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Bioclimatic Architecture
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The demonstration component of the Joule-Thermie Programme
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Directorate General for Energy (DG XVII)
JOULE-THERMIE The JOULE-THERMIE programme was launched in 1995 as the European Union’s first ‘integrated’ programme, bringing together the resources of the European Commission Directorates-General XII (Science, Research and Development) and XVII (Energy). This programme is funded by the European Union’s Fourth Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development, one of the most extensive research funding initiatives available to European companies and research organisations. The JOULE-THERMIE programme runs until 1998 and has a total budget of 1,030 MECU of which 566 MECU are allocated to the THERMIE demonstration component of the programme for the support of projects and associated measures. THERMIE is focused on the cost-effective, environmentally-friendly and targeted demonstration and promotion of clean and efficient energy technologies. These consist of renewable energy technologies; rational use of energy in industry; buildings and transport; a clean and more efficient use of solid fuels and hydrocarbons. Essentially, THERMIE supports actions which are aimed at proving both the technological and economical viability and validity of energy technologies by highlighting the benefits and by assuring a wider replication and market penetration both in EU and global markets.
Colour Coding To enable readers to quickly identify those Maxibrochure relating to specific parts of the THERMIE Programme each Maxibrochure is colour coded with a stripe in the lower right hand corner of the front cover, i.e.:
RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY - RUE RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES - RES SOLID FUELS - SF HYDROCARBONS - HC GENERAL - GEN Reproduction of the Contents is subject to acknowledgement of the European Commission. Neither the European Commission, nor any person acting on its behalf: a) make any warranty or representation, express or implied, with respect to the information contained in this publication; b) assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or damages resulting from this information. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the Commission.
Bioclimatic Architecture
THERMIE PROGRAMME ACTION NO DIS-0162-95-IRL
Univer sity College Dublin
For the European Commission Directorate-General for Energy (DG XVII)
Energy Research Group University College Dublin Richview, Clonskeagh Dublin 14, Ireland Tel: +353.1-269 2750
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Authors: John R. Goulding and J. Owen Lewis, Energy Research Group, University College Dublin Published by: LIOR E.E.I.G. Panoramalaan 7, B-1560-HOEILAART Tel +32.2-657 5300 Fax +32.2-657 3640 Front cover image: Zero Energy Headquarters building for Hyndburn Borough Council, Accrington, UK. Architects: Jestico & Whiles, London. This project is supported by The Energy Commission DGXVII for Energy under the THERMIE programme. Design and layout: John R. Goulding and SinĂŠad McKeon
INTERNET This maxibrochure is available on the THERMIE World Wide Web site (http://erg.ucd.ie/thermie.html) in Portable Document Format (pdf). Those interested can download the Acrobat Reader for their specific computer platform and then download the maxibrochure for viewing on screen. Copies of the maxibrochure can then be printed. All World Wide Web links referred to in this maxibrochure can be accessed through viewing the pdf document within the WWW browser Netscape. Netscape can also be downloaded from the WWW site http://home.netscape.com/comprod/mirror/index.html. Follow included instructions in each item of software for appropriate setup. These software are available to the user at no cost.
September 1997 Reproduction of the contents is subject to acknowledgement of the European Commission, 1997. Neither the European Commission, nor any person acting on its behalf: (a) makes any warranty or representation, express or implied, with respect to the information contained in this publication; (b) assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or damages resulting from this information. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the Commission.
CONTENTS 1.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
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Bioclimatic Building Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Energy Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Passive Solar Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Natural Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Daylighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.
Microclimatic Design and Urban Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3.1 Urban Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3.2 Urban Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
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Thermal Comfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Thermal Comfort Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Thermal Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Bioclimatic Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.
Selection of Sustainable Construction Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.
Active Solar Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.
Case Studies 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Housing: Student Hostel, Windberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Commercial: Irish Energy Centre offices, Dublin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Institutional: Teaching Hospital, Thessaloniki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Retrofit: Old Central Market, Athens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.
Design Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 8.1 Sources of Further Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 8.2 Information via the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
9.
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
10.
CD-ROM on Bioclimatic Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 10.1 CD-Rom Screen Images. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
11.
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3 4 5 6 7
11 11 12 12
15 15 16 17 18
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seeks to provide buildings which are better suited to the needs of occupants and kinder to the global environment.
INTRODUCTION
‘Bioclimatic’, ‘Green’, ‘Passive Solar’, ‘Ecological’, and ‘Sustainable’ design are now familiar terms. Their meanings overlap and some have been around for longer than others. ‘Bioclimatic Architecture’ implies a design approach which embraces the principles of sustainability*, but which goes further than minimising the environmental impact of buildings; it seeks to create an architecture which is fundamentally more responsive to location, climate and human needs and which gives expression to soundly based, vital design parameters. Far from limiting architectural freedom, it offers a broad range of new possibilities to enhance the design and function of our future buildings and our delight in experiencing them.
Architecture has always involved the use of natural resources to serve human needs. There is a long and inventive tradition of making buildings that are sensitive to place and to climate. Since the Industrial Revolution, technological developments affecting the building sector, including electric lighting, central heating and air conditioning, have allowed buildings to become progressively more detached from their environments. Cheap fuels, new heating, cooling and lighting technologies and increased expectations of occupants have resulted in buildings that are designed and used with little regard to their location or their ambient environments. Many of these buildings manage to provide acceptable levels of thermal and visual comfort indoors, but at enormous and unsustainable cost to the environment; and there is a growing body of evidence that the artificially maintained conditions within many of our modern buildings are not conducive to good health.
* The UIA (International Union of Architects) Declaration of Interdependence for a Sustainable Future, Chicago 1993, proclaims: “Sustainable design integrates consideration of resource and energy efficiency, healthy buildings and materials, ecologically and socially sensitive land use and an aesthetic sensitivity that inspires, affirms, and enables.”
However, with increasing awareness of the environmental impact of modern living, a new approach is emerging that
'Wings of Glass' - House in Regensburg, Germany. Architect: Thomas Herzog, Munich.
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As a design approach it is relevant to all buildings and locations though the relative importance of heating, cooling or daylighting will vary by region and building type.
BIOCLIMATIC BUILDING DESIGN
Bioclimatic buildings are characterised by the use of building elements including walls, windows, roofs and floors to collect, store and distribute solar thermal energy and prevent overheating. Heat flows occur primarily by the natural mechanisms of convection, conduction and radiation rather than through the use of pumps and fans. The objective is to manage energy flows and thus provide comfortable conditions in the occupied parts of the building at all times of the year and the day. The definition also includes natural cooling and shading. The building is cooled by rejecting unwanted heat to ambient heat sinks (air, sky, earth and water) by means of natural modes of heat transfer. But the cooling load is firstly minimised through architectural design by reducing solar gains to the building fabric or through its windows, and by reducing internal gains. Thirdly, the use of radiant energy for daylighting while maintaining standards of visual comfort is also encompassed within the bioclimatic approach.
Passive heating, natural cooling and daylighting represent a spectrum of strategies whose applicability is modified by region and building type, and whose contribution varies from the modest fraction by which most European buildings already benefit, to that in well-designed new buildings where the solar contribution may represent more than half of the energy conventionally required to provide comfortable thermal and visual environments. A 1990 study for the European Commission [23] reported that passive solar design then supplied the Community (of twelve Member States) with 96 MTOE primary energy per annum - equivalent to 9% of total fuel (and greater than coal directly burnt for heating at 6%), or 13% of building sector use. The report indicates the potential to greatly increase this contribution, by 27% by the year 2000 and by 54% by 2010, if rigorous action is taken. Characteristically a design-orientated and building-specific technology, at a certain level bioclimatic architecture has already been shown to provide in a cost-effective manner indoor climates which occupants enjoy. However substantial potential exists to increase its contribution, as noted above.
In most situations it is necessary to provide some additional heating or cooling at certain times, and similarly, daylighting cannot meet all lighting requirements. The auxiliary inputs and their controls are designed to supplement the climatic contributions. The design and construction of a building which takes optimal advantage of its environment need not impose any significant additional cost, and compared to more highly serviced ‘conventional’ buildings it may be significantly cheaper to operate. Primarily a design strategy, bioclimatic architecture permits a dynamic interaction between people, their built environment and the outdoor conditions. It requires a knowledge of climate, and awareness of the available technologies and materials combined with an understanding of comfort, and how these conditions can be affected by changes in climate.
Irish Energy Centre, Dublin. Architects: Energy Research Group University College Dublin.
The terms ‘bioclimatic’ and ‘passive solar’ have been in use for not much more than a decade. Nevertheless, the principles involved were known in ancient civilisations, and exemplars of climate conscious design are to be seen in vernacular buildings of various cultures throughout history. As far back as the 5th century BC, Socrates evidenced a clear understanding of climate-sensitive design and of the principles governing the solar heating of buildings. The rich design potential of bioclimatic strategies coupled with their economic attractiveness has determined that these approaches are of fundamental importance in a more energy-efficient architecture and sustainable design. Bioclimatic design elements cannot be considered only in their technical dimensions, as of their nature these systems have profound architectural implications. As an aside, a criticism which can fairly be levelled at some early solar buildings is that they were diagrammatic in concept, in that it would seem that sometimes practically all other
'The Green Building', Dublin. View of the atrium. Architects: Murray O'Laoire, Dublin.
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considerations were made subservient to energy collection. A more holistic design approach is better suited to people’s increased expectations of their buildings in terms of environmental impact, energy efficiency, indoor health and comfort conditions and architectural quality.
2.1 Energy Conservation While passive solar energy can help to replace conventional fuels with more environmentally benign alternative sources of heating, cooling and lighting, energy-efficient design and construction practices (including appropriate use of insulation and thermal mass, the prevention of unwanted air infiltration, effective, energy-saving ventilation and optimisation of daylight to minimise the use of electric lighting) are essential to make the best use of the available energy. Energy conservation techniques are, of course, of primary importance in energy conscious design, but usually have relatively low impact on the architecture of the building. The building envelope can lose heat by infiltration, and by transmission through thermal conduction, convection and radiation. The addition of thermal insulation to the envelope reduces thermal conduction. Barriers such as aluminium foil can be placed behind radiators, and lowemissivity glazing can be used, to reflect heat back into the room by radiation. Double and triple glazings, sometimes filled with low-conductivity gas, can reduce thermal losses through windows. It is not necessary to cut out infiltration altogether. The aim should be to minimize it so that replacement of air can be controlled easily. Thought should be given to topography, building shape, and planting of wind shelter. Workmanship should be good and attention paid to details such as joints and closing systems.
