Transformational Social Leadership by The Advocacy Foundation, Inc.

The e-Advocate Quarterly Magazine

Transformational Social Leadership

Matthew 20:26 | Matthew 23:11 Mark 10:42-45 | Luke 22:26 John 13:12-17

“Helping Individuals, Organizations & Communities Achieve Their Full Potential”

Vol. XII, Issue LIV – Q-3 July| August| September 2026

The Advocacy Foundation, Inc. Helping Individuals, Organizations & Communities Achieve Their Full Potential

Since its founding in 2003, The Advocacy Foundation has become recognized as an effective provider of support to those who receive our services, having real impact within the communities we serve. We are currently engaged in many community and faith-based collaborative initiatives, having the overall objective of eradicating all forms of youth violence and correcting injustices everywhere. In carrying-out these initiatives, we have adopted the evidence-based strategic framework developed and implemented by the Office of Juvenile Justice & Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP). The stated objectives are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Community Mobilization; Social Intervention; Provision of Opportunities; Organizational Change and Development; Suppression [of illegal activities].

Moreover, it is our most fundamental belief that in order to be effective, prevention and intervention strategies must generally be Community Specific, Culturally Relevant, EvidenceBased, and Collaborative. The Violence Prevention and Intervention programming we employ in implementing this community-enhancing framework include the programs further described throughout our publications, programs and special projects both domestically and internationally.

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Dedication ______ Every publication in our many seriesâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC; is dedicated to everyone, absolutely everyone, who by virtue of their calling, by Divine inspiration, direction and guidance, is on the battlefield dayafter-day striving to follow Godâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s will and purpose for their lives. And this is with particular affinity for those Spiritual warriors who are being transformed into excellence through daily academic, professional, familial, and other challenges. We pray that you will bear in mind: Matthew 19:26 (NIV) Jesus looked at them and said, "With man this is impossible, but with God all things are possible." (Emphasis added) To all of us who daily look past our circumstances, and naysayers, to what the Lord says we will accomplish: Blessings!

The Advocacy Foundation, Inc. ______

for The TEAM

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The Advocacy Foundation, Inc. Helping Individuals, Organizations & Communities Achieve Their Full Potential

The e-Advocate Quarterly

Transformational Social Leadership

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Helping Individuals, Organizations & Communities Achieve Their Full Potential

1735 Market Street, Suite 3750 Philadelphia, PA 19102

| 100 Edgewood Avenue, Suite 1690 Atlanta, GA 30303

John C Johnson III Founder & CEO

(878) 222-0100 Voice | Data | SMS www.TheAdvocacyFoundation.org

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Biblical Authority ______ Matthew 20:26 (NIV) 26

Not so with you. Instead, whoever wants to become great among you must be your servant,

______ Matthew 23:11 (NIV) 11

The greatest among you will be your servant.

______ Mark 10:42-45 (NIV) 42

Jesus called them together and said, ―You know that those who are regarded as rulers of the Gentiles lord it over them, and their high officials exercise authority over them. 43 Not so with you. Instead, whoever wants to become great among you must be your servant, 44 and whoever wants to be first must be slave of all. 45 For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many.‖

______ Luke 22:26 (NIV) 26

But you are not to be like that. Instead, the greatest among you should be like the youngest, and the one who rules like the one who serves.

______ John 13:12-17 (NIV) 12

When he had finished washing their feet, he put on his clothes and returned to his place. ―Do you understand what I have done for you?‖ he asked them. 13 ―You call me ‗Teacher‘ and ‗Lord,‘ and rightly so, for that is what I am. 14 Now that I, your Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet, you also should wash one another‘s feet. 15 I have set you an example that you should do as I have done for you. 16 Very truly I tell you, no servant is greater than his master, nor is a messenger greater than the one who sent him. 17 Now that you know these things, you will be blessed if you do them.

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Table of Contents The e-Advocate Quarterly Transformational Social Leadership

Biblical Authority I.

Introduction

II.

Characteristics of a Transformational Leader

III.

Effectiveness & Comparisons

IV.

Noteworthy Transformational Leaders

Servant Leadership

VI.

Three Levels of Leadership

VII. Situational Leadership VIII. Contingency Theory IX.

Transactional Leadership

Trait Leadership

XI.

References Attachments A. The Transformational Leadership Report B. From Transactional to Transformative Leadership C. Comparing Transformational Leadership in Successful and Unsuccessful Organizations

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Introduction Transformational Leadership is a style of leadership where the leader is charged with identifying the needed change, creating a vision to guide the change through inspiration, and executing the change in tandem with committed members of the group. It also serves to enhance the motivation, morale, and job performance of followers through a variety of mechanisms; these include connecting the follower's sense of identity and self to the project and the collective identity of the organization; being a role model for followers in order to inspire them and raise their interest in the project; challenging followers to take greater ownership for their work, and understanding the strengths and weaknesses of followers, allowing the leader to align followers with tasks that enhance their performance.

Origins The concept of transformational leadership was initially introduced by leadership expert and presidential biographer James MacGregor Burns. According to Burns, transformational leadership can be seen when "leaders and followers make each other advance to a higher level of morality and motivation." Through the strength of their vision and personality, transformational leaders are able to inspire followers to change expectations, perceptions, and motivations to work towards common goals. Unlike in the transactional approach, it is not based on a "give and take" relationship, but on the leader's personality, traits and ability to make a change through example, articulation of an energizing vision and challenging goals. Transforming leaders are idealized in the sense that they are a moral exemplar of working towards the benefit of the team, organization Page 12 of 84

and/or community. Burns theorized that transforming and transactional leadership were mutually exclusive styles. Later, researcher Bernard M. Bass expanded upon Burns' original ideas to develop what is today referred to as Bass‘ Transformational Leadership Theory. According to Bass, transformational leadership can be defined based on the impact that it has on followers. Transformational leaders, Bass suggested, garner trust, respect, and admiration from their followers. Bernard M. Bass (1985), extended the work of Burns (1978) by explaining the psychological mechanisms that underlie transforming and transactional leadership. Bass introduced the term "transformational" in place of "transforming." Bass added to the initial concepts of Burns (1978) to help explain how transformational leadership could be measured, as well as how it impacts follower motivation and performance. The extent to which a leader is transformational, is measured first, in terms of his influence on the followers. The followers of such a leader feel trust, admiration, loyalty and respect for the leader and because of the qualities of the transformational leader are willing to work harder than originally expected. These outcomes occur because the transformational leader offers followers something more than just working for self-gain; they provide followers with an inspiring mission and vision and give them an identity. The leader transforms and motivates followers through his or her idealized influence (earlier referred to as charisma), intellectual stimulation and individual consideration. In addition, this leader encourages followers to come up with new and unique ways to challenge the status quo and to alter the environment to support being successful. Finally, in contrast to Burns, Bass suggested that leadership can simultaneously display both transformational and transactional leadership.

Definitions According to Bass, transformational leadership encompasses several different aspects, including:            

Emphasizing intrinsic motivation and positive development of followers Raising awareness of moral standards Highlighting important priorities Fostering higher moral maturity in followers Creating an ethical climate (share values, high ethical standards) Encouraging followers to look beyond self-interests to the common good Promoting cooperation and harmony Using authentic, consistent means Using persuasive appeals based on reason Providing individual coaching and mentoring for followers Appealing to the ideals of followers Allowing freedom of choice for followers

Transformational leaders are described to hold positive expectations for followers, believing that they can do their best. As a result, they inspire, empower, and stimulate followers to exceed normal levels of performance. Transformational leaders also focus on and care about followers and their personal needs and development. Transformational leaders fit well in leading and working with complex work groups and organizations, where beyond seeking an inspirational Page 13 of 84

leader to help guide them through an uncertain environment, followers are also challenged and feel empowered; this nurtures them into becoming loyal, high performers. There are 4 components to transformational leadership, sometimes referred to as the 4 I's:  



Idealized Influence (II) - the leader serves as an ideal role model for followers; the leader "walks the talk," and is admired for this. Inspirational Motivation (IM) - Transformational leaders have the ability to inspire and motivate followers. Combined these first two I's are what constitute the transformational leader's charisma. Individualized Consideration (IC) - Transformational leaders demonstrate genuine concern for the needs and feelings of followers. This personal attention to each follower is a key element in bringing out their very best efforts. Intellectual Stimulation (IS) - the leader challenges followers to be innovative and creative. A common misunderstanding is that transformational leaders are "soft," but the truth is that they constantly challenge followers to higher levels of performance.

Transformational leadership is said to have occurred when engagement in a group results in leaders and followers raising one another to increased levels of motivation and morality.

Future Application The evolution of transformational leadership in the digital age is tied to the development of organizational leadership in an [organizational] setting. As organizations move from positionbased responsibilities to task-based responsibilities, transformational leadership is redefined to continue to develop individual commitment to organizational goals by aligning these goals with the interests of their leadership community. The academic community is a front-runner in this sense of redefining transformational leadership to suit these changes in job definition. The future of transformational leadership is also related to political globalization and a more homogenous spectrum of economic systems under which organizations find themselves operating. Cultural and geographical dimensions of transformational leadership become blurred as globalization renders ethnically specific collectivist and individualistic effects of organizational behavior obsolete in a more diversified workplace.

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Characteristics of a Transformational Leader Five major personality traits have been identified as factors contributing to the likelihood of an individual displaying the characteristics of a transformational leader. Different emphasis on different elements of these traits point to inclination in personality to inspirational leadership, transactional leadership, and transformational leadership. These five traits are as follows.

Extraversion The two main characteristics of extraverts are affiliation and agency, which relate to the social and leadership aspects of their personality, respectively. Extraversion is generally seen as an inspirational trait usually exhibited in transformational leadership.

Neuroticism Neuroticism generally gives an individual an anxiety related to productivity which, in a group setting can be debilitating to a degree where they are unlikely to position themselves in a role of transformational leadership due to lower self-esteem and a tendency to shirk from leadership responsibilities.

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Openness to Experience Creative expression and emotional responsiveness have been linked to a general tendency of openness to experience. This trait is also seen as a component of transformational leadership as it relates to the ability to give big-picture visionary leadership for an organization.

Agreeableness Although not a trait which specifically points to transformational leadership, leaders in general possess an agreeable nature stemming from a natural concern for others and high levels of individual consideration. Charisma and idealized influence is a classic ability of individuals who possess agreeability.

Conscientiousness Strong sense of direction and the ability to put large amounts of productive work into tasks is the by-product of conscientious leaders. This trait is more linked to a transactional form of leadership given the management-based abilities of such individuals and the detail oriented nature of their personality.

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Effectiveness & Comparisons Effectiveness as Compared to Other Leadership Styles Studies have shown that transformational leadership styles are associated with positive outcomes in relation to other leadership styles. According to studies performed by Lowe, Kroeck, and Sivasubramaniam, charisma (or Idealized Influence) was found to be a variable that was most strongly related to leader effectiveness among MLQ scales. Other studies show that transformational leadership is positively associated with employee outcomes including commitment, role clarity, and well-being.

Transactional Leadership In contrast to leadership, transactional the use of rewards and achieve compliance from Transformational changing the future to and accomplish transactional maintain the aiming for The does

transformational leadership styles focus on punishments in order to followers. leaders look towards inspire followers goals, whereas leaders seek to status quo, not progress. MLQ test

for some transactional leadership elements - Contingent Reward and Management-byException - and these results for these elements are often compared to those of the transformational elements that the MLQ tests for. Studies have shown transformational leadership practices lead to higher satisfaction with leader among followers and greater leader effectiveness, while transactional practices lead to higher follower job satisfaction and leader job performance

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Laissez-Faire Leadership In a laissez-faire leadership style, a person may be given a leadership position without providing leadership, which leaves followers to fend for themselves. This leads to subordinates having a free hand in deciding policies and methods. Studies have shown that while transformational leadership styles are associated with positive outcomes, laissez-faire leadership is associated with negative outcomes, especially in terms of follower satisfaction with leader and leader effectiveness. Also, other studies comparing the leadership styles of men and women have shown that female leaders tend to be more transformational with their leadership styles, whereas laissez-faire leadership is more prevalent in male leaders

Factors Affecting Use Phipps suggests that the individual personality of a leader heavily affects his/her leadership style, specifically with regard to the following components of the Five Factor Model of Personality: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion/introversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism/emotional stability (OCEAN). Phipps also proposed that all the Big Five dimensions would be positively related to transformational leadership. Openness to experience allows the leader to be more accepting of novel ideas and thus more likely to stimulate the follower intellectually. Conscientious leaders are achievement oriented and thus more likely to motivate their followers to achieve organizational goals. Extraverted and agreeable individuals are more outgoing and pleasant, respectively, and more likely to have successful interpersonal relationships. Thus, they are more likely to influence their followers and to be considerate towards them. Emotionally stable leaders would be better able to influence their followers because their stability would enable them to be better role models to followers and to thoroughly engage them in the goal fulfillment process. A specific example of cultural background affecting the effectiveness of transformational leadership would be Indian culture, where a nurturant-task style of leadership has been shown to be an effective leadership style. Singh and Bhandarker (1990) demonstrated that effective transformational leaders in India are likes heads of Indian families taking personal interest in the welfare of their followers. Leaders in Indian organizations are therefore more likely to exhibit transformational behaviors if their followers are more self-effacing in approaching the leaders. It is also hypothesized in general that subordinatesâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC; being socialized to be less assertive, selfconfident, and independent would enhance superiorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC; exhibition of transformational leadership. In addition, there is also evidence to suggest that social demographics do not necessarily affect transformational leadership styles. However, follower characteristics, combined with their perceptions of the leader and their own situation, did appear to moderate the connection between transformational leadership and subordinatesâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC; willingness to take charge and be good organizational citizens.For instance, if subordinates in a work group perceive their leader to be prototypical of them, then Page 20 of 84

transformational leadership would have less of an impact on their willingness to engage in organizational citizenship behaviors. Likewise, if subordinates are goal oriented and possess a traditional view of the organizational hierarchy, they tend to be less affected by transformational leadership. Self-motivated employees are less likely to need transformational leaders to prod them into action, while ―traditionalists‖ tend to see positive organizational citizenship as something expected given their roles as followers—not something they need to be ―inspired‖ to do. Evidence suggests that the above sets of factors act, in essence, as both inhibitors of and substitutes for transformational leadership. As inhibitors, the presence of any of these factors— either independently or especially collectively—could make the presence of a transformational leader ―redundant‖ since followers‘ positive behavior would instead be sparked by their own motivations or perceptions. On the other hand, when these factors are not present (e.g., employees in a work group do not see their leader as ―one of us‖), then transformational leadership is likely to have a much greater impact on subordinates. In essence, when such ―favorable conditions‖ are not present, managers—and the organizations they work for—should see a better return on investment from transformational leadership. It was shown that leader continuity enhanced the effect of transformational leadership on role clarity and commitment, indicating that it takes time before transformational leaders actually have an effect on employees. Furthermore, co-worker support enhanced the effect on commitment, reflecting the role of followers in the transformational leadership process. However, there are also factors that would serve to hinder the exhibition of transformational leadership, including the organizational structure, ongoing change, and the leaders‘ working conditions.

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Noteworthy Transformational Leaders

Nelson Mandela Nelson Mandela used transformational leadership principles while working to abolish apartheid and enforce change in South Africa. In 1995, he visited Betsie Verwoerd, the widow of the architect of apartheid Hendrik Verwoerd, at her home in Orania. Orania was an Afrikaner homeland and a striking anachronistic symbol of racial separation, and Mandela's recurring emphasis on forgiveness contributed toward the healing the prejudices of South Africa and as vast influence as a leader. In 2000, he was quoted as saying, "For all people who have found themselves in the position of being in jail and trying to transform society, forgiveness is natural because you have no time to be retaliative.". He also set an example for others to follow in terms of sacrifice and philanthropy. Schoemaker describes one such instance: "One such leader received a call from Mandela's office requesting that he accompany the President to the Eastern Cape. This leader was less than enthusiastic and pleaded that he had an appointment around mid-day clashing with Mandela's request. But there was no denying Mandela, so the leader agreed to go--but first consulted with his financial director to set a reasonable limit on the size of the anticipated donation request. They settled on 500,000 Rand, or about $50,000 in those days...upon landing, about 80,000 black school children--all adorned in Page 23 of 84

crisp white shirts--simultaneously bowed to acknowledge the great man's arrival. As they were climbing down from the helicopter, Mandela planted his hand firmly in his guest's back and said, 'Now, I hope you are not going to disappoint me?' The business leader decided in that instance to double the donation...how could he tell a man who sacrificed as much as Mandela that he couldn't afford to be more generous?"

Abraham There are also numerous examples from the Bible of Abraham, the biblical patriarch, using transformational leadership principles to destroy paganism and spread the roots for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. He mobilized his small clan and waged war with four powerful kings (Genesis 14) in order to rescue his nephew Lot, showing the courage to take risks and confidence to carry out visions. He cared a lot about people, often inviting strangers into his home and caring for them, providing food and drink (Genesis 18). Abraham also firmly believed in justice for all, and haggled with God to save Sodom and Gomorra from destruction: Abraham: 'What if there are 50 innocent people in the city? Will you still destroy it?' God: 'If I find 50 innocent people in Sodom, I will spare the entire area.' Abraham: 'Suppose there are 45?' God: 'I will not destroy it if I find 45.' Abraham: 'What if there are 40?' God: 'I will not act if there are 40.'" Abraham was also willing to make sacrifices for his believes, and the story about God asking him to sacrifice his son Isaac indicated his willingness to make a personal sacrifice for God in Genesis 22. This trial for Abraham may have been God's way of indicating to Abraham that spreading monotheism would require much sacrifice on the part of believers, and transformational leaders must be willing to make sacrifices on behalf of an organization.

Franklin D. Roosevelt Franklin Delano Roosevelt (/roʊzəvəlt/, his own pronunciation, or /roʊzəvɛlt/) (January 30, 1882 – April 12, 1945), commonly known by his initials FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States. A Democrat, he won a record four elections and served from March 1933 to his death in April 1945. He was a central figure in world events during the mid-20th century, leading the United States during a time of worldwide economic depression and total war. His program for relief, recovery and reform, known as the New Deal, involved the great expansion of the role of the federal government in the economy. A dominant leader of the Democratic Party, he built the New Deal Coalition that united labor unions, big city machines, white ethnics, African Americans, and rural white Southerners. The Coalition realigned American politics after 1932, creating the Fifth Party System and defining American liberalism for the middle third of the 20th century. Page 24 of 84

Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from upstate New York. He attended the elite schools of Groton School and Harvard College. In 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, with whom he had six children. He entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt ran for vice president alongside presidential candidate James M. Cox but the Cox/Roosevelt ticket lost to the Republican ticket of Warren Harding and Calvin Coolidge. Roosevelt was stricken with polio in 1921, which cost him the use of his legs and put his political career on hold for several years. Roosevelt attempted to recover from this illness, and founded a treatment center for polio patients in Warm Springs, Georgia. After returning to political life by placing Alfred E. Smith's name into nomination at the 1924 Democratic National Convention, Roosevelt was asked by Smith to run for Governor of New York in the 1928 election. Roosevelt served as a reform governor from 1929 to 1932, and promoted the enactment of programs to combat the Great Depression that occurred during his governorship. Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in November 1932, at the depth of the Great Depression. Energized by his personal victory over polio, FDR used his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. In his first hundred days in office, which began March 4, 1933, Roosevelt spearheaded major legislation and issued a profusion of executive orders that instituted the New Dealâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;a variety of programs designed to produce relief (government jobs for the unemployed), recovery (economic growth), and reform (through regulation of Wall Street, banks and transportation). He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to encourage labor union growth while more closely regulating business and high finance. The repeal of Prohibition added to his popularity, helping him win reelection by a landslide in 1936. The economy improved rapidly from 1933 to 1937, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937â&#x20AC;&#x201C;38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, blocked all proposals for major liberal legislation (apart from a minimum wage law), and abolished many of the relief programs when unemployment practically vanished during World War II. Most of the regulations on business continued in effect until they ended about 1975â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1985, except for the regulation of Wall Street by the still existing Securities and Exchange Commission. Along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. As World War II loomed after 1938, with the Japanese invasion of China and the aggression of Nazi Germany, Roosevelt gave strong diplomatic and financial support to China and the United Kingdom, while remaining officially neutral. His goal was to make America the "Arsenal of Democracy", which would supply munitions to the Allies. In March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, which he called a "date which will live in infamy", he made war on Japan and Germany. Assisted by his top aide Harry Hopkins, and with very strong national support, he worked closely with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in leading the Allies against Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Imperial Japan in World War II. He supervised the mobilization of the U.S. economy to support the war effort, and also ordered the internment of 100,000 Japanese American civilians. As an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and the development of the world's first nuclear bomb (commonly called the atom bomb

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at the time). His work also influenced the later creation of the United Nations and Bretton Woods. During the war, unemployment dropped to 2%, relief programs largely ended, and the industrial economy grew rapidly to new heights as millions of people moved to wartime factory jobs or entered military service. Roosevelt's health seriously declined during the war years, and he died three months into his fourth term. He is consistently rated by scholars as one of the top three U.S. Presidents, along with Abraham Lincoln and George Washington.

Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Martin Luther King Jr. (January 15, 1929 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; April 4, 1968) was an American Baptist minister, activist, humanitarian, and leader in the African-American Civil Rights Movement. He is best known for his role in the advancement of civil rights using nonviolent civil disobedience based on his Christian beliefs. King became a civil rights activist early in his career. He led the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott and helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in 1957, serving as its first president. With the SCLC, King led an unsuccessful 1962 struggle against segregation in Albany, Georgia, (the Albany Movement), and helped organize the 1963 nonviolent protests in Birmingham, Alabama, that attracted national attention following television news coverage of the brutal police response. King also helped to organize the 1963 March on Washington, where

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he delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech. There, he established his reputation as one of the greatest orators in American history. On October 14, 1964, King received the Nobel Peace Prize for combating racial inequality through nonviolence. In 1965, he helped to organize the Selma to Montgomery marches, and the following year he and SCLC took the movement north to Chicago to work on segregated housing. In the final years of his life, King expanded his focus to include poverty and speak against the Vietnam War, alienating many of his liberal allies with a 1967 speech titled "Beyond Vietnam". In 1968, King was planning a national occupation of Washington, D.C., to be called the Poor People's Campaign, when he was assassinated on April 4 in Memphis, Tennessee. His death was followed by riots in many U.S. cities. Allegations that James Earl Ray, the man convicted of killing King, had been framed or acted in concert with government agents persisted for decades after the shooting. King was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal. Martin Luther King Jr. Day was established as a holiday in numerous cities and states beginning in 1971, and as a U.S. federal holiday in 1986. Hundreds of streets in the U.S. have been renamed in his honor, and a county in Washington State was also renamed for him. The Martin Luther King Memorial statue on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. was dedicated in 2011.

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Servant Leadership Servant Leadership is both a leadership philosophy and set of leadership practices. Traditional leadership generally involves the accumulation and exercise of power by one at the â&#x20AC;&#x2022;top of the pyramid.â&#x20AC;&#x2013; By comparison, the servant-leader shares power, puts the needs of others first and helps people develop and perform as highly as possible.

Clients

History Servant leadership is an ancient philosophy. There are passages that relate to servant leadership in the Tao Te Ching, attributed to Lao-Tzu, who is believed to have lived in China sometime between 570 BCE and 490 BCE:

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The highest type of ruler is one of whose existence the people are barely aware. Next comes one whom they love and praise. Next comes one whom they fear. Next comes one whom they despise and defy. When you are lacking in faith, Others will be unfaithful to you. The Sage is self-effacing and scanty of words. When his task is accomplished and things have been completed, All the people say, ‗We ourselves have achieved it!‘ Chanakya wrote, in the 4th century BCE, in his book Arthashastra: "the king [leader] shall consider as good, not what pleases himself but what pleases his subjects [followers]" "the king [leader] is a paid servant and enjoys the resources of the state together with the people." Servant leadership can be found in many religious texts, though the philosophy itself transcends any particular religious tradition. In the Christian tradition, this passage from the Gospel of Mark is often quoted in discussions of servant leadership: "42 Jesus called them together and said, ―You know that those who are regarded as rulers of the Gentiles lord it over them, and their high officials exercise authority over them. 43 Not so with you. Instead, whoever wants to become great among you must be your servant, 44 and whoever wants to be first must be servant of all. 45 For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many.‖ Mark 10:42-45 Islam ("the leader of a people is their servant") and other world religions have long embraced the philosophy of servant leadership.

Robert K. Greenleaf and The Modern Movement While servant leadership is a timeless concept, the phrase ―servant leadership‖ was coined by Robert K. Greenleaf in "The Servant as Leader", an essay that he first published in 1970. In that essay, Greenleaf said: ―The servant-leader is servant first… It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead. That person is sharply different from one who is leader first, perhaps because of the need to assuage an unusual power drive or to acquire material possessions…The leader-first and the servant-first are two extreme types. Between them there are shadings and blends that are part of the infinite variety of human nature.‖ ―The difference manifests itself in the care taken by the servant-first to make sure that other people‘s highest priority needs are being served. The best test, and difficult to administer, is: Do those served grow as persons? Do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants? And, what is the effect on the least privileged in society? Will they benefit or at least not be further deprived?― Page 30 of 84

Robert Greenleaf recognized that organizations as well as individuals could be servant-leaders. Indeed, he had great faith that servant-leader organizations could change the world. In his second major essay, "The Institution as Servant" (1972), Greenleaf articulated what is often called the ―credo.‖ There he said: ―This is my thesis: caring for persons, the more able and the less able serving each other, is the rock upon which a good society is built. Whereas, until recently, caring was largely person to person, now most of it is mediated through institutions – often large, complex, powerful, impersonal; not always competent; sometimes corrupt. If a better society is to be built, one that is more just and more loving, one that provides greater creative opportunity for its people, then the most open course is to raise both the capacity to serve and the very performance as servant of existing major institutions by new regenerative forces operating within them.‖

In The Context of Leadership Styles The most common division of leadership styles is the distinction between autocratic, participative and laissez-faire leadership styles. The authoritarian style of leadership requires clearly defined tasks and monitoring their execution and results. The decision-making responsibility rests with the executive. In contrast to the autocratic, the practice of a participative leadership style involves employees in decision-making. More extensive tasks are delegated. The employees influence and responsibility increases. The laissez-faire style of leadership is negligible in practice. Servant leadership can be most likely associated with the participative leadership style. The authoritarian leadership style does not correspond to the guiding principle. The highest priority of a servant leader is to encourage, support and enable subordinates to unfold their full potential and abilities. This leads to an obligation to delegate responsibility and engage in participative decision-making. In the managerial grid model of Blake and Mouton, the participative style of leadership is presented as the approach with the greatest possible performance and employee satisfaction. However, there is the question whether a leadership style can be declared as universal and universally applicable. Situational contexts are not considered. Page 31 of 84

The servant leadership approach goes beyond employee-related behavior and calls for a rethinking of the hierarchical relationship between leader and subordinates. This does not mean that the ideal of a participative style in any situation is to be enforced, but that the focus of leadership responsibilities is the promotion of performance and satisfaction of employees.

Models Most writers see servant leadership as an underlying philosophy of leadership, demonstrated through specific characteristics and practices. The foundational concepts are found in Greenleaf‘s first three major essays, "The Servant as Leader", "The Institution as Servant", and "Trustees as Servants." Larry Spears identified ten characteristic of servant leaders in the writings of Greenleaf. The ten characteristics are listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to the growth of others, and building community. Leadership experts such as Bolman, Deal, Covey, Fullan, Sergiovanni, and Heifitz also reference these characteristics as essential components of effective leadership. The Center for Servant Leadership at the Pastoral Institute in Georgia defines servant leadership as a lifelong journey that includes discovery of one‘s self, a desire to serve others, and a commitment to lead. Servant-leaders continually strive to be trustworthy, self-aware, humble, caring, visionary, empowering, relational, competent, good stewards, and community builders. Kent Keith, author of The Case for Servant Leadership, states that servant leadership is ethical, practical, and meaningful. He identifies seven key practices of servant leaders: self-awareness, listening, changing the pyramid, developing your colleagues, coaching not controlling, unleashing the energy and intelligence of others, and foresight.' James Sipe and Don Frick, in their book The Seven Pillars of Servant Leadership, state that servant-leaders are individuals of character, put people first, are skilled communicators, are compassionate collaborators, use foresight, are systems thinkers, and exercise moral authority. Unlike leadership approaches with a top-down hierarchical style, servant leadership instead emphasizes collaboration, trust, empathy, and the ethical use of power. At heart, the individual is a servant first, making the conscious decision to lead in order to better serve others, not to increase their own power. The objective is to enhance the growth of individuals in the organization and increase teamwork and personal involvement. A recent behavioral economics experiment demonstrates the group benefits of servant leadership. Teams of players coordinated their actions better with a servant leader resulting in improved outcomes for the followers (but not for the selfless leaders).

Link with Leadership Theory Some see a difference between a leadership philosophy (e.g. ―servant leadership‖ or ―ethical leadership‖) and a leadership theory (e.g. functional and situational leadership theories). The

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former is a values-based view of how leaders should act whereas the latter is usually a way of teaching leaders how to be more effective. For decades, the older leadership theories (e.g. traits, behavioral/styles, situational and functional) did not explicitly support or address the philosophy of servant leadership. However, this changed with the emergence of integrated psychological leadership theory – as represented by James Scouller‘s three levels of leadership model (2011). Scouller‘s model – which attempts to integrate the older theories while addressing their limitations by focusing on the leader‘s psychology – emphasizes the idea that leaders should care as much about their followers‘ needs as their own and view leadership as an act of service. Thus, the link between the philosophy of servant leadership and modern leadership theory has strengthened in the 21st century.

Advantages   

   

This concept is seen as a long-term concept to live and work and therefore has the potential to influence the society in a positive way. The exemplary treatment of employees leads to an excellent treatment of customers by employees of the company and a high loyalty of the customers. Servant Leaders engender trust, which catalyzes higher levels of worker engagement, the offering of the workers' discretionary effort and ideas, and greater speed in change and innovation. There is a high employee identification with the enterprise. An excellent corporate culture is developed. Leaders of a company define themselves by their significance to the people. Servant leadership can be used as a principle to improve the return on investment of staff, in all economic sectors. Managers who empower and respect their staff get better performance in return.

Disadvantages  

Servant leadership is seen as a long-term application and therefore needs time for applying. Deborah Eicher-Catt wrote an extensive critique of servant-leadership 'The myth of servant-leadership: a feminist perspective' http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-133864711.html

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Three Levels of Leadership Public. Private, and Personal

Three Levels of Leadership Model

Overview The model is intended as a practical tool for developing leaders‘ leadership presence, knowhow and skill. It aims to summarize what leaders have to do, not only to bring leadership to their group or organization, but also to develop themselves technically and psychologically as leaders. The three levels referred to in the model‘s name are Public, Private and Personal leadership. The model is usually presented in diagram form as three concentric circles and four outwardlydirected arrows, with personal leadership in the center. 



The first two levels – Public and Private Leadership – are ―outer‖ or ―behavioral‖ levels. Scouller distinguished between the behaviors involved in influencing two or more people simultaneously (what he called ―public leadership‖) from the behavior needed to select and influence individuals one to one (which he called private leadership). He listed 34 distinct ―public leadership‖ behaviors and a further 14 ―private leadership‖ behaviors. The third level – Personal Leadership – is an ―inner‖ level and concerns a person‘s leadership presence, knowhow, skills, beliefs, emotions and unconscious habits. "At its heart is the leader’s self-awareness, his progress toward self-mastery and technical competence, and his sense of connection with those around him. It's the inner core, the source, of a leader’s outer leadership effectiveness.” (Scouller, 2011).

The idea is that if leaders want to be effective they must work on all three levels in parallel. The two outer levels – public and private leadership – are what the leader must do behaviorally with individuals or groups to address the ―four dimensions of leadership‖ (Scouller 2011). These are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

A shared, motivating group purpose or vision. Action, progress and results. Collective unity or team spirit. Individual selection and motivation.

The inner level – personal leadership – refers to what leaders should do to grow their leadership presence, knowhow and skill. It has three aspects: 1. Developing one‘s technical knowhow and skill. Page 35 of 84

2. Cultivating the right attitude toward other people. 3. Working on psychological self-mastery. Scouller argued that self-mastery is the key to growing one‘s leadership presence, building trusting relationships with followers and enabling behavioral flexibility as circumstances change, while staying connected to one‘s core values (that is, while remaining authentic). To support leaders‘ development, he introduced a new model of the human psyche and outlined the principles and techniques of self-mastery (Scouller 2011). The assumption in this model is that personal leadership is the most powerful of the three levels. Scouller likened its effect to dropping a pebble in a pond and seeing the ripples spreading out from the center – hence the four arrows pointing outward in the diagram. "The pebble represents inner, personal leadership and the ripples the two outer levels. Helpful inner change and growth will affect outer leadership positively. Negative inner change will cause the opposite.” (Scouller, 2011).

Public Leadership Public leadership refers to the actions or behaviors that leaders take to influence two or more people simultaneously – perhaps in a meeting or when addressing a large group. Public leadership is directed towards (1) setting and agreeing a motivating vision or future for the group or organization to ensure unity of purpose; (2) creating positive peer pressure towards shared, high performance standards and an atmosphere of trust and team spirit; and (3) driving successful collective action and results. Public leadership therefore serves the first three dimensions of leadership mentioned in the overview section. There are 34 distinct public leadership behaviors (Scouller, 2011), which break out as follows:     

Setting the vision, staying focused: 4 behaviors. Organizing, planning, giving power to others: 2 behaviors. Ideation, problem-solving, decision-making: 10 behaviors. Executing: 6 behaviors. Group building and maintenance: 12 behaviors.

Leaders need to balance their time between the 22 vision/planning/thinking/execution behaviors and the 12 group building/maintenance behaviors. According to the Three Levels of Leadership model, the key to widening one's repertoire of public leadership behaviors (and the skill with which they are performed) is attention to personal leadership.

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Private Leadership Private leadership concerns the leader‘s one-to-one handling of individuals (which is the fourth of Scouller‘s four dimensions of leadership). Although leadership involves creating a sense of group unity, groups are composed of individuals and they vary in their ambitions, confidence, experience and psychological make-up. Therefore they have to be treated as individuals – hence the importance of personal leadership. There are 14 private leadership behaviors (Scouller, 2011):  

Individual purpose and task (e.g. appraising, selecting, disciplining): 5 behaviors. Individual building and maintenance (e.g. recognizing rising talent): 9 behaviors.

Some people experience the powerful conversations demanded by private leadership (e.g. performance appraisals) as uncomfortable. Consequently, leaders may avoid some of the private leadership behaviors (Scouller, 2011), which reduces their leadership effectiveness. Scouller argued that the intimacy of private leadership leads to avoidance behavior either because of a lack of skill or because of negative self-image beliefs that give rise to powerful fears of what may happen in such encounters. This is why personal leadership is so important in improving a leader‘s one-to-one skill and reducing his or her interpersonal fears.

Personal Leadership Personal leadership addresses the leader‘s technical, psychological and moral development and its impact on his or her leadership presence, skill and behavior. It is, essentially, the key to making the theory of the two outer behavioral levels practical. Scouller went further in suggesting (in the preface of his book, The Three Levels of Leadership), that personal leadership is the answer to what Jim Collins called "the inner development of a person to level 5 leadership" in the book Good to Great – something that Collins admitted he was unable to explain. Personal leadership has three elements: (1) technical knowhow and skill; (2) the right attitude towards other people; and (3) psychological self-mastery. The first element, Technical Knowhow and Skill, is about knowing one's technical weaknesses and taking action to update one‘s knowledge and skills. Scouller (2011) suggested that there are three areas of knowhow that all leaders should learn: time management, individual psychology and group psychology. He also described the six sets of skills that underlie the public and private leadership behaviors: (1) group problem-solving and planning; (2) group decision-making; (3) interpersonal ability, which has a strong overlap with emotional intelligence (4) managing group process; (5) assertiveness; (6) goal-setting. The second element, Attitude Toward Others, is about developing the right attitude toward colleagues in order to maintain the leader‘s relationships throughout the group's journey to its shared vision or goal. The right attitude is to believe that other people are as important as oneself and see leadership as an act of service (Scouller, 2011). Although there is a moral aspect to this, there is also a practical side – for a leader‘s attitude and behavior toward others will largely influence how much they respect and trust that person and want to work with him or her. Page 37 of 84

Scouller outlined the five parts of the right attitude toward others: (1) interdependence (2) appreciation (3) caring (4) service (5) balance. The two keys, he suggested, to developing these five aspects are to ensure that: 



There is a demanding, distinctive, shared vision that everyone in the group cares about and wants to achieve. The leader works on self-mastery to reduce self-esteem issues that make it hard to connect with, appreciate and adopt an attitude of service towards colleagues.

The third element of personal leadership is SelfMastery. It emphasizes self-awareness and flexible command of one's mind, which allows the leader to let go of previously unconscious limiting beliefs and their associated defensive habits (like avoiding powerful conversations, e.g. appraisal discussions). It also enables leaders to connect more strongly with their values, let their leadership presence flow and act authentically in serving those they lead. Because self-mastery is a psychological process, Scouller proposed a new model of the human psyche to support its practice. In addition, he outlined the principles of – and obstacles to – personal change and proposed six self-mastery techniques, which include mindfulness meditation.

Leadership Presence The importance and development of leadership presence is a central feature of the Three Levels of Leadership model. Scouller suggested that it takes more than the right knowhow, skills and behaviors to lead well – that it also demands "presence". Presence has been summed up in this way: “What is presence? At its root, it is wholeness – the rare but attainable inner alignment of selfidentity, purpose and feelings that eventually leads to freedom from fear. It reveals itself as the magnetic, radiating effect you have on others when you're being the authentic you, giving them your full respect and attention, speaking honestly and letting your unique character traits flow. As leaders, we must be technically competent to gain others’ respect, but it's our unique genuine presence that inspires people and prompts them to trust us – in short, to want us as their leader." (Scouller, 2011.) In the Three Levels of Leadership model, "presence" is not the same as ―charisma‖. Scouller argued that leaders can be charismatic by relying on a job title, fame, skillful acting or by the projection of an aura of ―specialness‖ by followers – whereas presence is something deeper, more authentic, more fundamental and more powerful and does not depend on social status. He contrasted the mental and moral resilience of a person with real presence with the susceptibility Page 38 of 84

to pressure and immoral actions of someone whose charisma rests only on acting skills (and the power their followers give them), not their true inner qualities. Scouller also suggested that each person's authentic presence is unique and outlined seven qualities of presence: (1) personal power – command over one‘s thoughts, feelings and actions; (2) high, real self-esteem; (3) the drive to be more, to learn, to grow; (4) a balance of an energetic sense of purpose with a concern for the service of others and respect for their free will; (5) intuition; (6) being in the now; (7) inner peace of mind and a sense of fulfillment. Presence, according to this model, is developed by practicing personal leadership.

How the three levels model addresses older theories’ limitations The section at the start of this page discussed the older theories‘ potential limitations. The table below explains how the Three Levels of Leadership model tries to address them. Theory

Limitations

How three levels model addresses them 



Traits



 Behavioral/styles



Situational/contingency

 

Researchers do not agree on a common list of traits, which undermines the idea that a leader‘s effectiveness can be traced back to specific character qualities. Even if they could agree, this theory does not help to develop leaders (although it would help in selecting them).



 Proposes one ideal style that may not be best in all circumstances. Ignores leadership presence.

Assumes everyone can change their behavior at will to suit different situations or followers, but many cannot. Ignores people‘s controlling psychology. Ignores leadership presence.



The Three Levels of Leadership model accepts the premise that the best leaders have something about them (―leadership presence‖) that causes followers to see them as credible, inspirational and trustworthy. However, it presupposes that ―presence‖ is unique to each person and cannot be pinned down to a shortlist of common character traits (which seems to fit the evidence from research). The Three Levels model‘s solution to a means of developing one‘s unique leadership presence is the practice of ―personal leadership‖, especially self-mastery. The Three Levels of Leadership model does not disagree with Blake & Mouton‘s ideal of balancing concern for task with concern for people, but it also allows for changing the emphasis if the situation requires it. Leadership presence is an integral part of the Three Levels model. The Three Levels of Leadership model supports the idea of behavioral flexibility as circumstances demand, but rests on the idea that the key to achieving it is to go beyond behavioral training and also work on one‘s inner psychology (that is, one‘s limiting beliefs and emotions) as this controls our tendency to cling to rigid, defensive behaviors. Leadership presence is a central feature of

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the Three Levels model. 



Functional

 

Assumes that all leaders can adopt the required behaviors after behavioral training, but many cannot. Ignores people‘s controlling psychology. Ignores leadership presence. 

In some respects, the Three Levels of Leadership model is like the older functional models in that it concentrates on what leaders have to do in their role in order to provide leadership. However, it does not focus solely on interpersonal behavior; it also addresses what leaders can do to develop themselves technically and psychologically. The idea behind this is to help them translate functional theory into practice by freeing themselves from old, rigid, fear-based mindsets, enabling them to flex and extend their behavioral range at will. Leadership presence is a central feature of the Three Levels model.

Link with Authentic Leadership and Servant Leadership True leadership presence is, as Scouller defines it, synonymous with authenticity (being genuine and expressing one‘s highest values) and an attitude of service towards those being led. So in proposing self-mastery and cultivation of the right attitude toward others as a method of developing leadership presence, his model offers a ―how to‖ counterpart to the ideas of ―authentic leadership‖ and servant leadership.

