Conflict Resolution, Mediation and Decision Making

Example:

Agree Disagree

CN--3-- SS--4-- PD--3-- DW--3-- IC--4-- CN--1-- DW--1-- PD--1--

This person has a strong tendency toward a style of Integration and Collaboration with almost equal tendencies for Compromise and Negotiation or Power and Dominance.

On the other side, this person would not likely to Suppress or Smooth over a conflict nor to Deny or Withdraw from a conflict.

If your score does not reflect your belief about your style in conflict it may be based on your interpretation of the statements.

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CONFLICT STRATEGIES

Win/Win 10 Synergy Strategies: 9 Third 8 Consensus 7 Compromise 6 Vote 5 Arbitrate 4 Fight 3 Co-existence 2 Procrastination 1 Avoidance

Win/Lose Strategies:

Conflict Avoiding Strategies:

LOW QUALITY HIGH QUALITY

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NEGOTIATING SKILLS

1. The ability to determine the nature of the conflict

2. Effectiveness in initiating confrontations

3. The ability to hear the other’s point of view

4. The utilisation of problem-solving process to bring about a consensus decision

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H I G H

A C C E P T A N C E

O R

C O M M I T M E N T

L

VOTE/COMPROMISE High commitment, low quality

W hen the decision must please the majority and the outcome will not hinder the progress of the group. Example: W here the next meeting will be held.

CONSENSUS High commitment, high quality

when the decision must be supported by all members of the group an must be the best possible solution. Usually, the decision made by the group as a problem resolution are agreed to by consensus.

COIN FLIP Low commitment, low quality

TECHNICAL Low commitment, high quality

W hen neither the issue nor the outcome require much discussion. Example: W here to get supplies. W hen the technical expertise exists to make a quality decision and the outcome is not an issue for the group members. Example: W hat type of computer systems should an office use.

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CONSENSUS DECISION- MAKING

Some of the decisions made by a group do not require a consensus

process. Many times the majority opinion or even a flip of a coin could

be appropriate. Some decisions are best left to an expert. Knowing that

consensus is not always required and understanding when it is

appropriate can be a great benefit to a group’s progress. The following

matrix may be of help in determining the appropriate process.

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GROUP DECISION-MAKING SKILLS

GROUP DECISION-MAKING PROCESS

Every group, to achieve its goal, is constantly involved in making decisions: big decision, little decisions; easy decisions, hard decisions; right decisions, wrong decisions; but always decisions, decisions, decisions, decisions.

Decision-making is thus a continuing pattern of relationships among members of a group; a pattern over which every individual member has significant influence. it is amazing the effect a bit of information here, a loud objection there, and expression of approval or hostility, envy or admiration, contempt or condescension can have on an impending decision.

So there is little wonder that group after group has difficulty making decisions. Some become paralysed when confronted with a decision; some argue interminably over a minor point; others rush into a vote, only to reverse their decision later on or to fail in carrying it out; others appoint a committee or look for a saviour (the leader) to save them from having to decide.

Difficulties in Decision-Making

Most of the difficulties encountered by a group in making decisions centre around one or another of the following factors:

1) Fear of Consequences

In some groups the possible outcomes of an impending decision may bring divisions and disagreements. Frank acknowledgment of these fears often suggests how they can be dealt with effectively.

2) Conflicting Loyalties

Multiple membership in a number of groups frequently leads to divided loyalties among group members. an atmosphere in which it is possible for these conflicts to be brought out into the open without threat to the individual is a great help in their resolution.

3) Interpersonal Conflict

In groups of any size personal differences occur which provoke feelings of affection or of antipathy among members and which inhibit sound decision-making. Often another member who is not involved in the interpersonal conflict can bring the real problem into bolder relief.

4) Methodological Blundering

A group may be so bound by rigid procedures that there is little chance for free expression of differences. Or a group may allow itself to substitute personal opinion for adequate data. Or a group may approach the decision-making process without testing for consensus.

5) Inadequate Leadership

A designated leader falls short of his responsibilities when s/he restricts the expression of opinion or discussion of issues, when s/he fails to provide assistance in selecting appropriate

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methods for decision-making, and when s/he is insensitive to the factors causing difficulty— the motivations and standards of the group.

