Somali boarding schools, design theorists, and Detroit's education system by Janna Fuller

What Somali boarding schools and design theorists can teach Detroit about improving its broken education system

Janna Fuller Global Innovation Design 2 October 2015 Word Count: 9,977

Table of Contents Chapter One: Introduction

From investment models to educational inequalities Low tuition boarding schools: exploration, not blueprint Design to facilitate redistribution of educational opportunities Education as an intricate ecosystem of system design challenges

8 8 22 24

Chapter Two: Historical Context

Brief context as to why Detroit is the way it is Detroit Public Schools: plagued by deep rooted social and economic challenges

Chapter Three: Initial Exploration

Primary research to begin a reflective conversation with both the problem and solution

30 38

Chapter Four: Deeper Exploration

Quantitative analysis to provide broader perspective Brief exploration of academic and career considerations Brief exploration of financial considerations

48 50 52

Chapter Five: Centrality of Community

Chapter Six: Conclusion

Bibliography

Community deeply ingrained into the core ethos of an educational system Family as an asset, not detriment, to educational achievement Deep roots in the past to build a better present and future Establishment of connections to root students in their broader communities User-centred design approach to continuous community evolution

Vision for Detroit In conclusion

56 59 61 63 64

68 69

List of Illustrations 1. Author’s illustration, based on data from Index Mundi, United States Census Bureau, and Huffington Post 2. Author’s illustration, based on data from Abaarso School of Science and Technology 3. Author’s illustration 4. Author’s illustration 5. Compilation of images from Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village website and Facebook page 6. Compilation of images from Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village website and Facebook page 7. Compilation of images from School of Leadership Afghanistan website and Facebook page 8. Compilation of images from School of Leadership Afghanistan website and Facebook page 9. Compilation of images from Yemin Orde Youth Village website 10. Compilation of images from Yemin Orde Youth Village website 11. Compilation of images from Abaarso School of Science and Technology website and Facebook page 12. Compilation of images from Abaarso School of Science and Technology website and Facebook page 13. Author’s illustration, based on data from The Economist, Stanford Report, and Psychology Today 14. Author’s illustration, based on data from CollegeBoard’s 2012 College-Bound Seniors: Total Group Profile Report 15. Author’s illustration, based on data from CollegeBoard’s 2012 College-Bound Seniors: Total Group Profile Report 16. Author’s illustration, adapted from Nigel Cross, Designerly Ways of Knowing 17. Author’s illustration, based on data from Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit 18. Author’s illustration, based on data from United States Census Bureau and Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit 19. Author’s illustration, based on data from PBS, Encyclopaedia Britannica, and Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit 20. Compilation of images from Shinola 21. Compilation of images from Shinola 22. Compilation of images from Chrysler Group LLC 23. Compilation of images from Chrysler Group LLC 24. Compilation of images from Daily Mail, Daily Signal, Detroit Public Schools, and Substance News 25. Compilation of images from Detroit Public Schools, Detroit Free Press, Detroitish, FrontPageMag, and WXYZ 26. Author’s illustration, based on data from the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study conducted by the Center for Disease Control and Kaiser Permanente 27. Author’s illustration, based on data from the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study conducted by the Center for Disease Control and Kaiser Permanente 28. Author’s illustration, based on data from 2013-2014 Michigan Educational Assessment Program (MEAP) 29. Author’s illustration, based on data from 2013-2014 Michigan Educational Assessment Program (MEAP) 30. Author’s illustration, adapted from Chaim Peri, Teenagers Educated The Village Way: Teachings from Yemin Orde Youth Village, Mt. Carmel, Israel 31. Author’s illustration, based on data from Kids Count Data Center, Michigan Department of Health and Human Services, Pacific Standard, and The New York Times 5

Chapter One: Introduction

“Being smart is universal. It’s just that resources are not dispersed.” –Mubarik Mohamoud, M.I.T electrical engineering student from Abaarso School, Somaliland1

From investment models to educational inequalities My path to a focused dissertation topic was indirect, although each incremental step proved valuable. My critical thinking greatly matured throughout the process of finding a topic with potential for social and design impact, with which I possessed sufficient experience and connections to write authentically. My interest in disenfranchised populations and overarching belief in social justice over charity guided the process. Designers discussing social impact too often morphs into a superficial and idealistic cliché, so I sought a meaningful niche. Initially, I wanted to explore self-sustaining, non-charity reliant investment methods for permanently elevating communities from poverty to middle class. However, my exploration of financial ties between the developed and developing world began to delve into issues of neocolonialism. The dominant developed world perspective was unintentional but pervasive. I sought to remove the developed world focus, instead exploring regionally appropriate educational systems which contributed to economies and infrastructure, mitigating the need for foreign investments. However, I did not believe my interest and diligent work ethic made up for critical first hand experience I lacked in these regions. I realised the irony in focusing on developing regions’ education systems, given the fact that I grew up 20 minutes from inner city Detroit, where literacy, poverty, unemployment, and corruption statistics mirror those of impoverished regions. It bothers me that I was fortunate to attend high quality public schools in a wealthier suburb, while my inner city Detroit peers attended some of the nation’s worst schools. Seeking a meaningful edge, I decided to explore the advantages and challenges of transferring successful low income boarding school models from both developing regions and struggling American cities to Detroit’s failing education system. Unlike my initial topics, this iteration allowed me the opportunity to reverse the dominant existing aid model. The United States constantly tries to ‘fix’ the developing world, arguably with limited sustainable achievements. What if instead, the United States could learn from successes of the developing world to improve its own broken cities?

Low tuition boarding schools: exploration, not blueprint American education reformers, representing both government bodies and private organisations, often look toward countries such as Finland and South Korea for methods of improvement. These countries, with relatively homogenous populations and high per capita income levels, have little in common with regions of the United States with the worst education systems. What if instead, such individuals pushing for crucial improvements drew inspiration from educational successes, although less prevalent, in developing regions with more similarities to struggling American regions?

Nicholas Kristof, “From Somaliland to Harvard”, The New York Times (12 September 2015): p.SR1. 8

Writer and designer John Thackara provides supporting theories, stating that “…we need to look in new places for inspiration, because most solutions will involve new alliances and new connections.”2 He goes on to say, “Rather than expect to design everything from scratch, we should search far and wide for tried-and-tested solutions that others have already created.”3 Only 53% of Detroit’s residents are functionally literate.4 This figure exactly matches that of Haiti. Detroit’s rate is worse than that of Sudan, at 61%, and Yemen, at 64%.5 In Detroit, 39% of residents live under the federal poverty line.6 Even Afghanistan and Cambodia fare slightly better, with 36% and 31% of people, respectively, living below their national poverty lines.7 (Figure 1)

Figure 1

Building the case for gaining inspiration from less obvious regions

Functional literacy rate

Residents living below poverty line 100%

53%

61%

64% 39%

36%

31% 5.5%

Detroit

Sudan

Yemen

Finland

Detroit

Afghanistan Cambodia

Finland

Based on data from Index Mundi, United States Census Bureau, and Huffington Post

2 John Thackara, In The Bubble: Designing in a Complex World (Cambridge, MA: MIT, 2006), p.216. 3 Thackara, p.217. 4

“Nearly Half Of Detroit’s Adults Are Functionally Illiterate, Report Finds”, Huffpost (8 July 2013), http:// www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/05/07/detroit-illiteracy-nearly-half-education_n_858307. html (accessed 29 April 2015) 5 “Country Comparison- Literacy”, Index Mundi (2012), http://www.indexmundi.com/g/r.aspx?v=39 (accessed 29 April 2015) 6 “Detroit (city), Michigan- State & County QuickFacts”, United States Census Bureau (2013), http:// quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/26/2622000.html (accessed 29 April 2015) 7 “Country Comparison- Population below Poverty Line”, Index Mundi (2012), http://www.indexmundi. com/g/r.aspx?v=69 (accessed 29 April 2015)

I am interested in exploring tuition free and low tuition boarding school systems which achieve high academic outcomes in developing regions outside of the United States and struggling regions of the United States. As just one example, the Abaarso School of Science and Technology, a low tuition boarding school in Hargeysa, Somaliland (self-declared state in Somalia), achieves enviable results. 21 of 31 Abaarso graduates are studying on full university scholarships. 19 students attend American universities, and they are the first Somalis to do so in decades.8 (Figure 2) If this school can achieve such educational results in Somalia, the world’s number one failed state for the past five years,9 what insights could exploration of such a system offer Detroit?

Figure 2

Abaarso School: university scholarship return on investment

University Breakdown by Country United States: 19 South Africa: 2 $200,000

Thailand: 2

Invested in Abaarso School operations

Kenya: 1

$2,500,000

In university scholarships earned by Abaarso students Based on data from Abaarso School of Science and Technology

This dissertation does not intend to outline a detailed blueprint for a boarding school system in Detroit. It is not a guide, but rather an exploration of possibilities. My goal is to initiate a discussion of promising ideas, based on encouraging examples from widely varied contexts and supported by design theories and methodologies.

“Abaarso School of Science and Technology” Center for Education Innovations http://www. educationinnovations.org/program/abaarso-school-science-and-technology (accessed 30 April 2015) 9 “Abaarso School of Science and Technology” Abaarso School (2015), http://www.abaarsoschool.org/ (accessed 30 April 2015) 10

Thackara likens this design approach to that of Canto Ostinato, a musical piece with an incomplete score. It sets a general path for performers, although the total length and number of repetitions of each section are undefined. Thackara states, “neither the pianists nor the audience know exactly what will happen next, so no complete score or blueprint is possible. But they do not fly blind. They understand the principles of the system and work with it.”10 I intend for this dissertation to flow in a similar manner, drawing attention to possibilities, but not attempting to designate any single outcome as optimal. Like Thackara, I prefer to view design “as a process that continuously defines a system’s rules rather than its outcomes.”11 Figure 3 maps the schools explored throughout my research. To provide further background and context, Figure 4 details the student body of key programmes, including the way in which students are admitted to each school. Figures 5 through 12 give a better sense of individual school environments.