Solar Wall.
Daylighting must be the earliest and most natural ‘bioclimatic’ application, yet this is an approach in which there is renewed interest as energy issues in non-domestic buildings are studied. Architectural devices designed to increase the penetration of natural light deep into the interiors of commercial buildings and schools improve the distribution by techniques such as clerestory lighting, light shelves and so on, offer significant design potential. Cooling is of particular (though not exclusive) relevance in southern climates. Techniques include evaporative cooling and night ventilation, and substantial thermal inertia will usually form an important feature of such buildings. All climate-sensitive or bioclimatic architecture will incorporate solar protection and shading as appropriate to regional circumstances. Given that issues of energy-efficient building must form part of a design strategy, to achieve change it is necessary to motivate and inform professionals so that they modify their behaviour, and to provide the necessary tools to support design and predict performance’. The perception of the thermal and luminous implications of elements such as walls and roofs is more difficult and less familiar to most designers than concepts such as architectural space and structure. Modern service systems have tended to mask the direct experience of a building’s environmental response to climatic change. It is interesting that vernacular architecture often displays an exemplary appreciation of the exigencies of local climate but (apparently through a period of cheap energy) professional building designers seem to have lost the skills of designing in harmony with climate.
Natural insulation for energy conservation.
Translucent Insulation Material.
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2.2 Passive Solar Heating
DIRECT
Passive solar design represents one of the most important strategies for replacing conventional fossil fuels and reducing environmental pollution in the building sector. Depending on the local climate and the predominant need for heating or cooling, a wide range of passive techniques is now available to the building designer for new and retrofit building projects which, at little or no extra cost compared with conventional construction, can result in buildings which are both more energy-efficient and offer higher standards of visual and thermal comfort and health to the occupants.
Non-diffusing
Diffusing
Direct gain sunspace
Clerestory
Solar energy can make a major contribution to the heating requirements of a building. For most parts of Europe it is appropriate to use the following strategy: • • • •
Solar collection, where solar energy is collected and converted into heat. Heat storage, where heat collected during the day is stored within the building for future use. Heat distribution, where collected/stored heat is redirected to rooms or zones which require heat. Heat conservation, where heat is retained in the building for as long as possible.
INDIRECT Mass wall
Sunspace
Trombe wall
Barra-Constantini
Remote storage wall
Black attic
Roof pond
Thermosiphon
Direct Gain is the most common approach, with large, south-facing glazed apertures opening directly into habitable rooms in which are exposed appropriately-sized areas of heavy materials to provide thermal storage. Indirect Gain systems include Mass, Trombe and water walls. Storage is in a south-facing wall, of considerable thermal mass, whose external surface is glazed to reduce heat losses. Movable insulation may be deployed at nighttime. The Trombe wall has vents at high and low levels to allow convective heat transfer to the occupied space, while the mass wall relies on conduction. Water replaces solid masonry in the third type. A development is the BarraConstantini system which uses lightweight glazed collectors mounted on, but insulated from south-facing walls. Heated air from the collectors circulates through ducts in the heavy ceilings, walls and floors warming these before returning to the bottom of the collector. The sunspace or conservatory is a glazed enclosure attached to the south elevation, usually without auxiliary heating and with storage either in a heavy separating wall or elsewhere in the sunspace. It may be used to pre-heat ventilation air for the building. There has been a recent upsurge of architectural interest in glazed sunspaces and atria, especially in larger buildings. In addition to special glazing materials (using special coatings or which operate electrochromically or photochromically), which can reject or help to retain heat, depending on the circumstances, entirely new construction materials are now being developed for the market which are often ideally suited to passive solar buildings. Transparent or translucent insulation materials (TIM) are a new class of materials which combine the properties of good optical transmission and good thermal insulation.
Passive solar heating configurations.
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One of the most obvious applications of TIM is on the sunny facades of buildings, replacing conventional opaque insulating materials. Well-designed TIM facades can reduce the annual energy requirements for space heating in new and retrofitted houses to one quarter that of comparable buildings with conventional wall insulation. Some transparent insulation materials are commercially available while others are still undergoing development. It is anticipated that large-scale production will significantly reduce their cost in the near future [24].
;;;;; ;;;;; ;;;;; ;;;;; External Gains
Solar Control
;;;;;;;;;; ;;;;; ;;;;; ;;;;;;;;;; ;;;;; ;;;;; Solar Collection
Heat Storage
Ventilation
;;;;;;;;;; Heat Distribution
Natural Cooling
;;;;;
Heat Conservation
Internal Gains
Passive solar heating strategy. Passive cooling strategy.
2.3 Natural Cooling Strictly defined, the term ‘passive cooling’ applies only to those processes of heat dissipation that will occur naturally, that is without the mediation of mechanical components or energy inputs. The definition encompasses situations where the coupling of spaces and building elements to ambient heat sinks (air, sky, earth and water) by means of natural modes of heat transfer leads to an appreciable cooling effect indoors. However, before taking measures to dissipate unwanted heat, it is prudent to consider how the build-up of unwanted heat can be minimised in the first place. In this context, natural cooling may be considered in a somewhat wider sense than the strict definition above suggests, to include preventive measures for controlling cooling loads as well as the possibility of mechanically assisted (hybrid) heat transfer to enhance the natural processes of passive cooling.
External heat gains due to solar radiation can be minimised by insulation, reduced window sizes, thermal inertia in the building envelope, reflective materials and compact building layout. Infiltration gains can be reduced by cooling the incoming air and by reducing its infiltration to a minimum necessary for comfort and health. Internal gains can be reduced by the use of more efficient lighting and appliances and appropriate control strategies for their operation and by the use of natural daylight wherever possible to replace artificial lighting. Ventilation using cooled fresh air driven through the building by naturally occurring differences in wind or air pressure can help to reduce internal temperatures.
A useful design strategy for the overheating season is to first control the amount of heat from solar radiation and heated air reaching the building, then to minimise the effect of unwanted solar heat within the building skin or at openings, next to reduce internal or casual heat gains from appliances and occupants and finally, where necessary, to use environmental heat sinks to absorb any remaining unwanted heat. In practice a combination of these cooling techniques is almost invariably in operation.
Several methods of natural cooling, including increased air speeds to maximise perceived levels of cooling, ground and evaporative cooling to reduce the temperature of ventilation air and night-time cooling of the building by radiative heat loss to the sky and enhanced ventilation, can help to maintain comfortable indoor conditions.
Fixed or adjustable shading devices, or shading provided by vegetation and special glazing may be used to reduce the amount of solar radiation reaching the building. 6
2.4 Daylighting The optimal use of natural daylight, especially in buildings used mainly by day, can, by replacing artificial light, make a significant contribution to energy efficiency, visual comfort and the well-being of occupants. Such a strategy should take account of the potential for heat gain and conservation, energy savings by replacing artificial light and the more subjective benefits of natural light and external views enjoyed by the occupants. A good daylighting system has a range of elements, most of which must be incorporated into the building at an early stage in its design. This can be achieved by consideration of the following in relation to the incidence of daylight on the building: •
the orientation, space organisation, function and geometry of the spaces to be lit
•
the location, form and dimensions of the openings through which daylight will pass
•
the location and surface properties of internal partitions which will reflect the daylight and play a part in its distribution
•
the location, form and dimensions, etc., of movable or permanent devices which provide protection from excessive light and glare
•
the optical and thermal characteristics of the glazing materials.
Light well
Roof monitor
Light shelf
External reflectors
Atrium
Light duct
Clerestory
Reflective blinds
Prismatic components
Tilted / reflective surfaces
Claustras
External / internal shades
Coated glasses
Transparent insulation
Good daylighting design will not only reduce energy costs related to artificial lighting but will also diminish the need for mechanical devices to cool rooms overheated by lowefficiency electric lighting appliances. Achievement of comfortable lighting conditions in a space depends on the amount, distribution and quality of the light there. Enough illuminance, indicated by a sufficiently high daylight factor, should be provided to allow relevant objects to be seen easily, without fatigue. The light distribution in the space should be such that excessive differences in relative illumination which could give the impression of inadequate lighting are avoided. Sufficient contrast should, however, be retained for the relief of each object to be brought out. Window openings and artificial light sources should be placed in such a way that glare is minimised. Finally, particular care should be taken over the quality of the light to be provided. Both the spectral composition and light consistency should be appropriate for the task to be performed [7], [15], [25].
Daylighting devices.
Illuminance
distribution in the room and the luminance of the walls and other surfaces. Recommended optimal illuminance values for the workplace for different types of task, are given in the Building Energy Code published by the (UK) Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE).
Although the human eye is extremely adaptable, it can nevertheless only perform visual functions within a small range of illuminance levels. For a particular task, the range is affected by the visual performance required, the light 7
Contrast Contrast is the difference between the visual appearance of an object and that of its immediate background. It can be expressed in terms of luminance, illuminance or reflectance between surfaces. The amount and distribution of the light (and hence the amount of contrast) in a room is very dependent on the reflectivity of the walls and other surfaces. Surface finishes should, therefore, be chosen with regard to their reflectances (the ratio of overall reflected radiant energy to incident radiant energy). In general, to achieve good luminance distribution, light colours should be used for large surfaces. Glare Glare is caused by the introduction of an intense light source into the visual field. It can be mildly distracting or visually disabling for the occupant. Whatever its level, it always produces a feeling of discomfort and fatigue. Glare can be caused directly, indirectly or by reflection. Direct glare occurs when a light source with a high luminance enters directly into one’s field of view. It can be experienced with interior lighting or when the sun or clear sky is seen through windows either directly or after reflection from an exterior surface. Indirect glare occurs when the luminance of walls is too high. Reflected glare is caused by specular reflection from polished interior surfaces. Glare can be reduced by careful design and choosing light sources and backgrounds of suitable luminances. Light control
Meeting area, Beresford Court office building, Dublin. Architects: A&D Wejchert, Dublin.