As a group moves toward its goal, it seldom proceeds in a straight course from “A” to “B”:

A B

Rather its movement is more up and down and around, sometimes even ending up at “C” instead of its original goal of “B”: B

A C

A number of problems must be solved along the way, each of which involves any number of decisions. Six basic problem areas in the movement of a group toward its goal can be identified. Of course no group moves directly through the six problem areas in a given order. There is constant movement back and forth among them; and they are always present in various ways at various times requiring various decisions.

1) Problem Area #1: The Data (What is our situation?)

Who are we? Where are we? What is our common ground? What are the limits within which we must work? Who or what brought us together? Until a group recognised its actual present situation, by gathering the data about that situation, any attempt to suggest goals is premature.

2) Problem Area #2: The Purpose (What is our destination?)

Where do we want to go? What choices are open to us? Until there is general agreement on the goal, the group will not move effectively. Members of a group who have not accepted the goal or who have had little voice in choosing it, tend to be self-oriented. The greater the share all members have in choosing the goal of a group, the greater will be their willingness to subordinate their immediate personal interposts to the common interests of the group. The settling of a goal is also necessarily tentative and must be reexamined from time to time in order to test its adequacy.

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3) Problem Area #3: The Plan (How do we get there?)

What procedures are called for? What resources are needed? Members become more and more involved in the functions of initiating, clarifying, expediting, and testing for consensus as a group goes about determining the best ways and means, routes and methods, necessary to get under way.

4) Problem Area #4: The People (How free are we to move?)

If a group is to be creative, individuals must be free to offer insights, to test ideas, to make contributions, to share the leadership without fear of inadequacy. Such functions as encouraging, harmonising, and supporting are needed to maintain an atmosphere of freedom.

5) Problem Area #5: The Progress (Where are we now?)

Where are we in the process of settling all the other problems? Are we going in the right direction? How far have we gotten? Do we know where we are? Do we need to change our goal or procedures? Is everyone still on board? From time to time a groups must take a fix, make a progress report to itself. Many a group has failed to reach its goal because it assumed everyone knew where the group was when actually confusion reigned.

6) Problem Area #6: The Outcome (Where have we arrived?)

Have we reached our goal? Where are we finally in terms of our achievement? it may not be the original goal, but is it satisfactory? A group sees its goal through the eyes of its members and their need to arrive at some goal.

Categories of Decisions

Since most groups have an extended life and are called upon to make more than a single decision governing its life and work, each group decision that is made tends to set a precedent which affects the climate of subsequent attempts at problem solving.

The prime measure of a group decision is the degree of commitment it s membership acts out on the basis of the decision made. Future decisions are affected by : (1) the number of group members actively participating in making decision; (2) what happens to individual members in the process of decision-making. the following categories illustrate types of group decisions:

* Self-Authorised Decisions: A decision made by one group member who assumes authority from the group to do so. The group may find it expedient to go along with such a decision rather than become involved in the process leading to a decision.

* Group commitment to self-authorised decisions tends to be low, getting lower if this type of decision-making is repeated.

* Handclasping: A decision made by two members of the group joining forces. Such a decision usually emerges so suddenly that it catches the group off-guard, and presents the group with the problem of responding to two people at once. Group commitment tends to be low, lower if repeated by the same two persons.

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* Cliques: Decision made by segments of the group outside of regular group meeting and acted out at a subsequent meeting. They felt necessity for a few members to make decisions in this way indicates low trust in the total group and tends to further divide the group into competing factions.

* Baiting: “Does anybody disagree that...?” or “We all agree that, don’t we?” When the climate of a group inhibits open conflict of idea and concern decisions made by the foregoing threats of conflict tend to be short-lived and divisive, carrying low group commitment.

* Majority-Role: A decision made by some form of voting. Vote-taking tends to solidify opposing forces, lowering the losing factions’ commitment to the decision, influencing future decision by establishing competitive factions within the group.

* Unanimity: A decision made by apparent 100% agreement of group membership. Pressure to conform may be strong enough to force overt consent but tends to bury opposition. If pressure to conform is not strong enough and the group feels that unanimous decisions are a must, group decisions become impossible to reach.

* Consensus: A decision made after all aspects of the issue and possible solutions are heard and dealt with till all members feel that the group choice made is the most operable under the circumstances. Group decisions made by consensus tend to have higher group commitment, and longevity, than other types.