Figure 3

Tuition free and low tuition boarding school case studies

Hershey School Girard College Hershey, Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania A Better Chance Community Schools Strath Haven, Pennsylvania San Pasqual Academy San Diego, California

SEED School Washington, DC

Daraja Academy Nanyuki, Kenya

School of Leadership Afghanistan Yemin Orde Youth Village Mount Carmel, Israel

Abaarso School of Science and Technology Hargeysa, Somalia Kakenya Center for Excellence Enoosaen, Kenya Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village Rwamagana, Rwanda Boarding School at St. Philips Mission Swaziland Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls Meyerton, South Africa

Based on information from each institution’s website

10 Thackara, p.211. 11

Thackara, p.224. 11

Figure 4

Case studies: student body composition and enrolment School

Number of students

Age of students

Enrolment method

Abaarso School of Science and Technology

185

Grade 7 through 12

Admissions examination

Agahozo-Shalom Youth Vilage

503

Secondary school

Selection process involving local government officials, home visits, and interviews. No academic requirement.

A Better Chance

149 in 22 schools

Secondary school

Selective application process

San Pasqual Academy

103

Age 12-18

Referral process; all placement is voluntary

SEED Schools

780 in 3 schools

Grade 6 through 12

Application and lottery process

School of Leadership Afghanistan

33 (all female)

Age 11-20, average is 15

Nomination process and applications directly from students

Yemin Orde Youth Village

500

Grade 9 through 12

Varies, although generally referrals for displaced children who have no where else to go

Based on data from each institutionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s website

Figure 5: Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village, Rwamagana, Rwanda

Images from ASYV website and Facebook page 14

Figure 6: Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village, Rwamagana, Rwanda

Images from ASYV website and Facebook page 15

Figure 7: School of Leadership Afghanistan, Kabul, Afghanistan

Images from SOLA website and Facebook page 16

Figure 8: School of Leadership Afghanistan, Kabul, Afghanistan

Images from SOLA website and Facebook page 17

Figure 9: Yemin Orde Youth Village, Mount Carmel, Israel

Images from Yemin Orde website 18

Figure 10: Yemin Orde Youth Village, Mount Carmel, Israel

Images from Yemin Orde website 19

Figure 11: Abaarso School of Science and Technology, Hargeysa, Somalia

Images from Abaarso School website and Facebook page 20

Figure 12: Abaarso School of Science and Technology, Hargeysa, Somalia

Images from Abaarso School website and Facebook page 21

Design to facilitate redistribution of educational opportunities An overarching belief that guides my dissertation is the goal of using design strategies to reframe education as the social equaliser it should be. Sobering facts paint educational advancement in the United States as increasingly a privilege secured by birth rather than by hard work, talent, and commitment alone, as evidenced in Figures 13 through 15. The United States is one of only three advanced nations whose government spends more on schools in wealthy neighbourhoods than poor neighbourhoods.12 As astutely stated by The Economist, “The solution is not to discourage rich people from investing in their children, but to do a lot more to help clever kids who failed to pick posh parents.”13 Perhaps inventive design thinking can help bridge this gap.

Figure 13

Impact of socioeconomic status on language acquisition

18 months Children of lower socioeconomic status show a 200 millisecond delay in identifying objects compared to their more advantaged peers, which is considered substantial and leads to further language development delays

24 months From the ages of 18 to 24 months, children of lower socioeconomic status have learned 30 percent fewer new words, equivalent to a 6 month learning gap

4 years old Children of professionals have heard 32 million more words than children of parents on welfare

5 years old Children of lower socioeconomic status score over 2 years behind their higher socioeconomic peers on standardised language development tests

Based on data from The Economist, Stanford Report, and Psychology Today

“America’s New Aristocracy”, The Economist (24 Jan. 2015), http://www.economist.com/news/ leaders/21640331-importance-intellectual-capital-grows-privilege-has-become-increasingly (accessed 30 April 2015) 13 “America’s New Aristocracy” 22

Figure 14

SAT (college entrance exam) average scores by household income 600 580 560

Average SAT Score

540 520 500 480 460 440 420

,0 00 $2 Ov er

-2

00 60 $1

-1

00 ,0 -1 ,0

00 $1

-1 00

000 0, $8

,0 20

0, 10

80 000 0, $6

0 00

00 ,0

00 ,0 60 0$4

000 0, $2

-2

400

Household Income Critical reading

Mathematics

Based on data from CollegeBoard’s 2012 College-Bound Seniors: Total Group Profile Report

Figure 15

SAT (college entrance exam) average scores by parental education 600 580 560

Average SAT Score

540 520 500 480 460 440 420 400 No high school diploma

High school diploma

Associate degree

Bachelor’s degree

Graduate degree

Highest Level of Parental Education

Critical reading

Mathematics

Based on data from CollegeBoard’s 2012 College-Bound Seniors: Total Group Profile Report

Design theorist and educator Nigel Whiteley writes that design too often becomes a “weapon of exclusivity”14 used to further segment people and communities. Whiteley believes there exists a “direct (and inevitable) link between a society’s design and its social health: design is a manifestation of the social, political and economic situation.”15 The ideas I am exploring are the exact opposite of exclusive, instead using the traditionally prestigious concept of boarding schools as a method of bridging inequalities. Education can and should better society as a whole. Renowned designer and educator Victor Papanek presents this belief in a beautifully simple way, stating, “We are all together on this small spaceship called Earth…To deprive ourselves of the brain and potential of any person on our spaceship is wrong and no longer acceptable.”16

Education as an intricate ecosystem of system design challenges I view education reform as a massively complex system design challenge. Thackara states aptly that the “precise behaviour of complex systems- including human ones- is not predictable.”17 Educational system improvement, as with any system design, requires focus on the principles by which the systems run and evolve rather than on individual parts, as well as continuous reassessment and redesign. Education deficiency in American cities, especially Detroit, has been addressed insufficiently by politicians, educators, administrators, financial managers, psychologists, philanthropists and more. No one has found a promising wide reaching solution yet, so why not let designers join the discussion? The overarching idea of design for social good is certainly not new. In the 1960s, architect and systems theorist Buckminster Fuller gained a powerful reputation amongst young designers for his vision of “compassionate, problem-solving, anti-consumerist design”18 and his belief that design “could solve the world’s problems if it dealt with the real issues and concerns, rather than the phoney desires dreamt up by capitalist manufacturers.”19 In 1984, Papanek proclaimed that design must be “an innovative, highly creative, crossdisciplinary tool responsive to the true needs of men.”20 He viewed design in the broadest sense as an integral element of all human activities, defining the design process as “the planning and patterning of any act toward a desired, foreseeable end.”21

14 Nigel Whiteley, Design for Society (London: Reaktion, 1993), p.1. 15 Whiteley, p.vii. 16

Victor Papanek, Design for the Real World: Human Ecology and Social Change (London: Thames and Hudson, 1985), p.72. 17 Thackara, p.212. 18 Whiteley, p.96. 19 Whiteley, p.95. 20 Papanek, p.x. 21 Papanek, p.322. 24

Designers are not simply creators and makers, but rather they are powerful thinkers. Their perspectives and methods differ vastly from traditional industry and policy leaders, providing essential perspective on issues that plague societies without substantial progress. Designers possess three key traits conducive to meaningful analysis and improvement of social challenges. First, they are powerful input collectors who can merge disparate ideas into cohesive innovations. Good designers are often generalists. Papanek aptly states, “While the designer in a given team may know far less about psychology than the psychologist, far less about economics than the economist, and very little about, say, electrical engineering, he will invariably bring greater understanding of psychology to the design process than the electrical engineer.”22 Designers lack particular expertise in any one area, but rather possess a vast array of knowledge, facilitating fascinating combinations of people and ideas. They astutely match challenges in one market with solutions from another, creating transformative innovations in the process. Papanek views the designer as a team synthesist, a generalist with a holistic vision who bridges expertise from various disciplines.23 Thackara assesses the value of designers in a similar manner, stating, “The capacity to think across boundaries, to spot opportunities at the juncture of two or more industries, and to draw relevant analogies from seemingly unrelated industries is as valuable as deep experience of a single sector.”24 His belief that “putting old knowledge into a new context creates new knowledge”25 directly relates to my exploration of developing regions’ effective boarding schools to provide insight for Detroit. Secondly, designers possess a high level of comfort with ambiguity that lends itself well to complex social challenges. Design problem solving methods can handle large bodies of information in which relative relevance is not immediately apparent. According to design researcher and educator Nigel Cross, “There is a massive amount of information that may be relevant, not only to all the possible solutions, but simply to any possible solution. And any possible solution in itself creates the unique circumstances in which these large bodies of information interact, probably in unique ways for any one possible solution.”26 Good designers possess sophisticated skills in gathering and structuring information, as well as judging when to move between research phases and solution generation and development. According to David G. Ullman et al. in their article A Model of the Mechanical Design Process Based on Empirical Data, “Only some constraints are ‘given’ in a design problem; other constraints are ‘introduced’ by the designer from domain knowledge, and others are ‘derived’ by the designer during the exploration of particular solution concepts.”27 In Designerly Ways of Knowing, Cross presents an effective design problem solving model shown in Figure 16.28

22 Papanek, p.187. 23 Papanek, p.29. 24 Thackara, p.218. 25 Thackara, p.218. 26 Nigel Cross, Designerly Ways of Knowing (London: Springer, 2006), p.57. 27 Cross, p.100. 28

Cross, p.96.