Penetration of solar radiation into a building contributes much to the quality of the lighting there - as long as the sun’s rays do not reach the occupants’ eyes directly or by specular reflection. The penetration of natural light can be controlled by reducing the incident flow, the amount of contrast and the luminance of the windows. Control of direct or diffuse sunlight is important to comfort because it reduces glare. It can be achieved either by incorporation of permanent or movable exterior devices into the building design to reduce the view of the sky or by using movable interior screens to reduce the luminance of the window. Health effects Besides being needed for visual perception, light also regulates metabolic processes in the human body, and affects the immune system and psychological and emotional states. Daylight is involved in setting the "biological clock" and its associated rhythms. A lack of light (particularly in winter at high latitudes) can lead to seasonal affective disorder (SAD) with symptoms of lethargy and depression. This effect could be enhanced in the occupants of deep-plan buildings where artificial light levels are insufficient to trigger physiological responses. Daylight also provides clues for spatial and time orientation which, when removed, lead to psychological discomfort and loss of productivity. Humans evolved in an environment of purely natural daylight and it seems likely that it has other, hitherto unknown effects on the human mind and body.
HQ for Legal & General Assurance, Kingswood, Surrey, UK. Arup Associates, Architects + Engineers + Quantity Surveyors.
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3
MICROCLIMATIC DESIGN AND URBAN PLANNING
3.1 Urban Planning In the past, climatic considerations have informed the location of urban settlements: for example the availability of cooling winds in Perugia, Italy, and the shelter from wind and rain provided by the hills of many Welsh and northern English valley towns. Today, transport facilitates the ‘suburban dream’, while in many regions contemporary city planning imposes limitations on development which force the same suburban model. Conventional land-use planning is influenced by obsolete zoning concepts, distancing work, recreation and home from each other and increasing transport demand. The amount of land covered by contemporary cities continues to grow with consequences for energy consumption, pollution, and loss of amenity.
To take best advantage of and to build in harmony with the environment, a good knowledge of the local climate and a detailed analysis of the chosen location are desirable before a strategy for bioclimatic design is embarked upon. General climatic factors such as solar radiation, air and ground temperatures, precipitation, wind, and humidity can be established using data from national meteorological services and other publications [10], [11] & [12]. Local knowledge of the climate can also be useful, although it should be taken in context with an analysis of the microclimate at the site. Various publications give general guidance on site analysis techniques and some include tools and methods to aid the process: [4], [7] & [9].
New planning directions are needed to reduce energy consumption in existing cities: for example, the integration of living and working places and improvements in the energy efficiency of public transport. In the design of a few totally new towns, such as Ecolonia in The Netherlands and Louvain-la-Neuve in Belgium, it has been possible to integrate energy, environmental, and wider social considerations in a more holistic urban plan.
Urban form is the result of the complex interaction of many pressures and influences: economic; social; political; strategic; aesthetic; transportation systems; municipal ordinances, etc. In the past, climate has been a strong influence on urban planning; but in recent decades, cheap road and rail transport and specialised land-use zoning have encouraged dispersed settlement patterns which have resulted in increased energy consumption.
As concepts of bioclimatic design penetrate deeper into society, urban planning should become more responsive to site, climate and nature, in existing settlements as well as new ones.
Cities and energy use interact on three levels: urban planning, urban morphology, and building design.
Microclimatic design for outdoor cooling at the World Fair, Seville. Architect: Jaime Lopez de Asiain, Seville.
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3.2 Urban Morphology The interaction between urban form, space, climate and energy is complex. Different layouts result in differing microclimates with greater or lesser comfort, energy use and environmental impact. Urban and building morphologies may be moulded for solar access or shade, for shelter from or exposure to winds depending on the requirements. In winter, because buildings impede wind flow and give off heat, the urban microclimate is generally warmer than the surrounding countryside. In the cooling season, cities also tend to be warmer than surrounding areas because of impeded ventilation and large areas of hard surfaces of high thermal mass which retain heat. Favourable orientations for solar access can, where possible, improve urban temperatures and comfort in the heating season. Care must be taken to maintain solar access, when needed, and to provide shelter from cooling winds and rain by the use of topographical features, vegetation and neighbouring constructions. Street orientation can dramatically influence solar gain and the effects of winds. At southern latitudes, westerly orientations should be avoided, as it is difficult to achieve solar shading because of the lower altitude of the evening sun, and air temperatures tend to be high at this time of day.
Canal, Prague city centre, Czech Republic.
filtering of dust and airborne pollutants, while permitting solar access in winter. Where hard surfaces must be used, pale colours can more effectively reflect solar radiation, as seen in the whitewashed streets and buildings of some Mediterranean towns. Where the need for summer cooling is greater than for winter heating, streets and public spaces may be oriented to take advantage of prevailing summer breezes and buildings configured to provide mutual shading. Vegetation may also be arranged to direct cooling breezes to where they are most needed.
Studies by ETSU in the UK have shown that simple site re-planning and housing re-orientation can result in significant energy savings. Tall buildings interfere with winds by creating undesirable turbulence and downdraughts to the detriment of the microclimate at ground level. Information on design tools and guidelines are provided in [4], [5] and [9]. Where cooling is required, deciduous vegetation can offer shade, cooling of the air by evapo-transpiration and
Dense city planning of Athens showing mutual shading of buildings.
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playing squash produces approximately 7.0 met. The met is the unit of metabolic energy and is equivalent to 58 watts per square metre. The surface area of the human body, on average, is 1.8 square metres.
THERMAL COMFORT
The internal temperature of the human body is constant and, as the body has no means of storing heat, heat generated by it has to be dissipated. An individual’s feeling of thermal comfort is optimal when the production of internal heat is equal to the thermal losses from the body. The actual balance between the two depends on seven parameters outlined below.
The thermal resistance of ordinary summer clothing is 0.5 clo while that of indoor winter wear is 1 clo. The clo is the unit of thermal resistance due to clothes and is equal to 0.155 square metres K per watt. Skin temperature is a function of metabolism, clothing and room temperature. Unlike internal body temperature, it is not constant.
4.1 Thermal Comfort Parameters It is impossible to specify precise values for the seven comfort parameters which would give an environment suitable for everyone. The interactions between the parameters have, however, been described by a number of thermal indices (such as the optimal operative temperature, comfort zones, the predicted mean vote and predicted percentage of dissatisfied) which can be used to establish the conditions under which a percentage of occupants will be comfortable - or dissatisfied. Comfort charts are also available to enable a quicker assessment of the comfort zones, for a predicted percentage of the population (typically 75%), to be made. These show given values of certain comfort parameters as a function of the other comfort parameters. Bioclimatic charts also show the influence on thermal comfort zones of changing buildingrelated parameters.
Room temperature, measured with an ordinary dry bulb thermometer, is very important to thermal comfort since more than half the heat lost from the human body is lost by convection to the room air. Relative humidity is the ratio (expressed as a percentage) of the amount of moisture in the air to the moisture it would contain if it were saturated at the same temperature and pressure. Except for extreme situations (when the air is absolutely dry or it is saturated), the influence of relative humidity on thermal comfort is small. In temperate regions, for instance, raising the relative humidity from 20% to 60% allows the temperature to be decreased by less than 1K while maintaining the same comfort level. Generally, the relative humidity in a room should be between 40%, to prevent drying up of the mucous membranes, and 70%, to avoid the formation of mould in the building. The average surface temperature of the surfaces enclosing a space is the mean radiant temperature. As a simplification, this can be taken to be the mean of the temperatures of the surrounding surfaces in proportion to their surface areas. If a building is well insulated, the temperature of the internal surface of the outer walls is close to room temperature. This reduces the radiative heat losses and therefore increases the feeling of thermal comfort. It also diminishes the occurrence of convective draughts. The velocity of the air relative to the individual influences the heat lost through convection. Within buildings, air speeds are generally less than 0.2 metres per second. The relative air velocity due to the individual’s activity can vary from 0 to 0.1 metres per second for office work to 0.5 to 2 metres per second for someone playing squash.
A sunspace in the ‘Green Building’, Dublin. Architects: Murray O'Laoire, Dublin.
It is crucial to remember when designing spaces for human occupancy that people are not best suited to entirely “comfortable” conditions. In fact, we are conditioned to adapt to quite major changes in our environment, and the absence of these can create a feeling of discomfort. The pattern of variation is also important. People are more tolerant of changes which they understand, such as a sunbeam or a draught, and particularly those which can be controlled. Causes that are not obvious, or with which the occupant has little sympathy, such as those caused by a faulty air conditioning system, cause the most stress. Thus, it is more important to design spaces in which people can influence the conditions they experience that to try to maintain complete stability.
Three of the seven comfort parameters relate to the individual: metabolism, clothing and skin temperature. The other four are linked to the surrounding environment:. Metabolism is the sum of the chemical reactions which occur within the body. The aim is to maintain the body at a constant internal temperature of 36.7 degrees C. Because the temperature of the body is usually higher than that of the room, metabolic reactions occur continuously to compensate for loss of heat to the surroundings. Production of metabolic energy depends on the level of activity in which the individual is engaged. Office work, for instance, generates approximately 0.8 met whereas 11
Vapour Pressure
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The optimal operative temperature is defined as the uniform temperature of a black radiative enclosure in which the occupant exchanges the same quantity of heat through radiation and convection as he or she would in a non-uniform, real space. When the air velocity is 0.2 metres per second or less, the operative temperature can be taken to be the mean of the room temperature and the mean radiant temperature. The optimal value of the operative temperature corresponds to the comfort temperature in the room. Thus, if the comfort temperature has been established as 20 OC, then for a mean radiant temperature of 19OC, the room temperature must be set at 21OC.
