A design manual for resilient school yards by Jenny Asanti by Jenny Asanti

A design manual for

Resilient School Grounds

MasterÂ´s thesis I Jenny Asanti I Autumn 2014 Supervisor prof. Jyrki SinkkilĂ¤ I Instructor, Architect Pasi Aaltonen Department of Architecture I School of Arts, Design and Architecture I Aalto University

A design manual for

Resilient School Grounds

THANKS I would like to thank my instructor Pasi Aaltonen, for his valuable guidance and advice. Discussions with Pasi taught me a lot about humanitarian school construction projects and the reality on the site. Most importantly, his enthusiasm encouraged me to believe in this thesis. A big thanks goes to all the Finn Church Aid staff members that participated in this work. I would also like to thank professor Jyrki Sinkkilä for his advice and help in structuring the thesis. Thanks goes also to all the experts who gave me valuable insights on their respective fields; architect Kaisa Nuikkinen, senior advisor Maritta Tamiru-Niskanen, landscape architects Mari Ariluoma and Marika Bremer. Erin Swift-Leppäkumpu, a huge thanks for proofreading the thesis. I would also like to thank Sito Oy and Oy J-Trading Ab for their support. Ville. Thank you for the “life support”. Without you I could not have made it. 4

ABSTRACT Aalto University School of Arts, Design and Architecture Department of Architecture Landscape architecture Author: Jenny Asanti Title of Thesis: A design manual for Resilient School Grounds Date: 11.11.2014 Pages: 114 Academic chair: Landscape Design and Construction Chair code: MA-94 Supervisor: professor Jyrki SinkkilĂ¤ Instructor: architect Pasi Aaltonen Keywords: resilience, mitigation, schoolyard, landscape design, learning space

The subject of this thesis is improving schoolyards as part of humanitarian work. The first part investigates the roles and possibilities of schoolyards in disaster risk mitigation and resilience. The second part presents design principles and concepts on a general level. Design concepts are presented in three case studies.

The design manual presents the design process, main principles and research topics. Brief insights into the main themes, explaining the basics of analysis together with design goals and concepts, form the most important part of this thesis. To give an example, this guidance is applied into the case studies.

Background material for this project has included published recommendations, standards and guidelines as well as an extensive literature review. Finn Church Aid has provided important material and insight into the case studies.

This thesis aims to prove that the safety and resilience of schoolyards can be improved through good design. In addition to these themes, the corresponding design manual highlights the importance of diverse and pleasant schoolyards. Schools have an important role within the communities and they are the many times the most efficient channels to share information and to develop skills. This fact also backs up the selected focus of this thesis.

Various standards and recommendations guide humanitarian school rebuilding projects, concentrating mainly on the buildings and their safety. Unfortunately, outdoor spaces are widely ignored in existing planning guidelines. Only few general recommendations for schoolyards have been published. This thesis aims to fill the current gap in knowledge by providing guidelines for schoolyard planning in disaster affected areas.

Finn Church AidÂ´s Learning Space Coordinator, architect Pasi Aaltonen has been the instructor for this thesis. The design manual is intended primarily for humanitarian workers that are involved in school rebuilding projects.

TIIVISTELMÄ Aalto Yliopisto Taiteiden ja suunnittelun korkeakoulu Arkkitehtuurin laitos Maisema-arkkitehtuuri Tekijä: Jenny Asanti Diplomityön nimi: A design manual for Resilient School Grounds Päiväys: 11.11.2014 Sivumäärä: 114 Professuuri: Maiseman suunnittelu- ja rakentaminen Professuurin koodi: MA-94 Työn valvoja: professori Jyrki Sinkkilä Työn ohjaaja: arkkitehti Pasi Aaltonen Avainsanat: katastrofikestävyys, pihasuunnittelu, oppimisympäristö

Diplomityö käsittelee koulujen piha-alueiden kehittämistä osana humanitaarista työtä. Työn ensimmäinen osa esittelee koulujen ulkotilojen roolia ja mahdollisuuksia katastrofien ehkäisyssä sekä katastrofikestävyyden parantamisessa. Toinen osa esittelee suunnitteluperiaatteita yleisellä tasolla sekä soveltaa niitä kolmeen erilaiseen esimerkkikohteeseen. Työn tausta-aineistoa ovat olleet aiheesta julkaistut standardit, suositukset sekä muut ohjeet. Kirkon Ulkomaanapu on tarjonnut tärkeää pohjamateriaalia ja ohjausta koskien erityisesti kolmea esimerkkikohdetta. Humanitaarista koulurakentamista ohjaavat useat erilaiset standardit ja suositukset. Nämä ohjeet keskittyvät lähinnä rakennuksiin, niiden turvallisuuteen ja kestävyyteen. Koulujen ulkotiloihin ei standardeissa ole juuri kiinnitetty huomiota, vain joitakin hyvin yleispiirteisiä suosituksia on esitetty. Diplomityö vastaa tähän puutteeseen esittämällä tarkempia suosituksia ja ohjeita koulujen piha-alueiden suunnittelulle. Työssä esitelty ohjeistus käsittelee lyhyesti suunnitteluprosessia, pääperiaatteita sekä suunnittelua varten tarvittavaa taustatutkimusta. Lisäksi työssä käydään läpi ulkotilojen

suunnitteluun yleisesti liittyvät teemat. Tärkeimmille teemoille on esitetty ohjeita sekä analyysi- että suunnitteluvaiheisiin. Esitettyjä ohjeita on lisäksi havainnollistettu kolmen esimerkkikohteen avulla. Työ pyrkii osoittamaan, että hyvällä ulkotilojen suunnittelulla voidaan parantaa koulujen turvallisuutta sekä edistää niiden katastrofikestävyyttä. Esitetyt suunnitteluperiaatteet ja ohjeet tukevat edellä mainittujen tavoitteiden lisäksi myös piha-alueiden monipuolista hyödyntämistä opetukseen, leikkiin sekä liikuntaan. Koulujen keskeinen rooli omassa yhteisössään tukee valintaa keskittyä koulujen piha-alueiden parantamiseen. Tieto ja osaaminen leviävät usein tehokkaimmin juuri koulujen kautta niitä ympäröivään yhteisöön. Diplomityötä on ohjannut Kirkon Ulkomaanavun koulurakentamisen koordinaattori, arkkitehti Pasi Aaltonen. Suunnitteluohjeet on tarkoitettu ensisijaisesti humanitaaristen koulurakennusprojektien parissa työskenteleville henkilöille, niin kotimaassa kuin kohdealueellakin.

CONTENTS CONTENTS Abstract Tiivistelmä

5 7

1 INTRODUCTION

1. 1 1. 2 1. 3 1. 4

Background Objective of the thesis Working methods Structure of the thesis

11 13 13 13

CONTEXTUAL REVIEW

Why schoolyards need improvements Improvements step by step Existing guidelines Natural hazards and conflicts Disaster management process Education in Emergencies Girls and boys as active agents of change Education in Emergencies - Actors in the field

15 15 17 18 19 19 21 22

2. 1 2. 2 2. 3 2. 4 2. 5 2. 6 2. 7 2. 8

DESIGN MANUAL 25

3. 1 3. 2 3. 3 3. 4 3. 5 3. 6 3. 7 3. 8 3. 9 3. 10 3. 11 3. 12 3. 13 3. 14 3. 15 3. 16 3. 17 3. 18 3. 19 3. 20 3. 21

The design process Main design principles Research Case study presentations Risk assessment Site layout Time scale Microclimate Topography and soil Water Vegetation Spaces Walkways and paths Entrances, gates and fencing Activities Visual signage Outdoor furniture Lights Waste Materials Conceptual designs

27 28 30 34 36 40 45 46 50 56 62 70 76 80 84 90 90 91 91 92 94

4 CONCLUSIONS

101

Acronyms Terminology Sources List of useful links

103 103 107 109

1 INTRODUCTION This chapter briefly introduces the background and the reasons for the theme selection. It also describes the objective and the methods used in this work.

1. 1 Background Disasters Millions of people experience natural disasters every year. These disasters happen all over the world and at all scales, from a small-scale flood up to earthquakes and cyclones that can destroy entire cities. In some areas, disasters are humaninduced; conflicts and wars have destroyed people´s living environments. According to UNHCR, by the end of 2013, over 50 million people worldwide were refugees, asylum-seekers and internally displaced people (IDPs).1

who are affected or die, are children2. There are also many different aid- and development programmes that aim to mitigate the impacts of disasters and to improve preparedness and resiliency of affected communities. These programmes are mainly coordinated by The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR).

A study made by the UNICEF3 has shown that children prefer variety, flexibility and green spaces that include flowers, shrubs and trees for their school environments. In the same study, UNICEF points out the prevalent situation in which the traditional school planning rarely considers these issues in the planning and design phases.

Educational environments

Landscape architecture and planning

Like many other structures, schools are often damaged or destroyed in disasters. Even if the local school is the strongest building in the village, that does not necessarily guarantee that it is safe. Many schools all over the world cannot be considered safe; they are prone to earthquakes, floods, landslides and other natural hazards that might easily turn into disasters.

There is an important element missing in the field of rebuilding educational facilities in disaster affected areas; the landscape architectural approach. There should be more focus on the entire school environment, including not only the buildings but both the functional and the natural outdoor spaces as well. By designing and planning the school grounds as one entity, it is possible to create better and safer school environments in most disaster affected areas all over the world.

There are many organizations that help people in humanitarian disasters. These organizations, including various UN programmes, the Red Cross and the Red Crescent Movement together with numerous national and international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) provide emergency aid and help during the disaster recovery process. Some of the organizations, like UNICEF and Save the Children, are focused especially on children. This special focus on children is justified by the fact that, in disasters, more than half of those

Many national agencies and ministries as well as international organizations have set their own standards, guidelines and recommendations for safer school environments. These publications are mainly focused on the most basic measures to enable a quick and safe return to school after a disaster. These publications provide a good background for building safer schools but they do underestimate the importance of the outdoor spaces.