Figure 16

Nigel Cross: design problem solving model

Problem goals

Tension between conflicting

Solution criteria

Exploring to establish Resolved by matching Problem frame

Used to identify

Developed to satisfy

Solution concept

Achieved by using

Embodied in

Relevant first principles

Adapted from Nigel Cross, Designerly Ways of Knowing

Cross distinguishes design problem solving from methods of other disciplines, writing that “scientists problem-solve by analysis, whereas designers problem-solve by synthesis.”29 Exhaustive analysis isn’t possible for design challenges, because by the problems inherently necessitate that all relevant information can never be known. This approach translates well to educational challenges, as no amount of research into infinite supporting data will produce an optimal, repeatable solution fitting with scientific problem solving methods. Lastly, designers possess a highly attuned sense of empathy and sensitivity toward seemingly minute adjustments. Good designers excel in understanding the complex human implications for all stakeholders. They are acutely sensitive to the idea of communities and organisations as complex ecosystems, in which any foreign influence can have unintended consequences. According to Tom Bentley, author of Learning Beyond the Classroom: Education for a Changing World, individuals must be “purposeful and ambitious, but also careful and humble, seeking to maintain and develop systems of increasing complexity so that they support people’s needs and interests in appropriate, sophisticated ways.”30

29 Cross, p.23. 30

Thackara, p.215. 26

Thackara affirms the conscious balance required of attention to both minute details and the total system. He states, “Our dilemma is that small design actions can have big effects- often unexpectedly- and designers have only recently been told, with the rest of us, how incredibly sensitive we need to be to the possible consequences of any design steps we take.”31 Papanek provides an example of a ubiquitous product with unintended consequences, which intriguingly ties to Detroit’s economic and social challenges. He writes that “in nearly 100 years [the car] has changed from useful tool to gas-guzzling status symbol and finally to a device the use of which pollutes the environment and destroys irreplaceable resources.”32 Additionally, the automobile industry contributed in no small way to Detroit’s disarray, with the city becoming overly reliant on a single industry and unable to recover resiliently from massive layoffs driven by outsourcing.

31 Thackara, p.7. 32

Papanek, p.14. 27

Chapter Two: Historical Context

“So long as Detroit ranks among the most racially segregated metropolitan areas in the United States… so long as its minority population is confined in the most troubled neighborhoods, so long as austerity politics worsen the everyday quality of life in the city, so long as capital and people continue to flow away, and so long as the city and its people lack political influence in the state and national capitols, Detroit will have a nearly impossible climb out of its slump.” Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis33

Brief context as to why Detroit is the way it is Before delving further into the exploration of a tuition free boarding school system for Detroit, it is necessary to better understand historical, socioeconomic, and political context of the city. According to Thackara, “The application of ‘high concept’ design to concepts we barely understand is irresponsible and probably counterproductive.”34 Similarly, Whiteley views design as a “cultural activity in which meaning and identity relative to a group, society, or country are essential considerations”, stating that taking a “simple approach to design as a problem solving activity is, in fact, a caricature.”35 To not consider the full context and individuals affected by any design intervention can lead to only superficial and insufficiently sensitive solutions. It is impossible to do the fascinatingly complex socioeconomic history of Detroit justice in one brief overview. The intention of this section is rather to provide just enough background to begin exploring a tuition free boarding school concept. Detroit gained international notoriety in the early 21st century as a failed metropolis, with its auto industry decline, government bailout, and eventual bankruptcy. Beginning to understand the depth of this city’s challenges requires a much longer-term view, however. According to Thomas J. Sugrue in The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit, racial tensions arose in the early 20th century. By the 1920s Detroit was a stronghold for white supremacy groups the Ku Klux Klan and the Black Legion, protesting the many African Americans migrating from the south for factory jobs.36 In 1943, racial tensions escalated into riots that resulted in 700 injuries and 34 deaths.37 The later riots of 1967 are often cited as a destructive turning point for Detroit, although this explanation greatly simplifies the history. To give a sense of the impact, however, 43 people were killed and many more injured, over 7,000 people were arrested, and 1,000 buildings were burned.38 Shortly after, the infamous ‘white flight’ began, with almost 200,000 residents migrating to the suburbs between 1967 and 1969.39 In the following 50 years, total property value in Detroit fell by 77%.40 This devaluation significantly impacted the city’s ability to gain revenue through property taxes to support public services, including education.

Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton: Princeton UP, 2005), p.xxvii. 34 Thackara, p.215. 35 Whiteley, p.122. 36 Sugrue, p.20. 37 “Detroit Race Riots 1943”, PBS (2013), http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/generalarticle/eleanor-riots/ (accessed 22 May 2015) 38 “Detroit Riot of 1967”, Encyclopædia Britannica (2015), http://www.britannica.com/event/Detroit-Riotof-1967 (accessed 22 May 2015) 39 Coleman A. Young and Lonnie Wheeler, Hard Stuff: The Autobiography of Coleman Young (New York: Viking, 1994), p.197. 40 Sugrue, p.xvi. 30

Furthermore, deindustrialisation caused Detroit to lose 300,000 auto-manufacturing jobs, beginning in the late 1940s.41 For much of the 20th century, Detroiters could make a solid living in factories without a high school diploma. With the decline of manufacturing jobs, such quality of life without education was no longer possible. (Figure 17)

Figure 17

Evidence of Detroitâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s decline 1950 auto manufacturing jobs: 296,000

2010 auto manufacturing jobs: 27,000

= 2,000 jobs

Based on data from Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit

In the 1970s and 1980s Detroitâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s public sector began revitalisation initiatives, using eminent domain to redevelop land and tax incentives to encourage businesses to relocate downtown. These efforts led to a few arguably superficial symbols of progress, such as the Renaissance Center, a high-rise office and convention complex, but they ultimately did little to improve the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economy. In the 1990s and 2000s, both public and private sector revitalisation efforts turned to professional sports, with the building of new stadiums for the Detroit Tigers and Detroit Lions, as well as preparations for the 2006 Super Bowl. The economic impact of these developments was limited, however, providing only part time employment opportunities and seeing capital directed toward subsidies for wealthy team owners.

Sugrue, p.xvi. 31

Detroit’s continued economic decline of the early 21st century led to further population decline. Between 2000 and 2010, Detroit’s population fell by 25%, and over 90,000 properties were left vacant.42 From a high of 1.85 million in 1950, Detroit’s population in 2010 was barely over 710,000.43 (Figure 18)

Figure 18

Evidence of Detroit’s decline 1950 Population: 1.85 million

2010 Population: 710,000

= 10,000 residents

Based on data from United States Census Bureau and Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit

The infamous period between 2002 and 2008 under now incarcerated mayor Kwame Kilpatrick was filled with corruption, fraud, grossly inappropriate expenditures of public funds, covered-up murder, and secret deal settlements. From a less scandalous perspective, likely the worst economic impact was the 2005 pension restructuring, the largest municipal pension restructuring in the US to date, which collapsed during the financial crisis. The collapse resulted in the sum of Detroit’s debt totalling between $18 and $20 billion, for which, like every other consequence of the financial crisis, no one wanted to take responsibility.44 Unfortunately someone must bear the burden, and it will likely be Detroit’s retired, current, and future working class municipal employees.

41 Sugrue, p.xvi. 42 Sugrue, p.xv. 43

“Detroit (city), Michigan- State & County QuickFacts”, United States Census Bureau (2013), http:// quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/26/2622000.html (accessed 29 April 2015) 44 Sugrue, p.xxi. 32

The 21st century has brought new revitalisation efforts in Detroit, with both the non-profit and for-profit sectors building riverfront recreation areas and renewed commercial districts, making the city safer and more attractive. Compuware and Quicken Loans, two major Detroit area corporations, relocated downtown in an attempt to create positive spill over effects. According to Sugrue, however, “…it will take more than a few thousand hipsters or urban white professionals or avid sports fans to revitalize a sprawling, mostly African-American, working-class city of more than 700,000. The bike shops, gussied up dive bars, and a Whole Foods will neither provide many well-paying jobs nor will they serve most of Detroit’s poor and working class residents.”45

Figure 19

Brief look at Detroit’s decline and revitilisation efforts

1943 Race riots result in 700 injuries and 34 deaths

1920s Detroit is stronghold for white supremacy groups Ku Klux Klan and Black Legion, protesting African Americans migrating north for factory jobs

1970s and 1980s Detroit encourages large businesses to relocate downtown, leading only to superficial symbols of progress

1967 Race riots result in 43 deaths, 7000 arrests, and 1000 buildings burned. ‘White flight’ begins and almost 200,000 residents leave for suburbs in 2 years.