80 70
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4000
Thermal indices have been developed which describe the interactions between the seven parameters above to evaluate the occupants’ likely feeling of thermal comfort.
Relative Humidity (%) 90
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Graph of hygrothermal conditions showing indoor thermal comfort conditions [18].
Comfort Zones: The human body involuntarily regulates its production of internal heat to the thermal conditions of the environment, eventually creating a situation where the metabolic generation of heat is offset by the heat losses so the individual experiences only very small variations in the feeling of thermal comfort and thereby feels at ease.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
The predicted mean vote (PMV) is a thermal sensation scale. The mean opinion of a large group of individuals expressing a vote on their thermal feeling under different thermal circumstances has been used to provide an index to thermal comfort. A PMV value of zero provides the optimal thermal comfort conditions. A positive PMV value means that the temperature is higher than optimal and a negative value means that it is lower. The comfort zone is generally regarded as stretching from a slight feeling of cold (termed ‘fresh’, when the PMV is -1) to a slight feeling of warmth (termed ‘mild’, when the PMV is +1).
5
Comfort zone Zone of influence of thermal inertia Zone of influence of ventilation Zone of influence of occupant behaviour Air conditioning zone Heating zone
SELECTION OF SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
The reasons for selecting sustainable building materials are compelling: half of all the raw materials extracted from the Earth are for building-related purposes; over half of the waste we produce comes from the building sector; and almost 50% of all energy used in Europe is buildingrelated. A strategy which focused only on the minimisation of fossil fuel use and its replacement in buildings with renewable energies would ignore a hugely significant opportunity to reduce the environmental impact of modern living.
The predicted percentage of dissatisfied (PPD) is an indication of the percentage of people susceptible to feeling too warm or too cold in a given thermal environment. It can be deduced from the PMV. If, for instance, the PMV is in the range -1 to +1, then the PPD index shows that 25% of the population will be dissatisfied. To reduce this figure to 10%, then the PMV has to be in the range -0.5 to +0.5.
Building designers play a key role in the selection of materials. However, reliable, detailed information on the environmental impacts of the materials they commonly specify is not yet available on a basis which facilitates direct comparison. For example, a brick fired in an electric kiln in one country which uses oil for the production of electricity might involve the release of two or three times as much CO2 as a brick made in an identical kiln in a country which mainly uses hydro-electricity.
4.3 Bioclimatic Charts Bioclimatic charts have been prepared by Givoni [18] which make it possible to determine the effect on thermal comfort of changing building-related parameters such as thermal inertia and ventilation rate. They show that by changing these parameters the comfort zone can be extended a considerable amount even when the external climate conditions are unfavourable - thus showing that, by applying the concepts of climate-sensitive architecture, the effects of climatic variation on the interior environment can be minimised to the extent that they become negligible.
The environmental profiles of many individual products and processes have been identified by means of life cycle analysis (LCA) which outlines the environmental effects from extraction, through production, use, demolition and recycling. However, there is substantial agreement that LCA is not wholly adequate for the comparison of building materials and few building materials have been investigated. Furthermore, LCA studies do not take account of one type of environmental impact compared 12
contained within the EPM strategy. The development of new products and markets can also be stimulated by the choices of materials being made by building designers who are taking environmental issues into account. Similarly, increased demand is likely to lead to greater availability and quality and reduced prices of some currently expensive materials which have acceptable levels of environmental impact.
Life Cycle Stage 1 Raw material extraction and processing into raw materials
Energy Fuels
Life Cycle Stage 2
Raw materials
Life Cycle Stage 3
Water
Life Cycle Stage 4
Emissions into the atmosphere
INPUT
Production of building materials
Emissions into water
Construction and re-building / extension of buildings
Emissions into soil (solid waste)
Operation and maintenance of buildings
Planet Earth.
Others
Life Cycle Stage 5
with another. For example, which is more important in the long and short term - the destruction of tropical rain forests or the destruction of the ozone layer? Definitive answers to these issues covering a range of commonly used building materials are unlikely to become available in the near future, but a pragmatic approach, based on such information as is currently available has been devised and its use throughout Europe is increasing.
Demolition and disposal
Building product life-cycle flow chart.
Decisions made by building designers and those who commission buildings will largely determine the future of the construction materials supply industry. In some countries, policy instruments such as regulations and subsidies are absent, and it may not yet be possible to lay down comprehensive statutory conditions for sustainable building. However, this does not reduce the responsibility of all involved in building specification to reduce the risks their choices impose on people and the environment.
The building-related Environmental Preference Method (EPM), developed in 1991 by Woon/Energie, was originally prepared for application in The Netherlands where it is used by most of the municipalities. It has now been edited and published in English for wider use throughout Europe [21], and offers a good basis for the comparison of many building materials and products which are in common use. These are ranked according to their environmental impact, and the environmental issues associated with each material featured are also briefly discussed. The result is not an absolute assessment, but a relative ranking based on environmental impact: an environmental preference. In brief, the Environmental Preference Method considers environmental impact throughout the whole life-cycle of a material taking account of the following main issues:
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Product:
Energy consumption at all stages (including
IL
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Green: Low environmental impact
Health aspects
Yellow: Medium environmental impact
Risk of disasters
Red: High environmental impact
Repairability
A = Air impact W= Water impact E = Earth impact P = Power consumption L = Landscape picture F = Flora and fauna
Re-usability Waste The Environmental Preference Method is not final. While based on available information, new research and product development may affect the environmental preferences
The ‘Swiss Roll’ eco-label system.
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T = Transportation R = Refuse / waste H = Health of the people S = Social aspects TR = Trouble risk £ = Economic aspects
6
with most energy (in temperate zones) arriving during the summer months, matching energy supply and demand is the major challenge for system designers. A typical system consists of south-facing collectors, usually roof- or ground-mounted; a distribution network carrying a fluid, usually water-based; a storage tank, or other heat store, sometimes the building fabric or the ground; and usually a back-up conventional heat source for periods when the sun isn’t shining.
ACTIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS
As well as being used passively for lighting and heating, the sun’s energy may be harvested, distributed and stored using a variety of active systems. These include photovoltaics, which convert sunlight into electricity, and solar thermal systems, which use solar energy to heat air or water. Photovoltaic (PV) cells are used to convert the energy of the sun directly into electricity, without noise or pollution and with little visual impact. Arrays of PV cells are typically arranged in panels on south-facing areas of roof or wall. The electricity they generate can be used immediately in some applications, such as cooling fans; otherwise, it can be stored in batteries or supplied to the national grid. Connecting the PV panels to the grid means there is no need for costly battery installations; standalone, battery-driven systems are generally appropriate where there is no existing grid connection, or for emergency supply.
There are three main types of solar collector in widespread use. The simplest is an uninsulated black plastic or metal tube through which water is circulated. These unglazed collectors are limited to producing temperatures in the heat transfer fluid about 20 K above ambient. The next, and most common, type is the flat plate collector in which an absorbent black plate or tube, sometimes with a special selective coating, is enclosed in a flat insulated box, one side of which is transparent glass or plastic. The glazing and insulation reduce heat losses so that fluid temperatures up to 70 K above ambient can be reached. Finally, the most sophisticated type in widespread use is the evacuated tube collector. It consists of an array of evacuated glass tubes each containing a flat absorber plate which conducts heat to the transfer fluid. The insulating properties of the vacuum mean heat losses are low, and these collectors can reach temperatures of more than 100 K above ambient.
Costs of PV systems are falling dramatically, and many thousands of systems are in use in buildings in Europe and worldwide; before long PV should be able to compete with other forms of electricity generation. Lifespans are estimated at 20 years, and reliability is high. The cost of glazing, roof or facade elements can be offset against that of the PV systems that replace them. Architectural integration of PVs offers interesting possibilities, including the installation of opaque panels on roofs, facades and shading devices, and semi-transparent systems replacing glazing.
Solar thermal is probably the most environmentally benign form of energy in widespread use. Solar thermal systems are made from relatively harmless materials which can be recycled after use (CFCs, once used in some evacuatedtube collectors, have been eliminated), have little or no visual impact, and while in use emit no greenhouse gases, particulates, toxins, or noise; nor do they significantly impact ecosystems. The past quarter-century has seen solar thermal grow from an "alternative" movement to a mature industrial sector. A network of experienced installers and maintainers exists throughout Europe. Collectors can often be integrated into the building envelope. Visual intrusion is not great, and in many cases owners and occupants are happy to be visibly using solar energy. Solar thermal energy is one of the easiest and most economical ways to put the sun to work.
Solar thermal systems are the most widely used and economical form of active solar energy, with over a million square metres of collectors produced in the EU in 1997. Solar thermal systems trap solar energy and deliver it as sensible heat without conversion into any other form of energy. Because heat is difficult to store or transport, solar thermal systems tend to be decentralised, with energy collection near to the point of use. The most common use is for domestic hot water; other applications include space heating, district heating, cooling, and industrial processes. Because solar energy is unevenly distributed over time,
Roof-mounted solar thermal collector.
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7
excessive solar gain by a large overhanging roof.
CASE STUDIES
The intermittently used spaces are located behind the north facade and include circulation, storage, entrance and bathroom areas. The bathrooms need higher temperatures than other spaces, but only for a few hours per day. The external wall facing north is of a thermally lightweight construction, incorporating 140mm of insulation, and features timber cladding reminiscent of local Bavarian barns. Indeed, timber is used extensively for structural roof members, for the frame structure of the northern zone of the building and for internal finishes. Profiled metal decking elements are used for the roof covering. Water for showers and other domestic purposes is heated by evacuated-tube solar collectors located in the southfacing roof and stored in six large tanks situated internally. When required, two gas-fired boilers with a total capacity of 92 kW provide auxiliary domestic hot water and also space heating via small radiators in the southern part of the building and a warm-air ducted heating system in the northern part. The latter can respond quickly to provide both heating and the requisite air changes to the shower rooms located in the thermally lightweight northern zone. To minimise heat losses due to ventilation, a nonrecirculating heat recovery unit is fitted in the roof space.