1 UNHCR

2 Center for Children and Disaster Risk Reduction (CCDRR)

Landscape architecture as an additional approach could lead to more comprehensive and better humanitarian projects. Humanitarian landscape architecture remains relatively unknown compared with humanitarian architecture or engineering. This is surprising taking into consideration all of the knowledge and skills landscape architects could offer in humanitarian projects. For example flood management, erosion control and sustainable land use are common themes in landscape architecture. The landscape architectural ap3 UNICEF 2

proach not only affects on the sustainability and safety, but also on the aesthetics as well as cultural and recreational values of the learning spaces. Education in Emergencies (EiE) The International Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) summarizes the importance of Education in Emergencies (EiE): with the average conflict lasting 10 years and families remaining in refugee or internally displaced person (IDP) camps for an average of 17 years, it is clear that education cannot wait for more stable times and that the failure to prioritize education in humanitarian response renders entire generations uneducated, disadvantaged, and unprepared to contribute to their societyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s recovery4. School grounds have an important role in education as they create the settings where education takes place. Functional and safe outdoor spaces can offer children more possibilities to play and learn in otherwise unsafe and chaotic situations. They can also improve the resilience of the school and offer a place in which to share important information and practical skills for the local community as well. The outdoor spaces of schools are rarely considered as educational spaces. Instead, the schoolyard is usually referred to as the place to spend time between classes at. They are 4â&#x20AC;&#x201A; INEE 1, p.3

not valued and not taken care of, despite the fact that children spend lots of time outdoors. The school grounds possess a huge potential, especially in emergency situations where flexibility and resilience are important qualities. It is not uncommon, for schools to start running under a tree or any kind of shelter in just days after the disaster. This is usually because the existing school is destroyed or damaged and there is nowhere else to go. A well planned schoolyard is safe, able to adapt to new situations, and to accommodate temporary shelters and classrooms. This is one of the reasons why the outdoor spaces deserve more attention from the planners and designers in humanitarian projects.

Shared knowledge Education is a powerful tool in changing our environments and improving the wellbeing of people. Especially in developing countries, information is spread to the broader community by children telling their families what they have learned at school. This is why it is important that children learn about Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR), and how to improve the safety of their living environments. The more the children and their families have knowledge and tools to prepare, the more likely they are to survive a disaster. Thus children should not be considered only as victims but also as important actors in the preparedness and recovery processes of disasters. The school grounds can also show an example of how public outdoor spaces can be improved. By showcasing simple practices and methods of how an outdoor space can be developed, the issue of developing the built environment is raised and discussed. In best case scenario the interest in developing the public spaces starts from the school and spreads into the community.

1. 2 Objective of the thesis

1. 3 Working methods

1. 4 Structure of the thesis

The objective of this thesis is to reconsider the school grounds in disaster affected areas. The aim is to investigate the possibilities of outdoor spaces, to argue why they should be improved and to give guidance on how to create resilient and diverse schoolyards. The reason for this topic is the general lack of attention and knowledge regarding the school grounds and their potential role in disaster resilience.

I have collected background information from different publications that focus on schools and education in disaster affected areas all over the world. Most of these publications are made by the UNICEF and other UN-based organizations.

The thesis starts with the abstracts, presented in english and finnish.

The most important questions this thesis will answer are: • Why should schoolyards be improved in disaster affected areas? • How can they be improved? • What are the benefits of these improvements?

The work has been done in collaboration with Finn Church Aid (FCA). Learning Space Coordinator, Architect Pasi Aaltonen has been the instructor for this thesis. He has given guidance and shared his experiences and knowledge. Aaltonen has also provided information (statistics, photos, project details) on behalf of Finn Church Aid.

It is important to understand that the designs presented in this thesis are conceptual. There are no universal solutions that would fit anywhere and at any time. Every individual project should always be carefully assessed, planned and fit to the local settings. The thesis is intended for humanitarian workers, architects, engineers, planners and local officials that are working in humanitarian school rebuilding projects. The embedded manual can be separated from this thesis and used as a tool to teach the basics of schoolyard design for humanitarian workers before and during the construction projects.

Despite the efforts, it was not possible to visit any disaster affected areas as part of this thesis.

General ideas and best practises from different sources have been gathered for the design concepts. The presented designs are conceptual, their purpose is to give ideas and inspiration. The terminology used in this thesis and especially in the design manual has been kept simple. Technical or other professional terms have been substituted with more common and widely used terms whenever possible. Photos and diagrams have been widely used to visualize discussed themes and design concepts.

They are followed by Introduction (Chapter 1), that briefly explains the main topics and the objective of this thesis as well as the working methods that have been used. Chapter 2 is the Contextual review that goes through the main themes at general level, forming the framework for the thesis. Chapter 3 is the Design Manual. The manual starts by presenting the design process and the three main design principles. After this, the required research before the design can be started, is represented. Finally, guidance for the analysis and design of the main elements is presented, together with three case studies. Conclusions are presented in the fourth chapter. It summarizes all that has been presented in the previous chapters and draws the main findings of the project, and presents some ideas for future development. List of acronyms, explanations for used terminology, sources and a list of useful links are found in the end of this document. 13

CONFLICT EXTREME WEATHERS FLOOD DROUGHT RISK REDUCTION EROSION SAFETY LANDSLIDE RISK MANAGEMENT EARTHQUAKE RESILIENCE & HURRICANE SUSTAINABILITY CYCLONE

VEGETATION

CULTURE

RECYCLING

WASTE MANAGEMENT

INFRASTRUCTURE WATER MANAGEMENT

BIODIVERSITY

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

WATER

WATER, SANITATION, HYGIENE

MICROCLIMATE

RECREATION

ARCHITECTURE

HEALTH

PLAYGROUND GARDEN

SPORTS

ACCESS FOR ALL

KNOWLEDGE & SKILLS

CAPACITY BUILDING

LIVELIHOOD

INSPIRATIONAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

MATH SCIENCE ART

TEMPORARY TRANSITIONAL

PERMANENT

2 CONTEXTUAL REVIEW This chapter raises the questions of why and what should be done with the school grounds in disaster affected areas. It offers answers and arguments to these questions from different points of view, while setting the framework for the more specific topic of designing the school grounds.

2. 1 Why school grounds need improvements Safety and health The school grounds should be safe and support the wellbeing of the children at all times. Especially in disaster affected areas the importance of school grounds becomes clear, as they might be the only safe places for the children to play. A schoolyard can have a great impact on children´s health as green spaces and outdoor play have been proven to reduce stress and improve physical health5. By adding green spaces and creating settings in the outdoor spaces that encourage children in sports and other activities, these positive impacts can be strengthened.

Accessibility Accessibility is included in most standards and minimum requirements regarding schools any where in the world. Children with special needs should have equal access to education. One of the keys to accomplish this is that the school grounds have to be accessible for all. The schoolyard has a significant role in making the school grounds accessible; If the entrance to the site or the walkways within the site are not accessible, it does not matter whether the buildings are accessible or not. That is why the school grounds should be designed as an entity that is truly accessible for all. Inspirational learning Outdoor spaces can offer inspirational learning environments and new possibilities and approaches for teaching science, math and arts for example. Landscape design projects can creatively educate the public about water quality issues and illustrate methods of restoring local waters. Being involved in these types of projects allows children and community a first-hand experience with nature and allows them to understand the natural cycle of water and its vital role on the environment. 6

Same approach can be used for issues like erosion, different natural cycles (phosphorus, nutrients etc.). Learning to recognize different plant and animal species can be much more inspiring in ´real life´ than from the books. Play In addition to improved safety, a well designed schoolyard can also promote activating functions. The schoolyard should motivate children and adolescents to play and be active, to express themselves and enjoy. A report on supporting school improvements through play, by Lester, Jones and Russel7, lists numerous advantages of especially outdoor play. Outdoor play for example supports learning and all aspects of children´s development. The report also states that “the more natural and unstructured the environment, the richer children’s play is as an educational activity“. Lester, Jones and Russel also show that “studies from the field of environmental psychology intimate that playful contact with natural space offers moments of fascination and a chance to ‘be away,’ and may support the restoration of attention, necessary for concentrated and task-directed effort in the classroom.” 8 7 Lester, Jones & Russel

5 Psychology Today and National Wildlife Federation (USA)

6 Lolly Tai et al. p.130

8 Lester, Jones & Russel. p.21

2 Natural disasters mostly effect people living in developing countries, particularly the most vulnerable communities within those countries. Over 95 percent of people killed by natural disasters are from developing countries. (UNISDR)

Since the year 2000, over 35 major conflicts and some 2500 disasters have affected billions of people around the world. (UNEP. Disasters and Conflicts Factsheet)

Picture 1. Boy fetching water in a flooded street in the Philippines. Photo: UNICEF Picture 2. Storm over Haiti. Photo: NASA Picture 3. Boy standing on a cracked, dry land. Photo: UNICEF Picture 4. Landslide destroyed houses in the favelas of Rio de Janeiro in January 2010. Photo: Wikipedia Picture 5. Earthquake hit East Azerbaijan in 2012. Photo: Wikimedia Picture 6. The Bab Al Salame displacement camp, Syrian Arab Republic, 2014 Photo:UNICEF / Photo of the Week, Jan.13. 2014

Aesthetics

2. 3 Existing guidelines

The importance of aesthetics should not be underrated, not even is disaster areas. Considered as a general fact, people thrive better in pleasant and beautiful places than in ugly or chaotic environments. In disaster affected areas especially, beautiful and pleasant environments are scarce. In these environments especially, people need places where they can escape and relax, take a break from the chaos. The schoolyard could act as this place for the community.

There are dozens of different manuals and handbooks 10 about safe schools and child friendly (learning) spaces. They all have important and much needed information regarding site selection and construction of safe school buildings. Currently most of the design guidelines, meant to improve the overall quality of the school facilities, focus on the architecture and structures of the buildings.

The question of what is beautiful or a pleasant place to be varies from culture to another as well as in personal level. Making a schoolyard, that appears beautiful for its users, requires cooperation and participatory designing. This way the outcome of the design will be fitted to the local culture and reflect its vision of a beautiful place. Even small changes can have a notable impact on the visual character of the school surroundings. In general, the outdoor spaces are visually the dominant part of the school surroundings and thus effect strongly on how people experience it.

2. 2 Phasing A quick return to school after a disaster is one of the main goals of humanitarian aid operations9. Naturally the first priority is to quickly repair damaged buildings or to set up temporary classrooms. But to be able to do that, the rubble needs to be removed and the yard cleaned before any repair or construction work can begin. The priority is to ensure that the yard is safe for the children. Even if just a small part of the outdoor space is quickly cleared and recovered from rubble and other trash, children can get a quick and very much needed access to a safe playground. As disaster recovery continues, more improvements can be made step by step, starting from the most essential changes, then continuing to the long-term changes and improvements.