1990s and 2000s Detroit turns revitalisation efforts to professional sports with little economic benefits for the majority of inhabitants

2002 to 2008 Corrupt mayor Kwame Kilpatrick leads the largest municipal pension restructuring in the US, which collapses in the financial crisis

2010 to present New revitalisation efforts focus on renewed commercial districts and recreation areas, but these efforts do little to help those most in need

Based on data from PBS, Encyclopaedia Britannica, and Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit

Detroit is revitalising, but mainly with outside capital and leadership, contributing to greater inequality and polarisation. The gentrification of Detroit created significant buzz around companies such as luxury watch and bicycle maker Shinola and auto manufacturer Chrysler, exploiting Detroit’s tough image to sell products most locals could never afford (Figure 20-23). Furthermore, the vast majority of locals do not reap the economic benefits of this revitalisation. Most Detroiters cannot afford the hipster restaurants or attractive apartments popping up in certain neighbourhoods. As a recent Guardian piece suggests, “Greater downtown’s current revival will mean that 5% of the city will pull further and further ahead of the 95%.”46 45 Sugrue, p.xxv. 46

Brian Doucet, “Detroit’s Gentrification Won’t Give Poor Citizens Reliable Public Services”, The Guardian (17 February 2015), http://www.theguardian.com/public-leaders-network/2015/feb/17/detroit gentrification-poverty-public-services-race-divide (accessed 30 April 2015) 33

Figure 20: Shinola

2014 Shinola campaign shot by Bruce Weber and featuring Carolyn Murphy

2014 Shinola campaign shot by Bruce Weber and featuring Carolyn Murphy 34

Figure 21: Shinola

Shinola tagline, highlighting Detroit as America at its most authentic

Shinola proudly bringing Detroit to its London, UK flagship 35

Figure 22: Chrysler

2014 Chrysler 300C John Varvatos Limited Edition

2011 Chrysler Super Bowl ad featuring Eminem 36

Figure 23: Chrysler

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Imported from Detroitâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; tagline introduced in 2011

Still from 2015 Chrysler 200 ad 37

Detroit Public Schools: plagued by deep rooted social and economic challenges Victor Papanek writes of “seeing the whole mosaic that forms society.”47 Children and education are a critical part of Detroit’s mosaic. From a holistic design perspective, their well being and future as productive citizens are essential to Detroit’s entire ecosystem. Detroit’s failing education system considerably impacts its ability to cultivate a well-educated workforce to regain a competitive economy. Discussing the state of education in Detroit can seem like a never-ending list of shocking statistics and horrifying anecdotes. As just one example, here are just some of one year’s incidences stated in the principal’s 2009 commencement speech at Jared W. Finney High School, part of Detroit Public Schools (DPS): tragic student deaths, self inflicted gun wound, numerous locker fires, bomb threats, gun that went off in a classroom, student’s fractured jaw after being hit with brass knuckles, and in school beating of a person that resulted in a death.48 In 2009, only 38% of Detroit high school students graduated on time.49 In Dan Rather’s 2011 documentary about Detroit Public Schools titled A National Disgrace, teachers spoke of high school students who use CDs rather than textbooks because they cannot read. Principals discussed teachers who are absent for months, and students spoke of teachers who drink alcohol during classes.50 Sadly, many students realise the injustices of the system and inequalities compared to surrounding suburbs. They are the product of a political culture of protecting the status quo, in which the Detroit Board of Education has considered students secondary. The school board, with its $1 billion annual budget and long history of corruption, has ironically been referred to as the “friends and family plan”, with lucrative contracts given to the well connected.51 Former superintendent Dr Connie Calloway referred to the school board’s intentional lack of process and accountability as “chaos by design”. Dr Calloway was fired after 18 months because the board believed she changed the system too quickly and delved too deeply into finances.52 In 2007, the FBI began investigating contract kickback schemes in which $47 million disappeared from DPS in mysterious wire transfers. In 2009, emergency city manager Robert C. Bobb led an audit that highlighted the fact that only 5 of 149 schools followed proper accounting procedures. The nature of the improper procedures varied, with some school employees literally writing themselves checks every month. Additionally, Bobb launched over 300 criminal investigations involving DPS.53

47 Papanek, p.68 48 A National Disgrace, Dan Rather, dir: Steve Tyler, 2011. 49 Sugrue, p.xxvi. 50 A National Disgrace, Dan Rather 51 A National Disgrace, Dan Rather 52 A National Disgrace, Dan Rather 53

A National Disgrace, Dan Rather

Between 2003 and 2013 Detroit closed 150 public schools due to population decline and budget cuts.54 If available, many Detroit parents send their children to charter instead of public schools. Charter schools do not represent a different educational philosophy; the only difference is that they are independently run. In fact, according to a Stanford study only 17% of charter schools in the United States outperform public schools.55 In April 2015, Michigan Governor Rick Snyder announced a proposal to split DPS into two systems. One would be a new school district, supported by a school board appointed by Snyder and Detroit Mayor Mike Duggan and funded with between $53 million and $72 million annually from the state of Michigan. The old system would exist solely to pay off the school district’s $483 million in operating debt, mainly using property tax revenue.56 The proposal is controversial, as other Michigan school districts could lose as much as $50 per student per year, a significant sum in the aggregate. Mayor Mike Duggan does not support the plan, as it would allow for the state to have permanent long-term control of the city’s schools.57 Figures 24 and 25 provide further visual context into Detroit Public Schools.

54 Sugrue, p.xviii. 55 A National Disgrace, Dan Rather 56

Ann Zaniewski, “Snyder Plan Would Create New Debt-free DPS”, Detroit Free Press (30 April 2015), http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/detroit/2015/04/30/snyder-detroit-schoolsoverhaul/26633019/ (accessed 23 May 2015) 57 Christine Ferretti, “Duggan ‘very disappointed’ with Snyder’s DPS Plan”, The Detroit News (30 April 2015), http://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/local/detroit-city/2015/04/30/duggan-disappointedsnyders-dps-plan/26641465/ (accessed 23 May 2015) 39

Figure 24: Detroit Public Schools, Detroit, Michigan, USA

Images from Daily Mail, Daily Signal, Detroit Public Schools, and Substance News 40

Figure 25: Detroit Public Schools, Detroit, Michigan, USA

Images from Detroit Public Schools, Detroit Free Press, Detroitish, FrontPageMag, and WXYZ 41

Chapter Three: Initial Exploration

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Design is rhetorical also in the sense that the designer, in constructing a design proposal, constructs a particular kind of argument, in which a final conclusion is developed and evaluated, as it develops against both known goals and previously unsuspected implications.â&#x20AC;? -Nigel Cross58

Primary research to begin a reflective conversation with both the problem and solution Cross views design as exploratory, rather than “a search for the optimum solution to a given problem.”59 He states, “In design, the solution and the problem develop together.”60 Cross recommends using “first principles” as a starting point, meaning using personal knowledge to originate concepts and guide development.61 Similarly, I used prior knowledge of education in Detroit as a starting point. I conducted interviews with Detroit educators and individuals close to the system to identify areas for further exploration, seeking the most intriguing questions to better frame my research. One of the most top-of-mind arguments in favour of a tuition free boarding school system is providing a safe learning environment for children with challenging home lives. Interviews with Detroit educators emphasised the impacts of childhood adversity. Anne Simon, an elementary teacher at a Detroit charter school, spoke of children facing homelessness, homes without running water, and families living in one room during frigid Michigan winters because they could not afford to heat the entire house. Simon’s students are regularly exposed to violence, abuse, and the incarceration of parents and other family members.62 Such adversity naturally impacts children’s ability to attend school regularly, focus, and learn. Children living in dangerous Detroit neighbourhoods lack social interaction because they cannot safely play outside or walk to visit friends. The teachers I interviewed feared for the summer, when many children have no option but to sit inside and watch TV or play video games for multiple months. Traditional teachers can only provide so much support during school hours, potentially lending appeal to boarding schools, which can provide structure, including extra tutors and activities, at all hours of the day and year. Additionally, Detroit parents are often unfamiliar with the education system and do not know how to support their children, even if they are more capable. Melanie Ward, former Director of Girls Programs at Mercy Education Project (MEP), noted especially that Hispanic families in southwest Detroit, many of whom are recent immigrants, want to see their children attain better lives. They do not know how to navigate education systems, however, so Ward often took on typical parental duties, taking students on college tours and helping them complete paperwork, for example.63 Ward noted that parents, especially those who cannot speak English well, may be intimidated and ashamed by their lack of knowledge of education systems. Parents who are embarrassed to interact with teachers may not attend parent teacher conferences, for example, and therefore do not know their children’s academic progress or how to support them.

58 Cross, p.51. 59 Cross, p.52. 60 Cross, p.52. 61 Cross, p.93. 62

Author interview with Anne Simon, Elementary Teacher, Chandler Park Academy, Harper Woods, MI, USA, 11 May 2015. 63 Author interview with Melanie Ward, M. Ed., Director of Girls Programs, Mercy Education Project, Detroit, MI, USA, 14 May 2015. 44

Both Simon and Ward spoke about learning gaps amongst lower income students. Learning gaps can result from challenges that make physically getting to school difficult, such as frequent moves to new cities, housing insecurity, lack of transportation, or lack of parental presence and support. From Simonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s experience, by the age of six, students from low-income households already lag behind their higher income peers. By the age of eight, it is almost impossible for disadvantaged children to catch up to grade level standards.64 Ward and Madeline Bialecki, former Director of Development at MEP and current Executive Director of The Lake House65, spoke of more subtle yet deeply ingrained cultural factors. They discussed the cultural prioritisation of family above all else for lower income families. Proximity to family trumps education and career, a value prioritisation seen less frequently in upper middle class families, in which career fulfilment is key, and discretionary funds are generally available for plane tickets home. Ward gave an example of an adult GED (General Education Development, the American and Canadian high school equivalent) student at MEP who took her four children out of school for almost two months to visit their grandmother in Mexico. It was very difficult for the children to catch up academically and socially when they returned, but the mother did not understand the challenge. According to Bialecki, college is often seen as something in which only wealthier people partake. Children lack examples in their family or neighbourhoods of people who went to college and have careers rather than day jobs. Such deeply held cultural norms must be treated with sensitivity and respect, balanced with intentions to improve academic performance and career prospects for Detroit children. Bialecki believes that despite challenges, it is important to help students form a different image of themselves and their capabilities by introducing them to different networks, expectations, and career opportunities.66 A boarding school environment would likely have greater amenities and different cultural norms than many studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; home environments. What are the most effective and sensitive ways of introducing students to a different way of living? Richard Martin, ABC Community Schools Program Manager and alumnus, spoke of the culture shock lower income minority students experience when they enter upper middle class schools in new communities. As an African American high school student from South Bronx, NY, he experienced first hand the difficulties of relocating to a primarily white school in high-income Connecticut suburbs.67 Is there risk in introducing to people different value systems? Is there potential of creating permanent chasms between students and their families, friends, and communities, or damaging studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; own sense of self?