7.1 Student Hostel, Windberg, Germany. Architect: Thomas Herzog, Munich Completed in 1991 and situated in the rural Bavarian town of Windberg, this low-energy hostel provides sleeping accommodation and ancillary rooms for 100 guests, in particular youth groups attending the adjacent 12th century monastery and education centre which it serves. A particular requirement of the brief was that spatial divisions in the hostel should be flexible and capable of future change, some recreation and common room facilities having been previously provided in the monastery. The design brief also included the treatment of external spaces around the monastery. The design of the building and its energy systems have, from an early stage, been strongly influenced by a thorough analysis of the patterns of use of the various spaces; rooms which are used for several hours at a time are separate from those used for short periods. These differences are evident from an analysis of the space planning, structural systems and materials used in the building.
The overall heating energy used by the building is only 45kWh/m2y. Lighting energy is also low, and no energy is used for HVAC other than a few small fans in bathrooms and similar areas.
All bedrooms face south giving views of the surrounding countryside and allowing solar radiation to be optimised during the heating season. Used for only a few hours during daytime, but continuously during night time at a relatively low temperature, they benefit from direct solar radiation through the ample, high specification windows, transparent insulation which heats up the massive external walls, and a high level of thermal mass in the internal walls which modulates day-night temperatures in the building. In summer, the bedrooms are protected from
In addition to its primary function, the hostel also serves as a working demonstration of the principles of bioclimatic architectural design. The students are made aware of the passive and active energy systems and environmental performance of the building and these presentations are facilitated by a digital information board in the entrance area showing energy performance, and visible service runs, solar collectors and storage elements.
Student Hostel, Windberg.
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7.2 Irish Energy Centre, Dublin, Ireland. Architects: Energy Research Group University College Dublin The architects’ brief was to design an office building for thirty occupants, with ancillary spaces, which would be architecturally responsive to climate, context and function, while using proven energy-efficient strategies to satisfy heating, lighting and ventilation requirements, thus placing minimal demand on non-renewable energy sources. The objectives were as follows: • To exemplify an awareness of energy efficient design and construction • To respond architecturally to climate, context and function • To incorporate innovative applications of conventional materials and energy systems • To make a positive contribution to the existing campus.
Irish Energy Centre offices, Dublin.
and views for all of the occupants. Average room height in the offices is 3m. There is an emphasis on the use of natural, low embodiedenergy and recyclable materials, for example: timber for roof trusses, windows and partitions; natural stone for floor coverings and external paving; and mineral-fibre insulation in the roof space. CFC-free insulation is used in wall cavities and under the ground floor, and structural walls are of locally-made concrete blocks, gypsum plastered to the inside with a self-finish to the exterior. These and the reinforced concrete upper floor contribute significant thermal mass. Windows use low-emissivity, argon-filled double-glazed units and careful attention has been paid to the draught sealing of door and window openings.
The IEC site, located among twenty buildings of various ages and forms on the campus of the State development agency, Forbairt, was formerly a car park. The elongated form of the building screens a work-yard and reinforces a principal pedestrian route through the campus, while the design of the building section allows light to penetrate the core areas of the 410m2 building and provides views to the north. The building was completed in 1996. Four open-plan offices are grouped around a small doubleheight atrium which accommodates the entrance, exhibition and meeting area and assists the natural lighting and ventilation of the building. The atrium is the public face of the building, and the intention was that its natural lighting and finishes should reflect an external quality and emphasise the relationship with the external public route. From the top floor corridor there are views back via the bright atrium to the green space beyond.
Monitoring has shown daylight factors on the working plane to be between 5% and 10%, under overcast conditions, providing ample natural light. Total primary energy consumption is 140 kWh/m 2 y, or 57% of consumption for a comparable new Irish office building with no air conditioning.
The organisation of the building breaks naturally into small-scale cellular spaces and larger open-plan office spaces on both floors. All of the open-plan offices have windows on four sides which results in optimum daylight
The result is a building which provides a natural, healthy, well lit and comfortable environment for the occupants while consuming a fraction of the energy which would be used by a similarly-sized conventional office building.
Floor plan of the Irish Energy Centre, Dublin.
16
specification (see table). Design emphasis, from an early stage, has been placed on the bioclimatic use of landscaping for cooling and to reduce traffic noise; passive cooling; indoor air quality and comfort; the use of natural ventilation, where possible; heat recovery and reduction of heat losses; daylighting; shading; and efficient energy management control information via a Building Energy Management System (BEMS).
7.3 Papageorgiou Foundation General Teaching Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece. Architects: Meletitiki - A. N. Tombazis and Associates Architects Ltd., Athens. Located seven kilometres to the north west of Thessaloniki on a 150,000m2 site adjacent to a busy dual carriageway, this 735 bed hospital occupying 70,000m2 of floor area has been designed to function using less than three-quarters of the energy used in a conventionally designed hospital of similar size. The building is organised around a large central entrance hall from which the main vertical and horizontal circulation axes lead to wings of different heights, the highest of which has seven storeys. The L-shaped nursing wards are to the south-east with patients’ rooms in a quiet zone away from traffic noise, while the diagnosis and therapy units are to the north-west.
The building thermal simulation studies have, among other detailed measures, led to the incorporation of ceiling fans in most nursing wards and areas of similar function; the specification of thicker insulation; and modifications in the design of the shading devices. Daylighting studies, which concentrated on the nursing wards and the main entrance hall under overcast sky conditions and involved the use of scale models and fullscale physical simulations using a PASSYS test cell, have led to improved design of the window shading devices. In general, following the thermal and lighting studies, three main categories of energy saving measures were incorporated in the final design: those concerning the architectural elements such as insulation, ventilation patterns, shading, and use of ceiling fans, etc; those associated with the lighting design such as the incorporation of 'intelligent' lighting controls; and those measures applied to the mechanical installations, the most important being major heat recovery in two main parts of the mechanical installation - the air handling units and the chillers.
Detailed thermal, lighting and construction materials analyses made possible by the EC JOULE ‘Solar House’ programme and carried out during the design phase of the project have helped to optimise natural forms of energy for heating, cooling and daylighting while the energy use in the extensive mechanical and electrical plant essential in a modern hospital has been minimised by careful design and Energy MWh
CO2 tonnes
Pay back years
Energy conscious architectural design
2940
3822
5.5
Intelligent lighting controls
1340
1794
9.3
Enhanced efficiency in mechanical processes and heat recovery
2160
2808
4.0
Saving
A BEMS, which may be operated from a central point, controls electricity demand via time-programmed commands; equipment duty cycles; optimum start and stop times; night cycles; and an 'economiser' for night cooling using ambient air. To explain and facilitate the operation of the different energy saving design features of the hospital, users' guidelines have been prepared as a manual and in poster form for display.
Total estimated annual energy savings for three main categories of energy saving measures.
Model of Papageorgiou Foundation General Teaching Hospital, Thessaloniki, viewed from the North.
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7.4 Rehabilitation of Old Central Market, Athens, Greece. Co-ordinator: Talos Engineering, Athens Architect: Synthesis and Research Ltd. The Old Central Market, located in the congested centre of Athens, is a 19th-century building of significant architectural interest which is in daily use. Winters are mild while summers are hot and conditions in the market are far from comfortable or suitable for the display and sale of produce. The renovation study focused on the need to improve lighting through better use of daylight; reduce heat losses in winter; reduce solar gains in summer; and improve natural ventilation, while preserving the architectural integrity of the building. Scale models and computer simulations have been employed to evaluate the energy and environmental effects of a range of thermal and daylighting proposals with support from the EC JOULE ‘Solar House’ programme.
Four symmetrical ‘air chimneys’ at the corners of the building incorporating waste heat recovery and filtration units for the supply and exhaust of air to and from the building.
•
Increasing the area of roof glazing and the use of diffuse glazing to increase the penetration of daylight and reduce solar gains during summer.
•
Installation of an ‘environmental panel’ shading device which is covered with deciduous plants. Its upper frame contains water pipes and injectors (with a water recycling system) to irrigate the plants and assist cooling by evaporation.
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The introduction of an insulated, opaque roof panel to reduce thermal losses in winter.
The installation of thermostatically controlled adjustable louvres at openings on the terrace level and at the upper part of the inclined roof.
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The installation of ‘air curtains’ at the main entrances to the market.
•
Photovoltaic panels to supply electricity to the automated control system.
•
The incorporation of a hybrid system for cooling and heating, consisting of an earth-to-air heat exchanger, a series of solar air heaters, and an air distribution system incorporating ducts, filters, fans and air diffusers.
The incorporation of these measures is projected to achieve the following results:
The market consists of a large rectangular hall with top and side lights (the fish market with 74 shops and 109 stalls) and three surrounding arcades along the perimeter of the building (the meat market with 75 shops and 192 stalls). Various passive and active features were considered for incorporation in the design and, after exhaustive evaluation, the following were selected: •
•
•
Internal temperatures of 20 oC in winter and 28 oC in summer.
•
An average internal illuminance of 800 lux.
•
Effective air filtration thus improving indoor air quality and protecting the outdoor environment.
•
Improvement of the local microclimate and creation of a ‘green’ image for the building which will encourage users to consider the environmental effects of their actions.
•
The retrofit is projected to save 55% of heating and cooling energy and 70% of lighting energy when compared with existing or conventional systems. The total estimated savings are 240 MWh, worth about 21,000 ECU, a year.
The requirement for local lighting above the fish and meat stalls has been met by the installation of high-frequency fluorescent lamps which can provide the required illuminance while consuming less electricity, and producing less heat than the incandescent lights they replace.
Computer simulation of improved lighting conditions in Old Central Market, by Fraunhofer Institute Freiburg.
View of existing conditions in Old Central Market, Athens. Electric Lighting is needed at each stall.
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8
DESIGN TOOLS
After more than two decades of research, we have a broad understanding of building energy use and strategies to improve the efficiency of its utilisation. However, these strategies and technologies have not been widely adopted by the building design community. Most buildings, whether new or rehabilitation projects, are still designed without any energy-related considerations beyond those enforced by building regulations. One reason this situation exists is because building designers often do not have the means to assess the impact of new energy strategies and technologies efficiently and reliably. 3D solid rendering of building CAD model.