Two common indications of malfunction in group decision-making process are:

1. Plops: The offerings of a group member to which no one in the group responds, i.e., a group decision to ignore one member’s contributions. Plops which occur with some frequency are symptoms of malfunction in the group’s interrelationships.

2. Topic-Jumping: An action of one or more members of the group which interrupts the group’s decision-making process by introducing comments and concerns irrelevant to the immediate process of the group. Reoccurring topic jumping is symptomatic of mal-function.

Steps in Decision-Making

Effective decision-making by a group on the basis of consensus is both realistic and possible. But it is not easy. there are five basic steps which a group can take in arriving at a decision with some assurance that it represents the mind of the group as a whole and that it will be acted upon. It is well also to be aware of what may help a particular step, of what may cause its omission.

1. Defining the Problem The process of defining the problem, sharpening the focus so that the issue is clear, internalising its various implications, clarifying it and elaborating on it. omission: a standing committee that is reappointed year after year but that never reviews its purpose. blocks: the assumption that the problem is clear; over-abstraction of the problem; the assumption that the problem is relevant. helps: a problem census; small groups; general discussion.

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2. Suggesting Alternative Solutions The process of getting ideas on the various alternative solutions to the problem from all members. omission: a leader who limits a group to working on the implications of a solution she has already decided upon. blocks: lack of data; lack of experience; group size; member threat; over-formality; inadequate maintenance functions; polarising on a particular solution. helps: brainstorming; additional data; subgroup work; a climate of freedom; periods of silence.

3. Testing the Alternatives The process of examining the alternatives in the light of all available data, previous experience, possible consequences, relevance to the problem, and members’ attitudes. omission: the prestige of influence of the leader or some other members which prevents the group from putting his alternative under real scrutiny. blocks: lack of data; premature voting; overprotection of ideas by individual members; inadequate maintenance functions.

4. Choosing Among Alternatives The process of reaching a decision by choosing one of the alternatives or a combination of alternatives, that will provide a solution to the problem defined. omission: a committee that goes on and on and on---exploring the ifs, ands, and buts, ad infinitum---but never arrives at a decision. blocks: inadequate testing; lack of clarity regarding the problem; premature voting; no testing for consensus; identification of ideas with persons. helps: expression of feelings by all members; maintenance of an agenda for future reference; summarising of discussion; testing for consensus.

5. Planning for Action The process of making detailed plans for carrying out the decision by examining the implications of the choice and testing the relevance of proposed action. It should be noted that the planning step sometimes results in rethinking the decision and returning to one or another prior step in the decision-making process. omission: failure to assign responsibility for implementation of the decision once it has been made. blocks: failure to reach consensus; failure to explore adequately the implications of proposed action; assignment of total responsibility for implementation to one person. helps: feedback; observer reports; evaluation; post-meeting reaction reports; review of data; a climate of freedom.

Conditions Relevant To Group Decision-Making

There are many instances where due to the pressure of time to type of decision, or the area of responsibility, an individual and not a group may most appropriately make a decision. There are, however, certain conditions that make decision-making by a group the most appropriate means of solving a particular problem:

* when various points of view and opinions are needed.

* when the group is directly affected by the decision.

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* when the group must carry out the decision.

* when the group has learned to work effectively together.

* when the leadership functions are shared.

* when decision-making procedures appropriate to the problem are used.

Factors which Facilitate Group Decision-Making

There are certain specific factors that affect any group situation and that serve especially to improve the decision-making process:

* a clear definition of the problem.

* a clear understanding of who has what degree of responsibility for the decision.

* effective means of producing and communicating ideas.

* an appropriate size of the group for decision-making.

* effective means of testing alternative solutions.

* effective means of implementing the decision.

* commitment of the designated leader to the group decision-making process.

* agreement on the decision-making procedures prior to deliberation on the issue.

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GROUP DECISION-MAKING MODEL

1. IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM; (this is not easy; make sure all agree to what the problem is)

2. IDENTIFY THE NEEDS OF THE GROUP MEMBERS INVOLVED IN THE PROBLEM; (may need to redefine the problem after this)

3. DETERMINE CRITERIA FOR POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS; (all possible solutions will be judged according to the criteria; how will we know if this is a good possible solution?)