64 Simon. 65

Author interview with Madeline Bialecki, Executive Director, The Lake House, Detroit, MI, USA, 11 May 2015. 66 Bialecki. 67 Author interview with Richard Martin, Community Schools Program Manager, A Better Chance, New York, NY, USA, 14 May 2015. 45

Furthermore, what happens when students are introduced to new standards that cannot be permanently attained? Bialecki also spoke of the boarding school at St. Philips Mission in Swaziland. According to Bialecki, Swaziland receives substantial foreign aid supporting education as a political means of swaying the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s United Nations vote. The boarding school at St. Philips is much nicer than any of the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; home environments, with electricity and toilets, for example, rather than simple huts.68 However, even for educated people, very few career opportunities exist in Swaziland. What happens to a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mentality and identity when he or she goes to boarding school, then maybe to college, and then back home to live in a hut, because there is no future for him or her in Swaziland? It is worth noting that perhaps it is the current global educational ideal, and not innate human nature, which imposes the assumption that to live in a hut is an underachievement. Full consideration of these standards could lead to an entire dissertation unto itself, but it is important to note that Western standards, perhaps with a neo-imperialist overtone, often disproportionately influence global standards in the educational realm.

Bialecki. 46

Chapter Four: Deeper Exploration

“The solution is not simply lying there among the data, like the dog among the spots in the well known perceptual puzzle, it has to be actively constructed by the designer’s own efforts.” -Nigel Cross69

Quantitative analysis to provide broader perspective Personal interviews enabled me to complete what M.I.T. social scientist Donald Schรถn calls problem setting, a technique in which designers name what they will analyse and frame the context to view these factors.70 I then sought deeper quantitative analysis to further investigate areas highlighted by initial research, beginning with the effects of childhood adversity. Compelling scientific research comes from Dr Nadine Burke Harris, Founder and CEO of the Center for Youth Wellness in San Francisco. Dr Burke Harris discusses the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study conducted by the Center for Disease Control and Kaiser Permanente. 17,500 adults reported on their exposure to adverse experiences, which included abuse, neglect, sexual abuse, incarceration, parental separation, domestic violence, and growing up with a parent with mental illness or substance abuse. Figures 26 and 27 illustrate startling findings from this study.71

Figure 26

Adverse childhood experiences affect a large population

4 or more adverse experience indicators

1-4 adverse experience indicators

no adverse experience indicators

Based on data from Adverse Childhood Experiences Study conducted by the Center for Disease Control and Kaiser Permanente

69 Cross, p.24. 70 Cross, p.102. 71

How Childhood Trauma Affects Health across a Lifetime, Dr Nadine Burke Harris, dir: TEDMED, September 2014. 48

Figure 27

Physiological effects of childhood adversity

Increase the risk of 7 out of 10 leading causes of death

Triple the risk of heart disease and lung cancer

Cause a 20-year difference in life expectancy

Negatively effect the way DNA is read and transcribed

Overactivate the fear response centre and stress response system, causing it to become maladaptive

Negatively effect children’s developing immune systems

Based on data from Adverse Childhood Experiences Study conducted by the Center for Disease Control and Kaiser Permanente

This data is especially applicable to Detroit, where, for example, the murder rate in 2014 was an astonishing 45 per 100,000 people, the highest in the United States.72 In certain Detroit neighbourhoods, violence is so prevalent that children cannot safely play outside in the middle of the day.

”Detroit’s Staggering Murder And Violent Crime Rate Are ‘A Public Health Issue’”, Huffpost (14 November 2014), http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/11/14/detroit-highest-murder-rate-violent- crime_n_6144460.html (accessed 12 May 2015) 49

Brief exploration of academic and career considerations Academic performance in Detroit Public Schools is excessively bad. Comprehensive statistics for low income boarding schools are unavailable, but given the results of individual schools, it seems likely their aggregate performance is better than that of Detroit Public Schools. Figures 28 and 29 illustrate the poor academic performance of Detroit students, based on the 2013-2014 results of the Michigan Educational Assessment Program (MEAP).73

Figure 28

Detroit Public Schools: basic proficiency in maths Grade 3

Grade 8

Proficient

Grade 11

Not proficient Based on data from the 2013-2014 Michigan Educational Assessment Program (MEAP)

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Annual Education Report Detroit City School Districtâ&#x20AC;?, MI School Data (4 May 2015): 1-38. 50

Figure 29

Detroit Public Schools: basic proficiency in science Grade 3

Grade 8

Proficient

Grade 11

Not proficient Based on data from the 2013-2014 Michigan Educational Assessment Program (MEAP)

Low income boarding schools in both the United States and developing regions feature intensive curricula to prepare students for college and beyond. At the Abaarso School in Somaliland, for example, students attend classes six days per week for nine months of the year, more than the average American or British student.74 The school features an English immersion environment which is so effective that, according to the school, most observers assume older students are native speakers. In five years, 35 alumni of School of Leadership Afghanistan, a boarding school for girls, have obtained scholarships to 34 international universities, including Yale University and Brown University. The combined value of these scholarships is estimated at $6.2 million.75 This accomplishment is especially impressive given the history of intense restrictions on women’s education in Afghanistan.

“Abaarso School of Science and Technology”, Abaarso School (2015), http://www.abaarsoschool.org/ (accessed 30 April 2015) 75 “School of Leadership Afghanistan (SOLA)”, Center for Education Innovations http://www. educationinnovations.org/program/school-leadership-afghanistan-sola (accessed 30 April 2015) 51

At SEED School, a public middle and high school boarding programme with three locations in the United States, 90% of students graduate from high school and over 80% enrol in college. Of the first SEED class to complete college, almost 40% graduated.76 It is worth noting that this graduation rate is lower than the 59% national average for first time, full time college students.77 According to A Better Chance (ABC), an American day school and residential programme for minority students, 96% of graduating seniors immediately enrol in college. 83% of alumni hold a bachelor’s degree, and 50% have a master’s or professional degree.78 It would be premature for me to attempt to draw a direct connection and state that a boarding school system is the optimal solution for reducing childhood adversity and improving academic achievement in Detroit. Circumstances are infinitely more nuanced and complex, and this exploration is meant to remain an exploration, not a recommendation.

Brief exploration of financial considerations Fitting with quantitative considerations, creating a sustainable financing strategy is essential if a tuition free boarding school system were to exist in Detroit. In a struggling city like Detroit, what would convince individuals, organisations, and government to invest in public boarding schools? Idealistically, Detroit could indirectly save money in the long run through factors of a bettereducated population, such as lower social services dependency and prison costs. However, would anyone be convinced to support this idea in the short run? No simple answer exists, but some examples offer thought provoking considerations. Certain schools seem to have relatively few financial concerns: those that were established as trusts by exceptionally wealthy philanthropists. In 1910, Milton Hershey, founder of the eponymous chocolate company, used his fortune to establish the Hershey Industrial School (now Milton Hershey School) for orphan boys. Today, the Milton Hershey School Trust supports the school, with assets valued at $12 billion. The school spends about $110,000 per student per year according to IRS tax filings, a substantial figure higher than that of prestigious American prep schools.79

“The SEED Foundation”, The SEED Foundation (2015), http://www.seedfoundation.com/ (accessed 29 April 2015) 77 “Graduation Rates”, National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education Institute of Education Sciences (2014) https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=40 (accessed 20 May 2015) 78 “2014 Class Profile”, A Better Chance (2015): 1. 79 Ric Fouad et al., “Protect The Hersheys’ Children, Inc.: Children Suffering Discrimination Over Depression And Other At-Risk Children Need Your Help”, Letter to Eric H. Holder, Jr., Attorney General (11 November 2014): 1-25. 52

Girard College, another Pennsylvania residential school, was founded in 1833 as a school for orphan boys from the fortune of Stephen Girard, a banker, philanthropist, and the fourth wealthiest American of all time.80 A more recent example is the Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls in South Africa, established in 2007 through a $40 million contribution from the Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy Foundation.81 This model, built on a single individual’s wealth and generosity, is obviously difficult to replicate. More attainable, albeit potentially less sustainable, examples exist of schools that operate on donations and volunteer support. A Better Chance (ABC) community schools are not eligible for government support because they serve only minority students. The board of directors, fundraising committees, and host families are volunteers, and resident staff sometimes receives free lodging in lieu of a salary. Martin admitted that when schools do close it is generally because of lack of community financial support, but he asserted that ABC lost only one or two programmes in the recent financial crisis. When the programme began in the 1960s about 40 community school programmes existed, however, and there are now only 22.82 Although this funding model poses significant barriers to entry for new schools, it ensures that the programme exists only in exceptionally supportive communities. Regardless of the financial support structure, scrupulous attention must be paid to careful management. The Hershey School is plagued with examples of reckless board spending and oversize salaries with little financial oversight. In 2010, four prominent Pennsylvania Republicans earned a combined $1 million per year for their service on Hershey School boards, especially concerning given that board members of non-profit organisations do not generally take a salary.83 In 2006 school leadership cut student services, then purchased a nearby golf course for $12 million and shortly thereafter spent an additional $5 million for a clubhouse, under the flimsy excuse that the school needed to acquire surrounding land.84 If a tuition free boarding school system were to exist in Detroit, it must maintain sufficient checks and balances to ensure that no single entity becomes overly powerful. Administrative expenses must be controlled compared to student related spending, yet sufficient hierarchy should exist so that decisions can be made quickly and effectively.