Assessing a building’s energy performance in detail requires complicated calculations to estimate year-round performance. This has led to the development of building energy design tools, both manual and computerized.
Design tools can sometimes assist where specialist or expert knowledge of a topic is not available or where the required study of an issue would be prohibitively complex or time-consuming. Applications now available include tools which indicate the energy related aspects of an emerging design where only an outline of information is available, and three-dimensional modelling software which allow the architect to study lighting distribution in spaces or to predict ventilation in buildings.
A wide range of design tools is now available to help architects and engineers design more energy-efficient buildings. They range from quite simple written assessment procedures to advanced computer applications. Some software packages, such as dynamic simulation methods of which ESP-r is an example, can produce very detailed predictions of a building's performance under a range of closely defined operating conditions. But such tools require a considerable amount of information on the design of the building and are generally best suited to fine tuning the design at an advanced stage.
However, tools also have their limitations. They are often mistakenly used with the assumption that they can predict reality often the basis for serious misuse of design tools. While some tools can achieve quite accurate predictions, they are based on assumptions and approximations which introduce errors. Similarly, users will bring to a tool their own assumptions and simplifications of the design problem. Awareness of the assumptions and simplifications made within the tool’s theoretical analysis method is crucial.
Simpler tools, whether manual or automated, can offer extremely useful guidance early on, when the design is still fluid and major changes can be easily made. These simplified tools frequently depend on a range of assumptions, some of which can be refined as the design progresses.
With simple tools, it is likely that once the use of the tool is understood, re-use at a later date may only require a brief review of the user documentation. The more complicated the tool the more the user will need to remain familiar with all aspects of its application or re-training will be required. This is certainly true for complex dynamic simulation tools. The users of these design tools will tend to be trained staff and they will often be part of several project teams with the specific task of carrying out these simulation studies. Often, the smaller practice can not afford to dedicate staff in this way and so consultants can be employed to provide these specialist services.
The value of these simplified tools should not be underestimated. Although less accurate than high-level dynamic simulation tools, they are capable of correctly indicating appropriate design directions at a stage when strategic and major tactical decisions about the building form, orientation, materials and operating conditions can be made at little or no cost. Many tools have been developed to determine the behaviour of physical phenomena which would otherwise have been too complex to examine. In some cases this extends to assessing interactions between design elements previously treated in isolation. These tools make it easier and quicker to study questions that may not have been considered in the design process, leading to more thorough consideration of energy issues. Design tools are not always calculation methods; many other types have been developed. Handbooks, tabulated data, and physical tools, have been created to help with energy efficient design. The computerisation of information sources allows designers to locate required information quickly. The introduction of CD-ROM technology over the past few years and the emergence of the Internet are examples of this. Here, we focus on manual and computer-based calculation procedures.
Daylight factor profile (coarse and fine) results.
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8.1 Sources of Further Information on Design Tools
8.2 Information via the Internet RADIANCE - Daylighting simulation http://radsite.lbl.gov/radiance/
Resource Guide Contains numerous references to design tools and energyrelated publications. Available on disk (for Macintosh) from the Energy Research Group University College Dublin, Richview, Clonskeagh, Dublin 14, Ireland Fax:+353.1-283 8908, e-mail: jolivetp@richview.ucd.ie Web site: http://www.erg.ucd.ie
ADELINE http://www.ibp.fhg.de/wt/adeline/adeline.htm PASSPORT - Simplified http://erg.ucd.ie/passport/passport.html ESP-r - Energy Systems Research Unit, University of Strathclyde http://www.strath.ac.uk/Departments/ESRU/ esru.html
Info Energie - Liste der Software/Liste des Logiciels A comprehensive listing (in German and French) of internationally developed software with contact details for each design tool included. Available from Bundesamt fĂźr Energiewirtschaft, CH-3003 Bern, Switzerland, Fax:+41.31-352 7756
BATMAN, a computer aided learning module for architecture students http://lesowww.epfl.ch/anglais/Leso_a_software_batman.htm l
Guidance on Selecting Energy Programs This guide, produced by the UK Construction Industry and Computing Association, provides detailed information on the selection of energy software. Contact CICA, Guildhall Place, Cambridge CB2 3QQ, UK, Fax: +44.1223-62865
PASCOOL Passive cooling of buildings http://www.dap.uoa.gr/pascool.htm The World-Wide Web Virtual Library: Energy http://solstice.crest.org/online/virtual-library/VLibenergy.html
BSRIA - Software for Building Services - a selection guide Information on a wide range of energy software. Contact: The Building Services Research and Information Association, Old Bracknell Lane West, Bracknell, Berkshire RG12 7AH, UK, Fax: +44.1344-487575
Computer-Based Design Tools http://eande.lbl.gov/CBS/NEWSLETTER/NL3/EDA.html Centre for Building Science, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory http://eande.lbl.gov/CBS/CBS.html
International Building Performance Simulation Association IBPSA’s objective is the advancement and promotion of the science of building performance simulation to improve the design, construction, operation and maintenance of buildings. Contact: IBPSA, Department of Architecture Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843, US, Fax 409 845 4491, e-mail larry@archone.tamu.edu http://www.mae.okstate.edu/ibpsa/IBPSA.html
Energy Science and Technology Software Center http://apollo.osti.gov/html/osti/estsc/estsc.html Energy Ideas Clearinghouse - Software http://www.energy.wsu.edu/ep/eic/ Building Design Advisor http://eande.lbl.gov/BTP/BDA/BDA.html Yahoo - Science: Energy http://www.yahoo.com/Science/Energy/
Building Environmental Performance Analysis Club BEPAC aims to improve building performance by encouraging the use and development of environmental analysis and prediction methods. Contact: BEPAC Administration, 16 Nursery Gardens, Purley on Thames, Reading RG8 8AS, United Kingdom, Fax: +44.1734842861. e-mail: 100572.3163@compuserve.com Web site:http://www.iesd.dmu.ac.uk/bepac/
IVAM Environmental Research http://www.ivambv.uva.nl/welcome.html Solar Energy Laboratory http://sel.me.wisc.edu/ Energy Research Group UCD http://erg.ucd.ie/
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Infiltration: Unwanted leakage of outdoor air into a building through cracks, joints, around door and window openings, etc.
GLOSSARY
Active solar system: A system in which mechanical equipment is used to collect, store and distribute solar energy for the building.
Internal/Casual gains: Heat gains within a building resulting from occupants, lighting, and equipment (domestic appliances, office equipment, process machinery).
Biofuel: Any fuel (solid, liquid or gas) produced from organic material.
Life cycle analysis: Assessment of the total environmental impacts associated with a products manufacture, use and disposal.
Biomass: Organic materials; also, use of such (crops, human, animal or commercial wastes, for example) to generate energy. Combined heat and power (CHP): The use of a single source to generate and both electricity and heat. Sometimes called ‘cogeneration’.
Luminance: Light emitted by unit area of matt surface, or, more generally, the intensity of light per unit area of surface seen from a given direction. It is expressed in candelas/m2.
Daylight factor: Illuminance at a specified point indoors, expressed as a percentage of the simultaneous horizontal illuminance outdoors under an unobstructed sky.
Luminous efficacy: The ratio of the light emitted by a lamp to the energy consumed by it. It is expressed in lumens/W.
Degree days: The product of the number of degrees below a given base temperature (15.5°C is a common figure) and the number of days when that temperature occurs. The heating degree day value for a year is calculated by taking the sum of the differences between the base temperature and the mean daily temperature for each day of the heating season. The base temperature of 15.5°C assumes a design temperature of 18°C, with a 2.5°C allowance for internal gains and heat stored in the fabric of a building.
Macroclimate: The general climate of a region. Mass wall: A solid south-facing wall that absorbs solar radiation and transmits some of its heat into the building by conduction. The outer surface is generally given a matt black surface to increase absorption of solar radiation, and glazed to reduce heat loss to the outdoors. Microclimate: The climate of a specific site or of a small area, influenced by local topography.
Direct radiation: Solar radiation coming directly from the sun.
Out-gassing: Emission of gases or volatile organic compounds from a material (solvents, off-gassing from paints, for example).
Diffuse radiation: Solar radiation which is scattered by reflection from or transmission through a diffusing material (such as the atmosphere).
Passive solar systems: Systems which use building elements to collect, store and distribute solar energy without artificial inputs of energy.
Embodied energy: The total amount of energy used in bringing a product or material to its present state and location (including harvesting/mining, processing, manufacture, and transport).
Possible sunshine: Amount of time between sunrise and sunset when the sun is shining (expressed as a percentage).
Groundwater: Water found within the earth, in soil or in the crevices or pores of rock, which may feed springs and wells.
Photovoltaic (PV) energy: Use of solar cells to generate electricity from solar radiation. Primary energy: Energy value of a fuel at source. For oil this includes the energy costs of extraction and processing. For electricity it includes heat wasted in generation and distribution losses. In an oil or coal fired power station about one third of the primary energy emerges in the form of electricity. The remainder is waste heat vented to the atmosphere or lost in transmission. One unit of electrical energy saved in a building represents 3 units of energy saved at the power plant.
Heat pump: A thermodynamic device that transfers heat from one medium to another. The first medium (the source) cools, while the second (the heat sink) warms up. Heat exchanger: A device whereby heat is transferred from a medium flowing on one side of a barrier to a medium flowing on the other. Often used to reclaim heat from outgoing ventilation air or waste water. Heat recovery: Reclaiming heat which would otherwise be wasted (see Heat Exchanger).
Reflectance: Ratio or percentage of the quantity of light reflected by a surface to the amount of light striking that surface.
Hybrid system: A predominantly passive solar system in which some external power is used to move naturally heated or cooled air or water around a building. Illuminance: The light striking a unit area of a specified surface, measured in lux. 21
Shading coefficient: A measure of a windows ability to transmit solar radiation, relative to the transmittance of a single sheet of 3mm clear glass. Expressed as a value between 0 and 1, the lower the shading coefficient, the less energy the window transmits.