Shared Leadership Most traditional theories of leadership explicitly or implicitly promote the idea of the leader as the admired hero – the person with all the answers that people want to follow. The Three Levels of Leadership model shifts away from this view. It does not reject the possibility of an impressive heroic leader, but it promotes the idea that this is only one way of leading (and, indeed, following) and that shared leadership is more realistic. This view stems from Scouller's position that leadership is a process, "a series of choices and actions around defining and achieving a goal". Therefore, in his view, "leadership is a practical challenge that's bigger than the leader." He pointed out the danger of confusing "leadership" with the role of "leader". As other authors such as John Adair have pointed out, leadership does not have to rely on one person because anyone in a group can exert leadership. Scouller went further to suggest that "not only can others exert leadership; they must exert it at times if a group is to be successful." In other words, he believed that shared rather than solo leadership is not an idealistic aspiration; it is a matter of practicality. He suggested three reasons for this: 1. The sheer number of different behaviors required of leaders means they are unlikely to be equally proficient at all of them, so it is sensible for them to draw on their colleagues‘ strengths (that is, to allow them to lead at times). Page 40 of 84

2. It is foolish to make one person responsible for all of the many leadership behaviors as it is likely to overburden them and frustrate any colleagues who are willing and able to lead – indeed, more able to lead – in certain circumstances. 3. Shared leadership means that more people are involved in the group's big decisions and this promotes joint accountability which, as Katzenbach & Smith found in their research, is a distinct feature of high-performance teams. Now, potentially, this leaves the leader's role unclear – after all, if anyone in a group can lead, what is the distinct purpose of the leader? Scouller said this of the leader's role: "The purpose of a leader is to make sure there is leadership … to ensure that all four dimensions of leadership are [being addressed].” The four dimensions being: (1) a shared, motivating group purpose or vision (2) action, progress and results (3) collective unity or team spirit (4) attention to individuals. For example, the leader has to ensure that there is a motivating vision or goal, but that does not mean he or she has to supply the vision on their own. That is certainly one way of leading, but it is not the only way; another way is to co-create the vision with one's colleagues. This means that the leader does not always have to lead from the front or have all the answers; he or she can delegate, or share, part of the responsibility for leadership. However, the final responsibility for making sure that all four dimensions are covered still rests with the leader. So although leaders can let someone else lead in a particular situation, they cannot let go of responsibility to make sure there is leadership; so when the situation changes the leader must decide whether to take charge personally or pass situational responsibility to someone else.

Criticism One criticism of the Three Levels of Leadership model has been that it may be difficult for some leaders to use it as a guide to self-development without the assistance of a professional coach or psychotherapist at some point as many of its ideas around self-mastery are deeply psychological. ______ The Three Levels of Leadership is a modern (2011) leadership model. Designed as a practical tool for developing a person‘s leadership presence, knowhow and skill, it aims to summarize what leaders have to do, not only to bring leadership to their group or organization, but also to develop themselves technically and psychologically as leaders. The Three Levels of Leadership model is notable for its attempt to combine the strengths of older leadership theories (i.e. traits, behavioral/styles, situational, functional) while addressing their limitations and, at the same time, offering a foundation for leaders wanting to apply the philosophies of servant leadership and ―authentic leadership‖. It was introduced in a 2011 book, The Three Levels of Leadership: How to Develop Your Leadership Presence, Knowhow and Skill, by James Scouller. In Wikipedia and elsewhere it has been classified as an "Integrated Psychological" theory of leadership. It is sometimes known as the 3P model of leadership (the three Ps standing for Public, Private and Personal leadership).

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Limitations of Older Leadership Theories In reviewing the older leadership theories, Scouller highlighted certain limitations in relation to the development of a leader‘s skill and effectiveness: 



Traits Theory: As Stogdill (1948) and Buchanan & Huczynski (1997) had previously pointed out, this approach has failed to develop a universally agreed list of leadership qualities and ―successful leaders seem to defy classification from the traits perspective‖. Moreover, because traits theory gave rise to the idea that leaders are born not made, Scouller (2011) argued that its approach is better suited to selecting leaders than developing them. Behavioral Styles Theory: Blake and Mouton, in their managerial grid model, proposed five leadership styles based on two axes – concern for the task versus concern for people. They suggested that the ideal is the "team style", which balances concern for the task with concern for people. Scouller (2011) argued that this ideal approach may not suit all circumstances; for example, emergencies or turnarounds. Situational/Contingency Theories: Most of these (e.g. Hersey & Blanchard‘s Situational leadership theory, House‘s Path-goal theory, Tannenbaum & Schmidt‘s leadership continuum) assume that leaders can change their behavior at will to meet differing circumstances, when in practice many find it hard to do so even after training because of unconscious fixed beliefs, fears or ingrained habits. For this reason, leaders need to work on their underlying psychology if they are to attain the flexibility to apply these theories (Scouller, 2011). Functional Theories: Widely-used approaches like Kouzes & Posner‘s Five Leadership Practices model and Adair‘s Action-Centered Leadership theory assume that once the leader understands – and has been trained in – the required leadership behaviors, he or she will apply them as needed, regardless of their personality. However, as with the situational theories, Scouller noted that many cannot do so because of hidden beliefs and old habits so again he argued that most leaders may need to master their inner psychology if they are to adopt unfamiliar behaviors at will. Leadership Presence: The best leaders usually have something beyond their behavior – something distinctive that commands attention, wins people's trust and enables them to lead successfully, which is often called "leadership presence‖ (Scouller, 2011). This is possibly why the traits approach became researchers‘ original line of investigation into the sources of a leader‘s effectiveness. However, that ―something‖ – that presence – varies from person to person and research has shown it is hard to define in terms of common personality characteristics, so the traits approach failed to capture the elusive phenomenon of presence. The other leading leadership theories do not address the nature and development of presence.

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Situational Leadership The Situational Leadership (Theory) Model is a leadership theory developed by Paul Hersey, professor and author of the book The Situational Leader, and Ken Blanchard, leadership guru and author of The One Minute Manager, while working on the first edition of Management of Organizational Behavior (now in its 10th edition). The theory was first introduced as "Life Cycle Theory of Leadership". During the mid-1970s, "Life Cycle Theory of Leadership" was renamed "Situational Leadership theory".

In the late 1970s/early 1980s, the authors both developed their own models using the situational leadership theory; Hersey - Situational Leadership Model and Blanchard et al. Situational Leadership II Model. The fundamental underpinning of the situational leadership theory is that there is no single "best" style of leadership. Effective leadership is task-relevant, and the most successful leaders are those who adapt their leadership style to the maturity ("the capacity to set high but attainable goals, willingness and ability to take responsibility for the task, and relevant education and/or experience of an individual or a group for the task") of the individual or group they are attempting to lead or influence. Effective leadership varies, not only with the person or group

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that is being influenced, but it also depends on the task, job or function that needs to be accomplished. The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Model rests on two fundamental concepts; leadership style and the individual or group's maturity level.

Leadership Styles Hersey and Blanchard characterized leadership style in terms of the amount of Task Behavior and Relationship Behavior that the leader provides to their followers. They categorized all leadership styles into four behavior types, which they named S1 to S4: 

S1: Telling - is characterized by one-way communication in which the leader defines the roles of the individual or group and provides the what, how, why, when and where to do the task;



S2: Selling - while the leader is still providing the direction, he or she is now using twoway communication and providing the socio-emotional support that will allow the individual or group being influenced to buy into the process;



S3: Participating - this is how shared decision-making about aspects of how the task is accomplished and the leader is providing less task behaviors while maintaining high relationship behavior;



S4: Delegating - the leader is still involved in decisions; however, the process and responsibility has been passed to the individual or group. The leader stays involved to monitor progress.

Of these, no one style is considered optimal for all leaders to use all the time. Effective leaders need to be flexible, and must adapt themselves according to the situation.

Maturity Levels High Moderate Low M4 M3 M2 M1 Very capable and confident Capable but unwilling Unable but willing Unable and insecure

The right leadership style will depend on the person or group being led. The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory identified four levels of Maturity M1 through M4: 

M1 - They still lack the specific skills required for the job in hand and are unable and unwilling to do or to take responsibility for this job or task. (According to Ken Blanchard "The honeymoon is over")



M2 - They are unable to take on responsibility for the task being done; however, they are willing to work at the task. They are novice but enthusiastic. Page 45 of 84



M3 - They are experienced and able to do the task but lack the confidence or the willingness to take on responsibility.



M4 - They are experienced at the task, and comfortable with their own ability to do it well. They are able and willing to not only do the task, but to take responsibility for the task.

Maturity Levels are also task-specific. A person might be generally skilled, confident and motivated in their job, but would still have a maturity level M1 when asked to perform a task requiring skills they don't possess.

Developing People and Self-Motivation A good leader develops "the competence and commitment of their people so they‘re selfmotivated rather than dependent on others for direction and guidance." (Hersey 91) According to Hersey's book "the situational leader", the leader‘s high, realistic expectation causes high performance of followers; the leader‘s low expectations lead to low performance of followers. According to Ken Blanchard, "Four combinations of competence and commitment make up what we call 'development level.'" 

D1 - Low competence and high commitment



D2 - Low competence and low commitment



D3 - High competence and low/variable commitment



D4 - High competence and high commitment

In order to make an effective cycle, a leader needs to motivate followers properly.

Situational Leadership II Hersey and Blanchard continued to iterate on the original theory until 1977 when they mutually agreed to run their respective companies. In the late 1970s, Hersey changed the name from Situational Leadership Theory to "Situational Leadership", and Blanchard offered Situational Leadership Theory as "A Situational Approach to Managing People". Blanchard and his colleagues continued to iterate and revise A Situational Approach to Managing People, and in 1985 introduced Situational Leadership II (SLII). In 1979, Ken Blanchard founded Blanchard Training & Development, Inc., (later The Ken Blanchard Companies) together with his wife Margie Blanchard and a board of founding associates. Over time, this group made changes to the concepts of the original Situational Leadership Theory in several key areas, which included the research base, the leadership style labels, and the individual‘s development level continuum.

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Research The Situational Leadership II (SLII) Model acknowledged the existing research of the Situational Leadership Theory and revised the concepts based on feedback from clients, practicing managers, and the work of several leading researchers in the field of group development. The primary sources included: • Malcolm Knowles‘ research in the area of adult learning theory and individual development stages, where he asserted that learning and growth are based on changes in self-concept, experience, readiness to learn, and orientation to learning. • Kanfer and Ackerman‘s study of motivation and cognitive abilities and the difference between commitment and confidence, task knowledge and transferable skills. • Bruce Tuckman‘s research in the field of group development, which compiled the results of 50 studies on group development and identified four stages of development: Forming, Storming, Norming, and Performing. Tuckman‘s later work identified a fifth stage of development called "Termination." Tuckman found that when individuals are new to the team or task they are motivated but are usually relatively uninformed of the issues and objectives of the team. Tuckman felt that in the initial stage (Forming) supervisors of the team need to be directive. Stage two, Storming, is characterized by conflict and polarization around interpersonal issues and how best to approach the task. These behaviors serve as resistance to group influence and task requirements and can cause performance to drop. As the team moves through the stages of development, performance and productivity increase. Lacoursiere‘s research in the 1980s synthesized the findings from 238 groups. Until Lacoursiere‘s work in 1980, most research had studied non-work groups; Lacoursiere‘s work validated the findings produced by Tuckman in regard to the five stages of group development. • Susan Wheelan‘s 10-year study, published in 1990 and titled Creating Effective Teams, which confirmed the five stages of group development in Tuckman‘s work. Development Levels Blanchard‘s Situational Leadership II Model uses the terms "competence" (ability, knowledge, and skill) and "commitment" (confidence and motivation) to describe different levels of development.

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The Situational Leadership II Model tends to view development as an evolutionary progression meaning that when individuals approach a new task for the first time, they start out with little or no knowledge, ability or skills, but with high enthusiasm, motivation, and commitment. Blanchard views development as a process as the individual moves from developing to developed, in this viewpoint it is still incumbent upon the leader to diagnose development level and then use the appropriate leadership style. In the Blanchard SLII Model, the belief is that an individual comes to a new task or role with low competence (knowledge and transferable skills) but high commitment. As the individual gains experience and is appropriately supported and directed by their leader they reach Development Level 2 and gain some competence, but their commitment drops because the task may be more complex than the individual had originally perceived when they began the task. With the direction and support of their leader, the individual moves to Development Level 3 where competence can still be variableâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;fluctuating between moderate to high knowledge, ability and transferable skills and variable commitment as they continue to gain mastery of the task or role. Finally, the individual moves to Development Level 4 where competence and commitment are high. Criticisms Despite its intuitive appeal, several studies do not support the prescriptions offered by situational leadership theory. To determine the validity of the prescriptions suggested by the Hersey and Blanchard approach, Vecchio (1987) conducted a study of more than 300 high school teachers and their principals. He found that newly hired teachers were more satisfied and performed better under principals who had highly structured leadership styles, but the performance of more experienced and mature teachers was unrelated to the style their principals exhibited. In essence, the Vecchio findings suggest that in terms of situational leadership, it is appropriate to match a highly structured S1 style of leadership with immature subordinates, but it is not clear whether it is appropriate to match S2, S3, or S4, respectively, with more mature subordinates. In a replication study using University employees, Fernandez and Vecchio (1997) found similar results. Taken together, these studies fail to support the basic recommendations suggested by the situational leadership model.

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Contingency Theory A Contingency Theory is an organizational theory that claims that there is no best way to organize a corporation, to lead a company, or to make decisions. Instead, the optimal course of action is contingent (dependent) upon the internal and external situation. A contingent leader effectively applies their own style of leadership to the right situation. The contingency approach to leadership was influenced by two earlier research programs endeavoring to pinpoint effective leadership behavior. During the 1950s, researchers at Ohio State University administered extensive questionnaires measuring a range of possible leader behaviors in various organizational contexts. Although multiple sets of leadership behaviors were originally identified based on these questionnaires, two types of behaviors proved to be especially typical of effective leaders: (1) Consideration leader behaviors that include building good rapport and interpersonal relationships and showing support and concern for subordinates and (2) Initiating Structure leader behaviors that provided structure (e.g., role assignment, planning, scheduling) to ensure task completion and goal attainment. About the same time, investigators from the University of Michigan's Survey Research Center conducted interviews and distributed questionnaires in organizations and collected measures of group productivity to assess effective leadership behaviors. The leadership behavior categories that emerged from the University of Chicago were similar to the consideration and initiating structure behaviors identified by the Ohio State studies. The University of Michigan investigators, however, termed these leadership behaviors relationoriented behavior and task-oriented behavior. This line of research was later extended by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton in 1964 to suggest that effective leaders score high on both these behaviors. They suggested that previous theories such as Weber's bureaucracy and Taylor's scientific management had failed because they neglected that management style and organizational structure were influenced by various aspects of the environment: the contingency factors. There could not be "one best way" for leadership or organization. Historically, contingency theory has sought to formulate broad generalizations about the formal structures that are typically associated with or best fit the use of different technologies. The perspective originated with the work of Joan Woodward (1958), who argued that technologies directly determine differences in such organizational attributes as span of control, centralization of authority, and the formalization of rules and procedures. Page 50 of 84

Some important contingencies for companies are listed below: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Technology Suppliers and distributors Consumer interest groups Customers and competitors Government Unions

Contingency Approaches Gareth Morgan in his book Images of Organization describes the main ideas underlying contingency in a nutshell:    

Organizations are open systems that need careful management to satisfy and balance internal needs and to adapt to environmental circumstances There is no one best way of organizing. The appropriate form depends on the kind of task or environment one is dealing with. Management must be concerned, above all else, with achieving alignments and good fits Different types or species of organizations are needed in different types of environments

Fred Fiedler's contingency model focused on a contingency model of leadership in organizations. This model contains the relationship between leadership style and the favorable-ness of the situation. Situational favorable-ness was described by Fiedler in terms of three empirically derived dimensions: 1. Leader-member relationship – high if the leader is generally accepted and respected by followers 2. Degree of task structure – high if the task is very structured 3. Leader's position power – high if a great deal of authority and power are formally attributed to the leader's position Situations are favorable to the leader if all three of these dimensions are high. William Richard Scott describes contingency theory in the following manner: "The best way to organize depends on the nature of the environment to which the organization must relate". The work of other researchers including Paul Lawrence, Jay Lorsch, and James D. Thompson complements this statement. They are more interested in the impact of contingency factors on organizational structure. Their structural contingency theory was the dominant paradigm of organizational structural theories for most of the 1970s. A major empirical test was furnished by Johannes M Pennings who examined the interaction between environmental uncertainty, organization structure and various aspects of performance. Pennings carried out an empirical study on a sample of retail brokerage offices in which aspects of their market environment such as competitiveness, change and munificence, versus organizational arrangements such as Page 51 of 84

decision making templates, power distribution were juxtaposed for possible implications for performance. While structural attributes of offices strongly impacted performance, the evidence for "contingency" was less pronounced.

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Transactional Leadership Transactional Leadership, also known as managerial leadership, focuses on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance; transactional leadership is a style of leadership in which the leader promotes compliance of his/her followers through both rewards and punishments. Unlike Transformational leadership, leaders using the transactional approach are not looking to change the future, they are looking to merely keep things the same. Leaders using transactional leadership as a model pay attention to followers' work in order to find faults and deviations. This type of leadership is effective in crisis and emergency situations, as well as for projects that need to be carried out in a specific way. "Adhering to the path-goal theory, transactional leaders are expected to do the following: 



"Set goals, articulate explicit agreements regarding what the leader expects from organizational members and how they will be rewarded for their efforts and commitment, and provide constructive feedback to keep everybody on task" (Vera

& Crossan, 2004, p. 224). Transactional leaders focus on increasing the efficiency of established routines and procedures and are more concerned with following existing rules than with making changes to the structure of the organization. Thus, they operate most effectively in organizations that have evolved beyond the chaotic, no-rules stage of entrepreneurial development that characterizes so many new companies. Transactional leadership establishes and standardizes practices that will help the organization reach maturity, emphasizing setting of goals, efficiency of operation, and increase of productivity. "

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Within the context of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, transactional leadership works at the basic levels of need satisfaction, where transactional leaders focus on the lower levels of the hierarchy. Transactional leaders use an exchange model, with rewards being given for good work or positive outcomes. Conversely, people with this leadership style also can punish poor work or negative outcomes, until the problem is corrected. One way that transactional leadership focuses on lower level needs is by stressing specific task performance. Transactional leaders are effective in getting specific tasks completed by managing each portion individually. Page 54 of 84

Transactional leaders are concerned with processes rather than forward-thinking ideas. These types of leaders focus on contingent reward (also known as contingent positive reinforcement) or contingent penalization (also known as contingent negative reinforcement). Contingent rewards (such as praise) are given when the set goals are accomplished on-time, ahead of time, or to keep subordinates working at a good pace at different times throughout completion. Contingent punishments (such as suspensions) are given when performance quality or quantity falls below production standards or goals and tasks are not met at all. Often, contingent punishments are handed down on a management-by-exception basis, in which the exception is something going wrong. Within management-by-exception, there are active and passive routes. Active management-by-exception means that the leader continually looks at each subordinate's performance and makes changes to the subordinate's work to make corrections throughout the process. Passive management-by-exception leaders wait for issues to come up before fixing the problems. With transactional leadership being applied to the lower-level needs and being more managerial in style, it is a foundation for transformational leadership which applies to higher-level needs. characteristics of transactional leadership== Transactional leaders use reward and punishments to gain compliance from their followers. They are extrinsic motivators that bring minimal compliance from followers. They accept goals, structure, and the culture of the existing organization. Transactional leaders tend to be directive and action-oriented. Transactional leaders are willing to work within existing systems and negotiate to attain goals of the organization. They tend to think inside the box when solving problems Transactional leadership is primarily passive. The behaviors most associated with this type of leadership are establishing the criteria for rewarding followers and maintaining the status quo. Within transactional leadership, there are two factors, contingent reward and management-byexception. Contingent reward provides rewards for effort and recognizes good performance. Management-by-exception maintains the status quo, intervenes when subordinates do not meet acceptable performance levels, and initiates corrective action to improve performance.

Transactional vs. Transformational Leadership Transactional and transformational are the two modes of leadership that tend to be compared the most. James MacGregor Burns distinguished between transactional leaders and transformational by explaining that: transactional leader are leaders who exchange tangible rewards for the work and loyalty of followers. Transformational leaders are leaders who engage with followers, focus on higher order intrinsic needs, and raise consciousness about the significance of specific outcomes and new ways in which those outcomes might be achieved. Transactional leaders tend to be more passive as transformational leaders demonstrate active behaviors that include providing a sense of mission.

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Transactional Leadership is Responsive Works within the organizational culture Employees achieve objectives through rewards and punishments set by leader Motivates followers by appealing to their own selfinterest Management-by-exception: maintain the status quo; stress correct actions to improve performance.

vs.

Transformational Leadership is Proactive Works to change the organizational culture by implementing new ideas Employees achieve objectives through higher ideals and moral values Motivates followers by encouraging them to put group interests first Individualized consideration: Each behavior is directed to each individual to express consideration and support. Intellectual stimulation: Promote creative and innovative ideas to solve problems.

Theory Y and Theory X Douglas McGregor's Theory Y and Theory X can also be compared with these two leadership styles.Theory X can be compared with Transactional Leadership where managers need to rule by fear and consequences. In this style and theory, negative behavior is punished and employees are motivated through incentives. Theory Y and Transformational Leadership are found to be similar, because the theory and style supports the idea that managers work to encourage their workers. Leaders assume the best of their employees. They believe them to be trusting, respectful, and self-motivated. The leaders help to supply the followers with tool they need to excel.

Examples of Transactional Leadership Coaches of athletic teams provide one example of transactional leadership. These leaders motivate their followers by promoting the reward of winning the game. They instill such a high level of commitment that their followers are willing to risk pain and injury to obtain the results that the leader is asking for. Another example of transactional leadership is former Wisconsin state senator, Joseph McCarthy, and his ruthless style of accusing people of being Soviet spies during the Cold War. By punishing for deviation from the rules and rewarding followers for bringing him accused communist infiltrators, McCarthy promoted results among followers. This leadership style is especially effective in crisis situations, and another example of this type of leadership was Charles de Gaulle. Through this type of reward and punishment he was able to become the leader of the free French in a crisis situation.