Michael M. Klepper and Robert E. Gunther. The Wealthy 100: From Benjamin Franklin to Bill Gates- A Ranking of the Richest Americans, Past and Present (Secaucus, NJ: Carol Group, 1996). 81 “Building a Dream”, Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls, South Africa (2015), http://owla.co.za/ (accessed 20 May 2015) 82 Martin. 83 Bob Fernandez, “High Cost of Hershey School-related Boards”, The Inquirer (25 July 2010), http:// articles.philly.com/2010-07-25/business/24969856_1_hershey-trust-director-compensation-boards (accessed 7 May 2015) 84 Bob Fernandez, “Hershey School’s Purchase of Golf Course Helped Investors”, The Inquirer (3 October 2010), http://articles.philly.com/2010-10-03/news/24980426_1_hershey-trust-hershey-school- milton-hershey (accessed 7 May 2015) 53

Chapter Five: Centrality of Community

“There was always a feeling even once we left the village that there was a home to return to…And that foundation and confidence is the uniqueness of the place.” - Jenny Levishatel, 1995 Yemin Orde graduate from Russia85

Community deeply ingrained into the core ethos of an educational system As I continued to study a potential boarding school system for Detroit, I realised my thinking lacked crucial perspective. I was so focused on improving education solely as a means of enabling socioeconomic opportunities and limiting hardship that I discounted the more holistic view of the individual’s development, centred in families and communities. After collecting insight from initial interviews, generating informed research areas, and conducting further research, I identified the need to address the more nuanced subjects of individual and community well being. To study this realm, I drew insights from another round of interviewees in locations as diverse as Mount Carmel, Israel and San Francisco, California, and read further literature on topics including child psychology and development, context aware redesign of homeless shelters, and classic design texts. In an interview with Susan Weijel, Deputy Director and Manager of Outreach and Development of Yemin Orde Youth Village in Mount Carmel, Israel, she emphasised that Yemin Orde is not a boarding school, but rather a youth village, a distinction essential to the core ethos of the community.86 As Chaim Peri, Director and Head Educator of Yemin Orde for three decades, states, the village is built on the principle of “centrality of community as a human and educational goal.”87 Both Yemin Orde and Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village, the community modelled after it in Rwanda, emerged from horrific genocides, intent on healing generations that lost everything. Yemin Orde is currently home to 500 children from North Africa, Ethiopia, Sudan, Iran, India, Yemen, Eastern Europe and South America. 20% of students are orphans.88 Both Yemin Orde and Agahozo-Shalom embrace the principles of tikkun halev, healing the heart, and tikkun olam, healing the world. Tikkun halev comes first. According to Issa Sikubwabo, Agahozo-Shalom teacher, “When they come for their first year, they are helped to heal their heart, to repair the wounds they have in their hearts.”89 Tikkun olam is a higher order achievement. As student Emmanuel Nkundunkundiye states, “Tikkun olam is if you have restored your life, now try to help others.”90 Figure 30 illustrates Yemin Orde’s conceptual framework of The Village Way, graphically representing the principles on which the community is built.

85 Discover Yemin Orde: A Home. A Family. Forever, dir: Friends of Yemin Orde, 19 September 2012. 86

Author interview with Susan Weijel, Deputy Director and Manager of Outreach and Development, Yemin Orde Youth Village, Mount Carmel, Israel, 9 June 2015. 87 Chaim Peri, Teenagers Educated The Village Way: Teachings from Yemin Orde Youth Village, Mt. Carmel, Israel (Englewood, NJ: This World: The Values Network Group 2011), p.182. 88 “Friends of Yemin Orde: Supporting Yemin Orde Youth Village & Yemin Orde Educational Initiatives”, Yemin Orde Youth Village (2012), http://www.yeminorde.org/index.php/2012-01-28-09-1411/yemin-orde-youth-village (accessed 12 May 2015) 89 ASYV Education Micro-documentary, dir: Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village, 19 April 2013. 90 Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village: Repairing the World, dir: Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village, 22 November 2012. 56

Figure 30

Yemin Orde and The Village Way: Conceptual Framework Sky Institutional characteristics

Parental wholeness Tikkun olam Tikkun halev

Past

Unified centre of gravity

Community of meaning

Future

Quality dialogue Earth

Adapted from Chaim Peri, Teenagers Educated The Village Way: Teachings from Yemin Orde Youth Village, Mt. Carmel, Israel

In his book Educating Teenagers the Village Way, Peri wholeheartedly supports the belief that education cannot occur until students are emotionally ready to learn. One of the most important messages for children to internalise is that “their existence at Yemin Orde is not contingent.”91 The community will never abandon them. Making this principle more concrete, Yemin Orde’s campus intentionally separates the residential area from the school, proving to children that their worth is not determined by academic achievement. Peri gives a poignant example which highlights the deep pride he takes in the full integration of students into the Yemin Orde community. At Yemin Orde, each of the twenty residential houses is named after a great historical figure. One day, a student called Eli, who came to Yemin Orde from a challenging childhood with a mentally ill mother, painted graffiti on his house. In addition to “Abraham Lincoln House”, the sign now read “Eli Mousayef House”. Although Eli faced consequences of damaging school property, Peri was secretly pleased. He states, “Eli’s massive graffiti meant that he really did feel at home in the village, and also that he had dreams of greatness.”92

91 Peri, p.199. 92

Peri, p.63.

Another example solidifies the way in which Peri demonstrates to students that he is always accessible to them, therefore strengthening the community. If he is in a meeting and students must urgently speak with him, they have his full permission to throw pebbles at the back window of his office.93 This unceasing attention to students’ wellbeing is unusual for an educational institution, yet core to the Yemin Orde community. Unfortunately not all boarding institutions are as adept with emotional healing. Controversially, the Milton Hershey School in Pennsylvania, United States, maintains a policy that all students must be free of emotional and behavioural problems. If this requirement is strictly upheld, does the school neglect to serve students who could benefit most? Furthermore, after what many disadvantaged children have experienced, is it reasonable to expect no residual emotional issues? According to a 2014 letter to the United States Attorney General issued by watchdog group Protect the Hersheys’ Children, between 2003 and 2010, 1,141 children left the school, and only 786 graduated. The report states that 2,400 students were removed from the school over a twelve-year period. Only 55% to 72% of each class remains at the school through graduation, a very low number considering the unlimited counselling and other resources supposedly available for students.94 One devastating incident involved eighth grade student Abbie Bartels, who committed suicide after being expelled due to her being treated for depression.95 Hershey School examples also highlight issues of institutional abuse, far too common amongst vulnerable populations. Two incidents especially mar the reputation of the Hershey School, a 2010 case involving child molestation96 and a 2011 case involving child pornography.97 In my interview with Madeline Bialecki, she spoke of the issues that arise when people misuse positions of power against vulnerable populations. She saw such instances first hand in a community programme in which people with and without intellectual disabilities live together. Bialecki suggested that in order for a boarding school programme to remain safe and effective, each child should have an external advocate.98

93 Peri, p.32. 94

Ric Fouad et al., “Protect The Hersheys’ Children, Inc.: Children Suffering Discrimination Over Depression And Other At-Risk Children Need Your Help”, Letter to Eric H. Holder, Jr., Attorney General (11 November 2014): p.1-25. 95 Pablo Eisenberg, “Suicide of an Expelled Student Raises New Questions About Hershey Trust”, Huffpost (22 February 2015), http://www.huffingtonpost.com/pablo-eisenberg/suicide-of-an-expelled- st_b_6373964.html (accessed 7 May 2015) 96 Bob Fernandez, “Sex-abuse Case Shatters Hershey School”, The Inquirer (20 May 2010), http://articles. philly.com/2010-05-20/news/24960056_1_hershey-school-case-shatters-sexual-abuse (accessed 7 May 2015) 97 Bob Fernandez, “How Child-porn Case Led to Hershey School”, The Inquirer (30 October 2011), http:// articles.philly.com/2011-10-30/news/30339167_1_student-homes-milton-hershey-school-sexual- relations (accessed 7 May 2015) 98 Bialecki. 58

Family as an asset, not detriment, to educational achievement I initially foolishly discounted the importance of families to children’s development and well being. Perhaps some Detroit children lack family support, but there is certainly no mutually exclusive divide stating that every child struggling to meet academic standards lacks family support. Removing children from tight knit families and placing them in traditional boarding schools, even though these families may be “ineffective” by certain standards in helping their children attain education and career skills, is not necessarily an appropriate approach. Any boarding school system must be incredibly sensitive to existing family and community structures. A story from Victor Papanek captures the idea of designing systems that benefit the entire community. He was tasked to provide children in disadvantaged neighbourhoods with opportunities for play. He realised it was useless to build traditional playgrounds, as women lacked time to supervise their children at play. Rather, he built a playground with a central area containing washing machines and clothes dryers. Women could supervise their children while doing chores, surrounded by other women in the same situation.99 In line with Papanek’s anecdote, could education for disadvantaged Detroit children, and furthermore these students’ future impact on Detroit itself, be improved by strengthening family ties? An example from the Abaarso School highlights the importance of maintaining family ties, despite intergenerational differences in mentality toward education. Abdisamad Adan and his 18 siblings, some of whom are still illiterate, were raised by their illiterate grandmother in Somaliland. Adan’s grandmother was upset when he began secondary school at Abaarso, as she didn’t understand the importance of education and interpreted his desire to be in the classroom as him wanting to avoid his family. He maintained strong family ties and excelled in school, culminating in his 2015 acceptance to Harvard University. A New York Times piece sweetly summarises Adan’s grandmother’s newfound understanding and support, stating, “His grandmother hadn’t heard of Harvard but came to be proud of her grandson and appreciate that education had its uses.”100 Adan evidently feels a strong connection to his Somali roots, as he aspires to return to Somaliland to work with young people, pursue a career in politics and one day become president. His achieving a strong education whilst balancing connections to a family and culture with incongruent priorities gives him the potential to make a meaningful difference with his education. He states, “I’m just trying to put myself day after day in a better position to help my country.”101 However, what is the case for children who lack supportive family connections? The foster care system in the United States, for example, is incredibly dysfunctional, and these children do not have sufficient support to enable a decent chance at productive and fulfilling lives.