Sinks (out-gassing): Materials which first absorb, and then release over an extended period, airborne substances (typically indoor pollutants). Smart windows: Windows which respond to changes in thermal or lighting conditions. Windows with electrochromic or photochromic glazing are two examples. Super windows: Double or triple-glazed windows, gas filled and with a low-emissivity coating. Sustainability: Activities are sustainable if they will not contribute to irreversible damage to or depletion of natural systems or resources within a foreseeable period. Thermo-circulation: Natural circulation of air induced by temperature-related changes in its density. Transmittance: Ratio of the radiant energy transmitted through a substance (e.g. glass) to the total radiant energy incident on its surface. Trombe wall: Similar to a Mass Wall, but with vents at top and bottom. Air between the wall and glazing is heated by the wall and rises, entering the living space through the upper vent, and drawing cool air from the living space through the bottom vent. Some heat is transmitted into the living space by conduction. Turbidity: Lack of clarity or purity, usually with reference to air or water quality. Air turbidity is generally due to smoke, haze (moisture) and/or dust. Utilisation factor: The percentage of useful incoming solar energy which displaces conventional or fossil fuelled heating. Visible transmittance: A measure of the light in the visible portion of the spectrum which passes through glass. It is expressed by a number between 0 and 1. Water wall: Similar in action to a Mass Wall, but constructed of water-filled metal, glass or plastic tubes or drums. Convection currents set up in the water transfer heat more rapidly through the wall.
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Energy) and will be updated on a regular basis. It is part of a growing family of CD-ROMs on energy efficiency and environmental topics titles include:
10 CD-ROM ON BIOCLIMATIC ARCHITECTURE
• Biogas from Waste & Waste Water Treatment This Maxibrochure gives a brief overview of the main topics covered in an associated interactive CD-ROM on Bioclimatic Architecture which is now available from the address below.
• Biomass Combustion • Wind Energy Technologies • Rational Use of Energy in Road Transport
The CD-ROM operates on IBM PC compatible platforms and provides opportunities to explore a wide range of easily applied energy-saving, environmentally friendly technologies for the building sector. Basic principles, design guidance, and a range of exemplary solutions combining good architecture and sound energy practice are provided. The material is presented in highly graphical forms to suit various levels of users’ experience and knowledge while allowing complete freedom to efficiently navigate through the material to find relevant information to the task in hand.
• Composting • Photovoltaics • Organic Farming • Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Management Systems The CD-ROMs are available at 150 ECU each (plus 10 ECU for post and packaging) from:
LIOR E.E.I.G. Panoramalaan 7 B-1560 Hoeilaart Belgium
A very large quantity of information is presented in a visually appealing format on the CD-ROM which is fully illustrated with photographs, architectural drawings, tables, graphs, video and animated graphical sequences, background music and spoken information. The first edition is in English with additional menus, help facilities and keywords in seven EU languages. Only minimal computer skills are required to use the package effectively.
Tel +32.2-657 5300 Fax +32.2-657 3640 E-mail: info@lior.be Website: http://www.lior.be/
It is envisaged that the CD-ROM will be a convenient, practical tool for architectural teachers, students, architects, builders and planners, and all those who wish to explore an architecture which is responsive to the environment - a sustainable architecture. This new CD-ROM on Bioclimatic Architecture has been created as part of a THERMIE Programme action of the European Commission (Directorate-General XVII for
ORDER FORM (Please photocopy and send to LIOR E.E.I.G at the above address) Name:
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10.1 CD-ROM Screen images
Bioclimatic Architecture CD-ROM screens
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[15] Daylighting, Design and Analysis, C.L. Robbins, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company - New York, 1986. ISBN 0-442-27949-3
11 REFERENCES [1] The Climatic Dwelling - An Introduction to ClimateResponsive Residential Architecture, Eoin O’Cofaigh, John A. Olley and J. Owen Lewis (Eds), James & James Science Publishers, London for the European Commission DGXII,1996. ISBN 1-873936-39-7
[16] Estalvi d’Energia en el dissery d’edificis, Aplicacio de sistemes d’aprofitament solar passiu, Dapartament d’Industria i Energia - Generalitat de Catalunya, 1986. ISBN 84-393-0670-9 [17] Guide d’aide à la conception bioclimatique, Cellule Architecture et Climat, Universite Catholique de Louvain Services de Programmation de la Politique Scientifique de Belgique, 1986
[2] Living in the City - An Architectural Ideas Competition for the Remodelling of Apartment Buildings, Vivienne Brophy, John Goulding and J. Owen Lewis (Eds), Energy Research Group University College Dublin for the European Commission, Directorate General XII for Science, Research and Development, 1996. ISBN 1-898473-30-7
[18] Man, Climate and Architecture, B. Givoni, Science Publishers, London, 1976. ISBN 0-8533-4108-7
[3] Green Design - Sustainable Building for Ireland, Ann Mc Nicholl and J. Owen Lewis, Office of Public Works, Dublin for the European Commission DGXVII, 1996. ISBN 0-7076-2392-8
[19] Passive and low energy building design for tropical island climates, ECD Partnership, London, U.K.; N.V. Baker et al, Commonwealth Science Council, 1987 [20] Passive Solar Energy Efficient House Design, Architectural Association School of Architecture; Graduate School, Energy Studies Programme, Department of Energy Solar Programme - London, 1988
[4] Solar Geometry, Steven V. Szokolay, PLEA & Department of Architecture, University of Queensland, Brisbane 1996. [5] A series of four booklets (Passive Solar Heating; Energy Management; Solar Water Heating; Energy Efficient Lighting) and 16 illustrated posters (Bioclimatic Urban Design; Lighting / Daylighting; Thermal Comfort; Solar Heating; Passive Cooling), prepared within the INNOBUILD (Innovative Mechanisms for the Dissemination of Energy-Efficient Building and Product Research) project of the European Commission DG XII co-ordinated by the Energy Research Group, University College Dublin, 1996
[21] Handbook of Sustainable Building - An Environmental Preference Method for Use in Construction and Refurbishment, David Anink, Chiel Boonstra and John Mak, James & James Science Publishers, London, 1996. ISBN 1-873936-38-9 [22] Renewable Energy - Power for a Sustainable Future, Godfrey Boyle (Ed), Oxford University Press (in association with the Open University), 1996. ISBN 0-19-856452-X / 0-19-856451-1 (Paperback).
[6] The European Directory of Sustainable Energy-Efficient Building 1997 - Components, Materials and Services, J. Owen Lewis, John R. Goulding (Eds), James & James Science Publishers, London, 1997 (annual publication since 1993). ISBN 1-873936-71-0
[23] Passive Solar Energy as a Fuel, ECD Partnership, London for the Commission of the European Communities, DGXII 1990, EUR 13445
[7] Daylighting in Architecture - A European Reference Book, N.V. Baker, A. Fanchiotti, K. Steemers (Eds), James & James Science Publishers, London for the European Commission DG XII, 1993. ISBN 1-873936-39-7
[24] Transparent Insulation Technology, Energy Technology Support Unit (ETSU), Harwell, UK, for the European Commission, Directorate General XVII for Energy, June 1993, in Maxibrochure format.
[8] Energy Conscious Design - A Primer for Architects, John R. Goulding, J. Owen Lewis, Theo C. Steemers (Eds), B.T. Batsford for the Commission of the European Communities, 1992, 135pp. ISBN 0 7134 69196, EUR 13445
[25] Daylighting in Buildings, Ann McNicholl, J. Owen Lewis, Energy Research Group University College Dublin for the European Commission, Directorate General XVII for Energy, 1994, in Maxibrochure format.
[9] Energy in Architecture - The European Passive Solar Handbook, John R. Goulding, J. Owen Lewis, Theo C. Steemers (Eds), B.T. Batsford for the Commission of the European Communities, 1992, 352pp. ISBN 0 7134 69196, EUR 13445
[26] Contact: Michael Brown, European Association for the Promotion of Cogeneration (COGEN Europe), Brussels. Tel +32 2 772 8290, Fax +32 2 772 5044.