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Trait Leadership Trait Leadership is defined as integrated patterns of personal characteristics that reflect a range of individual differences and foster consistent leader effectiveness across a variety of group and organizational situations (Zaccaro, Kemp, & Bader, 2004). The theory of trait leadership developed from early leadership research which focused primarily on finding a group of heritable attributes that differentiated leaders from nonleaders. Leader effectiveness refers to the amount of influence a leader has on individual or group performance, followersâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC; satisfaction, and overall effectiveness (Derue, Nahrgang, Wellman, & Humphrey, 2011). Many scholars have argued that leadership is unique to only a select number of individuals and that these individuals possess certain immutable traits that cannot be developed (Galton, 1869). Although this perspective has been criticized immensely over the past century, scholars still continue to study the effects of personality traits on leader effectiveness. Research has demonstrated that successful leaders differ from other people and possess certain core personality traits that significantly contribute to their success. Understanding the importance of these core personality traits that predict leader effectiveness can help organizations with their leader selection, training, and development practices (Derue et al., 2011). The emergence of the concept of trait leadership looks back to Thomas Carlyle's "great man" theory, which stated: "The History of the World [...] was the Biography of Great Men." Subsequent commentators interpreted this view to conclude that the forces of extraordinary leadership shape history (Judge, Piccolo, & Kosalka, 2009). Influenced by Carlyle, Francis Galton in Hereditary Genius (1869) took this idea further. Galton found that leadership was a unique property of extraordinary individuals, and suggested that the traits which leaders possessed were immutable and could not be developed. Throughout the early 1900s, the study of leadership focused on traits. Cowley (1931) commented that the approach to the research of leadership has usually been and should always be through the study of traits (Cowley, 1931). Many theorists, influenced by Carlyle and Galton, believed that trait leadership depended on the personal qualities of the leader; however, they did not assume that leadership only resides within a select number of people (Judge, Bono, Ilies, & Gerhardt, 2002). This trait perspective of leadership was widely accepted until the late 1940s and early 1950s, when researchers began to deem personality traits insufficient in predicting leader effectiveness (Stogdill, 1948; Mann, 1959). In 1948, Stogdill stated that leadership exists between persons in a social situation, and that persons who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations. This statement has been cited ubiquitously as sounding the death knell for trait-leadership theory.

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Furthermore, scholars commented that any trait's effect on leadership behavior will always depend on the situation (Huges, Ginnett, & Curphy, 1996; Yukl & Van Fleet, 1992). Subsequently, leadership stopped being characterized by individual differences, and behavioral and situational analyses of leadership took over and began to dominate the field of leadership research (Bass, 1990). During this period of widespread rejection, several dominant theories took the place of trait leadership theory, including Fiedler's (1967) contingency model, Blake and Mouton's (1964) managerial grid, Hersey and Blanchard's (1969) situational leadership model, and transformational and transactional leadership models (Avolio, Sosik, Jung, & Berson, 2003; Bass, 1985; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, & Fetter, 1990). Despite the growing criticisms of trait leadership, the purported basis for the rejection of traitleadership models began to encounter strong challenges (Kenny & Zaccaro, 1983; Lord, DeVader, & Alliger, 1986) in the 1980s. Interestingly, Zaccaro (2007) pointed out that even Stogdill's (1948) review, although cited as evidence against leader traits, contained conclusions supporting that individual differences could still be predictors of leader effectiveness. With an increasing number of empirical studies directly supporting trait leadership (Judge et al., 2002; Judge, Colbert, & Ilies, 2004), traits have reemerged in the lexicon of the scientific research into leadership. In recent years, the research about leader traits has made some progress in identifying a list of personality traits that are highly predictive of leader effectiveness. Additionally, to account for the arguments for situational leadership, researchers have used the round-robin design methodology to test whether certain individuals emerge as leaders across multiple situations (Kenny & Zaccaro, 1983). Scholars have also proposed new ways of studying the relationship of certain traits to leader effectiveness. For instance, many suggest the integration of trait and behavioral theories to understand how traits relate to leader effectiveness (Derue et al., 2011). Furthermore, scholars have expanded their focus and have proposed looking at more malleable traits (ones susceptible to development) in addition to the traditional dispositional traits as predictors of leader effectiveness (Hoffman, Woehr, Maldagen-Youngjohn, & Lyons, 2011). Context is only now beginning to be examined as a contributor to leaders' success and failure. Productive narcissistic CEOs like Steven Jobs of Apple and Jack Welch of GE have demonstrated a gift for creating innovation, whereas leaders with idealized traits prove more successful in more stable environments requiring less innovation and creativity (Maccoby, 2007).

Leader Traits The investigations of leader traits are always by no means exhaustive (Zaccaro, 2007). In recent years, several studies have made comprehensive reviews about leader traits which have been historically studied (Derue et al., 2011; Hoffman et al., 2011; Judge et al., 2009; Zaccaro, 2007). There are many ways that traits related to leadership can be categorized; however, the two most recent categorizations have organized traits into (1) demographic vs. task competence vs. interpersonal and (2) distal (trait-like) vs. proximal (state-like). Both these categorizations are described below.

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Demographic, Task Competence and Interpersonal Leadership Based on a recent review of the trait leadership literature, Derue and others (2011) stated that most leader traits can be organized into three categories: demographic, task competence, and interpersonal attributes. For the demographics category, gender has by far received the most attention in terms of leadership; however, most scholars have found that male and female leaders are both equally effective. Task competence relates to how individuals approach the execution and performance of tasks (Bass & Bass, 2008). Hoffman grouped intelligence, Conscientiousness, Openness to Experience, and Emotional Stability into this category. Lastly, interpersonal attributes are related to how a leader approaches social interactions. According to Hoffman and others (2011), Extraversion and Agreeableness should be grouped into this category.

Distal (Trait-Like) vs. Proximal (State-Like) Recent research has shifted from focusing solely on distal (dispositional/trait-like) characteristics of leaders to more proximal (malleable/state-like) individual differences often in the form of knowledge and skills (Hoffman et al., 2011). The emergence of proximal traits in trait leadership theory will help researchers answer the ancient question: Are leaders born or made? Proximal individual differences suggest that the characteristics that distinguish effective leaders from noneffective leaders are not necessarily stable through the life-span, implying that these traits may be able to be developed. Hoffman and others (2011) examined the effects of distal vs. proximal traits on leader effectiveness. He found that distal individual differences of achievement motivation, energy, dominance, honesty/integrity, self-confidence, creativity, and charisma were strongly correlated with leader effectiveness. Additionally, he found that the proximal individual differences of interpersonal skills, oral communication, written communication, management skills, problem solving skills, and decision making were also strongly correlated with leader Page 60 of 84

effectiveness. His results suggested that on average, distal and proximal individual differences have a similar relationship with effective leadership (Hoffman et al., 2011).

Trait-Leadership Model Zaccaro and colleagues (2004) created a model to understand leader traits and their influence on leader effectiveness/performance. This model, shown in the figure below, is based on other models of leader traits and leader effectiveness/performance (Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Fleishman, & Reiter-Palmon, 1993; Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, et al., 2000) and rests on two basic premises about leader traits. The first premise is that leadership emerges from the combined influence of multiple traits as opposed to emerging from the independent assessment of traits. Zaccaro (2001) argued that effective leadership is derived from an integrated set of cognitive abilities, social capabilities, and dispositional tendencies, with each set of traits adding to the influence of the other. The second premise is that leader traits differ in their proximal influence on leadership. This model is a multistage one in which certain distal attributes (i.e. dispositional attributes, cognitive abilities, and motives/values) serve as precursors for the development of proximal personal characteristics (i.e. social skills, problem solving skills and expertise knowledge) (Ackerman & Humphreys, 1990; Barrick, Mitchell, & Stewart, 2003; Chen, Gully, Whiteman, & Kilcullen, 2000; Schneider, Hough, & Dunnette, 1996; Kanfer, 1990, 1992; Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, et al., 2000). Adopting this categorization approach and based on several comprehensive reviews/meta-analysis of trait leadership in recent years (Derue et al., 2011; Hoffman et al., 2010; Judge et al., 2009; Zaccaro, 2007), we tried to make an inclusive list of leader traits (Table 1). However, the investigations of leader traits are always by no means exhaustive (Zaccaro, 2007), which means absolutely more leader traits should be added to this list by future researchers and readers of this article.

Table 1. Leader Traits based on Zaccaroâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (2004) Model

Extraversion (Distal Dispositional) Agreeableness (Distal Dispositional)

One dimension of Big-Five Personality Model; represents the tendency to be sociable, assertive, active, and to experience positive affects, such as energy and zeal. In Judge and otherâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s (2002) meta-analysis, Extraversion was significantly positively related to leadership (r = .31). One dimension of Big-Five Personality Model; refers to the tendency to be trusting, compliant, caring, and gentle. The relationship between Agreeableness and leadership is

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still ambiguous. In Judge and other‘s (2002) meta-analysis, Agreeableness was not significantly related to leadership (r = .08). One dimension of Big-Five Personality Model; it comprises two related facets, namely Conscientiousness (Distal achievement and dependability. In Judge and other‘s (2002) meta-analysis, Dispositional) Conscientiousness was significantly positively related to leadership (r = .28). One dimension of Big-Five Personality Model; the disposition to be imaginative, Openness (Distal nonconforming, unconventional, and autonomous. In Judge and other‘s (2002) metaDispositional) analysis, Openness was found to be significantly positively related with leadership (r = .24). One dimension of Big-Five Personality Model; represents the tendency to exhibit poor Neuroticism (Distal emotional adjustment and experience negative affects, such as anxiety, insecurity, and Dispositional) hostility. In Judge and other‘s (2002) meta-analysis, Neuroticism was significantly negatively correlated with (r = -.24). Defined as the correspondence between work and deed, and as being truthful and non Honesty/integrity (Distal deceitful (Locke, 1991). In Hoffman and other‘s (2011) meta analysis, honesty/integrity Dispositional) was found to be positively related to leadership effectiveness (r = .29). Charismatic leaders are able to influence followers by articulating a compelling vision Charisma (Distal for the future, arousing commitment to organizational objectives and inspiring Dispositional) commitment and a sense of self-efficacy among followers. Hoffman and others (2011) found it has a significant influence on leadership (r = .57). Intelligence is regarded as the most important trait in psychology. It has been identified Intelligence (Distal as one of the most critical traits that must be possessed by all leaders (Judge et al., Cognitive Abilities) 2004). Creativity has been proposed as an important component of effective leadership; Creativity (Distal Hoffman and others (2011) found a significant relationship between creativity and Cognitive Abilities) leader effectiveness (r = .31). Achievement motivation The motivation to achieve has been proved to have significant relationship with leader (Distal - Motive/Value) effectiveness (r = .23) (Judge et al., 2002). Characterized by the satisfaction leaders derive from exerting influence over the Need for power(Distal attitudes and behaviors of others. Need for power has a positive relationship with leader Motive/Value) effectiveness (McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982). Oral/written Oral and written communication skills are found to be significantly correlated with communication (Proximal leader effectiveness (Hoffman et al., 2011). - Social Skills) Including a broad range of skills associated with un understanding of human behavior Interpersonal skills and the dynamics of groups (Locke, 1991; Yukl, 2006), interpersonal skills were found (Proximal - Social Skills) to be significantly correlated with leader effectiveness (Hoffman et al., 2011). General problem solving General problem solving skills were found to be one of the factors most strongly (Proximal - Problem correlated with leader effectiveness (Hoffman et al., 2011). Solving) Decision making Decision skills were also found to be one of the factors most strongly correlated with (Proximal - Problem leader effectiveness (Hoffman et al., 2011). Solving) Technical knowledge Technical knowledge includes methods, processes, and equipment for conducting the (Proximal - Expertise specialized activities of the managers‘ organizational unit (Yukl, 2006). It has been Knowledge) proved to be positively correlated with leader effectiveness (Bass, 1990). Management skills Given that leaders‘ key responsibilities involve coordinating the work of multiple (Proximal - Expertise constituents, the ability to manage is likely crucial to leader effectiveness. This Knowledge) relationship has also been proved significant (Hoffman et al., 2011).

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Other Models of Trait Leadership Multiple models have been proposed to explain the relationship of traits to leader effectiveness. Recently, integrated trait leadership models were put forward by summarizing the historical findings and reconciling the conflict between traits and other factors such as situations in determining effective leadership (Derue et al., 2011; Judge et al., 2009; Zaccaro, 2007). In addition to Zaccaro‘s Model of Leader Attributes and Leader Performance described in the previous section, two other models have emerged in recent trait leadership literature. The Leader Trait Emergence Effectiveness (LTEE) Model, created by Judge and colleagues (2009), combines the behavioral genetics and evolutionary psychology theories of how personality traits are developed into a model that explains leader emergence and effectiveness. Additionally, this model separates objective and subjective leader effectiveness into different criterion. The authors created this model to be broad and flexible as to diverge from how the relationship between traits and leadership had been studied in past research. Another model that has emerged in the trait leadership literature is the Integrated Model of Leader Traits, Behaviors, and Effectiveness (Derue et al., 2011). This model combines traits and behaviors in predicting leader effectiveness and tested the mediation effect of leader behaviors on the relationship between leader traits and effectiveness. The authors found that some types of leader behaviors mediated the effect between traits and leader effectiveness. The results of Derue and colleagues' (2011) study supported an integrated trait-behavioral model that can be used in future research.

Criticisms of Trait Leadership Although there has been an increased focus by researchers on trait leadership, this theory remains one of the most criticized theories of leadership. Over the years, many reviewers of trait leadership theory have commented that this approach to leadership is ―too simplistic‖ (Conger & Kanugo, 1998), and ―futile‖ (House & Aditya, 1997). Additionally, scholars have noted that trait leadership theory usually only focuses on how leader effectiveness is perceived by followers (Lord et al., 1986) rather than a leader‘s actual effectiveness (Judge et al., 2009). Because the

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process through which personality predicts the actual effectiveness of leaders has been relatively unexplored (Ng, Ang, & Chan, 2008), these scholars have concluded that personality currently has low explanatory and predictive power over job performance and cannot help organizations select leaders who will be effective (Morgeson & Ilies, 2007). Furthermore, Derue and colleagues (2011) found that leader behaviors are more predictive of leader effectiveness than are traits. Another criticism of trait leadership is its silence on the influence of the situational context surrounding leaders (Ng et al., 2008). Stogdill (1948) found that persons who are leaders in one situation may not be leaders in another situation. Complimenting this situational theory of leadership, Murphy (1941) wrote that leadership does not reside in the person, and it usually requires examining the whole situation. In addition to situational leadership theory, there has been growing support for other leadership theories such as transformational, transactional, charismatic, and authentic leadership theories. These theories have gained popularity because they are more normative than the trait and behavioral leadership theories (Schaubroeck, Lam, & Cha, 2007). Further criticisms include the failure of studies to uncover a trait or group of traits that are consistently associated with leadership emergence or help differentiate leaders from followers (Kenny & Zacarro, 1983). Additionally, trait leadershipâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s focus on a small set of personality traits and neglect of more malleable traits such as social skills and problem solving skills has received considerable criticism. Lastly, trait leadership often fails to consider the integration of multiple traits when studying the effects of traits on leader effectiveness (Zaccaro, 2007).

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References ______

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformational_leadership 2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt 3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr. 4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servant_leadership 5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_levels_of_leadership_model 6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situational_leadership_theory 7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contingency_theory 8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait_leadership 9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactional_leadership 10.https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/HR/HR02000.pdf 11.http://www.transformationalleadership.net/products/TransformationalLeader shipReport.pdf 12.https://www.regent.edu/acad/global/publications/elj/issue1/ELJ_V1Is1_Give ns.pdf 13.http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/transforma tional_leadership_and_organizational_culture.pdf 14.http://www.sosyalarastirmalar.com/cilt2/sayi6pdf/jandaghi_matin_farjami.p df

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Notes ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________

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Attachment A The Transformational Leadership Report

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The Transformational Leadership Report "The goal of transformational leadership is to “transform” people and organizations in a literal sense – to change them in mind and heart; enlarge vision, insight, and understanding; clarify purposes; make behavior congruent with beliefs, principles, or values; and bring about changes that are permanent, self-perpetuating, and momentum building." - Steven Covey, Author of 7 Habits of Highly Successful People -

www.transformationalleadership.net Developing Tomorrow’s Transformational Leaders Today

The Transformational Leadership Report

INDEX

What is Transformational Leadership?

Components of Transformational Leadership

Transformational Leadership vs. Transactional Leadership

A Brief History of Leadership

How does a Transformational Leader work?

What are the characteristics of a leader of change?

Where Transformational Leadership and Authenticity meet

Transformational Leadership Behaviors

Recommended Reading

TL Publications list

ÂŠ 2007

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The Transformational Leadership Report

What is Transformational Leadership? Leadership has been around for thousands of years, and yet we still are unable to contain it in a single definition we all agree on. Perhaps this is because leadership is continuously evolving, and more than what it seems to be, depending on how you look at it. It is a complex concept, with many applications, and the results that it creates depend highly on the context in which it is being observed. Much has been written on Transformational Leadership, which we will cover in a moment. There is the leadership theory, which has evolved over time from other leadership styles, and has applications to different contexts, be it in business, medical, non-profit or charity, education, religious or spiritual groups and even at the family level, to name a few. Ask anyone you know for a definition of a word, and they will give you their version, the version that makes the most sense to them. The same would apply to Transformational Leadership. It depends on who you speak to, and what their perspective is. We’ll consider two main points of view: -

the theoretical, and the applied

Theoretical definitions come from those that study leadership, who have the formal qualifications to write long dissertations on the subject. This body of knowledge is fantastic for grounding in the subject and to get into the depth of the potential implications, especially when it comes to the morals and ethics department. The applied is the interpretation, and then applied action in a specific field of endeavor. We’ll use the personal, organizational, and global contexts for this purpose. You will have your own applied experience, or not, depending on where you are on your own personal Transformational Leadership journey.

With that in mind, we’ll first take a look at where the origins of the subject come from…

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The Transformational Leadership Report The term transformational leadership was first coined by J.V. Downton in Rebel Leadership: Commitment and Charisma in a Revolutionary Process (1973). James MacGregor Burns first introduced the concept of transformational leadership in his book Leadership (1978), during his study of political leadership, but this term is now used in organizational psychology as well. He described it not as a set of specific behaviors, but rather an ongoing process by which "leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of morality and motivation" (p. 20). Transformational leaders offer a purpose that transcends short-term goals and focuses on higher order intrinsic needs. Transformational leaders raise the bar by appealing to higher ideals and values of followers. In doing so, they may model the values themselves and use charismatic methods to attract people to the values and to the leader. Burns was influenced by Abraham Maslow’s Theory of Human Needs. This theory recognizes that people have a range of needs, and the extent to which they will perform effectively in the workplace will be affected by the extent to which these needs are satisfied. Transformational Leadership fits into the higher levels, as it requires a high level of self esteem and self actualization to successfully be an authentic transformational leader. It’s about values, purpose and meaning: Essentially the leader’s task is consciousness-raising on a wide plane. …The leader’s fundamental act is to induce people to be aware or conscious of what they feel -- to feel their true needs so strongly, to define their values so meaningfully, that they can be moved to purposeful action.” (Leadership, pp 43-44) Burns was one of the first scholars to assert that true leadership not only creates change and achieves goals within the environment, but changes the people involved in the necessary actions for the better as well: both followers and leaders are ennobled. Burns became famous among alternative leadership scholars because his model of transformational leadership included an ethical/moral dimension that, prior to 1978, had not been infused into any leadership theory Bernard Bass, a disciple of Burns, defined transformational leadership in terms of how the leader affects followers, who are intended to trust, admire and respect the transformational leader. He identified three ways in which leaders transform followers: •

Increasing their awareness of task importance and value.

•

Getting them to focus first on team or organizational goals, rather than their own interests.

•

Activating their higher-order needs.

In contrast to Burns, who sees transformational leadership as being inextricably linked with higher order values, Bass sees it as amoral, and therefore questions the morality and ethical component of transformational leadership.

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The Transformational Leadership Report

Components of Transformational Leadership Transformational Leadership has evolved from and contains elements of preceding leadership types, such as trait and behaviour theories, charismatic, situational and transactional leadership. There are four components of transformational leadership, which are: Charisma or idealized influence This is the degree to which the leader behaves in admirable ways that cause followers to identify with the leader. Charismatic leaders display convictions, take stands and appeal to followers on an emotional level. This is about the leader having a clear set of values and demonstrating them in every action, providing a role model for their followers. Genuine trust must be built between leaders and followers. Trust for both leader and follower is built on a solid moral and ethical foundation. Inspirational motivation The degree to which the leader articulates a vision that is appealing and inspiring to followers. Leaders with inspirational motivation challenge followers with high standards, communicate optimism about future goals, and provide meaning for the task at hand. Followers need to have a strong sense of purpose if they are to be motivated to act. It is also important that this visionary aspect of leadership be supported by communication skills that allow the leader to articulate his or her vision with precision and power in a compelling and persuasive way. Intellectual stimulation The degree to which the leader challenges assumptions, takes risks and solicits followers' ideas. Leaders with this trait stimulate and encourage creativity in their followers. The leaderâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vision provides the framework for followers to see how they connect to the leader, the organization, each other, and the goal. Once they have this big picture view and are allowed freedom from convention they can creatively overcome any obstacles in the way of the mission. Individualized consideration or individualized attention The degree to which the leader attends to each follower's needs, acts as a mentor or coach to the follower and listens to the follower's concerns and needs. This also encompasses the need to respect and celebrate the individual contribution that each follower can make to the team (it is the diversity of the team that gives it its true strength). This approach not only educates the next generation of leaders, but also fulfils the individuals need for self-actualization, self-fulfilment, and self-worth. It also naturally propels followers to further achievement and growth.