99 Papanek, p.252. 100 Nicholas Kristof, “From Somaliland to Harvard”, The New York Times (12 September 2015): p.SR1. 101

Alanna Petroff, “Somaliland to Harvard: How this student beat the odds”, Horseed Media (7 April 2015), http://horseedmedia.net/2015/04/07/somaliland-to-harvard-how-this-student-beat-the-odds/ (accessed 28 September 2015) 59

According to the Michigan Department of Health and Human Services, about 13,000 children are in foster care at any given time.102 Michigan’s foster care system is the sixth largest in the United States.103 It is not possible to find Detroit-specific figures, but given the city’s challenges, one can imagine there exists a sufficiently large foster children population. Statistics on foster care, especially foster teenagers, in the United States are sobering, as illustrated by Figure 31.

Figure 31

Dismal state of American foster care system

Michigan’s foster care system is the sixth largest in the US, with about 13,000 children in foster care at any given time

The typical foster teenager moves homes an average of 10 times and attends 5-6 different high schools

Almost 60% of former foster children are unemployed

80% of males and 57% of females who have been in longterm foster care have been arrested at some point

20% of young people who arrive at homeless shelters come directly from foster care

Based on a 2010 study, only 6% of former foster children had earned a college degree by the age of 23

Based on data from Kids Count Data Center, Michigan Department of Health and Human Services, Pacific Standard, and The New York Times

Given this information, the structure, consistency, and support of a boarding school could perhaps give foster children a better chance. Heather Grasl, foster care worker and foster parent in a Detroit suburb, gave a more nuanced perspective. In an interview, she spoke of deep seated trauma suffered by foster children and corresponding unrealistic expectations from wellintentioned but less well-informed educators. She emphasised the importance of vocational training programmes, which have yet to gain significant traction in Michigan, to enable former foster children career opportunities. Furthermore, she emphasised that such programmes must be available regardless of academic status. 102

”Foster Care”, Michigan Department of Health and Human Services (2015), http://www.michigan.gov/ dhs/0,4562,7-124-60126_7117---,00.html (accessed 22 May 2015) 103 “Children 0 to 17 in Foster Care”, Kids Count Data Center (2015), http://datacenter.kidscount.org/ data/tables/6242-children-0-to-17-in-foster-care#detailed/1/any/false/36,868,867,133,38/ any/12985,12986 (accessed 22 May 2015)

Grasl told a poignant story of a 19-year-old foster student who had only 1.5 high school credits due to numerous foster placement changes. Most Americans graduate from high school at age 17 or 18 with 27.2 credits on average.104 This teenager was quite talented with hands-on making, and he excelled in construction classes through a vocational training programme. Sadly, his school required him to maintain a certain academic standard to continue the vocational training, resulting in him dropping the construction classes, which had lent him much needed confidence and hope.105 San Pasqual Academy in San Diego, California presents a compelling example of a nontraditional community. Simply stated, “San Pasqual, a non-profit that can serve about 180 kids, exists because families fail…The academy believes teenagers should bond with a community of their peers and a group of adults rather than be folded into a series of potentially dysfunctional families…There are more than 60,000 foster children in California alone, and it can take years even to try to rehabilitate troubled biological parents or family members, or find stable adoptive parents.”106 San Pasqual is still too young to have a large body of comprehensive data supporting the model. However, it does seem to be working better than the status quo, with a high school graduation rate of 90%, twice that of foster students in California.107

Deep roots in the past to build a better present and future Peri emphasises the importance of helping teenagers strongly root themselves in their past, present, and future. Recognising their origins can help them gain a strong sense of self and cope with past challenges and injustices. He writes of speaking with Tibetan children in India about the yak meat prepared by their mothers that they missed most from home. When questioned about the purpose of such conversations, given that yak meat couldn’t be found in that region of India, he responded, “You must let children articulate their longing, or it will gnaw at them from within.”108 Yemin Orde embraces its diverse mix of cultures, encouraging all students to celebrate the holidays of their peers’ national and ethnic origins. Children are “empowered to explore and interpret the meaning of their cultural background, so that it is freed of negative and confining stereotypes.”109

104

C. Nord et al., “The Nation’s Report Card: America’s High School Graduates”, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, NCES 2011-462 (2011): 6. 105 Heather Grasl, Foster Care Worker, Grand Rapids, MI, USA, 5 June 2015. 106 Natasha Vargas-Cooper, “What If the Best Remedy for a Broken Family Is No Family at All?”, Pacific Standard (16 Sept. 2013), http://www.psmag.com/books-and-culture/best-remedy-broken-familyfamily-65379 (accessed 12 May 2015) 107 Natasha Vargas-Cooper. 108 Peri, p.124. 109 Peri, p.130. 61

At School of Leadership Afghanistan, the 33 students hail from 20 provinces and all major Afghan ethnic and religious backgrounds.110 Such diversity diminishes damaging ethnic tensions. According to president and co-founder Shabana Basij-Rasikh, “When our students come to SOLA…they sign an honour code that requires them to accept, respect, appreciate, and promote the different qualities that every single person brings to this school. They learn to drop that ethnic lens through which they look at each other.”111 By emphasising tolerance and instilling essential life values, effective boarding school communities give teenagers a safe place to become adults. According to Agahozo-Shalom Vice Principal Aloys Kagimbura, “When we are discussing or teaching, we don’t focus only on the content or material, we need also to provide values that are needed outside of this village.”112 Student Pacifique Rutamu provides evidence of the methodology’s effectiveness, stating, “In Agahozo-Shalom, I have learnt all that I have today. When one enters Agahozo-Shalom, the first thing they teach you is the core values. Respect, time management. Before, I could not manage well my time. I learnt that…and even how to live with people.”113 Additionally, Agahozo-Shalom provides agriculture, hospitality, and IT professional skills training programmes, as well as career counselling services, to prepare students for life after school. Student Immaculee Umugwaneza, for example, took agricultural courses in which she learned how to care for animals and grow regional crops such as banana, sorghum, and and mushrooms.114 Such life preparedness and support is especially critical for Rwanda’s youth, in a country where 2.8 million of the 13 million population are orphans and vulnerable children, mainly due to the 1994 genocide.115 Peri speaks of a beautifully subtle design intervention which addresses teenagers’ inherent need for security and nurture. Scattered throughout Yemin Orde’s campus are enclosed wooden structures referred to as “Jonah’s Whale”, a reference to the biblical tale in which Jonah’s experience being swallowed by a whale enables him to summon the courage and insight to save the civilisation of Nineveh. At Yemin Orde, these Jonah’s Whale structures offer students a safe place to share personal thoughts, often in their native languages, or quietly reflect alone. The hope of Yemin Orde faculty is that “every time youngsters gather in these spaces, they step out with slightly more insight into themselves and the processes they are going through than when they entered.”116

110

“SOLA School of Leadership Afghanistan”, SOLA—School of Leadership, Afghanistan (2014), http://www. sola-afghanistan.org/ (accessed 30 April 2015) 111 SOLA Boarding School for Girls - Part 1: The Principal’s Story (NATO and Afghanistan), dir: Shabana Basij-Rasikh, 13 January 2014. 112 ASYV Education Micro-documentary, dir: Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village, 19 April 2013. 113 Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village: A New Rhythm of Life, dir: Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village, 28 July 2014. 114 Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village: A New Rhythm of Life 115 “ASYV The Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village” The Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village http://www.asyv.org/ (accessed 11 May 2015) 116 Peri, p.197. 62

On a broader level, Homeless Shelter Design, an analysis of homeless shelters in the public realm based on a study in Calgary, Canada, offers a comprehensive definition of what a home should be, which could translate to a school community ideal. The authors write, “In our communities, homes are the desired structures in which…we experience the physical, psychological, social, and emotional security that we need to thrive. In the best instances too, home is a place of belonging, where some of the most vital relationships take hold and are strengthened.”117 Similarly, an effective educational community must encourage students to feel safe and welcome. Only with this crucial security can students begin to achieve higher level goals. Yemin Orde’s Graduate House, situated centrally on campus with capacity for 65 alumni, provides concrete proof of the village’s unconditional and unceasing commitment to its students. Only a small percentage of graduates need continued assistance after finishing high school, alleviating fears of a system that encourages excessive dependency. However, the fact that Yemin Orde takes care of graduates facing crises reaffirms to every student that the village will never abandon them.118 No San Pasqual Academy graduates become homeless either, as the school provides up to two years of free housing once students age out of the system. The academy built apartments for alumni, who can live there after graduation or during holiday breaks from university.

Establishment of connections to root students in their broader communities In Detroit, many students are not privileged to experience much of the world beyond their own neighbourhoods. Enabling connection with a broader community providing a wealth of experiences and support can help students develop their own identities and ambitions. San Pasqual Academy enables intergenerational connections through San Pasqual Academy Neighbors, an intriguing programme that connects students to surrogate grandparents in the community. Based on an interview with Esther Broers, Child Welfare Services Policy Analyst working with San Pasqual, the Academy Neighbors live on campus at reduced cost and commit 10 hours per week to volunteering with students. Broers spoke highly of the individualised and influential mentoring relationships that result from the programme. One alumni built such a close connection with her “grandparent” that she delivered the eulogy at her mentor’s funeral.119

117

John R. Graham, Christine Ann. Walsh, and Beverly A. Sandalack, Homeless Shelter Design: Considerations for Shaping Shelters and the Public Realm. (Calgary: Detselig Enterprises, 2008), p.12. 118 Peri, p.151. 119 Author interview with Esther Broers, Child Welfare Services Policy Analyst, San Pasqual Academy Operations, Escondido, CA, USA, 26 June 2015. 63

Thackara writes of the design challenge that exists in connecting young people with older mentors. The needs and expertise of these two populations seem a natural fit, as older people possess life experience and extra time, and young people crave attention and the feeling of importance. The challenge is simply that “learning institutions tend to keep people out- or students in- when they should do the opposite.”120 If a boarding school community were to exist in Detroit, it should strive to connect students with individuals outside the school who can provide additional guidance and expertise.