Unfortunately most of the listed guidelines and manuals omit the outdoor spaces. Usually the only guidance and recommendations concerning the outdoor spaces have to do with site selection and safety. What is missing in these publications is a more comprehensive guidance about environmental safety, vegetation and especially water management on the site, among other things. Also the recreational value of the outdoor spaces has been sadly ignored in most publications. The Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) has published The Minimum Standards Handbook to set the minimum level of educational quality and access in emergencies through to recovery. This handbook also includes the minimum standards for safer school construction. (See attachment A for more details) The INEE Handbook has been made in addition to the Sphere Handbook, to set more specific standards for education. The Sphere Handbook, Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response, is one of the most widely known and internationally recognized sets of common principles and universal minimum standards in life-saving areas of humanitarian response 11. The only guidance in INEE and Sphere publications regarding the outdoor spaces focuses on accessibility, WASH (drainage, water resources etc), settlement planning and food production. Of these two handbooks, the INEE Handbook is more specific and accurate as it focuses only on Education in Emergencies (EiE).

The Child-Friendly Schools (CFS) Manual12 by UNICEF is one of the few published manuals that includes the outdoor spaces in its recommendations. The CFS-Manual has been a valuable resource for this report and the guidelines and recommendations presented in the manual have been the key material for this thesis. The CFS-manual includes the design standards for landscaping. It states: School grounds form an integrated, holistic unity with school buildings and their users, but in conventional school planning they are often neglected. Trees are vital for filtering sun, dust and noise and for beautifying the school. Indigenous trees, shrubs and flowers should be planted in the school compound along with edible plants meant to teach children food production and conservation. Trees also have a softening and calming effect on the learning environment and its users. Planning the school landscaping is a good way to involve children in the realization of a child-friendly school.13 With respect to open spaces, the CFS-manual states: Easy access to open spaces from classrooms allows children to be in close contact with their environment and to engage in physical activities. Open spaces can be designed as play yards for sports, school gardens and orchards, decks or verandas for outdoor learning activities, open performance spaces, wide corridors and courtyards, trellises, canopies, shaded pavilions, niches, alcoves, play lofts and enclosed backyards. In typical child-friendly schools, the community would be allowed to use some of these spaces after school hours for town meetings, local gatherings and other events. 14 As evident in these descriptions, the CFS-Manual only states the recommendations what should be done and does not give any advice on how to design these spaces. This thesis is an extension to the existing guidelines, not a comprehensive or independent manual. The aim has been to focus on the outdoor spaces and to provide not only recommendations but also advice and help on how to actually create better outdoor environments for schools.

12 UNICEF 2 9 Stated so by e.g. Unicef, INEE and IFC

10 See sources in the end of this manual

13 UNICEF 2, p.4

11 The Sphere Project front page

14 UNICEF 2, p.5

Every 1 dollar spent on preparing for disasters saves around seven dollars in economic losses. 15

2. 4 Natural hazards and conflicts15 The World Meteorological Organization defines natural hazards as, “severe and extreme weather and climate events that occur naturally in all parts of the world, although some regions are more vulnerable to certain hazards than others. Natural hazards become natural disasters when people’s lives and livelihoods are destroyed.16 ” A depressing and well known fact is that millions of people suffer from natural disasters every year. Haiti (earthquake in 2010), the Philippines (typhoon in 2013) and Pakistan (floods in 2010 and 2012) are among those countries that have witnessed the worst natural disasters of recent history. It is also claimed that extreme climate events are becoming more common due to the changing global climate. For example, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) says that “the year 2014 began with unusual number of extreme weather events around the world”. This also backs up “the last year’s UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report, which stated that the number, frequency and intensity of hot days and heat waves was increasing, along with an increase in the intensity and number of heavy rainfall events.” 17 15 UNDP 16 WMO 1 17 Vidal, John.

Natural hazards do not always result in natural disasters. Disaster Risk Management (DRM) and Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) programmes are common tools used to avoid natural hazards from turning into large-scale disasters. Lives can be saved and economical impacts minimized by mitigating the impacts of these disasters. This can be done by - for example - supporting and developing resilient communities. In our changing climate adaptability has also become a necessary quality.

tion, land mines and other dangerous items as well as destroyed farmlands are among those reasons why people are forced to leave their homes. Returning home can take years or decades or, in some extreme cases, can even be impossible because of destroyed living environments. On the other hand, environmental degradation can be one of the triggering effects for a conflict. This has happened in Sudan18 and Darfur19 for example.

When the hazard has turned into a disaster, the recovery can take weeks, months, years or even decades depending on the scale of the disaster and its impacts on people, infrastructure and the environment. Conflicts Afghanistan (war 2001-), Syria (civil war 2011-), and the Democratic Republic of Congo are some of the most well known conflict-affected areas in the world. Conflicts affect humans in several ways; people are killed or injured, basic infrastructure and other facilities are destroyed or damaged and the basic resources such as food or water are scarce. The environment, both built and natural, can also be highly affected by a conflict. In conflict zones, environmental degradation can be severe and can cause problems long after the conflict itself has ended. Polluted land and water, deforesta-

18 UNEP 1 19 Brendan Bromwich

DEVELOPMENTAL AND ONGOING RISK REDUCTION DISASTER PREPAREDNESS

RISK REDUCTION

2. 5 Disaster Management Process

DISASTER MANAGEMENT PROCESS

RISK AND VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT

According to International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Society, Disaster Management can be defined as “the organization and management of resources and responsibilities for dealing with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies, in particular preparedness, response and recovery in order to lessen the impact of disasters.”20 Mitigation and preparedness

Disaster Risk Reduction

A resilient school environment not only improves the preparedness of the site itself but can also be used as a practical example and as a tool to share knowledge for the local community. For example, workshops and campaigns to teach essential skills about wise environmental management and hazard-resistant building techniques can be organized within the school grounds. In this way, the school grounds are used to mitigate the impacts of possible disasters in several ways and to improve the preparedness of the community.

According to United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR), “Disaster risk reduction is the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyse and reduce the causal factors of disasters”. A more specific approach is the Child-Centered DRR that many organizations (e.g. UNICEF and Plan) have adapted into their programmes. Well planned schoolyards can benefit this specific approach by offering practical examples and inspiring learning environments.

DISASTER RELIEF

EARLY RECOVERY

RECONSTRUCTION

SCHOOL GROUNDS DEVELOPMENT Core diagram source: SKAT/IFRC, Urban Reconstruction Handbook

20 IFRC

“While humanitarian principles and human rights conventions ensure that, increasingly, children are given special protection in emergency situations; children’s right to participation remains largely unrecognized. Children continue to be perceived as mere victims of disasters rather than active agents of change who can make a real difference.” 24

2. 6 Education in Emergencies A disaster always changes the normal routine and lives of the affected people. The education system also faces several changes caused by the disaster; damage to the school buildings and other educational structures, loss off educational materials and damage to the roads and other infrastructure (water, electricity) that are needed for the education system to work properly. It is also possible that the school facilities have been taken into other uses (e.g. temporary shelters, military occupancy) which complicates the process of returning to school. According to UNICEF, “Education in Emergencies (EiE) refers to the provision of formal and non-formal education in situations where children lack access to government or community education systems due to armed conflicts or natural disasters”.21 Education in Emergencies is a relatively new term that is widely used by professionals but which remains unknown in the common language (media, news).

social development. Educational spaces can also protect children by providing (sometimes the only) physically safe place to be. 22 Education during emergencies is necessary for the future of the community as well. As previously mentioned, emergency situations can last for years, or even decades, and in the worst case an entire generation can fall out of the education system during this time. This phenomenon would have a huge impact on the whole community as uneducated young people lack literacy, numeracy and other basic skills learned at school. If this young generation gets education also during the emergency phase, they have stronger skills to cope with future challenges in their lives. Educated children and adolescents are an important resource for the whole community and significant actors during its recovery and future wellbeing. In this sense, education is a necessary tool for “the reconstruction of the economic basis of family, local and national life and for sustainable development and peace building.“ 23

The routine of going to school brings much needed normalcy into children´s chaotic lives in emergency situations. Even the most basic activities like playing and being together with other children can help to mitigate the psychosocial impact of traumatic events. Continuing education can also minimize the negative effects of the crisis on children´s emotional and

Rebuilding process

21 UNICEF 4, p.4.

23 UNESCO

It is common that in emergencies learning spaces are established from basically nothing. Children and teachers (many times volunteers or parents) gather together and start run22 UNICEF.4, p.6

ning basic lessons. The resources are minimal; many times papers and pens are gathered from what is left of schools and homes. In refugee camps, even establishing a meagre community school can be impossible. In these cases schools depend on humanitarian aid. A disaster is always a chance for change. The recovery and reconstruction phase can be seen as an opportunity to learn and improve. Disasters and emergencies can act as launching forces for new innovations and improvements. Build Back Better is an approach that enhances the opportunity to not only restore the pre-disaster conditions but to improve them. To give a simple and common example: before the emergency a school did not have latrines at all. During the reconstruction process, new latrines were built. Fortunately, rebuilding and repairing school facilities have become priorities in disaster recovery processes. Many times while the classrooms are being repaired or reconstructed, the classes are given in temporary shelters in any available lot on the school grounds or close by. There is no reason why the (re)building of schoolyards should wait for “better times,” instead there are good reasons why the outdoor spaces should be included in the rebuilding process right from the beginning - together with the buildings.24 Setting up a garden or adding some gutters to a schoolyard 24 Plan International, 2007

1. Improvements within the school grounds

2. Knowledge and skills spread to childrens´ homes

might sound like small and insignificant measures in the great battle against disasters and climate change. But if children learn about safe and sustainable solutions already during the first years of their education, they understand how these solutions work and can share this knowledge at home. For example, if a school has 100 pupils that tell about these solutions at home to their parents, it already makes 300 people more prepared. Then the parents show their small gardens proudly to their neighbours and so on. Finally they are all together step by step making their own community more resilient and sustainable. And while the community grows greener, it most likely becomes also a more pleasant place to live.

2. 7 Girls and boys as active agents of change The school grounds can have a significant role in local disaster management. The site can be designed and built using the best available practises to make it more safe and resilient. By promoting hazard-resistant designs and solutions used in the school grounds, also important knowledge and awareness can be shared to the whole community. At the same time, children learn about how their own actions can respond to disasters and mitigate the impacts.

