2

4% 60+

50% <18

46% 18-59

Self Actualisation

Ego/Esteem

Social/Belonging

Refugee Age Demographics -UNHCR (2013)

Safety

Physiological

Typical Shelter

Maslowâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Hierarchy of Needs

UNHCR Standard Refugee Tents, Haiti & Syria Plate 3: Typical examples of standard â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;tentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; shelters. After the Haiti earthquake synthetic tents were deployed. Syrian Refugee camps still adopts the canvas tent. In hot climates the tent flaps are opened to help with ventilation but this greatly reduces privacy.

Somali Refugee Housing, Ethiopia (2003) Ikea Foundation Plate 4: The Ikea shelter remains an expensive prototype and has not been deployed on a large scale. Here the Ikea Shelter can stand against the relentless winds of the area far better than a tent but still heats up faster than traditional homes in the region.

Tsunami Reconstruction, Kirinda, Sri Lanka, (2007) Shigeru Ban Plate 5: A carefully considered home for tsunami victims, the building uses regional resources throughout. Is this approach deemed too permanent for the refugee?

Paper Partition System 4, Japan, (2011) Shigeru Ban Plate 6: A simple, resourceful and temporary solution that made a significant difference to peoples lives. This was the fourth incarnation of PPS and past projects allowed Ban to revise and tweak the design.

Access Road Access Road

Typical Settlement Arrangement Plate 7: The typical regimented grid adopted by the UNHCR maximising accessibility and can be easily expand upon as required.

11.5

Potential Social Potential Space Social Space

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Uâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Shaped Settlement Arrangement Plate 8: A proposed alternative layout from the UNHCR it provides cloisters of external communal area for people to socialise.

Potential Camp Arrangement to Allow Co-Evolution Plate 9: Settlements could be more sparsely arranged, this may stretch infrastructure but will create more interesting urban spaces based around central nodes that can evolve and influence each other.

Phased Evolution Proposal Plate 10

Phase 1 investment in modular units that can be deployed close to crises

Phase 2 minimal shelter providing for base physiological concerns

Phase 3 consultants work with community to develop more robust long-term settlement

Phase 4 maintenance and eventual disassembly of shelters. all strengths and failures uploaded to database

References Architecture for Humanity (2006) Design Like You Give a Damn: Architectural Responses to Humanitarian Crises Thames & Hudson, London Architecture for Humanity (2012) Design Like You Give a Damn [2]: Building Change from the Ground Up Abrams, NY Aquilino, M (2011) Beyond Shelter: Architecture for Crisis Thames & Hudson, London Babister, E (2002) The Emergency Shelter Process; with Application to Case Studies in Macedonia and Afghanistan, Martin Centre, Cambridge Ban, S (2014) Shigeru Ban: Humanitarian Architecture Distributed Art Publishers, NY Blewitt, J (2014) Understanding Sustainable Development Routeledge, London Bunschoten, R (2011) Smart Cities + Utopias: The Choreography + Co-evolution of LowCarbon Urban Incubators, Hong Kong Faculty of Architecture Lecture Series Davis (2002) Engineering in Emergencies: A Practical Guide for Relief Workers ITDG Publishing, London Davis, I (1978) Shelter After Disaster Oxford Polytechnic Press Maslow, A (2014) Towards a Psychology of Being Lushena Books, Illinois Pallasmaa, J (2007) The Eyes of the Skin TJ International Ltd, Padstow Cornwall UNHCR (2014) Warâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Human Cost: Global Trends 2013 UNHCR Communications and Public Service, Geneva UNHCR (2001) Convention and Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees UNHCR Communication and Public Service, Geneva

http://www.archdaily.com/ban-vs-schumacher (accessed 10/09/14) http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/poverty/ (accessed 10/09/14) http://www.ted.com/talks/cameron_sinclair (accessed 10/09/14) http://openarchitecturenetwork.org/about (accessed 23/10/14) http://www.ted.com/talks/shigeru_ban (accessed 11/09/14) http://www.ikeafoundation.org (accessed 10/09/14) http://popstats.unhcr.org/ (accessed 28/09/2014) http://www.gensler.com (accessed 23/09/2014) http://www.kcrw.com (accessed 11/09/14) http://www.chora.org (accessed 23/10/14)

Plates Plate 1: (2014) Recorded Refugee and IDP Populations by Year Author’s Own, data obtained from UNHCR, http://popstats.unhcr.org Plate 2: (2014) Combined Graphic Author’s Own, data obtained from; Ikea Foundation, UNHCR & Maslow’s Hierarki of Needs theory Plate 3i: (2014) Emergency Refugee Camp, Haiti http://unhcr.org ii: (2014) Emergency Refugee Camp, Syria www.terveilm.ee Plate 4i-ii: Ikea Refugee Shelter Ikea Foundation Plate 5i-ii: (2005) Tsunami Reconstruction Project, Kirinda http://www.shigerubanarchitects.com Plate 6i-ii: (2011) Paper Partition System 4, Japan http://www.shigerubanarchitects.com Plate 7: (2014) Standard Settlement Layout Diagram 1 Author’s Own Plate 8: (2014) Standard Settlement Layout Diagram 2 Author’s Own Plate 9: (2014) Potential Arrangement Diagram Author’s Own Plate 10: (2014) Phased Evolution Proposal Author’s Own