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Transformational Leadership vs. Transactional Leadership Before we look at the differences between the two leadership styles, here are some notes about Transactional leadership:

Transactional leadership seeks to motivate followers by appealing to their own self-interest. Transactional leaders use conventional reward and punishment to gain compliance from their followers. They have continuing, often unspoken interaction that sound like forms like: "Do as I say and you will get a raise." "Meet this quota or you will get fired." Transactional leaders accept the goals, structure and culture of the existing organization. They must do so because this type of leadership is ineffective at bringing significant change. Some researchers added to Burns original theory and it is thought by many today that transactional leadership can encompass the following types of behavior: 1.

Contingent Reward – To influence behavior, the leader clarifies the work needed to be accomplished. The leader uses rewards or incentives to achieve results when expectations are met.

Management by Exception: - Passive: To influence behavior, the leader uses correction or punishment as a response to unacceptable performance or deviation from the accepted standards. - Active - To influence behavior, the leader actively monitors the work performed and uses corrective methods to ensure the work is completed to meet accepted standards.

Laissez-Faire Leadership – laissez-faire leaders avoid attempting to influence their subordinates and shirk supervisory duties. They bury themselves in paperwork and avoid situations that preclude any possibility of confrontation. They leave too much responsibility with subordinates, set no clear goals, and do not help their group to make decisions. They tend to let things drift, since their main aim is stay on good terms with everyone.

According to Burns, the difference between transformational and transactional leadership is what leaders and followers offer one another.

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Image from www.wikipedia.org

Using social and spiritual values as a motivational lever is very powerful as they are both hard to deny and also give people an uplifting sense of being connected to a higher purpose, thus playing to the need for a sense of meaning and identity.

TO RECAP From “Leadership” Burns (1978) •

Transactional leadership: o “…occurs when one person takes the initiative in making contact with others for the purpose of an exchange of valued things. “ (page 19)

•

Transformational leadership: o “…occurs when one or more persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality.” (page 20)

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A Brief History of Leadership So Transformational leadership is at one of the #the higher levels of motivation and morality, and it works hand in hand with Transactional Leadership. It has not always been that way, and our understanding of leadership has developed and evolved over time. To add some dimension to the background, let’s take a quick review of where leadership has come from over the past 100 years:

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1900’s: the “great man” theories -- it’s an innate ability; who is born to lead? Leadership studies historically went hand-in-hand with studies of elites: political, financial, military, aristocratic, or cultural elites. Leadership was considered an art, for which some fortunate people had an inbuilt genius; the rest of us could only engage in admiring post-game analyses.

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1930’s: group theory -- how leadership emerges and develops in small groups. During the Great Depression, US social psychologists found in studying groups that democratic leadership was not only possible, it was more effective. Thus a more egalitarian view of leadership evolved from the elitist (and, in today’s view, sexist) “great man” view. Unfortunately, research indicated that patterns of leadership behaviour in small groups were not transferable to large groups, or organizations.

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1940’s-50’s: trait theory -- what universal traits are common to all leaders. This Theory suggests that leaders are born, not made, and that a good leader has a set of specific traits. Early research on leadership was based on the psychological focus of the day, which was of people having inherited characteristics or traits. Attention was thus put on discovering these traits, often by studying successful leaders, but with the underlying assumption that if other people could also be found with these traits, then they, too, could also become great leaders.

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•

1950’s- 60’s: behavior theory -- what key behavioral patterns result in leadership. Leaders can be made, rather than are born. Behavioural theories of leadership do not seek inborn traits or capabilities. Rather, they look at what leaders actually do. Behavioural is a big leap from Trait Theory, in that it assumes that leadership capability can be learned, rather than being inherent. This opens the floodgates to leadership development, as opposed to simple psychometric assessment that sorts those with leadership potential from those who will never have the chance.

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1960’s-70’s: contingency/situational -- establish which leadership behaviors succeeded in specific situations. Unable to determine which particular behaviour patterns consistently resulted in effective leadership, researchers then attempted to match behaviour patterns that worked best in specific contexts or situations. That line of research collapsed for practical reasons when people realized leaders would need to refer to decision trees or wheel charts to determine how to behave. Additionally, an infinite array of situations existed which researchers would be unable to study, so producing a definitive compendium matching behaviours with situations is impossible.

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1980’s onward: excellence -- what interaction of traits, behaviors, key situations, and group facilitation allows people to lead organizations to excellence? In the 1980s, having tried and discarded all of these fragmentary approaches, leadership researchers determined that “leadership is simply doing the right thing to achieve excellence. That meant the researchers had to find out what the right thing is, so they set about researching excellent companies and CEOs, and developed lists of traits, behaviour patterns, group facilitation strategies, and culture-shaping practices for would-be leaders.”

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How does a Transformational Leader work? Transformational Leadership begins with awareness – awareness of our own thoughts and feelings, and how these affect your actions, and the states of others. As your awareness grows, you begin to see your own inner motivating force, what drives you - your passions and values - and how these affect your thoughts, feelings and actions, and that of others. As you become more aware your perception increases, and you are able to choose actions that directly meet the needs of the situation and people around us, but much more powerfully than a Situational Leadership style. It speaks to the “being” level of the people around you. Transformational Leadership inspires wholeness of being, so your thoughts, feelings and actions are consistent. It is about leading with an integrity and authenticity that resonates with others, and inspires them to follow. Not only does it inspire others to follow, but to become leaders themselves. This approach to leadership takes us from a constricting model of competition between individuals, teams or nations, to a connection with the whole of a situation, and leadership for the good of all. We move from making a sale at any cost, towards creating lasting relationships and seeking socially responsible outcomes; it takes us from a narrow focus primarily on the bottom line, to realizing a sustainable vision that contributes to the welfare of all involved, not just the ones with the power and control.

What are the characteristics of a leader of change? What is it about certain leader that enables them to successfully lead their organizations through change? •

Be inspired in your heart and mind, and show it.

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Be connected to yourself, the world and the people around you. Be grounded in reality

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Have a vision and communicate it with passion and purpose. Allow your emotion to speak to others in a way that transcends the mind, and speaks to the heart.

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Pay personal attention to others in a way that engages them and generates trust and commitment. Genuinely care about them, what they want, and how you can serve them.

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Access the awesome power of the mind. Be curious, open to new ideas and learn constantly.

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Where Transformational Leadership and Authenticity meet After studying Transformational Leadership for a while, you may come to the conclusion that there are a lot of technical things to remember to do, and even then you might not get it right. So what is the magical ingredient to leading that makes it work? Well first of all, you probably know by now that there is no magic wand for life, or for leadership greatness. We can follow in the footsteps of those that came before us, and yet we might still not succeed. Anyone that has ever attempted to create anything worthwhile knows that it is challenging, period. If it were easy, there would be little transformation of the person involved to create the result. It is often in the process and the journey that we ourselves transform, and that becomes the main reason why we succeed. We develop our own unique and special way of doing and being that really works, and creates the results we are looking for. Often a setback on a project can trigger a decision to do what it takes, pay the price, and get it right. Being in a leadership position has many demands, some external, and other internal. Others and our own expectations we need to live up to - needing to be a certain way. So as an example: To be a transformational leader according to BASS and BURNS you need to be, have or provide: 1. Charisma or Idealized influence 2. Inspirational motivation 3. Intellectual stimulation 4. Individualized Consideration or Individualized Attention or else you are not even playing the right game. But, you could do and be all of those 4 characteristics, and still not create the result you want. You might ask why not? Good question. Well, it's also very important that you be yourself. This is called being authentic. In a world that is constantly trying to make us anything but our unique and creative self, this is paramount. YOU are the magical ingredient. Without YOU, nothing happens. Your unique, and authentic way of being you, creates the energy, drive, passion, or whatever you want to call it, that makes all the difference. How you engage your energy, time, integrity and power makes a massive difference to the outcome. It's like ÂŠ 2007

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having a high performance car, and not using the best fuel. You will never get the best performance output if one aspect is lacking. You can have all the skills in the world, but if your execution is poor, so too will the results be. It's about how you develop and grow as a leader. The personal choices and commitments you make, and break. What you will and will not stand for. It is you that lives with the consequences of your choices and actions. Being authentic can be daunting, yet it holds the key to real sincerity and power. It can give you the personal edge and insight that most only dream about. If you gain the world, but lose yourself, you lose the game of life. Being a Transformational Leader can be challenging, and when you bring your authentic self forward, the journey becomes personalized, powerful, meaningful and more enjoyable. Others respond to the genuine nature that they see in you.

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Transformational Leadership Behaviors (according to Colonel Mark A. Homrig - 21 Dec 2001) http://leadership.au.af.mil/documents/homrig.htm

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Developing and sharing an inspiring vision of the organization’s future

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Behaving in ways that bring out the best in individuals and teams

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Showing genuine concern and respect for others

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Continuously investing in the development of themselves and others

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Developing a culture of collaboration rather than command and control where change is welcomed as an opportunity rather than a threat

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Recognizing that leadership needs to be demonstrated at times by everyone in the organization

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Authentic transformational leadership builds genuine trust between leaders and followers.

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“ . . . without the continuous commitment, enforcement and modelling of leadership, standards of business ethics cannot and will not be achieved in organizations…badly led businesses wind up doing unethical things.

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Transformational leaders concentrate on terminal values such as integrity and fairness. They see the responsibility for their organization’s development and impact on society.

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They increase the awareness of what is right, good, important, and beautiful, when they help to elevate followers’ needs for achievement and self-actualization, when they foster in followers higher moral maturity, and when they move followers to go beyond their self-interests for the good of their group, organization, or society.

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The truly transformational leader who is seeking the greatest good for the greatest number and is concerned about doing what is right and honest is

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likely to avoid stretching the truth or going beyond the evidence for he/she wants to set an example to followers about the value of valid and accurate communication in followers.

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There is a moral justification for the transformational leader’s efforts to achieve value-congruence between the leader and the led. When it is achieved, both are more satisfied emotionally. (Meglino, Ravlin & Adkins, 1989). Much of this congruence results in leaders being seen by followers as more considerate, competent, and successful (Weiss, 1978) and followers are more satisfied with their jobs.

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Leadership and followership in transformistic organizations are predicated less on positional authority and more on interdependent work relationships centred on common purposes.

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Kelley (1995) indicates that leadership and followership are equal but different activities often played by the same people at different times. Individuals who assume leadership roles have sound visioning, interpersonal and organizational skills, and the desire and willingness to lead. Effective followers are distinguished by their capacity for selfmanagement, strong commitment and courage.

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When organizational participants are empowered to act as effective leaders and followers based on core values and a unifying purpose, the potential for unprecedented advances and exceptional outcomes are greatly enhanced.

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Transforming leadership is elevating. It is moral but not moralistic. Leaders engage with followers, but from higher levels of morality; in the enmeshing of goals and values both leaders and followers are raised to more principled levels of judgement.

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Transformational Leadership Evaluation Methods and Tools One of the important aspects of today's management and leadership development programmes is the use of specific tools to evaluate the effectiveness of the various types of leadership. Results in the context of the application of course speak for themselves, however, from a more scientific perspective, it is important to have accurate measurement techniques. This assists with evaluation, validation and comparative study. When referring to Transformational Leadership, it is important to be clear on some definitions, especially regarding the Full Range of Leadership (FRL), model which was first developed by James MacGregor Burns. The components are as follows: Transformational Leadership * Charismatic Leadership, or Idealized Influence * Idealized Behaviors * Inspirational Motivation * Intellectual Stimulation * Individualized Consideration Transactional Leadership * Contingent Reward * Management-by-Exception (Active) Passive/Avoidant * Management-by-Exception (Passive) * Laissez-faire The most well known tool for Transformational Leadership measurement is the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, known as the MLQ. The tool consists of 142 statements about the behaviour of the leader. There are two forms of the MLQ -- the Leader Form, which is completed by the leader themselves, and the Rater Form, which is completed by the leaders associates. As the Leader form would naturally contain a bias, the Rater form is considered to be the more important of the two. The MLQ has been used in the evaluation of leaders in corporate and public organizations, as well as the military. It has been translated in to many languages, including French, German and Japanese. There are several other tools in existence, although few as prevalent or comprehensive as the MLQ. They are: * Transformational Leadership Behaviour Inventory (TLI) -- Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman and Fetter (1990) * Leader Assessment Inventory (LAI) - Warner Burke (1994) * Transformational Leadership Questionnaire (TLQ) - Alimo-Metcalfe and AlbanMetcalfe (2001) * Global Transformational Leadership scale (GTL) - Carless, Wearing and Mann (2000) ÂŠ 2007

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* 15 item rating scale - Rafferty and Griffin (2004) * Follower Belief Questionnaire and the Attributes of Leader Behaviour Questionnaire - Behling and McFillan (1996) * CK scale - Conger and Kanungo (1988) * Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) - Kouzes and Posner (1998) Although the MLQ is one of the most widespread tools for measuring Transformational Leadership, it would make sense that as the development of this field continues, the use of several tools to measure effectiveness would be wise.

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Recommended Reading Transformational Leadership Development Transformational Leadership (2nd Edition) by James MacGregor Burns Transformational Leadership by James MacGregor Burns This book is intended for both the scholars and serious students of leadership. It is a comprehensive review of theorizing and empirical research that can serve as a reference and starting point for additional research on the theory. It can be used as a supplementary textbook in an intense course on leadership - or as a primary text in a course or seminar focusing on transformational leadership. This Second Edition features: new, updated examples of leadership have been included to help illustrate the concepts, as well as show the broad range of transformational leadership in a variety of settings; new chapters have been added focusing specifically on the measurement of transformational leadership and transformational leadership and effectiveness; the discussion of both predicators and effects of transformational leadership is greatly expanded; much more emphasis is given to authentic vs. inauthentic transformational leadership; suggestions are made for guiding the future of research and applications of transformational leadership; and a greatly expanded reference list is included.

Click here to find out more or Purchase this book

Transforming Leadership: A New Persuit of Happiness by James MacGregor Burns In Transforming Leadership, Burns illuminates the evolution of leadership structures, from the chieftains of tribal African societies, through Europe's absolute monarchies, to the blossoming of the Enlightenment's ideals of liberty and happiness during the American Revolution. Along the way he looks at key breakthroughs in leadership and the towering leaders who attempted to transform their worldsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;Elizabeth I, Washington, Jefferson, Gandhi, Eleanor Roosevelt, Gorbachev, and others. Culminating in a bold and innovative plan to address the greatest global leadership challenge of the twenty-first century, the long-intractable problem of global poverty, Transforming Leadership will arouse discussion and controversy in classrooms and boardrooms throughout the country.

Click here to find out more or Purchase this book

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Personal Leadership Development Deep Change - Discovering the Leader Within by Robert Quinn Most books on change deal with how to go about a change, how to communicate it, how to live with it and more. Deep Change is about that for a change to work, the leader must make some changes first, and then change their organisation. Quinn says that all organizations can see what and where they want to go, often though, they settle for a slow death instead of making the necessary changes that are needed. Whether it is out of fear, uncertainty, job security; they don't do the tough work of making a deep personal change to get to where they need to go. Click here to find out more or Purchase this book

Leading Organizational Change Building the Bridge as You Walk on It: A Guide for Leading Change by Robert Quinn "Building the Bridge As You Walk On It" tells the personal stories of people who have embraced deep change and inspired author Robert Quinn to take his concept one step further and develop a new model of leadership "the fundamental state of leadership". The exploration of this transformative state is at the very heart of the book. Quinn shows how anyone can enter the fundamental state of leadership by engaging in the eight practices that center on the theme of ever-increasing integrity - reflective action, authentic engagement, appreciative inquiry, grounded vision, adaptive confidence, detached interdependence, responsible freedom, and tough love. After each chapter, Quinn challenges you to assess yourself with respect to each practice and to formulate a strategy for personal growth within your organization. Click here to find out more or Purchase this book

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TL Publications list Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectation. New York: Free Press. Bass, B. M. (1990). From transactional to transformational leadership: Learning to share the vision. Organizational Dynamics, (Winter): 19-31. Albritton, R. L. (1998). A new paradigm of leader effectiveness for academic libraries: An empirical study of the Bass (1985) model of transformational leadership. In T.F. Mech & G.B. McCabe (Eds.), Leadership and academic librarians (pp. 66-82) . Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1998. Bass, B. M. (1998). Transformational leadership: Industrial, military, and educational impact. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Bass, B.M. & Avolio, B.J. (Eds.). (1994). Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Pielstick, C.D. (1998). The transforming leader: A meta-ethnographic analysis. Community College Review, 26(3), 15-34. Yukl, G.A. (1999). An evaluation of conceptual weaknesses in transformational and charismatic leadership theories. Leadership Quarterly, 10(2), 285-305. Bass, Bernard M. Leadership, Psychology, and Organizational Behavior. N.Y.: Harper and Brothers, 1960. Bass, Bernard M. “The Ethics of Transformational Leadership.” In Kellogg Leadership Studies Project, Transformational Leadership Working Papers Transformational Leadership Working Papers, The James MacGregor Burns Academy of Leadership, 1997. Greenleaf, Robert. The Servant-Leader Within: A Transformative Path. New York: Paulist Press, 2003.

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Attachment B From Transactional to Transformative Leadership

Page 71 of 84

Transformational leaders inspire, energize, and intellectually stimulate their employees. The author argues that through training, managers can learn the techniques and obtain the qualities they need to become transformational leaders.

From Transactional to Iransformational Leadership: Learning to Share the Vision BERNARD M. BASS ^îr jEdmund Hillary of Mount Everest \ fajne liked to tell a story about one of ^J Captain Robert Falcon Scott's earlier attempts, from 1901 to 1904, to reach the South Pole. Scott led an expedition made up of men from thb Royal Navy and the merchant marine, as jwell as a group of scientists. Scott had considel'able trouble dealing with the merchant n|arine personnel, who were unaccustomed ip the rigid discipline of Scott's Royal Navy. S|:ott wanted to send one seaman home because he would not take orders, but the seaman refused, arguing that he had signed a contract and knew his rights. Since the seaman wds not subject to Royal Navy disciplinary action, Scott did not know what to do. Then Ernest Shackleton, a merchant navy officer in $cott's party, calmly informed the seaman th^t he, the seaman, was returning to Britain. Again the seaman refused â&#x20AC;&#x201D;and Shackleôn knocked him to the ship's deck. After arôther refusal, followed by a second

flooring, the seaman decided he would retuijn home. Scott later became one of the victims of his own inadequacies as a leader in his 1911 race to the South Pole. Shackleton went qn to lead many memorable expeditions; once, seeking help for the rest of his party, who were stranded on the Antarctic Coast, he journeyed with a small crew in a small open boat from the edge of Antarctica to Souilh Georgia Island.

LEADERSHIP TODAY Most relationships between supervisors and their employees are quite different today. Few managers depend mainly on their legitimate power, as Scott did, or on their coercive power, as Shackleton did, to persuade people to do as they're told. Rather, managers engage in a transaction with their employees: They explain what is required of 19

Bernard M. Bass is Distinguished Professor of Management and director of the Center for Leadership Studies at the State University of New York at Binghamton. He has held faculty positions at the University of Rochester, the University of Pittsburgh, the University of California at Berkeley, and Louisiana State University. He is a fellow of the Academy of Management and the Society for Industrial/Organizational Psychology, executive editor of The Leadership Quarterly, and a member of the executive committee of the International Association of Applied Psychology and past president of its division of organizational psychology. Bass has performed research, led management development programs, conducted workshops, and lectured on leadership in more than 30 countries; his books have been translated into many languages. He has led a worldwide management research and training program sponsored by the Ford Foundation. Bass holds a Ph.D. from Ohio State University. His latest work. The Bass and Stogdill Handbook of Leadership (Third Edition) (Free Press, 1990) reviews and integrates leadership theory, research, and applications from the social, political, and behavioral sciences.

them and what compensation they will receive if they fulfill these requirements. A shift in management style at Xerox's Reprographic Business Group (RBG) provides a good example. In the first step toward establishing management in which managers take the initiative and show consideration for others, 44 specific, effective management behaviors were identified. Two factors that characterize modern leadership were found in many of these behaviors. One factor—initialing and organizing work—concentrates on accomplishing the tasks at hand. The second factor —showing consideration for employees — focuses on satisfying the self-interest of those who do good work. The leader gets things done by making, and fulfilling, promises of recognition, pay increases, and advancement for employees who perform well. By contrast, employees who do not do good work are penalized. This transaction or exchange—this promise and reward for good performance, or threat and discipline for poor performance —characterizes effective leadership. These kinds of transactions took place in most of the effective 44 leadership behaviors identified at Xerox's RBG. This kind of leadership, which is based on transactions between manager and employees, is called "transactiona! leadership." In many instances, however, such transactional leadership is a prescription for mediocrity. This is particularly true if the leader relies heavily on passive management-by-exception, intervening with his or her group only when procedures and standards for accomplishing tasks are not being met. My colleagues and I have arrived at this surprising but consistent finding in a number of research analyses. Such a manager espouses the popular adage, "If it ain't broken, don't fix it." He or she stands in back of the caboose of a moving freight train and says, "Now I know v/here we are going." This kind of manager may use

disciplinary threats to bring a group's performance up to standards —a technique that is ineffective and, in the long run, likely to be counterproductive. Moreover, whether the promise of rewards or the avoidance of penalties motivates the employees depends on whether the leader has control of the rewards or penalties, and on whether the employees want the rewards or fear the penalties. In many organizations, pay increases depend mainly on seniority, and promotions depend on qualifications and policies about which the leader has little to say. The breaking of regulations rnay be the main cause of penalties. Many an executive has found his or her hands tied b3^ contract provisions, organizational politics, and inadequate resources.