3. Neighbours get involved

4. The community grows greener and more resilient

School grounds are excellent places to share practical information to the whole community. If the solutions that are promoted in theory at school and other campaigns are actually put into practise, the information is most likely better understood and learned by the children and local community members. The schoolyard can provide a variety of possibilities to teach children the theory and practise of DRR through play and fun. Practical skills are needed for DRR as well as resiliency and sustainability. Children learn how to manage surface waters, how to recycle water and use it for gardening in the schoolyard. They can also learn how to take care of important edible plants and grow food for themselves. By managing hydrology and vegetation, children learn about natural systems and -cycles. A safe and sustainable schoolyard managed by the pupils themselves might be one of the best ways to teach children the basics of DRR. The same method can be applied at the community-scale as well. After the typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) hit the Philippines in 2013, Plan International interviewed children to ask what they think, need and recommend 25. Children´s answers reflect the need and motivation to do something: The report also reveals children played a crucial role in the evacuation and preparedness that saved thousands of lives 25 Plan International

5. Information is shared with the neighbouring communities and the network spreads

before the storm. Many of those talked to are scared of another storm hitting, but are keen to learn more about how they can prepare for future disasters. The children´s recommendations included a safe place for children/friends to meet, teaching new skills for livelihoods and maintaining school and community gardens26. What is really interesting is that, in the same report, children also pointed out the importance of protecting nature. The children said that “Everyone should be sure to care of Mother Nature”. They also suggested that “more could be done to recycle and reuse materials and also to clean up the debris that is making water resources dirty”. 27 Philippino children and young people also identified activities that they would like to be involved to reduce future risks. Here are some of their responses28: • Planting trees to protect land from future floods • Cleaning up streets and the environment so they could get rid of mosquitoes • Reusing and recycling materials • Being involved in community decision-making about disaster preparedness 26 Save the Children et al. p.14. 27 Save the Children et al. p.17. 28 Save the Children et al. p.18.

LOGISTICS / WFP

SANITATION, WATER & HYGIENE / UNICEF

CAMP MANAGEMENT AND COORDINATION / UNHCR & IOM

2. 8â&#x20AC;&#x201A;Education in Emergencies - Actors in the field To ease the coordination and logistics within the field humanitarian aid, has been divided into clusters. The clusters are coordinated by OCHA (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs). The diagram on the right shows all the different clusters and their leaders. The Education Cluster (ECU) , led by Save the Children and UNICEF, coordinates all the NGOs that work in the field of education in humanitarian projects all over the world. The cluster is also responsible of the coordination with the local government, officials and other parties. The ECU facilitates the work for the Education Cluster Working Group and directly supports country level Education Clusters. Some of the main actors of the Cluster working Group are: Save the Children, World Vision and PLAN as well as Finn 22

EARLY RECOVERY / UNDP EMERGENCY TELECOMMUNICATION / WFP

THE CLUSTERS

EMERGENCY SHELTER / UNHCR & IFRC

The answers reveal that children do understand much more about disasters and environment than we might think. It is also obvious that children can play an important role in disaster risk reduction. Children learn fast and share their knowledge with their families and communities, which can even save human lives someday. Children should be provided with better tools and opportunities to put their skills and knowledge into good use.

EDUCATION / UNICEF & SAVE THE CHILDREN

HEALTH / WHO

PROTECTION / UNHCR

NUTRITION / UNICEF

Church Aid (FCA). Also UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) and UNHCR (UN Refugee Agency) belong to this group. From all of these cluster members at least PLAN, the UN offices, World Vision and FCA actually build school facilities and could therefore also develop and build educational outdoor spaces as well. Some of the organizations of the group are only focused on the pedagogical side and do not build facilities but could still greatly benefit from the improved schoolyards.

FOOD SECURITY / FAO & WFP

Picture 7. Children have gathered outdoors for Disaster Risk Reduction training in Kyrgyzstan. Photo: UNICEF

Picture 10. This photo from Tanzania is an example of a simple and dull classroom. These kind of conditions are common in especially developing countries. Photo: Elise Rehula

Picture 8. Temporary classroom covered with tarpaulins is a hot, dark and tight space. Photo from a destroyed school building in Anuron, the Phillippines. Photo: FCA

Picture 9. Temporary classroom next to damaged classroom buildings in the Philippines. Photo: FCA

Picture 11. This photo from the Philippines shows a destroyed school building in front and badly damaged forest in the back. Photo: FCA

3 DESIGN MANUAL

& C ASE ST UD IES 3. 1 The design process 27 3. 2 Main design principles 28 3. 3 Research 30 3. 4 Case study presentations 34 3. 5 Risk assessment 36 3. 6 Site layout 40 3. 7 Time scale 45 3. 8 Microclimate

3. 9 Topography and soil 50 3. 10 Water 56 3. 11 Vegetation 62 3. 12 Spaces 70 3. 13 Walkways and paths 76 3. 14 Entrances, gates and fencing 80 3. 15 Activities 84 3. 16 Visual signage

3. 17 Outdoor furniture 90 3. 18 Lights 91 3. 19 Waste 91 3. 20 Materials 92 3. 21 Conceptual designs 94 25

HOW TO USE THE MANUAL Start by reading Chapters 3.1 - 3.3. They will help you to understand the design process and issues that must be considered in the beginning of the design project and along the way. Chapter 3.4 provides a general description of the three case studies. The most important information is found in from Chapter 3.5 until Chapter 3.14. These chapters, marked with bright colours on the edge, describe the eleven most important issues of designing schoolyards. Each of these chapters consists of three different parts: Analysis shortly describes the topic and guides on how to make an analysis. Most essential questions can be found in the coloured box. The presented guidance has been applied to the three case studies to give an example of how it is done in practise. Based on the analysis, recommendations are presented for each case. The third part focuses on the design. The design goals for each topic have been set first, then some design concepts are presented. These design concepts are examples and ideas, not a comprehensive outlook on what should be done. Chapters 3.15 - 3.19 present additional topics that are related to schoolyard designs. Finally, Chapter 3.20 presents conceptual designs for the case studies. The presented pictures and descriptions can be seen as conclusions of the presented analyses, recommendations and design ideas. 26

3.1

THE DESIGN PROCESS PLAN PROJECT PLAN DEVELOPMENT

2. RESEARCH & ANALYSIS IDENTIFY:

RISKS & HAZARDS RESOURCES NEEDS

3. DESIGN DESIGN PROCESS

SKETCH DESIGN PROPOSAL EVALUATION FINAL DESIGN

ANALYSE THE SITE REALISATION MAINTENANCE FOLLOW UP PARTICIPATORY WORKSHOPS IMPACT ASSESSMENT 27

3.2

MAIN DESIGN PRINCIPLES This chapter presents the main principles that every design project should include and respect.

EVERYDAY SAFETY Safety is the most important design principle for any learning environment. Physical safety, as well as the feeling of being safe, are created by a combination of multiple different factors. Elements of the physical environment need to be carefully designed, constructed and maintained in order for it to be safe at all times. Planning a safe environment means anticipating the possible accidents. The everyday safety consist of multiple factors; being safe from mental and physical violence, diseases, extreme weather conditions and other natural elements like wild animals. Also supervision of the school grounds is an important safety factor. Safety should not rule out diversity or the possibility of adventure and fun but be one of the determinant qualities of the school grounds. Hygienic safety The schoolyard should promote good hygiene and health. Avoiding stagnant water in the yard, organizing a proper waste disposal systems as well as providing access to potable water as well as water for hand washing are all things that should be taken into account in the design.

Issues related to Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) should always be discussed and designed in collaboration with WASH experts. For more information about this topic, see the list of useful resources in the end of this report or contact members of the WASH-cluster. Risk of violence Gender issues have to be taken into account in the school grounds´ design. It is a generally recognized fact that separate latrines for girls and boys, and for adults and children are essential for the safety of especially girls as they decrease the risk of sexual abuse. Possible negative impacts The potential negative impacts of the changes to the school grounds should be assessed and mitigated as well as possible. This means, for example, avoiding too intimate or closed spaces that might turn out to be insecure and increase the risk of sexual violence. Another risk might be too verdant vegetation or a failed drainage system with stagnant water that can host dangerous insects and thus form a health risk.

SUSTAINABILITY & RESILIENCE In general level social, environmental and economical sustainability should always be taken into account when making design decicions. In brief: social sustainability can be addressed by taking into account the users needs and including participatory methods into the design process. Also the social and cultural relevance of the design and the capacity-building of the local community improve social sustainability of the project in general. 29 Economical sustainability can be addressed by low-cost and durable materials as well as by having a positive effect on local economy, supporting local skills and improving local employment opportunities. Environmental sustainability is based on safe and durable (local) materials that are not from overexploited or threatened sources. Also efficient use of all materials with minimal waste generation and high recycling potential matter. The design should also avoid depleting or contaminating natural resources. Water and energy conservation and low maintenance should also be considered in the design. 30 29 Adapted from SKAT, p.22-23 30 Lolly Tai et al. p.227

The schoolyard should be an example of sustainability; it should promote good solutions and practises to all it´s users and to the local community. Unfortunately, sustainability might appear irrelevant or distant theme to the locals at first but with proper promotion and instruction important knowledge and skills can be learned. Within the school grounds for example water management, food production (garden) and environmental education are all good examples of measures to improve environmental sustainability.

DESIGN FOR ALL According to the World Report on Disability31 approximately one billion people in the world are living with a disability, with at least 1 in 10 being children and 80% living in developing countries. According to UNESCO 32 ninety per cent of children with disabilities in developing countries do not attend school. This must be changed which means that all new or rebuilt school facilities should be made accessible for all. Easy access to the classrooms, latrines and other essential facilities and to the most important outdoor spaces must be provided equally for all the users.

Accessible environments are also more welcoming for the elderly and for the younger children. Making the school accessible for all does not mean that all parts of the school grounds must be reached by everyone. It is as important that there are spaces and activities that offer challenge for the able-bodied children. For example there can be different types of routes circulating in the yard; the accessible ones and the more challenging ones.

The outdoor spaces have an important role to play in making the site accessible. If the schoolyard and the entrances to the site are not accessible, it does not help if the buildings are. Accessibility takes into account wheelchair users, persons with crutches or other supportive equipment, partly sighted or blind persons or persons that have some other physical disabilities. Accessibility does not benefit only disabled people but everyone: it makes moving around as well as moving big or heavy furniture from one place to another, easier. 31 Global Partnership for Education 32 UN 1

MAIN DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Numerous studies highlight the benefit of children having access to natural space to play in. There are suggested links between children’s opportunity to play with natural elements and their care and concern about environmental issues as adults. 33

3.3

RESEARCH Research and background information is a key for good design. This chapter describes the most essential themes to be studied before starting a design or construction project.