4. BRAINSTORM POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS (ALTERNATIVES); (this is usually done in small groups)

5. CHECK SOLUTIONS WITH CRITERIA;

6. CHOOSE A SOLUTION (may use a variety of group decision-making techniques here...)

7. IMPLEMENT SOLUTION ON A TRIAL BASIS.

8. MONITOR AND EVALUATE SOLUTION AND ORIGINAL PROBLEM SITUATION.

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WIN/WIN DECISION MAKING

A Review of General Principles and Methods

Principles

1. Present a win/win attitude 2. Legitimise all perceptions 3. Confront problems, misunderstandings, and bad feelings in the early phases 4. Establish ownership and responsibility for the problem 5. Get agreement on the problem before going on to solutions 6. Be explicit about each phase of problem solving 7. Look for little successes first, before tackling the “big” problem 8. Look for ways of breaking fixation and redefining the problem/solution space 9. Get agreement on criteria before evaluating the alternatives 10. Keep backing up to the phase and level of generality where a foundation of agreements can be developed 11. Avoid premature motions 12. Use formal voting as a last win/lose approach

Methods

1. Both/and 2. Win/win (consensus) 3. Build-up/eliminate 4. Rank ordering 5. Straw voting 6. Negative voting 7. focus on agreements 8. Advantages/disadvantages 9. Criteria checkerboard 10. How does it feel? (reverse roles)

Purpose:

1. To select the final solution(s) 2. To commit to a cause of action 3. To finalise a decision

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Decision Making

Methods

Win/win (consensus) * a solution that everyone can live with * more than a compromise

Both/and * avoiding an unnecessary conflict

Build up/eliminate * synthesising new solutions from the best parts of others

Specific Things You Can Say or Do

“OK, there seems to be some agreement here. Is there anyone in the group who couldn’t live with solution A? would anyone feel compromised in any fundamental way?...It’s OK if you can’t buy in yet. My role as facilitator is to defend all positions.”

“Are there any objections to going that way?”

“Let me take a minute to check something out here. Do you need to choose between these final two solutions? Could you try both?”

“Does it have to be either/or? Do you want to force the group to make a decision at this point?”

“Harry, you still have some strong concerns about this situation. Is there anything that could be added or taken away which would make it more acceptable? ... Reducing the number of hours to six? Let me check that out with the rest of the group. Would anyone object to reducing the hours to six? ... No? Looks like we have consensus.”

“So is there any way you could combine what you like about each of those solutions?”

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Straw voting * getting “a sense” of the group * checking out

Negative voting * attempting to eliminate alternatives which violate the beliefs of a group member * has to be finalised by consensus

Focus on agreements * building on success * emphasising the positive * encouraging the group

Back Off * going back to earlier phases * doing some more problem solving * not forcing a win/lose decision “OK, I’d just like to check out how the group feels about this. How many of you want to continue working on this issue today? Please raise you hands ... Well, looks like most of you want to continue. Any objections to working another half hour? ... No? OK, let’s get back to work.”

“I'd like to get a sense of how you stand right now. How many of you could go with solution A? ... how may with solution B? ...etc.”

“Are there any alternatives which would be unacceptable under any circumstances? ... Patricia says she could not live with alternative B. any objections to eliminating alternative B?”

If there are no objections, you eliminate that alternative. If there are objections, particularly if the person who suggested that alternative feels strongly about it, then it’s a good idea to leave it and try some other method. Maybe there are parts of that alternative which can be used or maybe Patricia will change her mind in the course of the discussion.

“You’re doing fine. Look at all the points of agreement you have reached already. Don’t give up now. Let’s hang in and see if wee can work this last issue through.”

“OK, you are in agreement on the title, it’s just the subtitle you have to work on some more.”

“It looks to me like there are still some major points of disagreement. I think it would be a good idea to go back and see if we could define what those issues are and work on them rather than trying to force a decision at this point.”

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ENCOURAGING ENCOURAGING ENCOURAGING ENCOURAGING INDIVIDUAL INDIVIDUAL INDIVIDUAL INDIVIDUAL CHANGE CHANGE CHANGE CHANGE

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A Personal Reflection

A Process

Read through each individual principal on pages 128 to 132 and assign yourself a number for that principle using the following code: 1 = I achieve this rarely 2 = I manage this sometimes 3 = I do this often 4 = I am happy with my ability to do this most of the time 5 = I am highly competent in achieving this

Using method 1

Map your score for each separate principle on the wheel. (There is a separate line to correspond to the number of principles in each section.).