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP Superior leadership performance — transformational leadership — occurs when leaders broaden and elevate the interests of their employees, when they generate awareness and acceptarice of the purposes and mission of the group, and when they stir their employees to look beyond their own self-interest for the good of the group. Transformational leaders achieve these results in one or more ways: They may be charismatic to their followers and thus inspire them; they may meet the emotional needs of each employee; and/or they may intellectually stimulate employees. Exhibit 1 lists the characteristics of transformational and transactional leadership; these listings are based on the findings of a series of surveys and on clinical and case evidence. Attaining charisma in the eyes of one's employees is central to succeeding as a transformational leader. Charismatic leaders have great power and influence. Employees want to identify with them, and they have a high

degree of trust and confidence in them. Charismatic leaders inspire and excite their errjployees with the idea that they may be able to accomplish great things with extra effort. Further, transformational leaders are individually considerate, that is, they pay close atteiv tion to differences among their employee?.; they act as mentors to those who need heljp' to grow and develop. Intellectual stimulatio jn. of employees is a third factor in transformational leadership. Intellectually stimulating leaders are willing and able to show their employees new ways of looking at old problems, to teach them to see difficulties as problerqs to be solved, and to emphasize rational solutions. Such a leader was Lorenz Iversen, a. former president of the Mesta Machine Conipany, who said to his employees, "We got this job because you're the best mechanics in the world!" He practiced management-by-walliing-around and stimulated the developmetjt of many of Mesta's patented inventions. He is remembered for instilling pride and commitment in his emploj^es.

THE BIG PAYOFF Managers who behave like transform<itional leaders are more likely to be seen by their colleagues and employees as satisfjdng and effective leaders than are those who behave like transactional leaders, according tp their colleagues', supervisors', and employees' responses on the Multifactor Leadership Queiitionnaire (MIQ). Similar results have beeh found in various organizational settings. Leaders studied have come from an extremely broad variety of organizations: chief executive officers and senior and middle level managers in business and industrial firms in the Unite^l States, Canada, Japan, and India; research and development project leaders; America^, Canadian, and British Army field grade offi- 21

Exhibit 1 CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSFORMATIONAL AND TRANSACTIONAL LEADERS

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADER Charisma: Provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains respect and trust. Inspiration: Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, expresses important purposes in simple ways. Intellectual Stimulation: Promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful problem solving. Individualized Consideration: Gives personal attention, treats each employee individually, coaches, advises. TRANSACTIONAL LEADER Contingent Reward: Contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishments. Management by Exception (active): Watches and searches for deviations from rules and standards, takes corrective action. Management hy Exception (passive): Intervenes only if standards are not met. Laissez-Faire: Abdicates responsibilities, avoids making decisions.

cers; United States Navy senior officers and junior surface fleet officers; Annapolis midshipmen; educational administrators; and religious leaders. Moreover, various types of evaluations — including performance ratings by both supervisors and direct reports, as well as standard financial measures — have produced a similar correlation between transformational behavior and high ratings. Managers tagged as high performers by their supervisors were also rated, in a separate evaluation by their followers, as more transformational than transactional. Their organizations do better financially. The same pattern emerged between followers' descriptions of shipboard Naval officers and those officers' supervisors' performance appraisals and recommendations for early promotion. And among Methodist ministers, transformational — not transactional — leadership behavior was positively related to high church attendance among congregants and growth in church membership. Results were the same for evaluation of team performance in complex business simu-

lations. Considerable credit for Boeing's turnaround since its 1969 crisis can be given to its chief executive, T. A. Wilson, who has emphasized technological progress, aggressive marketing, and a willingness to take calculated business risks. The confidence that Boeing employees have in Wilson, and their respect for him as a brilliant engineer and an outstanding leader, have instilled in them great pride in the company and its products.

EXTRA EFFORT FROM BELOW

Transformational leaders have better relationships with their supervisors and make more of a contribution to the organization than do those who are only transactional. Moreover, employees say that they themselves exert a lot of extra effort on behalf of managers who are transformational leaders. Organizations whose leaders are transactional are less effective than those whose leaders are transformational — particularly if much of the transactional leadership is passive management-by-

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exception (intervening only when standards are not being met). Employees say they exert little effort for such leaders. Nevertheless, leader-fdllower transactions dependent on contingent reward may also work reasonably well if the leaders can provide rewards that are valued by the followers. Exhibit 2 illustrates the effect that transformational, as compared with transactional, leadership has on employee effort. The data were collected from 228 employees of 58 managers in a large engineering firm. The managers were ranked according to their leadership factor scores, which were based on descriptions of leaders by their employees and colleagues on the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. "Four-star" leaders were those who ranked in the top 25% on a leadership factor score; "one-star" leaders were among the bottom 25 % of managers on the leadership factor score. From 75% to 82% of the "four-star" transformational managers had employees who indicated they frequently exerted extra effort on their jobs. Of the "one-star" transformational managers, only 22% to 24% had employees who said they frequently exerted extra effort. It is interesting to note that, as Exhibit 2 illustrates, being rated as "four-stcir" rather than "one-star" in transactional leadership did not have the same impact on emplo^^ees' extra effort as a high rating had for the transformational leaders. Similar findings have emerged from stxidies of leaders and their immediate employees at a diverse range of organizations, including Digital Equipment Corporation and Federal Express. DIFFERENT STYLES OF TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

As noted earlier, certain types of behavior characterize the transformational leader. Yet transformational leaders vary widely in

their personal styles. H. Ross Perot is selfeffacing: "I don't look impressive," he says. "To a lot of guys I don't look like I could afford a car." But Perot created the $2.5 billion ED!3 organization from his vision, initiative, err|phasis on hard work, and a special organizational culture with strict codes of moralit'y and dress and quasi-military management. His personal involvement in the rescue of twp of his employees trapped as hostages in Iran in 1979 is an extreme example of individualized consideration, a transformational factor. Leslie Wexner of The Limited, Inc. enjoys a more flamboyant lifestyle. But like Perot, Wexner converted his vision of a nationwide chain of women's sportswear stores into a reality through his own hard work. He stimulates employee participation in discussions and decisions and encourages them to shade his vision of the company's future. Many on Fortune's list of the ten toughest bosses would not live up to modern behavioral science's prescriptions for the gooidl leader: one who initiates the structure for interaction among his colleagues, and who doQs so with consideration for their welfare. Nevertheless, these tough bosses are highly successful as a consequence of the transformational qualities they display; Boeing's Wilson is ja case in point. Although they do initiate structure and may be considerate of their employees, these leaders succeed through such transformational factors as charisma and the ability and willingness to treat different subotldinates differently, as well as by providing intellectual stimulation for the employees. They frequently raise standards, take calculated risks, and get others to join them in their vision of the future. Rather than work within the organizational culture, they challenge and change that culture, as Roger Smith of General Motors Corporation did. Self-determin,ation and self-confidence are characteristic of them. They succeed because of these transfor- 23

Exhibit 2 EMPLOYEES' EFFORTS UNDER VARIOUS LEADERS

Percentage of Employees Who Exert Extra Effort Transformational Leaders Charisma "Four-Star" "One-Star" Individualized "Four-Star" "One-Star"

Consideration

Intellectual Stimulation "Four-Star" "One-Star"

] 82%

Transactional Leaders Contingent Reward "Four-Star" "One-Star" Management by Exception "Four-Star" "One-Star"

60%

3 58%

(Percentage of employees who rate themselves 3 or 4 on a 0-4 scale of extra effort.)

mational elements — even if they, like Wilson, have authoritarian tendencies.

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERS MAKE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SUCCESS A N D FAILURE

Fighting with far fewer men and tanks than his enemy had, against superior equipment, Ernst Rommel, the Desert Fox, won a series of victories in 1941 and 1942 against the British in North Africa, until he was overwhelmed at El Alamein. Because he was up front at the scene of the action, he could make more rapid assessments and decisions than could his British counterparts, who stayed 20

miles back in headquarters. This, and his willingness to accept calculated risks, contributed to his legendary speed, surprise, and boldness, as well as to the continuing high morale of his troops. Napoleon declared that an army of rabbits commanded by a lion could do better than an army of lions commanded by a rabbit. He was not far from the truth. With all due respect to social, economic, political, and market forces, and to human resources policies that affect an organization's health, having a lion —or, in Rommel's case, a fox—in command rather than a rabbit frequently means success for the organization. Lee Iacocca of Chrysler Corporation and John Welch of General Electric, who have become folk heroes (or

folk devils, to some), are contemporary examples of the importance of transformational leaders to their organizations. Leadership makes its presence felt throughout the organization and its activities. We have found that eraployees not only do a better job when they believe their supervisors are transformational leaders, but they also are much more satisfied with the company's performance appraisal system. Likewise, mass communications directed toward individual employees are much more likely to have an impact if the messages are reinforced face-toface by their supervisors at all organizational levels. Transformational leadership should be encouraged, for it can make a big difference in the firm's performance at all levels. Managers need to do more than focus on the exchange of material,, social, and personal benefits for services satisfactorily rendered. The charismatic leader, like the flamboyant Ted Turner of Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. can instill a sense of mission; the individually considerate leader, like the shy and self-effacing Roberto Goizueta of the Coca Cola Corporation, can lead employees to take an interest in higher-level concerns; the intellectually stimulating leader, like the innovative Roger Srnith at General Motors Corporation, can articulate a shared vision of jointly acceptable possibilities. This is not to say that transformational leaders are always prosocial in their efforts, for some fulfill grandiose dreams at the expense of their followers. Despite the many successes with management development programs and the leadership development programs in our military academies, many executives still jFeel that leadership is like the weather â&#x20AC;&#x201D; something to talk about, but about which not much can be done. Others say leadership ability is mysticalâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;one needs to be born with it. In fact, much can be done to improve

leadership in an organization and to change the presiding style from transactional to trari?;formational. The overall amount of transformational leadership in an organization can IHe increased substantially by suitable organizgitional and human resources policies. The neiv model of transformational leadership presents opportunities for enhancing a corporation's image and for improving its success in recruitment, selection, and promotion. This model also has implications for the organizqition^s training and development activities ar^d for the design of its jobs and organizational structure.

Implications for Corporate Image It is no accident that many of the firmis identified in Tom Peters and Robert Waterman's In Search of Excellence (Warner Books, 1982) as excellently managed have large nundbers of transformational leaders. Conversel]i the poorly managed "dinosaurs" among the firms they describe need to implement a loit more transformational leadership. A firriii that is permeated with transformational leadjership from top to bottom conveys to its owix personnel as well as to customers, suppliersi, financial backers, and the community at largt that it has its eyes on the future; is confidentj: has personnel who are pulling together for thi common good; and places a premium on its intellectual resources and flexibility and oii the development of its people.

Implications for Recruiting Increasing transformational leadership within the organization may help in recruit^ ment. Candidates are likely to be attracted ta an organization whose CEO is charismatic and enjoys a public image as a confident, suc-i 25

cessful, optimistic, dynamic leader. In addition, prospects are likely to be attracted by interview experiences with other members of management who exhibit individualized consideration. More intelligent prospects will be particularly impressed with intellectually stimulating contacts they make during the recruiting and hiring process.

Implications for Selection, Promotion, and Transfer Since we can identify and measure the factors associated with transformational leadership, these factors should be incorporated into managerial assessment, selection, placement, and guidance programs — along with related assessments of relevant personal dimensions and individual differences. Somewhat more transformational leadership is generally expected and found as managers move to successively higher levels in the organization, but it is reasonable to expect that an individual's performance at one level will be similar to his or her performance at the next. Direct reports, peers, and/or supervisors can be asked to describe the manager's current leadership with the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire; their responses should be considered when decisions are made regarding a manager's promotion or transfer into a position of greater supervisory responsibility. Feedback from these results can also be used for counseling, coaching, and mentoring.

Further, the organization can tap the personal characteristics and strengths that underlie the manager's transformational behavior. Charismatic leaders are characterized by energy, self-confidence, determination, intellect, verbal skills, and strong ego ideals. Each of these traits can be assessed in individual managers. Similarly, we can assess some of the traits underlyirig individualized consider-

ation, such as coaching skills; preference for two-way, face-to-face communication; and willingness to delegate. Again, in the area of intellectual stimulation, candidates for promotion could be assessed with an eye toward the type of intellectual stimulation — general, creative, or mathematical — that would be most effective at the higher level of management. Appropriate intelligence tests may be used to select intellectually stimulating candidates. Research findings indicate that when employees rate their managers on the MLQ, they describe new business leaders as significantly more transformational than established business leaders. Thus MLQ scores can be used profitably to identify executives to head new ventures.

Implications for Development A management trainee's first supervisor can make a big difference in his or her subsequent career success. For example, six years after they joined Exxon, many managers who were highly rated by their supervisors reported that they had been given challenging assignments by their initial supervisor (i.e., they had received individualized consideration). Many had been assigned to supervisors with good reputations in the firm. It is important to note that managers tend to model their own leadership style after that of their immediate supervisors. Thus if more higher-ups are transformational, more lower-level employees will emulate transformational behavior — and will be likely to act as transformational leaders as they rise in the organization. Organizational policy needs to support an understanding and appreciation of the maverick who is willing to take unpopular positions, who knows when to reject the conventional wisdom, and who takes reasonable

risks. For example, when R. Gordon McGovern took over as president of Campbell Soup, he introduced the "right to fail" policy, which shook up the stodgy organization. On the other hand, the fine line between self-confidence and obstinacy needs to be drawn. The determined Winston Churchill who contributed so much to the survival of Britain in

shown that leaders at all levels can be trained to be charismatic in both verbal and nonvei^bal performance. Successful programs have been conducted for first-level project leaders in hi-tech computer firms as well as for senior executives of insurance firms. That transformational leadership can be increased through training was verified in

C(Transformational leadership can he learned, and it can—and should—be the subject of management training and development. Research has shown that leaders at all levels can he trained to he charismatic . . !' 1940 wa$ the same Churchill whose obstinacy contributed to the mistakes in 1941 of failing to prepare Singapore adequately and of committing British troops to unnecessary disaster in Crete iand Greece. Intellectual stimulation also needs to be nurtured! and cultivated as a way of life in the organization. The "best and the brightest" people should be hired, nourished, and encouraged|. Innovation and creativity should be fostered at all levels in the firm.

Implicatijins for Ihiining Despite conventional wisdom to the contrary, transformational leadership is a widespread phenomenon. True, more of it occurs at the tof) than at the bottom of an organization; but jit has also been observed by many employees in their first-level supervisors. Transformatioijial leadership can be learned, and it can —anc should —be the subject of management traijiing and development. Research has

an experiment when Multifactor Leadershiid) Questionnaire scores were obtained on shop supervisors from their trainees, who were int mates in minimum, medium, and maximum^ security prisons. The supervisors worked directly with the inmates in industrial shops to produce various products for sale within and outside the prison system. The experi^ ment compared four groups of supervisors oili their pre- and post-training effectiveness iii various industrial and vocational shops in the prison. One group was trained in transformzitional leadership, one group was trained in transactional leadership, one was untrained but measured "before and after," and one was untrained and measured only "after." The per J formances of both trained grovips improved, but in comparison to the three other groups of supervisors, those who were trained in transformational leadership did as well oi' better at improving productivity, absenteeism, and "citizenship" behavior among the inmates; they also won more respect from the inmates.

TRAINING MANAGERS

Practical training that teaches people how to be transformational is similar to that used in the Xerox RPG strategy to modify management style. A counselor, mediator, or supervisor gives a manager a detailed, standardized description of his or her transformational and transactional leadership performance as rated by the manager's employees and/or colleagues. The Muitifactor Leadership Questionnaire is used for this purpose. The manager also sees a chart showing the effects of his or her leadership on employee satisfaction, motivation, and perception of organizational effectiveness. Anonymity is maintained, although the manager sees the individual differences among the responses. Participating managers complete a parallel questionnaire about their own leadership. The discrepancies between how they rate themselves and how their employees rate them may be examined scale-by-scale and item-by-item. The counselor may pose such questions as: "Why do you think you gave yourself a much higher score than your employees gave you in individualized consideration?" and "Why did your employees disagree with you on how rapidly you get to the heart of complex problems or the extent to which they trust you to overcome any obstacles?" It is important for managers to be aware of and accept their employees' view of their performance. A study of United States Naval officers found that those who agreed with their direct reports about their transformational leadership behavior were also likely to earn higher fitness ratings and recommendations for early promotion from their supervisors.

The manager and the counselor discuss in detail why certain results may have appeared and what can be done to improve ratings. For example, a manager may be asked: "What specific behavior on your part makes your

employees say they are proud to work with you?" or "What have you done that results in your colleagues' saying you foster a sense of mission?" The collected responses to these questions can create a useful picture of what the manager can do to raise his or her performance on particular items. In addition to working individually with a counselor, the manager also may participate in a workshop with other managers who are working toward becoming more transformational leaders. Workshop participants who received high ratings from their employees on a particular item are asked what they, the participants, specifically did to achieve these ratings. Questions might include: "Why did all of your employees say that you frequently enabled them to think about old problems in new ways?'' or "Why did they all say that you increased their optimism for the future?' Conversely, questions may focus on why a participant's employees varied widely in their ratings. If the data printout shoivs a wide divergence of opinion about whether a manager made the employees enthusiastic about assignments, he or she might be asked to suggest possible reasons for such differences of opinion among the employees.

Other Approaches to Training Several other approaches to teaching transformational leadership make use of the specific data gathered in the workshop. For instance, participants are asked to think of an effective leader they have known and the behavior the leader displayed. Many examples of charisma, individualized consideration, and intellectual stimulation are usually noted. The effective leaders who are mentioned typically come from many levels inside and outside the organization; the workshop leader may point out that transformational leader-

ship is neither particularly uncommon nor limited only to world class leaders. Moreover, these leaders' specific behaviors can be described, observed, and adopted. After viewing videotapes of charismatic, individually considerate, and intellectually stimulating managers in action, workshop participants may be asked to create their own scenarios and videotapes, in which they emulate the transformational leaders they have observed. The other participants may then offer critiques apd suggest improvements. The workshop also aims to increase other aspects of transformational leadership. The transf orrnational leader develops and changes the organizational culture, and to show participants that they have such capabilities, the

â&#x20AC;˘ I am going to sit down with all my errjployees and review these data with them. â&#x20AC;˘ I am going to ask for another "reading" in a year; in the meantime I will try to reduce the discrepancies between where I am anfl where I should be. â&#x20AC;˘ I'm going to talk with my mentdr about these results and ask him what hie thinks I should do about them. ;

Implications for Leadership Education Military academies have traditionally emphasized leadership education, and todaiy we are seeing a surge of interest in leadership courses in liberal arts colleges as well. At least

counselor, mediator, or supervisor gives a manager a detailed, standardized description of his or her transformational and transactional leadership petformance as rated by the managers' employees and/or colleagues." workshop leader asks them to imagine what the orgafiization might be like in tv/o to five years if \t were fully aligned with their own ideas arid interests. Then, in small teams based ori their actual functions at work, they proceed to redesign the organization. Similarly, training in mentoring can be used to promote the transformational factor of individualized consideration. For example, one participant can counsel another while a third acfs as an observer and a source of feedbacl^ about the performance. And many creativity exercises show a manager how he or she c^n be more intellectually stimulating. Action ptans emerge from workshop sessions. Example^ include the following:

600 such courses were being offered, according to a recently completed sun/ey of collegesj. The Center for Creative Leadership holds conlferences on leadership courses in undergraduiate education, most recently in the summer of 1986. The subject of transformationajl leadership also has been added to leadership courses at the U.S. Air Force Academy ajt Colorado Springs. In one such course, botii faculty and students examined how Air Forcfe officers who are transformational leaders serve as role models for cadets. Scales from the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire were used to show that the transformational leaders among the instructors and staff provided role models for their students. The 29

faculty and students discussed the questionnaire results and their implications. Clearly, training cannot turn a purely transactional leader into a transformational leader. Moreover, some managers, while striving to be transformational leaders, misuse their training; their pseudotransformational efforts only further the manager's self-interest and values. Under the influence of such a manager, employees can be misdirected away from their own best interests and those of the organization as a whole. In one such case, Donald Burr of People's Express Airlines displayed many transformational qualities that rapidly built and then rapidly ruined the firm. For too long, leadership development has been seen as mainly a matter of skill development. But leadership-particularly transformational leadership â&#x20AC;&#x201D; should be regarded as an art and a science. It is encouraging to see that the Council for Liberal Learning of the Association of American Colleges now sponsors week-long conferences on leadership for scholars, prominent citizens, and national leaders.