LOCAL CULTURE AND CONTEXT Schools must be anchored to the reality of their location in terms of culture, environment and links to families and the community33. This is why it is extremely important to also analyse the social environment in which the school is or will be operating. Even though schools have very much in common all over the world, they are still all unique and need to be analysed individually. Local culture, habits and attitudes together form the social framework in which the school operates. One of the first things to analyse is the social context. Who are the people connected to the school, who works there, whose children go to this specific school and so on. The involvement (or interest to be involved) of teachers, parents and other community members needs to be evaluated. It is also important to interview the locals about the school. Many times the local community has more information than anyone else regarding especially the environmental and recreational issues. Local people are the best experts to tell, for example, how their children tend to spend their free time, if there are cultural or religious rules or restrictions that need to be taken into account in the schoolyard design.

informed, and many times also involved in the project. It should be kept in mind that not all the gathered information is accurate. People tend to tell things in their own ways and many times people highlight things that are important for them personally. Due to lack of understanding or simply because of forgetting, they might ignore something that would be important from the design point of view. Knowing how the local culture and habits work currently does not mean that everything should be done like always before. Traditions and habits need to be respected and valued but new activities, methods and technologies can and should be introduced as well. 34

It is also important to identify all the different parties that make decisions regarding schools. These parties need to be 33 UNICEF 2 p.2

34 UNICEF 2 p.2

PARTICIPATORY APPROACH The designers should encourage the children to set their creativity free and use their enthusiasm as an important resource. Providing children the possibility to change their school environment can be a very beneficial strategy in many ways. Children know best what they need and want, and many times they can even find a way to make it happen and create the settings needed for their plays. If children are involved in the designing and building of the outdoor spaces, then they will most likely take more responsibility of them afterwards. Another aspect is that if the yard has been created by all the pupils and teachers, it makes it THEIR yard, it is not something that has just been given to them and in worst case left unused. These are a significant facts also from the maintenance point of view. If the maintenance does not work, if it is too expensive or complicated for the locals, then the whole investment will be for nothing. Another point that makes children´s participation important is its value for their recovery from trauma and loss after a disaster or conflict. Letting children do something creative and allowing them to see the results is rewarding experience. It is a relief to see something new and beautiful to be born in disaster affected environments. It does not have to be anything big or serious, just small and positive things and actions to make it easier to see the change for better.

could serve as workshops and the school garden could be extended to a community garden or even to a small-scale agricultural centre in rural areas.

One of the activities children could do to help their communities could be using their creativity and sharing their knowledge to benefit the whole community. The schoolyard can function as a place for workshops and sharing information. Children could share their ideas and knowledge they have gathered from their garden, water management and so on in their own schoolyard. Older children could teach younger ones about gardening, DRR and other important themes.

With the participation of the children and the local community, the design of the schoolyard will naturally be socially sustainable and tightly linked to local culture. It must be kept in mind that involving the children in the design and construction process must always be done by their rules and for their wellbeing.

RESEARCH

A report by Save the Children with few other NGOs describes how children felt in the Philippines after Hurricane Yolanda had hit the nation in 2013 35 . The report reveals that children feel the need to help too: â&#x20AC;&#x153;In Iloilo, children described that they felt a strong need to do something meaningful for their families and their community. They want to do something to help other children and families, but they feel there are no organized activities for them to do this. â&#x20AC;&#x153;

At the same time, the schoolyard could work as an educational space for the whole community. Information about the environment, natural hazards, DRR and resilience could be shared easily.

Many of the topics previously mentioned before can be applied to the whole community as well. If the whole community would be involved in the planning and designing of the school grounds, it would make them proud of it too. This way they would feel that the space they have created belongs to them and they are responsible for it. Schools grounds can easily be used by the whole community after school hours. The outdoor spaces can serve as gathering grounds for events, ceremonies and meetings. Some of the classrooms 35â&#x20AC;&#x201A;Save the Children et al. p.1.

NEEDS ASSESSMENT In a post-disaster situation, the basic fact is that the resources do not meet the needs. It is necessary to recognize what is really needed and where the focus should be on different phases of the rebuilding process. Process of the Needs Assessment for a school: 1. A rapid needs assessment at the general level, led by the Education Cluster 2. Another general, but more comprehensive assessment, by the local officials (Department of Education or similar) 3. A more detailed information about the needs of a specific school from the school principal Usually, the NGOs working in the field have their own methods for executing the needs assessment. Most of them are based in widely used international standards, recommendations and guides. It does not appear necessary to present those methods in this report as they are comprehensively explained in other publications36. In addition to existing procedures and guidelines, this report will introduce some new elements that need to be assessed and analysed regarding the outdoor spaces. This analysis covers both the physical environments as well as the user´s needs regarding outdoor activities. 36 get a short list of them here

It should be emphasized here that the needs assessment should be done before starting any other activities. A proper needs assessment, together with a good project plan, are always the basis for a successful project. I recommend to include the outdoor spaces in the general needs assessments that are done at each site by the NGOs before starting their projects. This way the outdoor spaces are included efficiently in the planning and can be seen as an important resource.

SITE Site is many times one of the most complicated resources. Land rights can be a complicated issue, especially so in postdisaster settings. The school site might have become chaotic where it is not possible to rebuild, or people have fled to a new location and whole new site is needed for the school. In these kind of cases, finding a suitable site can be a great challenge. Rebuilding on existing sites is nevertheless usually both the easier and faster solution. The site´s size can vary a lot. In general, plots in urban areas are smaller and can barely accommodate the building itself. It is worth pointing out that even the smallest plots have potential for more inspirational, innovative and sustainable solutions. In rural areas, the plots are usually bigger and more space is available for the outdoor activities as well. On rural sites the

availability of resources and lack of infrastructure can cause challenges.

FUNDS In general, funding sets the limits for the project. A certain amount of funds are given to the school, usually indicated for the building itself while the outdoor spaces are given minimal – if any – funding. Depending on the site, some funds may be assigned to make the site safer by building fences, murals or rainwater harvesting systems for example. Funding for school projects in disaster affected areas mainly comes through humanitarian organizations shortly after the disaster has happened. Another way to fund improvements for schools is through different development programmes that are usually meant for long-term projects.

MATERIAL RESOURCES Material resources vary a lot according to the location and type of the disaster. For example, in Haiti wood is generally imported and expensive, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, wood is usually available and, in the Philippines, cocolumber is widely available while hardwood is a luxury.37

37 Based on the experiences of FCA staff

Other materials that could be used in the outdoor spaces are stones, sand and clay as well as different types of natural fabrics (woven mats, straw etc ). Recycling is a good way to turn waste into building materials: for example PET-bottles and tarpaulins are common materials in disaster affected areas and good materials to be reused. After a disaster, all rebuilding starts at the same time - which many times directly affects on the availability of material resources. Even the most basic materials like sand and cement might run out during the busy starting phase. It is good to design the outdoor spaces so that only the most essential elements are built during this phase. After the construction boom calms down and the basic resources are available again, it is time to build the rest of the yard. Everything that can be recycled from the construction materials of the buildings should be used; it might be worth waiting until the buildings are ready and then to finish the outdoor spaces as well. Sustainable use of the materials should always be considered. To save resources efficiency and timing are some of the key issues. 38â&#x20AC;&#x201A;Based on the experiences of FCA staff

OTHER NATURAL RESOURCES Some natural resources like sunlight and air are available everywhere and at all times. They are also infinite and will not run out (except maybe clean air). Sunlight can be used for natural lighting; using solar panels for electricity production. Another energy efficient and sustainable way is to produce bio-gas for cooking. Water is an extremely important natural resource. Many times, access to clean water can be a challenge in the disaster zones. More about water in Chapter 3.9. Food and other goods provided by vegetation are also important natural resources. Nature also offers lots of good and usually local building materials like wood, straw, soil and stones. More about vegetation in Chapter 3.10.

HUMAN RESOURCES Local people are an important human resource for any school project. Even if the architects, designers, engineers and project coordinators would come from international NGOs, the local people are the ones that do most of the work. Among other things they construct, clean, cook and teach and most importantly they are the ones that keep the school running and maintain it over the years. This is why the local people

should be involved in the whole process, right from the beginning of it. Being involved in the process, locals are also taught new skills that can serve them in the future. Local people have a lot of information about the school and the community. This information is many times something that cannot be found anywhere else and is thus really valuable. Children are also an important resource for the project. Their ideas and imagination is a great source of inspiration and energy for everyone. Children should also be encouraged to take part in the construction, they can for example paint, decorate and plant new vegetation. As mentioned earlier, children are also a great resource for sharing information, especially between the school and their families but also with all the rest of the community as well. It is extremely important that the children will not be exploited. The participation of the children is important but should never cause any risk of taking advantage of them. Children should enjoy and have fun while participating in the design and building project.

RESOURCES

Some basic items and materials that are usually available are cement, concrete, earthblocks, corrugated steel and a variety of steel profiles and different nets (steel, plastic). 38

3.4

CASE STUDIES

HAITI

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO

When reading the case-descriptions please consider the fact that information about the sites has been scarce. This is a general situation when working within humanitarian projects thus the case examples in this thesis represent a “normal” starting point for a design project. 34

PHILIPPINES

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO

PHILIPPINES

CASE 1:

CASE 2:

CASE 3:

EPIPHANIE SCHOOL

KITCHANGA SCHOOL

TINAOGAN SCHOOL

• •

• • •

Elementary school, approx. 300 pupils A permanent school of the Kitchanga community National refugees, that have fled from conflicts and violence, come to Kitchanga as Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs).

• •

Elementary school with about 60 pupils and 4 teachers. Damaged by the Haiyan (Yolanda) Typhoon in 2013

•

An example of a large and flat schoolyard where nothing has been done to improve this outdoor space, despite its great potential.

Tinaogan is an example of a green and diverse schoolyard where some efforts to improve the schoolyard have already been done.

•

The biggest challenges for this site are storms, heavy rains and erosion.

•

The main climatic problems are droughts and floods. Other challenges include the bad condition of the facilities and the over crowded classrooms.

•

The information is based on personal site visit made by FCA staff in March 2014. Most of this unwritten information has been shared in meetings and discussions between the author and the FCA staff. In addition to this, the only information that has been available are the few photos taken by the FCA staff and a low quality aerial map (Google Maps).

The information is based on personal site visits made by FCA staff. Most of this unwritten information has been shared in meetings and discussions between the author and the FCA staff.

IN LEOGANE, HAITI

•

Elementary school. About 180 pupils. The earthquake in 2010 destroyed all the buildings on this site, leaving only a concrete floor of the destroyed church on the site. An example of a small site, that only has minimal outdoor spaces. In addition, the site is challenging because of the steep slope it is situated on.

•

Common natural risks in Haiti include earthquakes, droughts, floods and hurricanes.

•

The information is based on personal site visits made by FCA staff. Most of this unwritten information has been shared in meetings and discussions between the author and the FCA staff. Relatively good basic information – including drawings and photos – about the site has been available in for this manual. Initial site data includes a site survey with height control points, contours and locations of damaged and destroyed buildings.

IN KITCHANGA, DRC

IN SAMAR, THE PHILIPPINES

Little information about this site has been available. In addition to the information gathered and photos taken during FCA site visit in August 2014 there has been no other information available.