Join together each of your marks

Work on self-growth

Create a community of learners Empowerment in action

Build relationships with others

Using this method your complete wheel will look something like this.

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Using method 2

At the end of each section TOTAL YOUR SCORE and determine an average for that section.

Mark the averages on the wheel.

Work on self-growth

Empowerment in action

Create a community of learners

Build relationships with others

Your completed wheel will look something like this.

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To empower growth in others

1. I provide real think-time 2. I promote engagement in authentic, purposeful learning 3. I offer open-ended learning opportunities 4. I work to make learning enjoyable 5. I build on form what learners know and can do

6. I explain purposes clearly 7. I make use of visual organisers 8. I encourage thinking metaphor 9. I take time to support individuals 10. I give feedback on observations 11. I help realistic goal-setting 12. I encourage learners to ask their own questions and seek their own answers 13. I am prepared to share my power to empower my students 14. I use a variety of teaching strategies 15. I foster learning with and from peers 16. I work to develop understandings of many ways of learning 17. I appreciate the importance of imagination in learning 18. I help learners to use the metacognitive cycle of plan-monitor-evaluate 19. I help learners to develop context appropriate strategies 20. I encourage risk-taking in learning I focus on learner self-evaluation

I work to develop learner responsibility to self and others I reframe mistake-making I invite responsible choice-making I model using self-talk I include the use of multi-modal strategies I capitalise on opportunities presented by conflict I develop mutually high expectations I share leadership and responsibility I engage learners in on-going reflection I encourage personal connection-making I give meaningful praise I involve learners in their own assessment

I foster learning transfer to other situations I model my own reflection and learning My number between 1-5 for this “I statement” is:

TOTAL ÷ 35 average =

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To walk the leader’s walk

• I acknowledge the complexity of my role • I clarify roles and expectations • I am clear about what I value

• I am able to develop a shared vision for what learning and education can be • I introduce learners to role models

• I believe in learners and help learners to believe in themselves • I make explicit the skills need for success • I am organised • I am able to think big and start small • I work on what I can influence

• I think and act win-win

• I choose to think, act and speak positively • I have a positive orientation toward change • I trust my intuition • I co-create knowledge with other learners • I understand the importance of humour • I use humour appropriately • I integrate rather than add concepts and ideas • I try to walk the walk rather than talk the talk • I follow through and keep commitments • I use the teachable and consistent

• I am both flexible and consistent

• I work to develop a global view • I am committed to a professional code of ethics • I display integrity and personal dignity • I am a leadership contribution beyond the classroom • I am aware of my leadership skills and am proud to be a teacher

TOTAL ÷ 27 average =

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To build relationships with others

• I aim to listen more and talk less

• I talk with people rather that at them • I am conscious of noticing an acknowledging other’s feelings • I acknowledge many aspects of people’s lives • I remember to attend to the little things as well as the big things • I give congruent messages • I understand the power of non-verbal messages • I am prepared to share something of myself with others • I invite others’ ideas and act on them

• I demonstrate trust

• I understand and seek to accommodate people’s basic needs • I promote empathy for others’ viewpoints • I explicitly develop social skills • I am patient • I care enough to confront constructively • I am consistent in the way I treat people

TOTAL ÷ 19 average =

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To create a community of learners

79. I build a class team

80. I ensure that each person has a part to play 81. I work to create a stimulating classroom environment 82. I have a ‘circle’ philosophy 83. I make explicit what is value 84. I aim to build a common language 85. I spend time developing consistent procedures 86. I engage learners in evaluating aspects of classroom life 87. I invite shared decision-making 88. I provide for many modes of learning 89. I encourage the use of learners/ strengths 90. I include and challenge all learners 91. I show that I value differences

92. I balance individual and team learning 93. I balance the way learning teams are formed 94. I develop genuine partnerships with parents 95. I model inclusive language 96. I celebrate individual and class successes

97. I appreciate and utilise the rich learning resources of the community

TOTAL ÷ 19 average =

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