Implications for Job Design and Job Assignment As we have noted earlier, the results of a study of Exxon managers showed that highly rated managers had had challenging tasks delegated to them by their supervisors when they first joined the company. Jobs can â&#x20AC;&#x201D;and should â&#x20AC;&#x201D;be designed to provide greater challenges. Delegation with guidance and followup can become an individualizing and developmental way of life in a firm. Transformational leaders show individualized consideration by paying attention to the particular development needs of each of their employees. Employees'jobs are designed 30 with those needs in mind, as well as the needs

of the organization. One employee needs experience leading a project team. Another needs an opportunity to reinforce what she has learned in an advanced computer programming class. Their transformational leader assigns them tasks accordingly. Leaders can be intellectually stimulating to their employees if their own jobs allow them to explore new opportunities, to diagnose organizational problems, and to generate solutions. Leaders whose jobs force them to focus on solving small, immediate problems are likely to be less intellectually stimulating than those who have time to think ahead and in larger terms.

Implications for Organizational Structure Transformational leadership is not a panacea. In many situations, it is inappropriate and transactional processes are indicated. In general, firms that are functioning in stable markets can afford to depend on their "oneminute" managers to provide the necessary, day-to-day leadership. If the technology, workforce, and environment are stable as well, then things are likely to move along quite well with managers who simply promise and deliver rewards to employees for carrying out assignments. And in stable organizations, even management-by-exception can be quite effective if the manager monitors employee performance and takes corrective action as needed. Rules and regulations for getting things done, when clearly understood and accepted by the employees, can eliminate the need for leadership under some circumstances. But when the firm is faced with a turbulent marketplace; when its products are born, live, and die within the span of a few years; and/or when its current technology can be-

come obsolete before it is fully depreciated; then transformational leadership needs to be fostered at all levels in the firm. In order to succeed, the firm needs to have the flexibility to forecast and meet new demands and changes as they occur â&#x20AC;&#x201D;and only transformational leadership can enable the firm to do so. Problems, rapid changes, and uncertainties call for a flexible organization with determined leaders who can inspire employees to participate enthusiastically in team efforts and share in organizational goals. In short, charisma, attention to individualized development, and the ability and willingness to provide intellectual stimulation are critical in leaders whose firms are faced with demands for renewal and change. At these organizations, fostering transformational leadership through policies of recruitment, selection, promotion, training, and development is likely to pay off in the health, well-being, and effective performance of the organization.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

For nontechnical reading about transformational and transactional leadership, the following are suggested: James MacGregor Bums's Leadership (Harper, 1978); Bernard M. Bass's Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations (Free Press, 1985) and "Leadership: Good, Better, Best" (Organizational Dynamics, 1985); Noel Tichy and Michelle Devanna's Transformational Leadership (Wiley, 1986); Warren G. Bennis and B. Nanus's Leaders: The Strategies for Taking Charge (Harper & Row, 1985); and Jan M. Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner's The Leadership Challenge: Haw to Get Extraordinary Things Done in Organizations (JosseyBass, 1987). For more on transformational leadership that

is selfish or antisocial, see Bernard M. Bass's "The Two Faces of Charismatic Leadership" (Leaders Magazine, forthcoming) and Jane Howell's "Two Faces of Charisma: Socialized and Personalized Leadership in Organizations" in Charismatic Leacl^ ership: The Illusive Factor in Organizational Effectiveness (Jossey-Bass, 1988), edited by Jay A... Conger and Rabindra N. Kanungo and Associates. Several articles provide more specific evir dence about and applications of transformational leadership. These include Bruce J. Avolio and Bernard M. Bass's "Charisma and Beyond," in Emerg-ing Leadership Vistas, edited by Jerry G. Hunt (Lexington Books, 1988); Bernard M. Bass, Bruce j:. Avolio, and Laurie Goodheim's "Biography and the Assessment of Transformational Leadership at the World Class Level" (Journal of Management, Vo 1ume 13, 1987); and John Hater and Bernard M|. Bass's "Superiors' Evaluations and Subordinates' Perceptions of Transformational and TransactionaJ Leadership" (Journal of Applied Psychology, Noviember 1988). Other very useful articles include Richard Crookall's 'IVIanagement of Inmate Workers: A Field Test of Transformational and Situational Leadership" (Ph.D. dissertation. University cf Western Ontario, 1989); and David A. Waldman: Bernard M. Bass, and Francis J. Yarnmarino's "Addf ing to Leader-Follower Transactions: The Augmenting Effect of Charismatic Leadership" (Technif cal Report 3, Center for Leadership Studies, Stafte University of New York, Binghamton, 1988). A detailed review of findings is presented in Bernard M. Bass and Bruce J. Avolio's "Implications of Transactional and Transformational Leadershiji for Individual, Team and Organizational Develop* ment" in Research in Organizational Change and Development, edited by Richard W. Woodmaii and William A. Pasmore (JAI Press, 1989).

// you wish to make photocopies or obtain reprints of this or other articles in ORGANIZATIONAL DYNAMICS, please refer to the special reprint service instructions on page 80.

Attachment C Comparing Transformational Leadership in Successful and Unsuccessful Organizations

Page 72 of 84

Comparing Transformational Leadership in Successful and Unsuccessful Companies

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gholamreza Jandaghi* Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hassan Zareei Matin** Ali Farjami***

Abstract In this article, while it is attempted to describe the problem and its importance, transformational leadership is studied by considering leadership theories. Issues such as the definition of transformational leadership and its aspects are compared on the basis of the ideas of various connoisseurs and then it (transformational leadership) is examined in successful and less successful companies. According to the methodology, the method of research, assumptions, community and statistical sample are investigated and research findings are analyzed by using descriptive and deductive statistical methods in the framework of analytical tables. Finally, our conclusion is provided by considering the results of statistical tests. The final result shows that there is more transformational leadership in successful companies than unsuccessful ones. Keywords: transformational leadership, idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individualized considerations.

_______________ * B.A. General Management, Organizational Transformation ** University of Tehran, Qom Campus *** University of Tehran, Qom Campus

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Introduction: Leadership is an issue drawn by researchers since old times. Because of their unique traits, leaders influence the organization and society overall. In the organizations, transformational leaders could be a competitive advantage to increase the efficacy and performance of such organizations. These organizations have to pose some changes in order to adopt themselves with environment. These changes could be occurred in areas such as human resources, aims, strategies, structures, etc. sometimes, the need to radical and fundamental changes is felt in the organizations. In such cases, transformational leadership is required to make radical changes. It should be noted that radical changes are not only prescribe to treat internal problems but also this approach could be applicable for successful organizations in order to achieve higher performance and using present and future environmental chances is effective and inspirational. Problem definition: The effective role of managers and leaders in radical changes and transformations is unavoidable in the organizations. Leadership and management are not identical. To influence over others, management is depended on formal power while leadership is resulted from a social influence process. Leaders make cultures and their fundamental role is affecting others. In other words, transformational leaders try to make changes that increase organizational efficacy and performance. These are changes that cause higher aim and expectations to the organization. One of the results of transformational leaders is organizational performance improvement. Transformational leader provides a ground for long-term organizational changes which facilitate the access of organizational system to higher objectives. Regarding the necessity of making fundamental changes in the organizations and the effective role of organizational leadership and management in such changes, it is necessary to do some researches in this field. Owing to the fact that transformational leadership is, inter alia, a new applied theory in organizational behavior and has achieved to valuable results in those organizations that have utilized it so far, in this research, the researcher tries to explain the situation of transformational leadership in successful and less successful organizations. It is noteworthy that the radical model in this research is Bernard Boss's transformational leadership model. Transformational Leadership The initial concept of transformational leadership was provided by Burns in his researches about political leaders. According to Burns, transformational leadership is a process in which leaders and followers promote each other to higher levels of morality and motivation. Transformational leaders help their followers to look at old problems via a new perspective. They stimulate their followers to attempt higher than usual levels. Transformational leaders inspire their followers to think more than their own aims and interests and to focus on greater team, organizational, national and global objectives. By providing future perspective, such leaders influence over their followers in a manner that they assume that perspective as their own aim and show high efforts to achieve it. These leaders are able to move the organization toward the ideal perspective by coordinating the employees and integrating all system components (Cacioppe, 2000, p. 336). Transformational leaders are referred to those ones who try to show the organizations a new route for improvement and progress by generating new ideas and perspectives. They also mobilize the organization by motivating managers, employees and members of the organizations to radical changes, transforming organizational pillars to achieve necessary readiness and capabilities to move in this new route as well as achieving higher levels of idealized performance (Sanjaghi, 2000, p. 44). Transformational leaders increase their followers' creativity, motivation and spirituality while transactional leaders address to personal and future interests of their followers. Transformational leaders

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emphasize on what you can do for your country while transactional leaders focus on what the country can do for you (Ozgoly, 2004, p. 206). Transformational leaders change their followers, empower them to develop and create new needs, tendencies and values because that their requirements are met. Therefore, the followers may grow, develop and change to leaders (Barker, 1992, p. 42). Transformational leaders are facing with values, ethics, standards and long-term aims and focus on their followers' performance and development in order to increase their capabilities. Often, transformational leaders have strong internal ideals and values (Northhouse, 2001, p. 131). Paul Hersey, Kenneth Blanchard and Johnson Dewey defines transformational leadership as an informed influence process in individuals or groups to create discontinuous changes in current conditions and organizational performance as a whole. Burns emphasizes that transformational leaders have a vision and challenge others to do extraordinary works. He believes that transformational leaders are able to draw new necessary routes for modern organizations because that they are the source of changes. In other word, transformational leaders have complete influence over organizational changes. This kind of leadership can draw a clearer and better picture for future, define its vision for employees more effectively and the employees will accept their vision as a fact interestingly. In 1985 and following to Burns' studies, Boss introduced a model of leadership that prescribed transactional and transformational leaderships for organizational stability and transformation respectively. In 1996, Boss and Alive expanded this model, defined the aspects of transactional and transformational leadership and even operationalized it in questionnaire called "Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ)." In this model, the aspects of transformational leadership include idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation and individualized considerations. The aspects of transactional leadership include conditional incentives and exception-based management. In this study, the researcher has used this model. In 1978, Burns provided a description of transactional leadership on the basis of a changing profitable relation between leader and follower. Transactional leaders influence over their followers by incentives or punishments according to their performance. Transformational leadership is a dynamic and complicated process in which the leaders influence over followers' values, beliefs and aims. Changes in followers' behaviors cause changes in leaders' behaviors. Burns believed that transactional transformational leaderships are two separated points in leadership styles continuum (Moghali, 2002). Boss believes that transformational leadership model is applicable in a universality manner which encourages the followers to neglect individual interests for group or organizational interests and stimulates them to work more than usual. Transformational leaders create an extraordinary motivation by confirming the employees' ideas and values and inspiring them to think about various problems by utilizing modern methods. Transformational leaders change the society by their own words and behaviors. Their followers have a feeling of respect, dignity and loyalty toward them. The influence of transformational leaders is based on their capabilities to inspire others through their words, conversation, insight and initiatives. Transformational leadership occurs when leaders improve their employees' interests toward themselves. The leaders create the awareness and acceptance of aims and mission of the group. Boss believes that transformational leadership influences over followers' traits and behavior. Transformational leadership is a process in which the leader determines the followers' needs and demands as well as meeting such needs through a comprehensive effort in achieving determined aims. Transactional process addresses needs and demands to perform the tasks (Boss & Alive, 1993, p. 258).

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The Factors of Transformational Leadership: Charisma (idealized influence) Charismatic leadership is a component of transformational leadership and idealized influence includes idealized traits and idealized behaviors. Inspiring the honor and proud to followers and their contribution to group interests are, inter alia, most obvious idealized characteristics of a leader. Followers' exaltation, dignity, respect and unquestioned obedience transmit an idealized feeling. Talking about the most important values and a strong feeling to aims as well as spiritual and moral results of decisions are among idealized behaviors indicators. Idealized influence causes that leader be a behavioral model for followers. Idealized influence shows the capability of trust making and understanding the leadership by followers. It is a radical factor in accepting changes in the organization. Without such trust and braveness, any effort to conduct the organization in order to achieve its aims will be fruitless. A man can lead others when they are ready to be led by him/her. Others will believe and appreciate such person if he/she performs his/her duties well (potential followers). In other words, a man is a leader when he has idealized influence and has expressed it to their own followers. Basically, the followers will try to obey the leaders because of their idealized influence. However, the most successful leaders are achieving to a high level of trust and understanding because that followers mitigate them. Leaders with idealized influence are respected and trusted persons. Followers recognize themselves via him/her and try to mitigate him/her. Such leaders "perform right works" and possess high human and moral behaviors. Such leaders are not using their leadership power and capacity to achieve personal aims. They try to achieve organizational objectives by conducting and guiding their followers. Charisma explains those individuals who are special and stimulates others to follow their own perspectives (Northhouse, 2001). Inspirational Motivation Inspirational motivation is one of the capabilities of transformational leadership that introduces the leader as a figure who encourages the followers to suitable behaviors inspirationally. When transformational changes should be posed in the organization, the leader shall encourage the followers to accept new belief and idea (change) continuously. Therefore, transformational leaders should behave in a special way and stimulate their followers. Implicitly, such behavior shows the tendency and optimistic and encourages team working. Peter Senge believes that inspiration is the basis of motivation. It is this kind of motivation that stimulates the followers' commitment to perform organizational aims. Actually, in inspirational motivation, leaders create a shared insight for followers. The individuals learn when there is a factual vision not because the leaders tell them but because they themselves like to do that and not because that the leaders command them but because that they themselves want to act in this manner. This insight is higher than needs hierarchy levels and is inspired among followers by stimulating a shared insight of organizational aims. Generally, inspirational motivation consists of: 1.

Optimistic speaking of future

Enthusiastic speaking about what needed to be done

Expressing an attractive perspective of future

Stating the confidence to the fact that the aims will be met

Drawing an excited picture of what should be considered

Taking up challenging problems (Moghali, 2002, p. 70)

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Intellectual Stimulation Intellectual stimulation is one of the capabilities of transformational leaders which plays an important role in diversifying process of the organizations (change). Transformational leaders try to encourage their followers to creativity and innovation. Such leaders encourage changing in thinking methods about problem solving and use metaphors and examples. Therefore, they may use new and creative ideas to resolve the problems. Boss believes that intellectual motivation is a driving force that stimulates the followers to think about beliefs and values as well as being aware of problems and their resolutions. In this line, transformational leadership promotes the followers' capabilities to understand the organizational nature and difficulties. What is considered here more is paying further attention to creative and developed ideas rather than rapid reactions. The leader creates a challenge for followers in order that they think about what they are doing. Also, this factor is recognized as a tool to generate learning organization. Overall, intellectual stimulation consists of:

71).

Reinvestigating basic assumptions and questioning them

Looking for various perspectives when resolving the problems

Enforcing others to look at the problem from different views

Encouraging nontraditional thinking to address traditional problems

Encouraging revising the ideas that are not questioned yet (Moghali, 2002, p.

Individualized Consideration Individualized consideration is another characteristic of transformational leadership. Paying attention to others is one of the most important aspects of transformational leadership. Individuals are supported by leaders and leaders are concern about their personal feelings and needs (Podsakoff, 1990). Transformational leaders help their subordinates in fulfilling their potential talents and increasing their responsibilities in the organization. Transformational leaders differ from transactional leaders in diagnosing the needs because that transactional leader tries to meet lower needs than higher needs such as development and maturity. Overall, individualized consideration consists of: 1.

Spending time in teaching and coaching

Behaving others as persons not just group members

3. Paying attention to others as persons who are the owner of different needs, capabilities, dreams and wishes

p. 73).

leaders:

Helping others to develop and grow their own capabilities

Listening to others demands and interests

Developing individuality and facilitating individuals' growth (Moghali, 2002,

Effective utilization of transformational leaders' skills will indicate following traits of these •

Creativity

•

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•

Appreciation of others

•

Teaching (learning)

•

Responsibility.

Transactional leadership According to Burns, transactional leadership is a kind of leadership based on transacts between leader and follower in a way that mutual personal tendencies are met. In other way, he believes that in this school, anything is observed from what persons are gaining and the relationship between leader and follower is profit-oriented and based on exchanging one thing to other thing. Transactional leadership points out the relation between leader and follower to provide their personal interests. This approach to leadership emphasizes on the importance of relations between leader and follower as well mutual advantages that are generated via a contract. Based on this contract, leader grants followers the incentives and cognition in lieu of their commitment and loyalty (Robins, 2003, p. 317). Burns believes that transactional leadership is the common leadership style in the organizations which consists of exchanging the stimulations and incentives by leaders to attract the support of followers. The aim of such leaders is to agree about some actions that will meet separated and immediate aims of both leaders and followers. On the other hand, the aim of transformational leadership is more than meeting immediate needs. According to Burns, transformational leaders are looking for followers' potential motivations. The distinguished trait of transformational leaders is a common and shared objective. This objective links leaders and followers. Burns believes that transformational leadership is mainly superior to transactional leadership. He believes that transformational leadership is motivational, supreme and ethical in which human behavior and leaders/followers' ethical tendencies will grow up. On the other hand, transactional leadership with its own static traits will cause the self-attraction and controlling over subordinates. It tries to meet follower's lower needs. Transformational leadership tries to satisfy Maslow high needs hierarchy (Siola, 1998). Non-interference Leadership It means the freedom of followers in time of leader's absent or avoiding leading others. It is considered as the most static style of leadership. In front of transactional leadership, non-interference indicates non-transactional and undifferentiated situation. Research Methodology The main aim of the research is to compare transformational leadership in successful and less successful companies at Qom's moulding industry. Its sub-aims include: Sub-aims: 1. Studying the characteristics of idealized influence in successful and less successful companies at moulding industry 2. Studying the characteristics of intellectual stimulation in successful and less successful companies at moulding industry 3. Studying the characteristics of inspirational motivation in successful and less successful companies at moulding industry 4. Studying the characteristics of individualized consideration in successful and less successful companies at moulding industry

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5. Ranking transformational leadership factors in successful and less successful companies at moulding industry Research Hypotheses: Main Hypothesis: Leadership style in successful organizations is more based on transformational leadership model than less successful organizations. Sub-Hypotheses: 1. Leadership style in successful organizations is more based on idealized influence than less successful organizations. 2. Leadership style in successful organizations is more based on inspirational motivation than less successful organizations. 3. Leadership style in successful organizations is more based on intellectual stimulation than less successful organizations. 4. Leadership style in successful organizations is more based on individual consideration than less successful organizations. Type and Method of the Research Regarding the aim, this research is applied one. The plan of the research is descriptive –type survey. It is descriptive because that it draws a picture of current situation and is a survey because that tries to collect the data of statistical community via questionnaire. Statistical Community and Sample In this research, statistical community includes the managers and employees of manufacturing private companies in Qom's moulding industry. Therefore, the personnel of these companies are considered as statistical community. To select successful and less successful companies, the suggestions and ideas of Industries and Mines Organization's experts who have complete information about the performance of these companies were utilized. It should be noted that successfulness or less successfulness of these companies were announced by Industries and Mines Organization according to their performance in recent three years (2003-2006). Sampling Method: Layer sampling is used in this research for organizations on the basis of the number of staff with high school or higher level educations. Inside the organizations, random sampling was used for final selection after determining the share of each organization based on considered limitations. Sample Size To determine the sample size, following formula was used. This formula is taken from Cochran G. William's book titled "Sampling Techniques1" (1977):

_______________ 1

Third edition, John Willey.

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α 2

+ Z1

µ1 − µ 2 S

α 2

a= %

Owing to the fact that the sample variance was 125 which obtained from a pilot, total sample size was 68 persons. Regarding the possibility of non-returning the questionnaires, sample amount was considered 8- persons. Research Domain: (A) Thematic Domain Research domain is organizational behavior studies and new leadership theories. (B) Time Domain Initial studies were begun in spring 2006 and then background studies were continued. In spring 2007, field studies as well as collecting and analyzing the data were come to an end. (C) Place Domain industry.

This research was done in Iran at Qom province and in private organizations of moulding

Data Analysis Methods After data collection via questionnaires, obtained data were analyzed by SPSS (Statistical Program in Social Sciences) software. Utilized Dtatistical Dethods Include: graphs

Abundance tests such as means, percentages, standard deviation, tables and

2. T. Test to measuring the differences between successful and less successful organizations with regard to transformational leadership factors 3. Freedman ranking test for transformational leadership factors in successful and less successful organizations Findings Analysis: (A) Descriptive Statistics: According to below table, the mean of transformational leadership in successful and less successful organizations is 3.32 and 2.81 respectively.