CASE PRESENTATIONS

HAITI

3.5

RISK ASSESSMENT Risk assessment is a really important part of any design project. In order to be able to mitigate disaster risks or prepare for a disaster, all possible risks and hazards have to be evaluated.

ANALYSIS Different resources of information are needed for a schoolyards risk assessment. Information about local climate and weather (linked to e.g. drought, storms, floods) or local conflicts can usually be found on the internet, newspapers, radio or asked from the local authorities. One valuable source of information are also the Clusters and NGOs working in the same or close-by locations. It is as important to interview the local people and collect their knowledge about local risks. Locals can have valuable information and they can share information that media or authorities do not have. All the gathered information should be evaluated and its accuracy questioned as people can for example underestimate the actual risk. It is a well known fact that droughts are usually seasonal and relatively easy to prepare for as they do not come overnight but evolve over a long period of time. Like droughts, the risk of earthquakes is usually well known as the areas prone to them are well studied and recorded. Predicting an earthquake is practically impossible, which enhances the importance of preparedness.

DRAUGHT

EARTHQUAKE

Many countries have seasons when storms are more usual. Local and national weather forecasts are the most important source of information on daily risk of storms. The risk of landslides is more local and site specific and requires a on-site assessment. Here is a brief list 39 of the most common qualities of a site that is prone to landslides: • substantially altered site (earthworks or removal of vegetation) • location on the top of a cliff or on a river or beach frontage • location on a faultline • location on a sloping and a in high rainfall area where the soil readily becomes saturated • location in a geothermally active area. To assess the risk of landslides look for the visual signs : • soil cracking parallel to the top of a bank • a hump in the soil at the base of the bank • where power poles, trees or fence posts are on a lean • a hollow in the centre of a flat area of ground • an undercut bank • a bank cut steeper than the angle of repose for the soil type Earthquakes, heavy rains and floods are usually triggering forces for landslides40. 39 List adapted from Level organization 40 IFRC 2, p.11

FLOOD

LANDSLIDE

STORM

CONFLICT

Different types of floods have different causes. Heavy storms (cyclones, typhoons, hurricanes) are accompanied by heavy rains, that can cause extreme flooding especially when the storm hits a coastal area. Storms can also cause coastal flooding as they can create higher sea levels, tidal surges or even tsunamis. River flooding is very common phenomenon which is caused by high seasonal rains or snow/glacier melting within the river´s catchment basin. Urban flooding is caused by rains in paved surfaces where water cannot drain into the ground and the artificial drainage system´s capacity is insufficient. 41 The flood risk usually occurs in low lying areas such as: • flood plains • by rivers and watercourses • below a hill • close to a valley mouth • close to drainage channels • natural depressions or swamps that have been drained 42

Local and regional rainfall patterns and flood risk announcements should be studied well. 43

41 IFRC 2 p.10 42 List adapted from Level organization 43 World Meteorological Organization provides good information: http://worldweather.wmo.int

The risk of flash floods should also be analysed. In comparison to floods, flash floods are rapid and many times unpredictable events that are usually caused by very high intensity rainfalls, rapid snow or glacial melt or natural or artificial dam breaks somwhere in the river´s catchment basin. The risk of conflicts impacting the school should be verified from the Cluster or local authorities. The safety of the school and different elements that have an impact on it should be evaluated. For example the location of the school, the routes to the school and the condition of existing or the lack of fencing all impact on the school´s vulnerability to conflicts.

Steps for a risk assessment 44: 1. Understanding of current situation, needs and information gaps to assess what already exists, avoid duplication of efforts, and build on existing information and capacities. This is done through a systematic inventory and evaluation of existing risk assessment studies, available data and information, and current institutional framework and capabilities 2. Hazard assessment to identify the natural risks, intensity and likelihood of major hazards that could have an impact on the school grounds

RISK ASSESSMENT : ANALYSIS

Picture 12. An example of a housing on a river bank with an obvious risk of landslide.

QUESTIONS: • What are all the possible risks on the site? • What is the probability of each of these risks? • What are the likely impacts of these risks? • How can the risks be mitigated within the school grounds?

3: Vulnerability analysis to determine the capacity (or lack of it) of the school grounds to withstand the given hazard scenarios 4. Risk profiling and evaluation to identify cost-effective risk reduction options within the school grounds 5. Formulation (or revision) of DRR strategies and action plans

44 Adapted from UNDP

LANDSLIDE EDGE FLOOD

RUNOFF ROAD

LANDSLIDE

FLOOD EROSION ROAD

RUNOFF EROSION

FLOOD STREET

FLOOD

North

CASE 1

CASE 2

CASE 3

In national scale hurricanes, droughts and floods are the most common natural hazards45. Hurricanes can also cause heavy rains, that increase the risk of landslides.

Droughts and floods are the most common natural hazards in DRC 46 and in this case example as well.

The most usual natural hazards in the Philippines are tropical storms and floods. Droughts and earthquakes are also common. In average almost 4 million people are affected by natural hazards every year in the Philippines. 47

The steep slope where the school is situated is especially prone to landslides and erosion. The fairly loose and unstable soil increases the vulnerability of the site and the runoff water can cause severe erosion on the site. If not properly constructed, the retaining wall can crack and eventually brake, causing a landslide and serious damage to the building on the lower terrace. Vehicular traffic poses a safety risk as there is no fence between the schoolyard and the street or road. The ditch along the street can flood or cause erosion during heavy rains. Recommendations: Planting protective vegetation and controlling the runoff waters helps to manage the erosion and mitigate the risk of landslides. The safety and durability of the retaining wall and other structures in the yard should be revised and reinforced, if necessary. 45 PreventionWeb Disaster Statistics

In addition to the risk of drought or flood, this school faces also more site specific risks. The steep slope behind the schoolgrounds creates a risk of landslides. The slope is very steep, the soil is sandy and loose, and there are only few trees stabilizing and protecting it. The campsite on the hilltop increases erosion and the amounts of runoff flowing down the slope. During rainy seasons the small river between the site and the slope can flood and stagnant water in the low lying areas of the yard may cause health risks. Also the small dith along the road can flood into the yard. Recommendations: Proper stormwater management should be installed to the site. The existing rainwater harvesting system should be fixed and improved. Trees and other plants should be planted in the yard to help control the stormwaters as well as drought and heat.

46 PreventionWeb Disaster Statistics

In addition to the risk of storms and floods, the Tinaogan school faces local risks such as erosion and landslides. The site is situated on a small peninsula and has sea on its both sides. The distance between the site and the seashore is less than 100m, which makes the site prone to strong winds and hurricanes that come from the sea. Recommendations: Maintaining and preserving the current vegetation and developing more diverse plantings would provide even better protection from erosion and landslides as well as from strong winds. Harvesting and storing rainwater together with recycling grey waters would be a good way to prepare for droughts and save water.

47 PreventionWeb Disaster Statistics

The main goal for the design is to create safe and resilient outdoor spaces that mitigate environmental risks within the site and in the surrounding community. The school grounds should also provide an example and possibility to learn about risk mitigation methods and practises.

DESIGN SOLUTIONS Natural hazards are complex issues with several causal factors. Risk mitigation and resilience are based on understanding and modifying these causal factors; this is what the design should focus on. Water management and vegetation are the most powerful tools to mitigate risk of severe droughts. Recycling water and using native plants that are adapted to dry conditions are effective ways to adapt to seasonal droughts.

buildings and other structures that might collapse in an earthquake. The risk of landslides can be mitigated with properly designing all landworks on the site as well managing runoff waters and controlling erosion on the site. To some extent protection from strong winds can be created with landforms and vegetation. Adaptation and preparedness for heavy rains can also be increased by site specific stormwater management systems. Unfortunately the possibilities to mitigate the risk of conflicts with the schoolyard design are small. Securing that the site has a proper fencing and good evacuation routes is part of schoolyard design that helps to mitigate the impacts of conflicts within the site. Some solutions suggested in Chapter 3.13 are related to conflict risk mitigation as well.

RISK ASSESSMENT : DESIGN & KEY NOTES

DESIGN GOALS

KEY NOTES: • The design should focus on mitigating the possible risks as well as adapting and preparing the site for them • Risk mitigation and resilience are based on understanding and modifying these causal factors • A proper risk assessment must be done before anything can be planned or designed • Environmental risk mitigation can be done even in the scale of a single schoolyard • Risk mitigation has to be taken into account in the design as a whole and in all the details of the design

Risk of flood on the school grounds can be mitigated with a well planned and executed water management system. Also topography (e.g. levelling, terraces) and vegetation help to control flooding on the site. The site layout has a significant role in mitigating the impacts of earthquakes on the schoolyards. Especially playgrounds and gardens should be placed at a safe distance apart from 39

3.6

SITE LAYOUT The site layout defines where all the buildings, other facilities, elements and functions are placed on the site and their relation to each other.

ANALYSIS Topography determines a lot, especially when the site is sloped. Other factors that need to be analysed are the space the planned buildings need, and how much space is left unbuilt. The surroundings also need to be assessed, what kind of land-use is there and what kind of activities are going on next to the school site. Also the relation between the school and the village/town/city should be analysed. The views that open from the site, or within the site should also be analysed. Beautiful views should be valued and emphasized with the design whereas the unpleasant views can be hid.

The best way to do a site analysis is to go to the site and draw a map: 1. Start with measuring the site and evaluating the shape of it. 2. Then evaluate which parts of the site can be built and which are unsuitable for building anything. 3. Mark the most important elements and features on the map: existing buildings, steep slopes, big rocks, wetlands, trees and other vegetation, entrances, walkways, paths, any other landmarks and anything you consider important. + Remember to mark the main distances and the north-direction.

QUESTIONS: • What are the site measurements? • How are parts of the site available to be used for building or other functions? • Are there any parts that cannot be used at all? Why? How large are they? • Are there risky or dangerous parts that should be closed or separated from the yard? • How many buildings are there? Which ones can be used? How many damaged buildings need to be repaired? Replaced? Is there need or space for new buildings? • What kind of views open from and to the site? • What is the sites relation to the village? • What happens in the surroundings and neighbouring sites?

LATRINE

20m

30m

100m

+99.0

5m +98.0

ROAD

+94.0

STREET +90.0

TEMP.STORAGE

RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS

North

CASE 1 The site is really small and situated on a steep slope. There are two, new permanent classroom buildings on two levels, the height difference between them is approximately 3 meters. Latrine is placed on the lower terrace. A bigger street passes the site behind the lower building and a smaller road leads to the upper part of the site and passes the upper building. A third building for additional classrooms has been planned on the upper level in the future. A kitchen has been planned on north-west corner of the site and will most likely be built in near future. The neighbouring plot on the southern side is vacant. The site on the northern side is in residential use. There is a steep slope and verdant vegetation on the eastern side of the road. Beautiful views open from the upper terrace into the valley below. Recommendations: The site should be planned to benefit its small yards and level differences. The different levels offer interesting views within the yard and to the valley. These views to the beautiful landscape should be highlighted.