User-centred design approach to continuous community evolution As explained in the introduction, designers must be especially sensitive in any community design, including educational initiatives. We should heed Papanek’s warnings of creating something appealing to designers, but not the actual people who comprise an integral part of a system. He writes about a failed “renewal” of a Chicago ghetto, in which the neighbourhood was transformed into a series of identical high rises. Perhaps from a distance these aesthetics were more appealing, but it failed to serve the most important purpose of a neighbourhood. Papanek writes, “In spite of all the old ghetto’s faults, it did have a sense of community, and that has been destroyed completely.”121 For Thackara, the idea of humans as inherently social creatures is core to any effective system. Systems must enable and not disable the natural tendencies of people. He states, “What matters is the correspondence through time of bodies and the emergence of shared meaning as we interact with each other in meaningful activities.”122 According to Papanek, “Without the help of eventual end users, no socially acceptable design can be done.”123 As an example, user centred design research by Community Development Corporation of Brownsville (CDCB) gave residents of Brownsville, Texas, America’s poorest city, the dignity and respect of contributing to the development of their own community when a new 56-unit affordable housing complex was built. According to Nick Mitchell-Bennett, Executive of CDCB, “The new process pays off in the clients’ sense of empowerment and ownership. By the end of the process…they designed this house.”124 Drawing a parallel to traditional user-centred design approaches, students can benefit from direct involvement in the creation of their school and community. In a similar manner, Papanek also believed that “education is a process in which the environment changes the learner, and the learner changes the environment. In other words, both are interactive.”125

120 Thackara, p.152. 121 Papanek, p.270. 122 Thackara, p.109. 123 Papanek, p.304. 124

Amanda Kolsun Hurley, “In America’s Poorest City, a Housing Breakthrough”, CityLab, The Atlantic Monthly Group (1 October 2014), http://www.citylab.com/housing/2014/10/in-americas-poorestcity-a-housing-breakthrough/380912/ (accessed 9 July 2015) 125 Papanek, p.287. 64

Peri believes Yemin Orde should “aspire to be a community forever in formation, fundamentally changed by each member.”126 The active role students take in the development of their village and the surrounding community furthers emotional healing, strengthens bonds between students, and enables maturing and emotional development. Yemin Orde’s campus layout provides a concrete manifestation of the importance of student engagement. The campus lacks a main administration building, as a separate location with concentrated power would give the impression that administrators were cultivating school life without actually being an integral part of this life. The interior design of Yemin Orde’s buildings encourage openness and transparency, avoiding, for example, long hallways and secretary offices as obstacles to access headmasters and directors. These carefully considered architectural decisions physically manifest the school’s belief that “authority that is inaccessible…is an enemy of community.”127 Peri writes of community activism as a powerful tool to strengthen students’ sense of belonging. In one instance, some students were not paid fairly for summer work. With the support of their school, they successfully fought to recover the lost wages. Peri writes that time after time, “the intrinsic drive for justice…has galvanized our youngsters into an active community. Community activism was forged through the tangible sense of the suffering of others and identification with their existential situation- and thus a feeling of participation in a shared fate.”128 At the Abaarso School in Somaliland, students are required to contribute to their communities. They teach maths and English classes at a local orphanage, tutor at a primary school, and help management at a special needs school. In addition, each student spends four hours per week on work tasks such as cleaning classrooms or gardening. Such community involvement imbues in students a sense of responsibility and commitment that will benefit them throughout their lives. In a similar manner to these Somali and Israeli communities, could an educational community in Detroit band together to improve the world in which it exists?

126 Peri, p.184. 127 Peri, p.189-190. 128

Peri, p.181..

Chapter Six: Conclusion

â&#x20AC;&#x153;I want to become a journalist. And after I become a journalist, I want to come back to my city to stop the brain drain and rebuild something new.â&#x20AC;? -Hakeem Wetherspoon, Detroit student now studying on a full scholarship at Michigan State University129

Vision for Detroit Can a fresh outlook inspired by unusual sources catalyse Detroit to define new educational possibilities for which to strive? Many organisations exist in Detroit which aim to, for example, strengthen kindergarten readiness, provide additional tutoring to children, improve adult literacy, and enable higher educational opportunities. However, can so many disparate organisations, although achieving positive outcomes, enable significant sustainable change on a broader, systemic scale for an entire city? What will finally permanently tip the scales in favour of less advantaged Detroit children? Thackara aptly summarises the purpose of systems literacy and design being to “enable collaborative action, to develop a shared vision of where we want to be.”130 Designers can offer uniquely perceptive perspective and visualisation techniques to help citizens imagine their own city in an entirely new way. They can enable the development of this shared vision, then partner with appropriate entities to execute the plan. At its core, design is about seeing the world as we want it to be, and then finding ways to move closer to that ideal. Insight from Peri relates to struggling families in all regions of the world, including Detroit. He says, “When we are talking about children from impoverished inner-city homes, or homes haunted by feelings of failure, creating community is even harder due to the sense of isolation and alienation with which many of these children have been raised. Their families’ daily struggle for survival often left little energy to devote to communal affairs, and little faith in the power of association to strengthen and enrich individual lives.”131 Perhaps a better approach in Detroit than a traditional tuition free boarding school system would be an educational community for families. Such a community, supported by ample resources, could mitigate families’ stress to enable supportive bonds and safe environments for children to learn and play. Suitable parents could be given the role of house parents, tasked with raising their own children in addition to others, for example foster children, who cannot live with their own parents. Many parents who struggle to provide sufficient support for their children are not bad parents, they simply lack resources and face too many challenges to fulfil their potential as parents. What would happen if they were given a community in which to live and support their children’s education? Challenges obviously exist with this idea, but it is a vision, not a detailed proposal or execution plan. While drafting this section, I thought of the state of Utah’s paradigm shifting approach to its homeless population, beginning in 2005 with its Housing First and Rapid Rehousing initiatives. Rather than using typical policies of requiring individuals to scrape up enough money for low income housing or be drug free, for example, the city simply gave homes to homeless individuals, no questions asked.

129 The Detroit Graduates, dir: Kassie Bracken and Eugene Yi, The New York Times, 7 September 2015. 130 Thackara, p.168. 131

Peri, p.182.

This plan was built on the principle that only permanent housing would give people the security and mitigated stress needed to become productive citizens. According to Gordon Walker, director of the state Housing and Community Development Division, “If you want to end homelessness, you put people in housing. This is relatively simple.”132 As of February 2015 the entire state of Utah had only 300 homeless individuals, a 75% reduction since 2005.133 Unexpectedly, these programmes have actually saved the state of Utah money. Each chronically homeless individual costs over $20,000 per year, due to shelters, emergency room visits, and so on. Permanent housing costs only $8,000 per year per person. According to a piece in The New Yorker, “The success of Housing First points to a new way of thinking about social programs: what looks like a giveaway may actually be a really wise investment.”134 In a similar manner, maybe rather than education being viewed as the means by which to achieve better life circumstances, individuals should be given decent life circumstances to begin with, which could then facilitate higher educational achievement. If all humans were given the basic dignity of circumstances that support and not hinder educational development, to what extent could intellectual engagement of communities increase in the aggregate, and how much positive impact could be created for cities, regions, and countries?

In conclusion I do not intend for this dissertation to end here. I plan to continue my exploration and share my work with individuals involved in improving education in Detroit, such as educators, advisors, and policy makers, to continue the discussion. Additionally, I hope to encourage other designers to embark on similar explorations in which they can apply design research and problem solving approaches to critical social, economic, and political challenges. Perhaps further change in Detroit just might stem, directly or indirectly, from design methodologies and Rwandan boarding school communities.

132

Terrence McCoy, “The Surprisingly Simple Way Utah Solved Chronic Homelessness and Saved Millions” The Washington Post (17 April 2015), https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/inspired-life/ wp/2015/04/17/the-surprisingly-simple-way-utah-solved-chronic-homelessness-and-saved-millions/ (accessed 3 September 2015) 133 Natasha Bertrand, “Utah Found a Brilliantly Effective Solution for Homelessness”, Business Insider (19 February 2015), http://uk.businessinsider.com/this-state-may-be-the-first-to-end-homelessness-for- good-2015-2?r=US&IR=T (accessed 3 September 2015) 134 James Surowiecki, “Home Free?”, The New Yorker (22 September 2014), http://www.newyorker.com/ magazine/2014/09/22/home-free (accessed 3 September 2015) 69

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Documentaries 180 School Days: A Year Inside an American High School, dir: Jacquie Jones, 25 March 2013. Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village: A New Rhythm of Life, dir: Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village, 28 July 2014. Agahozo-Shalom: A Place Where Tears Are Dried, dir: Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village, 7 July 2014. Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village: Repairing the World, dir: Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village, 22 November 2012. ASYV Education Micro-documentary, dir: Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village, 19 April 2013. The Detroit Graduates, dir: Kassie Bracken and Eugene Yi, The New York Times, 7 September 2015. Discover Yemin Orde: A Home. A Family. Forever, dir: Friends of Yemin Orde, 19 September 2012. The Future: Anything Is Possible, dir: Friends of Yemin Orde, 11 September 2012. How Childhood Trauma Affects Health across a Lifetime, Dr Nadine Burke Harris, dir: TEDMED, September 2014. A National Disgrace, Dan Rather, dir: Steve Tyler, 2011. SOLA Boarding School for Girls - Part 1: The Principal’s Story (NATO and Afghanistan), dir: Shabana BasijRasikh, 13 January 2014.