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Successful organizations

Transformational leadership

Less successful organizations

Mean

medium

Mode

Standard deviation

Mean

medium

Mode

Standard deviation

3.325

3.343

3.34

0.279

2.81

2.79

2.66

0.275

Analyzing the Indicators of Transformational Leadership in Successful Organizations: Above table shows that in successful organizations, the mean, medium and mode of transformational leadership are above 3. It indicates that successful organizations possess more transformational leadership traits. Among transformational leadership aspects in successful organizations, inspirational motivation and individualized consideration have the highest and lowest mean respectively. So, one can say that managers shall try to enforce individualized consideration traits. Descriptive statistics of transformational leadership indicators in successful companies transformational leadership aspects

Mean

Medium

Mode

Standard deviation

Idealized influence

3.37

3.44

3.5

0.36

Intellectual stimulation

3.33

3.25

0.4

Inspirational motivation

3.47

3.5

0.46

Individualized consideration

3.12

0.36

Analyzing Organizations:

the

Indicators

Transformational

Leadership

Less

Successful

According to below table regarding descriptive statistics of transformational leadership aspects in less successful, we can observe that in these organizations, all transformational leadership aspects have lower mean than successful ones. Except than inspirational motivation, other aspects are under 3. In these organizations, inspirational motivation has the highest rank with 3.13 mean followed by intellectual stimulation with 2.86 mean, inspirational motivation with 2.69 mean and idealized influence with 2.58 mean. Descriptive Statistics of Transformational Leadership Indicators in Less Successful Companies transformational leadership aspects

Mean

Medium

Mode

Standard deviation

Idealized influence

2.58

2.62

2.5

0.24

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Intellectual stimulation

2.86

2.75

0.42

Inspirational motivation

3.13

3.25

2.75

0.5

Individualized consideration

2.69

2.75

0.4

(B) Deductive Statistics: Testing Main Hypothesis: According to main hypothesis and research background studies, it is claimed that leadership style in successful companies is based on transformational leadership model. In other word, leaders in successful companies possess more transformational leadership traits. On this basis, testing main hypothesis will be as follow: The mean of transformational leadership aspects in successful companies is lower or equal to unsuccessful companies. H0: M1 M2 The mean of transformational leadership aspects in successful companies is higher than unsuccessful companies. H0: M1 > M2 With regard to hypothesis test, claim will be in opposite hypothesis. By using T.test with 95% confidential interval P-value = 0.000. Hence, hypothesis zero is refused and opposite hypothesis is supported namely; the mean of transformational leadership aspects in successful companies is further than unsuccessful ones. In other word, leaders in successful companies possess more traits of transformational leadership than less successful ones. Testing the First Sub-Hypothesis: According to first sub-hypothesis, it is claimed that leadership style in successful companies is more based on idealized influence. Hence, hypothesis test is expressed as follow: The idealized influence mean in successful companies is lower or equal to unsuccessful companies. H0: M1 M2 The idealized influence mean in successful companies is higher than unsuccessful companies. H0: M1 > M2 With regard to hypothesis test, claim will be in opposite hypothesis. By using T.test with 95% confidence level P-value = 0.000. Hence, hypothesis zero is refused and opposite hypothesis is supported namely; the idealized influence mean in successful companies is further than unsuccessful ones. In other word, leaders in successful companies possess more idealized influence than less successful ones. Testing the Second Sub-Hypothesis: According to second sub-hypothesis, it is claimed that leadership style in successful companies is more based on inspirational motivation. Hence, hypothesis test is expressed as follow:

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The inspirational motivation mean in successful companies is lower or equal to unsuccessful companies. H0: M1 M2 The inspirational motivation mean in successful companies is higher than unsuccessful companies. H0: M1 > M2 With regard to hypothesis test, claim will be in opposite hypothesis. By using T.test with 95% confidence level P-value = 0.000. Hence, hypothesis zero is refused and opposite hypothesis is supported namely; the inspirational motivation mean in successful companies is further than unsuccessful ones. In other word, leaders in successful companies possess more inspirational motivation than less successful ones. Testing the Third Sub-Hypothesis: According to third sub-hypothesis, it is claimed that leadership style in successful companies is more based on intellectual stimulation. Hence, hypothesis test is expressed as follow: The intellectual stimulation mean in successful companies is lower or equal to unsuccessful companies. H0: M1 M2 The intellectual stimulation mean in successful companies is higher than unsuccessful companies. H0: M1 > M2 With regard to hypothesis test, claim will be in opposite hypothesis. By using T.test with 95% confidence level P-value = 0.000. Hence, hypothesis zero is refused and opposite hypothesis is supported namely; the intellectual stimulation mean in successful companies is further than unsuccessful ones. In other word, leaders in successful companies possess more intellectual stimulation than less successful ones. Testing the Third Sub-Hypothesis: According to fourth sub-hypothesis, it is claimed that leadership style in successful companies is more based on individualized consideration. Hence, hypothesis test is expressed as follow: The individualized consideration mean in successful companies is lower or equal to unsuccessful companies. H0: M1 M2 The individualized consideration mean in successful companies is higher than unsuccessful companies. H0: M1 > M2 With regard to hypothesis test, claim will be in opposite hypothesis. By using T.test with 95% confidence level P-value = 0.000. Hence, hypothesis zero is refused and opposite hypothesis is supported namely; the individualized consideration mean in successful companies is further than unsuccessful ones. In other word, leaders in successful companies possess more individualized consideration than less successful ones.

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Side Results: Owing to the fact that we had the data of transactional leadership, the information of this part of the questionnaire was also analyzed. On this basis, by comparing transactional leadership in both successful and less successful companies and using T.test, it was obvious that regarding transactional leadership there is no significant difference with 5% error level between successful and less successful companies. It reveals that transactional leadership is applied both communities of successful and less successful companies with this difference that in both communities the transactional leadership is too low. Regarding non-inference leadership, it was proved that there is no significant difference between both successful and less successful companies. It had too low mean in both communities. Conclusion Results from Descriptive Statistics By reviewing the mean of transformational leadership aspects in successful and less successful companies, we can understand that the mean of transformational leadership aspects in successful companies is higher than less successful ones. In this line and in successful companies, the highest and lowest mean belong to inspirational motivation (3.47) and individualized consideration (3.12) respectively. In less successful companies, the highest and lowest mean belong to inspirational motivation (3.13) and idealized influence (2.58) respectively. The comparison of transformational leadership aspects in successful and less successful companies Aspects

Group

Mean

Medium

Idealized influence

Successful

3.37

3, 44

0.36

Less successful

2.58

2, 62

0.24

Intellectual stimulation

Successful

3.33

3, 25

0.4

Less successful

2.86

2, 75

0.42

Inspirational motivation

Successful

3.47

3, 5

0.46

Less successful

3.13

3, 25

0.5

Successful

3.12

0.36

Less successful

2.69

2, 75

0.4

Individualized consideration

Standard deviation

By considering above table, we conclude that managers and employees in studied companies have good mean in inspirational motivation to other aspects. In other word, the leaders in these companies are highly active in stimulating and increasing employees' motivations. Inspirational motivation includes optimistic forethought, explaining an attractive perspective of future and expressing the confidence to the fact that all aims are achievable. It seems that the leaders in studied companies are highly paying attention to this aspect and its mean is higher than all other aspect in both categories. Overall, one can conclude that the leaders know the motivational issues of their personnel and can answer them positively by using motivational techniques and satisfying personnel needs. Uluslararas覺 Sosyal Ara t覺rmalar Dergisi The Journal of International Social Research Volume 2/6 Winter 2009

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What is obvious from above table is that managers and leaders in successful companies are acting weakly in individualized consideration aspect. Individualized consideration points out the leaders' allocated time to their personnel, training, developing the skills and general employees' empowerment which has the lowest mean among transformational leadership aspects unfortunately. In other word, leaders in successful companies should enforce this aspect and value the employees' demands and interests which are among individualized consideration. In less successful companies, all transformational leadership aspects except than inspirational motivation have low mean. In these companies, the mean of transformational leadership show that leaders in such companies have lower transformational leadership traits. In such companies, idealized influence has the lowest mean. According to definition, idealized information means inspiring the proud and honor in employees, talking about the most important values and beliefs as well as paying attention to spirituality and morality in decision-makings. It is obvious that these factors are not implemented in less successful companies. Also, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration have low mean in such companies. In successful companies, idealized influence and intellectual stimulation have good situation after inspirational motivation. It shows that the leaders in successful companies benefit more transformational leadership traits. Conclusion of Deductive Statistics: Results from Main Hhypothesis Test: With regard to main hypothesis in which the researcher was looking for comparing the transformational leadership situation in successful and less successful companies, hypothesis zero indicated that it was lower or equal to transformational leadership mean was rejected in 5% error level. It means that transformational leadership aspects in successful companies is further than less successful companies and the leadership style in successful companies is more based on transformational leadership. Conclusion of First Sub-Hypothesis Test: In first assumption, hypothesis zero was that the mean of idealized influence in successful companies is lower or equal to less successful companies. With regard to obtained results from data analysis, hypothesis zero was rejected with 5% error level. In other words, idealized influence mean in successful companies is more than less successful ones. It means that leadership in successful companies is more based on idealized influence. Conclusion of Second Sub-Hypothesis Test: In second assumption, hypothesis zero was that the mean of inspirational motivation in successful companies is lower or equal to less successful companies. With regard to obtained results from data analysis, hypothesis zero was rejected with 5% error level. In other words, inspirational motivation mean in successful companies is more than less successful ones. It means that leadership in successful companies is more based on inspirational motivation. Conclusion of Third Sub-Hypothesis Test: In third assumption, hypothesis zero was that the mean of intellectual stimulation in successful companies is lower or equal to less successful companies. With regard to obtained results from data analysis, hypothesis zero was rejected with 5% error level. In other words, intellectual stimulation mean in successful companies is more than less successful ones. It means that leadership in successful companies is more based on intellectual stimulation.

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Conclusion of Fourth Sub-Hypothesis Test: In fourth assumption, hypothesis zero was that the mean of individual consideration in successful companies is lower or equal to less successful companies. With regard to obtained results from data analysis, hypothesis zero was rejected with 5% error level. In other words, individual consideration mean in successful companies is more than less successful ones. It means that leadership in successful companies is more based on individual consideration. Applied Suggestions to Managers According to the Research Findings First Suggestion: Regarding the statistical tables describe in detail, one can understand that in successful companies, transformational leadership aspects have high means. It leads us to the fact that more transformational leadership traits among managers and staff will influence over organizational success and performance remarkably. Therefore, it is proposed that our managers should be aware of transformational leadership and should apply its traits and strengths of this theory in practice. The managers will be more commitment and interested in executing organizational behavior and management course if they pass relevant training. Therefore, training and informing managers about behavioral and managerial problems by Industries and Mines Organization are necessary. Hence, at first step, managers should be aware of organizational behavioral and managerial basics. It could be easily come to practice by training sector of Industrial and Mines Organization. Second Suggestion: Regarding the mean of transformational leadership aspects in successful companies, the lowest mean is belonged to individualized consideration. One of the main important principles of transformational leadership is to promote employees' capabilities and capacities. Those who have a high level of capabilities learn more and feel further domination. To generate self-proud, transformational leadership should play training and coaching roles. Therefore, the managers of such companies are invited to pay attention to self-efficacy and organizational performance. Talking with employees, planning tours and recreational trips, organizing short-term training courses in organizations and considering demands and personal difficulties of staff could help them to benefit this aspect effectively. Third Suggestion: Regarding statistical table for less successful companies, we observe that most aspects have low mean. So, the importance of this issue is determined here further. By comparing successful and less successful companies, one can observe that the effect of transformational leadership on organizational success and performance in undeniable. Therefore, it is suggested that managers of such firms, pay attention to transformational leadership factors quickly in order to make behavioral and structural changes in organizational behavior and structure, to survive and to vie in a competitive environment. Therefore, the managers are strongly advised to take necessary measure in applying discussed factors and traits as soon as possible. With regard to the mean of transformational leadership aspects in less successful companies, it is obvious that idealized influence has the lowest mean. Therefore, the managers are advised to promote themselves in this aspect by behaviors such as respecting the personnel, proud inspiration and expressing their importance for society and country. In this aspect, the factors of charismatic are concerned, that is, those traits that cause to respect leader by personnel and consider the leader as a working and behavioral pattern. One of the leaders' capabilities in this aspect is the ability of trust-making and understanding the leader by followers without which it is impossible to achieve this aspect. Therefore, managers should promote their companies to a level of leadership traits that could be accepted by their personnel as their ethical, behavioral and working pattern.

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Fourth Suggestion: Regarding intellectual stimulation, managers in less successful companies possess low mean. Therefore, they are proposed to take following measure in order to enhance and promote this aspect: 1. Allowing individuals to perform specialized works in order to grow their talents and creativity. 2.

Enforcing them to observe the issues from different views.

Using suggestions in the company and valuing others' suggestions.

Inspiring employees' self-confidence to perform the works.

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Q-1 2020

XXV XXVI

Critical Thinking The Advocacy Foundation Endowments Initiative Project International Labor Relations Immigration

Vol. VII

2021

Community Engagement

XXIV

XXVII XXVIII XXIX XXX XXXI Vol. VIII

The 21st Century Charter Schools Initiative The All-Sports Ministry @ ... Lobbying for Nonprofits Advocacy Foundation Missions Domestic Advocacy Foundation Missions International 2022

Q-2 2020 Q-3 2020 Q-4 2020

Q-1 2021 Q-2 2021 Q-3 2021 Q-4 2021 Bonus ComeUnity ReEngineering

XXXV

The Creative & Fine Arts Ministry @ The Foundation The Advisory Council & Committees The Theological Origins of Contemporary Judicial Process The Second Chance Ministry @ ...

Vol. IX

2023

Legal Reformation

XXXVI

The Fifth Amendment Project The Judicial Re-Engineering Initiative The Inner-Cities Strategic Revitalization Initiative Habeas Corpus

Q-1 2023

XXXII XXXIII XXXIV

XXXVII XXXVIII XXXVIX

Q-1 2022 Q-2 2022 Q-3 2022 Q-4 2022

Q-2 2023 Q-3 2023 Q-4 2023

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Vol. X

2024

ComeUnity Development

XXXVXI XXXVXII XXXVXIII

The Inner-City Strategic Revitalization Plan The Mentoring Initiative The Violence Prevention Framework The Fatherhood Initiative

Vol. XI

2025

Public Interest

XXXVXIV L

Q-1 2025 Q-2 2025

LII

Public Interest Law Spiritual Resource Development Nonprofit Confidentiality In The Age of Big Data Interpreting The Facts

Vol. XII

2026

Poverty In America

XXXVX

LIII LIV LV LVI

American Poverty In The New Millennium Outcome-Directed Thinking Transformational Social Leadership The Cycle of Poverty

Q-1 2024 Q-2 2024 Q-3 2024 Q-4 2024

Q-3 2025 Q-4 2025

Q-1 2026 Q-2 2026 Q-3 2026 Q-4 2026

The e-Advocate Journal of Theological Jurisprudence Vol. I - 2017 The Theological Origins of Contemporary Judicial Process Scriptural Application to The Model Criminal Code Scriptural Application for Tort Reform Scriptural Application to Juvenile Justice Reformation Vol. II - 2018 Scriptural Application for The Canons of Ethics Scriptural Application to Contracts Reform & The Uniform Commercial Code Scriptural Application to The Law of Property Scriptural Application to The Law of Evidence

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Legal Missions International Issue Vol. I I II III IV

Title

Quarterly

2015 Godâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s Will and The 21st Century Democratic Process The Community Engagement Strategy Foreign Policy Public Interest Law in The New Millennium

Vol. II

2016

V VI VII VIII

Ethiopia Zimbabwe Jamaica Brazil

Vol. III

2017

IX X XI XII

India Suriname The Caribbean United States/ Estados Unidos

Vol. IV

2018

XIII XIV XV XVI

Cuba Guinea Indonesia Sri Lanka

Vol. V

2019

XVII XVIII XIV XV

Russia Australia South Korea Puerto Rico

Q-1 2015 Q-2 2015 Q-3 2015 Q-4 2015

Q-1 2016 Q-2 2016 Q-3 2016 Q-4 2016

Q-1 2017 Q-2 2017 Q-3 2017 Q-4 2017

Q-1 2018 Q-2 2018 Q-3 2018 Q-4 2018

Q-1 2019 Q-2 2019 Q-3 2019 Q-4 2019

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Issue

Title

Vol. VI

2020

XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX

Trinidad & Tobago Egypt Sierra Leone South Africa Israel

Vol. VII

2021

XXI XXII XXIII XXIV XXV

Haiti Peru Costa Rica China Japan

Vol VIII

2022

XXVI

Chile

Quarterly Q-1 2020 Q-2 2020 Q-3 2020 Q-4 2020 Bonus

Q-1 2021 Q-2 2021 Q-3 2021 Q-4 2021 Bonus

Q-1 2022

The e-Advocate Juvenile Justice Report Vol. I – Juvenile Delinquency in The US Vol. II. – the Prison Industrial Complex Vol. III – Restorative/ Transformative Justice Vol. IV – The Sixth Amendment Right to The Effective Assistance of Counsel Vol. V – The Theological Foundations of Juvenile Justice Vol. VI – Collaborating to Eradicate Juvenile Delinquency

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The e-Advocate Newsletter 2012 - Juvenile Delinquency in the US Genesis of the Problem Family Structure Societal Influences Evidence-Based Programming Strengthening Assets v. Eliminating Deficits 2013 - Restorative Justice in the US Introduction/Ideology/Key Values Philosophy/Application & Practice Expungement & Pardons Pardons & Clemency Examples/Best Practices 2014 - The Prison Industrial Complex 25% of the World's Inmates Are In the US The Economics of Prison Enterprise The Federal Bureau of Prisons The After-Effects of Incarceration/Individual/Societal 2015 - US Constitutional Issues In The New Millennium The Fourth Amendment Project The Sixth Amendment Project The Eighth Amendment Project The Adolescent Law Group 2016 - The Theological Law Firm Academy The Theological Foundations of US Law & Government The Economic Consequences of Legal Decision-Making The Juvenile Justice Legislative Reform Initiative The EB-5 International Investors Initiative 2017 - Organizational Development The Board of Directors The Inner Circle Staff & Management Succession Planning

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Bonus #1 The Budget Bonus #2 Data-Driven Resource Allocation 2018 - Sustainability The Data-Driven Resource Allocation Process The Quality Assurance Initiative The Advocacy Foundation Endowments Initiative The Community Engagement Strategy 2019 - Collaboration Critical Thinking for Transformative Justice International Labor Relations Immigration God's Will & The 21st Century Democratic Process 2020 - Community Engagement The Community Engagement Strategy The 21st Century Charter Schools Initiative Extras The NonProfit Advisors Group Newsletters The 501(c)(3) Acquisition Process The Board of Directors The Gladiator Mentality Strategic Planning Fundraising 501(c)(3) Reinstatements The Collaborative US/ International Newsletters How You Think Is Everything The Reciprocal Nature of Business Relationships Accelerate Your Professional Development The Competitive Nature of Grant Writing Assessing The Risks

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About The Author John C (Jack) Johnson III Founder & CEO

Having become disillusioned with the inner-workings of the ―Cradle-to-Prison‖ pipeline, former practicing attorney Johnson set out, in 2001, to try to help usher-in fundamental changes in the area of Juvenile and Transformative Justice. Educated at Temple University, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and Rutgers Law School, in Camden, New Jersey, Jack moved to Atlanta, Georgia to pursue greater opportunities to provide Advocacy and Preventive Programmatic services for at-risk/ atpromise young persons, their families, and Justice Professionals embedded in the Juvenile Justice process in order to help facilitate its transcendence into the 21st Century. There, along with a small group of community and faith-based professionals, ―The Advocacy Foundation, Inc." was conceived and implemented over roughly a thirteen year period, originally chartered as a Juvenile Delinquency Prevention and Educational Support Services organization consisting of Mentoring, Tutoring, Counseling, Character Development, Community Change Management, Practitioner Re-Education & Training, and a host of related components. The Foundation‘s Overarching Mission is “To help Individuals, Organizations, & Communities Achieve Their Full Potential”, by implementing a wide array of evidence-based proactive multi-disciplinary "Restorative & Transformative Justice" programs & projects currently throughout the northeast, southeast, and western international-waters regions, providing prevention and support services to at-risk/ at-promise youth, to young adults, to their families, and to Social Service, Justice and Mental Health professionals‖ everywhere. The Foundation has since relocated its headquarters to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and been expanded to include a three-tier mission. In addition to his work with the Foundation, Jack also served as an Adjunct Professor of Law & Business at National-Louis University of Atlanta (where he taught Political Science, Business & Legal Ethics, Labor & Employment Relations, and Critical Thinking courses to undergraduate and graduate level students). Jack has also served as Board President for a host of wellestablished and up & coming nonprofit organizations throughout the region, including ―Visions Unlimited Community Development Systems, Inc.‖, a multi-million dollar, award-winning, Violence Prevention and Gang Intervention Social Service organization in Atlanta, as well as Vice-Chair of the Georgia/ Metropolitan Atlanta Violence Prevention Partnership, a state-wide 300 organizational member violence prevention group led by the Morehouse School of Medicine, Emory University and The Atlanta-Based Martin Luther King Center. Attorney Johnson‘s prior accomplishments include a wide-array of Professional Legal practice areas, including Private Firm, Corporate and Government postings, just about all of which yielded significant professional awards & accolades, the history and chronology of which are available for review online.

www.TheAdvocacyFoundation.org Clayton County Youth Services Partnership, Inc. – Chair; Georgia Violence Prevention Partnership, Inc – Vice Chair; Fayette County NAACP - Legal Redress Committee Chairman; Clayton County Fatherhood Initiative Partnership – Principal Investigator; Morehouse School of Medicine School of Community Health Feasibility Study - Steering Committee; Atlanta Violence Prevention Capacity Building Project – Project Partner; Clayton County Minister‘s Conference, President 2006-2007; Liberty In Life Ministries, Inc. – Board Secretary; Young Adults Talk, Inc. – Board of Directors; ROYAL, Inc - Board of Directors; Temple University Alumni Association; Rutgers Law School Alumni Association; Sertoma International; Our Common Welfare Board of Directors – President)2003-2005; River‘s Edge Elementary School PTA (Co-President); Summerhill Community Ministries; Outstanding Young Men of America; Employee of the Year; Academic All-American - Basketball; Church Trustee.

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www.TheAdvocacyFoundation.org

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