+18.5

RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS

+102.0

CENTRAL+17.5 YARD

50m

+13.0

The site size is roughly 100 x 50 meters. The buildings are placed on three sides of the site and the main road passes the site on the eastern side. The long and narrow building on the southern side together with the two smaller buildings form a large and open yard in the centre of the site. Views to and from the site open from east. There are some houses and small kiosks in the neighbouring plots (north, east and south). A narrow ditch goes between the street and the yard. There is a steep slope and a hill behind the school grounds. A small river flows between the slope and the school site. A temporary tent village for internally displaced persons (IDPs) is situated on top of the hill. The school has great location near the village centre and on the main street. The street provides good access to the school site but also causes unsafety as there is no fencing between the street and the school site. Recommendations: The open yard has huge development potential. The large plot has a lot of vacant space for developing activities. A fence between the street and the schoolyard should be installed as soon as possible.

+21.0

40m

LOWER YARD RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS

RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS

North

CASE 2

UPPER YARD

+17.0

STREET RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS

18m

OFFICE KITCHEN

LATRINE

North

CASE 3 This site is large and complex. It is situated on a slope with few of the buildings on top of the hill. The site has five existing buildings and a new classroom building on the highest ground. There is also one temporary classroom in the middle of the site. As the site is on a slope, the buildings are placed on terraces and the yard is either terraced and flat, or sloped. There are three different yards in this site; the lower yard on the slope, the central yard on a terrace and the upper yard that is on a slope too. A beautiful view over the bay opens from the schools lower yard. Another view opens from the top of the hill also to the other side, where the bay and the mountains can be seen. Recommendations: The complexity of the site could be reduced by making orientation easier with signposts or some kind of marked trails. The small open space on top of the hill with beautiful views could be developed as a playground or as an outdoor classroom where the surrounding environment can be observed from.

SITE LAYOUT : ANALYSIS

(PLANNED) KITCHEN

DESIGN GOALS The goal is to create a functional and safe layout for the schoolyard. Also the aesthetics and diversity of the yard are desirable values. Placing all the buildings, other structures and sites for different activities on the site is always a challenge. With careful thinking and planning it is possible to create a pleasant and functional layout that can also adapt to new needs. There are some basic concepts that help to organize all the functions and elements on the site.

DESIGN CONCEPTS Plot size The size of the school´s plot determines a lot of what can be done on the site. Lots of vacant space on the plot allows great possibilities for outdoor activities while small and tight sites do not offer so many possibilities but still a lot can be done to improve a small schoolyard too.

Public and private spaces There should be a division between public and private areas on the site. (In this case “private” means only for the school´s use. ) This division means that some spaces can be used by the community after school hours and during weekends. Outdoor spaces like the event ground, sports field and meeting space as well as some indoor spaces can benefit the whole community. Preferably some of the green areas should also be on the “public side”. The more private part is only for the school´s use and can contain playgrounds, outdoor classrooms for example. The school garden can be either a small, private garden only for learning and recreational purposes for the children, or it can be a bigger and public community garden. There should be private, separate latrines for girls and boys as well as for the teachers and other staff. Additional latrines can be placed on the more public part where they can be used during community meetings also. Grouping functions All the functions (see the diagram on the right) that need access to water should be relatively close to each other, especially when there is only one source of water. To make water

recycling easier and more efficient, the hand-washing point should be close to the garden and other green areas. From a health-perspective the hand-washing point should be near the latrines and the kitchen, to improve hygiene, but the latrines and the kitchen should NOT be right next to each other. In general, activities that can create noise or other fuzz should not be placed next to the classrooms or calm and relaxed activities. For example, a playground or a sports field should not be placed near the classrooms. The head teacher´s room and possibly some other administrative spaces should be located near the entrance to the school grounds. This facilitates the connection between the school, the parents and the community. The need for a parking space should be assessed. If parking space is needed, for staff parking for example, it placement should be carefully planned. The parking and vehicular traffic may not cause safety risks and they should be easy to use.

NEED ACCESS TO WATER

+ FARMLAND WORKSHOPS

+ LATRINES

+ GARDEN

OTHER GREEN AREAS

PLAYGROUND

PRIVATE

CLASSROOMS

for small children

PLAYGROUND

for older children

KITCHEN

OTHER ADMIN. SPACES

(temporary shelters)

LATRINES HANDWASHING POINT

STAFF ROOM

MEETING PLACE EVENT GROUND SPORTS FIELD

ENTRANCE

HEAD TEACHER´S ROOM

OUTDOORS

SITE LAYOUT : DESIGN

PUBLIC

INDOORS

GARDEN

CLASSROOMS

STORAGE + FUTURE EXPANSION

Views Views across the yard are important as they improve the safety on the site. There should be a “control point” where views to the main facilities are clear. Latrines, for example, need to be supervised by the teachers for better safety. This means that views between the latrines and the administrative rooms or the control point are vital. The most important views are shown with a grey line in the diagram on the next page. The aesthetical values should also be taken into account when planning the views on the yard. Ugly or disturbing views can be hid while views to beautiful parts can be opened and highlighted. Flexible layout The site should be able to adapt to changing situations. A good example is being prepared to accommodate temporary structures, while being fully functional at the same time. Part of the yard that normally functions as an open space for different activities, can in emergency situation serve as a space for temporary classrooms or shelters. This space should be the size of a few classrooms, depending on the size of the school´s plot. 44

KEY NOTES: • Make a comprehensive analysis first • The functions must be adapted to the size and potentials of the plot • Public part strengthens the link between the school and the community and facilitates information sharing and skills development • Latrines and WASH need special attention: experts should be consulted • Grouping similar functions together saves resources and space as well as improves the functionality of the yard • Consider the views in the design • Flexibility improves resilience and creates diversity

DISASTER 3.7â&#x20AC;&#x201A;

TEMPORARY

TIME SCALE

TRANSITIONAL PERMANENT Temporary

Transitional

Permanent

Temporary schools are put up soon after the disaster. They are usually made to last a certain amount of time.

Transitional school take a bit longer to put up than the temporary ones. Transitional school are usually structures that can be upgraded to permanent structures. There is usually a certain time line for a transitional school after which it should be upgraded or replaced. The transitional phase can last from months to years.

In permanent schools a long-term plan should be made for the schoolyard. The realisation of the improvements can be made step by step, during a long period of time. A long-term plan helps to coordinate and schedule the changes. The plan should be general and flexible enough to adapt to changing situations and needs.

Transitional schoolyards can be based on light structures and movable elements. During the transitional phase when the school buildings are being reinforced or otherwise made more permanent, the schoolyard should be improved too. Safety is the first thing to be addressed with these improvements. Fencing the site or improving the on-site water management system can make a huge difference especially if the rainy season is on or approaching.

The permanent schoolyards should focus on risk mitigation and resilience.

A temporary school might not have any kind of outdoor space of its own, or it might be mobile and change location daily. On the other hand, many temporary schools end up being practically permanent. It is difficult to know beforehand, how long a temporary school is going to be functioning in the same location but some estimations can usually be done. If the school will be running for more than few months, some attention should be paid to the outdoor spaces as well. Children need recreational activities and even the smallest resources appointed for them might have great outcomes for the children. In temporary projects or sites, the efforts made to improve the outdoor spaces should require more human resources and less material resources. This way resources that are scarce are saved, and used more efficiently later. Resilience and disaster risk reduction within the schoolyard should be introduced already in this phase.

A container garden is a good way to bring in some greenery and activities into a transitional school yard. Container gardening does not require much resources (soil, water) and the containers can easily be moved around. The time-scale should be considered when selecting the plant species for the garden; in transitional gardens annual plants are better than perennials. Resilience and disaster risk reduction should be included in transitional school yard design. 45

TIME SCALE

It is important to keep in mind the time scale of the project. It determines what kind of solutions and investments can be done and when.

3.8

MICROCLIMATE The local climate as well as the site´s microclimate partly defines what kind of elements are needed in the schoolyard. HOT

TEMPERATE

COLD

RAINY

DRY

ANALYSIS

QUESTIONS:

The analysis starts with the local climate. Some information about the climate should already be gathered as part of the risk assessment (see Chapter 3.5). More detailed information about the local climate and weather can be gathered from media and from the local people. They can most likely also provide information about the microclimate of the site.

• What is the local climate like? Hot, temperate or cold? Are there any extreme weather conditions?

Site visits help to assess the site-specific qualities of the microclimate. A few visits to the site should be made in different weather conditions. The questions on the right help to point out the most important qualities that need to be assessed. Microclimate can be assessed through how the different spaces feel (are they hot, cold, temperate, dry, humid, wet, windy, oppressive and so on) and comparing these spaces with each other. Different seasons should be taken into account when assessing the local microclimate. Seasons naturally alter the microclimate, features that might not be recognizable during hot days can be essential during cold ones. An example of this are trees that drop their leaves for winter. These trees offer shade during the summer and allow sunlight to pass during winter.

• How are the annual seasons? Rainy - dry, hot cold, etc? • Is there any protective vegetation or structures from the sun, wind or rain? • Are there problems with noise, dust or bad smell? • Where does the wind mainly come from? • Is there any protection from the wind? Is it needed? • Is there formation of wind tunnels on the site? • Does the wind collect dust and loose soil from the ground? • What kind of materials are there on the site? Do they absorb heat? • Which parts get direct sunlight? How long? • Which parts are shaded? By what?

North

CASE 1

CASE 2

CASE 3

In general the climate in Haiti is tropical; warm and humid.

The yard can be a harsh place during dry season because of the heat and lack of protection from the sun. During rainy season on the other hand the yard partly floods and turns into mud.

The climate in the Philippines in general is hot and humid. This site has slightly cooler climate than the average due to its location in on the seashore.

The microclimate of this particular site is highly affected by the slope. The lower yard is protected from the general winds (blue arrows) that come from the west. This means that the warm and humid air stands still in the yard and no cooling breeze gets in the yard. The upper yard opens to the valley, where the wind generally comes from, and the upper yard can get really windy. The only shaded places are the porches of the building and the small yards are exposed to sun during the mid-day. The upper yard receives sun until late while the lower yard is in shade. The soil and the stones on the retaining wall absorb heat from the sun and warm up the site after sundown. There is practically no vegetation on the site, except for a few trees and some shrubs. The near-by street can cause noise problems. Recommendations: Planting small trees to the lower yard would offer some shade. New plantings would also improve the microclimate because of their cooling effect.