[10] European Wind Atlas, Risø National Laboratory, Denmark, for the Commission of the European Communities, 1989, 656pp. ISBN 87 550 1482 8. [11, 12] European Solar Radiation Atlas: Solar Radiation on Horizontal and Inclined Surfaces, W Palz, J Greif (Eds). Springer-Verlag (for the Commission of the European Communities), 333pp. ISBN 3-540-61179-7 [13] Buildings, Climate and Energy, T.A. Markus and E.N. Morris, Pitman, 1980. ISBN 0-2730-0268-6 [14] Conception thermique de l’habitat, Guide pour la région Provence - Alpes - Côte d’Azur, SOL A.I.R., Edisud, 1988
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ORGANISATIONS FOR THE PROMOTION OF ENERGY TECHNOLOGY Within each Member State there are a number of organisations recognised by the European Commission as an Organisation for the Promotion of Energy Technology (OPET). It is the role of these organisations to to help to coordinate specific promotional activities within Member States. These include staging of promotional events such as conferences, seminars, workshops or exhibitions as well as production of publications associated with the THERMIE programme. ADEME c/o ADEME-BRIST 27, rue Louis Vicat F-75737 Paris - Cedex 15 France Tel: +33 1 47 65 20 41 Fax: +33 1 46 45 52 36 E-mail: ademcepi@imaginet.fr
Energy Centre Denmark c/o DTI P.O.Box 141 DK-2630 Taastrup Denmark Tel: +45 43 50 70 80 Fax: +45 43 50 70 88 E-mail: ecd@dti.dk
ASTER-CESEN c/o Aster, Agency for the Technological Development of Emilia-Romagna Via Morgagni, 4 I-40122 Bologna Italy Tel: +39 51 236242 Fax: +39 51 227803 E-mail: opet@aster.it
ETSU Harwell - Didcot GB OX11 0RA Oxfordshire United Kingdom Tel: +44 1235 432014 Fax: +44 1235 432050 E-mail: lorraine.watling@aeat.co.uk
BEO c/o Projekttrager Biologie, Energie, Okologie (BEO) Froschungszentrum Julich GmbH (KFA) Postfach 19 13 D-52425 Julich Germany Tel: +49 2461 61 3729 Fax: +49 2461 61 2880 E-mail: d.ullerich@kfa-juelich.de BRECSU c/o Building Research Establishment Bucknalls Lane Garston GB WD2 7JR Watford United Kingdom Tel: +44 1923 664540 Fax: +44 1923 664097 E-mail: crooksm@bre.co.uk CCE c/o Centro para a Conservaçao de Energia Estrada de Alfragide, Praceta 1 P-2720 Alfragide Portugal Tel: +351 1 4718210 Fax: +351 1 4711316 E-mail: dmre.cce@mail.telepac.pt CLER c/o Association Comité de Liaison Energies Renouvelables 28 rue Basfroi F-75011Paris France Tel: +33 1 46590444 Fax: +33 1 46590392 E-mail: cler@worldnet.fr CORA c/o Saarlaendische Energie-Agentur GmbH Altenkesselerstrasse 17 D-66115 Saarbrucken Germany Tel: +49 681 9762 174 Fax: +49 681 9762 175 E-mail: sacca@sea.sb.eunet.de CRES Centre for Renewable Energy Sources 19 km Marathonos Ave. GR-190 09 Pikermi Greece Tel: +30 1 60 39 900 Fax: +30 1 60 39 911 E-mail: mkontini@cresdb.cress.ariadne-t.gr Cross Border OPET - Bavaria - Austria c/o ZREU Wieshuberstr. 3 D-93059 Regensburg Germany Tel: +49 941 46419 0 Fax: +49 941 46419 10 E-mail: fenzl.zreu@t-online.de ENEA CR Casaccia - Via Anguillarese n. 301 I-00060 S Maria di Galeria - Roma Italy Tel: +39 6 3048 3686 Fax: +39 6 3048 4447 E-mail: cariani@casaccia.enea.it
EVE c/o Ente Vasco de la Energia Edificio Albia I planta 14 - C. San Vicente, 8 E-48001 Bilbao Spain Tel: +34 4 423 50 50 Fax: +34 4 424 97 33 E-mail: ente0001@sarenet.es FAST c/o Federation of Scientific and Technical Associations 2, P. le R. Morandi I-20121Milano Italy Tel: +39 2 76 01 56 72 Fax: +39 2 78 24 85 E-mail: eurofast@icil64.cilea.i GEP c/o Groupement des Enterprises Parapétrolières et Paragazières 45, rue Louis Blanc F-92038 Paris La Défense France Tel: +33 147 17 68 65 Fax: +33 147 17 67 47 E-mail: gep@gep-france.com ICAEN c/o Institut Catala d'Energia Avinguda Diagonal, 453 bis, atic E-08036 Barcelona Spain Tel: +34 3 4392800 Fax: +34 3 4197253 E-mail: edificis@icaen.es ICEU c/o Internationales Centrum für Energie und Umwelttechnologie Leipzig GmbH Auenstrasse 25 D-04105 Leipzig Germany Tel: +49 341 9804969 Fax: +49 341 9803486 E-mail: krause@iceu.manner.de ICIE c/o Istituto Cooperativo per l'Innovazione Via Nomentana, 133 I-00161 Roma Italy Tel: +39 6 8549141 Fax: +39 6 8550250 E-mail: icie.rm@agora.stm.it IDAE c/o Instituto para la Diversificación y Ahorro de la Energía Paseo de la Castellana, planta 21 E-28046 Madrid Spain Tel: +34 1 456 5024 Fax: +34 1 555 1389 E-mail: idae@teleline.es IMPIVA c/o Instituto de la Pequeña y Mediana Empresa Industrial de Valencia C. Colón 32 E-46010 Valencia Spain Tel: +346 386 7821 Fax: +346 386 9634 E-mail: ximo.ortola@impiva.m400.gva.es
Institut Wallon Boulevard Frère Orban 4 B-5000 Namur Belgium Tel: +32 81 25 04 90 Fax: +32 81 25 04 90 E-mail: iwallon@mail.interpac.be Irish Energy Centre Glasnevin IRL-Dublin 9 Ireland Tel: +353 1 8082073 Fax: +353 1 8372848 E-mail: opetiec@irish-energy.ie IRO Association of Dutch Suppliers in the Oil and Gas Industry P.O. Box 7261 NL-2701 AG Zoetermeer Netherlands Tel: +31 79 3411981 Fax: +31 79 3419764 E-mail: iro@xs4all.nl LDK c/o LDK Consultants Engineers and Planners Ltd. 7, Sp. Triantafyllou St. GR-113 61 Athens Greece Tel: +30 1 8563181 Fax: +30 1 8563180 E-mail: idk@mail.hol.gr NIFES c/o NIFES Consulting Group 8 Woodside Terrace - Scotland GB G3 7 UY Glasgow United Kingdom Tel: +44 141 332 4140 Fax: +44 141 332 4255 E-mail: 101361.2700@compuserve.com NOVEM c/o Nederlandse Onderneming voor Energie en Milieu BV Swentiboldstraat 21 - P.O. Box 17 NL-6130 AA Sittard Netherlands Tel: +31 46 42 02 326 Fax: +31 46 45 28 260 E-mail: nlnovade@ibmmail.com NUTEK National Board for Industrial and Technical Development - Department of Energy and Environmental Technology S-117 86 Stockholm Sweden Tel: +46 8 681 95 14 Fax: +46 8 681 93 28 E-mail: anders.heaker@nutek.se NVE c/o Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Adminstration P.O. Box 5091 - Majorstua N-0301 Oslo Norway Tel: +47 22 95 93 23 Fax: +47 22 95 90 99 E-mail: hbi@nve.no OPET Austria c/o Energieverwertungsagentur - The Austrian Energy Agency (E.V.A.) Linke Wienzeile 18 A-1060 Vienna Austria Tel: +43 1 586 15 24 ext: 21 Fax: +43 1 586 94 88 E-mail: lechner@eva.wsr.ac.at OPET Finland c/o TEKES (Technology Development Centre) P.O.Box 69 - Malminkatu 34 FIN-00101Helsinki Finland Tel: +358 105215736 Fax: +358 105215903 E-mail: marjatta.aarnilia@tekes.fi
OPET Luxembourg c/o Luxcontrol Avenue de Terres Rouges 1 L-4004 Esch-sur-Alzette Luxembourg Tel: +352 547711282 Fax: +352 547711266 E-mail: 106030.2752@compuserve.com OPET Norrland c/o The Association of Local Authorities in the County of Vasterbotten Vasterbotten Energy Network Norrlandsgatan 13, Box 443 S-901 09 Umea Sweden Tel: +46 90 77 69 06 Fax: +46 90 16 37 19 E-mail: france.venet@swipnet.se Orkustofnun c/o The National Energy Authority of Iceland Grensasvegi 9 IS-108 Reykjavik Iceland Tel: +354 569 0105 Fax: +354 568 8896 E-mail: ete@os.is PARTEX-CEEETA Rua Gustavo de Matos Sequeira 28-1∞ Dt∞ P-1200 Lisbon Portugal Tel: +351 1 395 6019 Fax: +351 1 395 2490 E-mail: ceeta@mail.telepac.pt PSTI c/o Petroleum Science and Technology Institute Offshore Technology Park Exploration Drive - Scotland GB AB23 8GX Aberdeen United Kingdom Tel: +44 1224 706600 Fax: +44 1224 706601 E-mail: j.kennedy@psti.co.uk RARE c/o Agence Regionale de l'Energie Nord-Pas de Calais 50 rue Gustave Delory F-59800 Lille France Tel: +33 3 20 88 64 30 Fax: +33 3 20 88 64 40 SODEAN c/o Isaac Newton s/n Pabellon de Portugal - Edificio SODEAN - Isla de la Cartuja E-41012 Sevilla Spain Tel: +345 4460966 Fax: +345 4460628 E-mail: sodean@lander.es SOGES c/o SOGES S.p.A. Corso Turati, 49 I-10128 Torino Italy Tel: +39 11 3190833 / +39 11 3186492 Fax: +39 11 3190292 E-mail: soges@mbox.vol.it VTC c/o Vlaamse Thermie Coordinatie Boeretang 200 B-2400 Mol Belgium Tel: +32 14 33 58 22 Fax: +32 14 32 11 85 E-mail: vdbergh@vito.be Wales OPET Cymru c/o Dyfi Eci Parc - Dulas The Old School - Eglwysfach Machynlleth - Wales GB SY20 8AX Powys United Kingdom Tel: +44 1654 781332 Fax: +44 1654 781390 E-mail: opetdulas@gn.apc.org
These data are subject to possible change. For further information please contact: OPET - CU, Fax: +32 2 743 8931
‘The overall objective of the Community’s energy policy is to help ensure security of energy supplies for European citizens and businesses at competitive prices and in an environmentally compatible way. DG XVII initiates, coordinates and manages energy policy actions at European level in the fields of solid fuels, oil, gas, electricity, nuclear energy, renewable energy sources and the rational use of energy. The most important actions concern the security of energy supply and international energy cooperation, the integration of energy markets, the promotion of sustainable development in the energy field and, finally, the promotion of energy research and technological development through demonstration projects. DG XVII manages several programmes such as Synergy, SAVE, Altener and THERMIE. More information is available in DG XVII’s pages on Europa, the Commission’s server on the World Wide Web.’
Produced by: Energy Research Group University College Dublin, School of Architecture, Richview, Clonskeagh, Dublin 14, Ireland Tel. +353 (1) 269 2750 Fax. 353 (1) 283 8908 for LIOR E.E.I.G. Panoramalaan 7 B-1560 Hoeilaart Belgium Tel +32 (2) 657 5300 Fax +32 (2) 657 3640 With the support of: The European Commission Directorate-General for Energy DG XVII 200 rue de la Loi B-1049 Brussels, Belgium fax: +32 (2) 295 05 77 E-Mail: info@bxl.dg17.cec.be URL: http://europa.eu.int/en/comm/dg17/dg17home.htm