Due to the openness of the yard it is rather windy all the time. The main direction for the wind (blue arrows) is northeast. The slope blocks winds that come from west. There are no protective structures or vegetation. The lack of groundcover vegetation and sandy soil together with the wind might cause problems with dust and sandy winds. The street in the front of the yard might cause temporary problems with noise and dust. Recommendations: More vegetation should be planted to the open yard. Trees provide shade and shrubs protection from wind, dust and noise.

The microclimate in this site is mostly affected by the sea and the verdant vegetation. The site is on the highest part of the slope and receives sea-breezes from both sides of the hill. The greenery on the yard makes the microclimate slightly cooler and provides some shade as well. Groundcover vegetation also prevents the ground from absorbing heat from the sun. The concrete pavings on some parts of the yard can absorb heat and get really hot in the sun. The open spaces of the yard get sun through out the day but there are many small parts that are shaded at least for a few hours during the day. Recommendations: Some new trees could be planted to provide more shaded places and to brake down the strong winds.

MICROCLIMATE : ANALYSIS

North

DESIGN GOALS The aim is to create a pleasant microclimate and reduce the negative impacts and enhance the benefits of the microclimate.

DESIGN CONCEPTS In hot and sunny climates shade is very much needed while in cold climates it is more important to receive warm sunlight. Rain on the other hand depends on the local climate (larger area) while winds can vary according to either the local or the microclimate. Microclimate also affects vegetation as it defines what type of plants thrive in the yard. Microclimate can even cause temperature changes within a rather small area. An example of this is that cold air usually collects down in the valleys making them slightly colder than the upper parts of the slopes. Microclimate can be partly controlled by using vegetation or different structures to control wind, dust and water and to protect from the heat or cold. Thus existing vegetation on the site should be analysed, and where appropriate, saved. Mature trees are valuable features in the schoolyard as their large canopy provides shade and they have aesthetical value. Other vegetation has similar benefits in smaller scales. Bushes and other lower vegetation together form a good buffer from wind and dust. Vegetation does not absorb heat 48

as much as soil or most structures and does not store heat nor cause reradiating. Due to the transpiration of plants they can also provide some humidity to the microclimate. In order to manipulate the wind, the general direction for it has to be verified. In cold climates and sites with dusty winds protection can be created by planting protective vegetation of different shrubs and trees. Plants of different heights are an effective barrier as they force the wind to change direction or to brake. In hot and tropical climates the breeze of the wind is much appreciated and refreshing. Wind can be directed and even strengthened by funneling cooling breezes of wind by using new plantings or modifying existing vegetation. The direction of buildings, fences, low walls and other structures can be used the same way as vegetation. Heat absorbing materials like steel, concrete or bricks can reradiate the heat into the air close by, which warms up the site´s microclimate. This should be taken into account when choosing materials for the buildings or other structures in the yard. For example a walkway made out of concrete or stones can get really hot in sunshine and store this heat to reradiate it heat later. This not only warms up the air but also makes it uncomfortable to walk on the hot surface. This effect can be degraded by choosing light coloured materials instead of dark ones.

KEY NOTES: • Make a comprehensive analysis of the current microclimate • Assess what qualities need to reinforced and what mitigated • Keep in mind the importance of existing vegetation • Modify existing vegetation or plant new shrubs and trees to manage and control the microclimate • Choose convenient materials that do not over heat or freeze • Solutions that are fitted to the microclimate improve sustainability as they are expected to last longer • Managing the microclimate protects the buildings and thus reduces the costs of maintenance • Solutions that are adapted to the local climate are most likely also more resilient to extreme weathers

WIND CONTROL

HEAT

WIND REINFORCEMENT

WIND BREAKERS

WINDSTOPPER

Single trees provide shade and allow air flow underneath. This cools down the microclimate.

Funneling reinforcens the wind. These “tunnels” can be created with wall-like structures made with for example plantings, fences or buildings.

Diverse and dense plantings can protect from wind as they direct it upwards.

Wind can also be divided or “broken down” to avoid too strong winds but to let the air flow around the yard. To break the wind multiple small obstacles are grouped together so that air can still flow freely between them.

Vegetation does not absorb and store heat as much as barren land. Hot soil radiates heat and warms up the air above it.

To stop the wind a wall like plantings or other structures are placed perpendicular to the wind. If a wall or fence is preferred, it should be partly permeable so that it wont break in strong winds. 49

MICROCLIMATE : DESIGN & KEY NOTES

SHADING TREES

3.9

TOPOGRAPHY& SOIL FLAT

The topography of the site defines where the buildings and other facilities can be placed. It also defines where the runoff waters will flow and gather. Topography also plays an important role in what comes to erosion: steep slopes are more prone to erosion and landslides. Building sites situated on slopes require land works before building can be constructed. These modifications to the land need to be carefully planned beforehand to avoid risks and damages during the construction and in the future. The soil type has a major impact on can be done on the site in what comes to landworks, excavations and fills. If the soil is loose or soft (sand or clay, for example) it is easy to dig and mold but hard to stabilize. Hard soil is more difficult to edit but easier to stabilize. Sites where bedrock is close to the surface, careful planning and detailing is needed to fit the building to site with minimal cuttings to the bedrock as it is expensive and challenging.

AVERAGE

STEEP SLOPE

ANALYSIS A good basis for the topographical analysis is a map that shows the land contours, elevations in some other form. If a map is not available it can be sketched on the site although a sketched map is always inaccurate and only advisory. The angle of the slopes should also be evaluated on the site. On a flat site, any incline on the surface should be assessed and recorded. One way to see changes in a relatively flat surface is to observe it during rain; water flows or puddles to the lowest parts.

QUESTIONS:

The soil type is an important quality to know. It can either be examined on the site or verified from a soil map, if it is available. Remember that the soil type can vary even within a small area. The type of vegetation growing on the site can also provide some information as different species prefer different types of soil.

• Is the bedrock close to the surface? Is it visible?

• Is the site flat or on a slope? Is the slope gradual or steep? Estimate the inclination/angle of the slope. • What is the soil type(s) on the site? • How stabile is the soil?

CASE 1 +102.0 RETAINING WALL

ROAD

+96.0

+93.0

This site is on a steep slope where terracing has been necessary to be able to place the buildings. A high, roughly three meters tall wall divides the site into two parts. The site is also prone to erosion and landslides. The soil is mostly a mixture of sand and small rocks.

CASE 2 The site is a flat area that is bordered by a slope on its western side. The soil is silty. Recommendations: Some ground modifications could be done to improve site water management and to bring some variety to the topography of the site.

CASE 3

+13.0 1:4

+17.5

+18.5

1:2,5

+21.0

The site is on a steep slope that has been terraced for the buildings. The classroom buildings are placed on four different levels. Some of the terraces have been built with low retaining walls. The soil type is mostly silt, mixed with sand and gravel. Recommendations: From the topographical perspective, the site is safe and diverse. Some parts are prone to erosion. 51

TOPOGRAPHY & SOIL : ANALYSIS

Recommendations: Strong and durable species of different shrubs and grasses should be planted for erosion protection. Vegetation also improves water infiltration into the ground which reduces runoff.

ROAD +90.0

DESIGN GOALS The aim is to ensure that the siteÂ´s topography does not cause risks or challenges. Instead the topography should support the different functions of the school. The topography should ensure accessibility into and within the site whenever reasonably possible.

DESIGN SOLUTIONS The topography and the soil type define what can be done and how. Flat site On a relatively flat site it is easy to place the buildings and other facilities, and to ensure that they are accessible for all users. Keeping the site dry can cause problems as the surface waters most likely forms puddles and can even cause flooding. To be able to direct the water away from the flat surface some small land works can be necessary. This usually means digging ditches and building small dams or small mounds to protect the buildings from the water. Sloped site Low-pitched hillsides are more challenging with respect to siting the buildings and accessibility, but are easier to drain. 52

Buildings might require some levelling and terracing. To avoid erosion caused by runoff water, ditches and other erosion protection may be necessary. Steep hillsides are obviously the most challenging sites to build on, as buildings are difficult to place safely, pathways are difficult to make accessible and site drainage and soil stabilization as well as erosion control all bring challenges. On these sites, the same measures that were recommended for gradual slopes should be applied. In addition, all land works should be carefully planned and executed to ensure a safe and durable result. Sites on low lands that are prone to flooding or on sites where erosion is a serious problem, moving the school to another location can be the best option. To minimize the risks, careful planning is needed. Preserving any green areas within the school grounds helps to control runoff and erosion as well as sedimentation on the lower parts. The lowest part of the site should be left undisturbed to slow down the surface water flows and collect sediments before flowing off the site. The need to regrade the land should be minimized and all options carefully evaluated before making decisions. Avoiding massive land works also saves money and other resources and preserves local biodiversity. Any disturbance to the

existing topography has to be carefully planned to avoid erosion and landslides in the future. Landfills need to be stabilized and packed tightly, especially if they are to be built on or if they are placed on a slope. All cuttings need to be either really low sloped, terraced or supported by a retaining wall. The angle of repose of different soil types determines how steep slopes can be safely made.

nd Sa

y) t Ear

45 °

vel Gra °

ANGLE OF REPOSE (APPROXIMATE) The angle of repose of a granular material is the steepest angle of descent or dip relative to the horizontal plane to which a material can be piled without slumping. At this angle, the material on the slope face is on the verge of sliding.

25°

-45

0 h3

al, tur (na

15°

w/s

-30

25 nd)

ated) excav , t e w Clay (

TOPOGRAPHY & SOIL : DESIGN & KEY NOTES

(w et )

( nd

KEY NOTES: • Analyse the topography and ,if possible, take measurements and photos • Get some kind of map that shows contours or elevations of the site in any form • Focus on drainage on flat sites • Focus on accessibility, leveling and erosion control on gradual slopes • Focus on accessibility, leveling and erosion control and land stabilization on steep slopes • Avoid steep slopes as well as sites prone to floods or erosion • Remember that any changes to the topography impacts directly on land stability and causes cumulative impacts on hydrology and vegetation as well

10% INCLINE

GRAVEL BACKFILL

WALL FOUNDATION

UNDERDRAIN

TERRACED SLOPE There are many different ways to do a terrace on a slope. The details always depend on the angle of the slope, type of soil and available materials and funds. Some general rules can be applied to most of the cases. • The setback angle should be at least 10% • The foundation of the retaining wall is essential and should be designed and constructed with precision • Drainage behind the wall is important (backfill and underdrain)

BUNDLES OF BRACHES AND STICKS This is a light and inexpensive way to protect terraces from erosion. The bundles are easy and inexpensive to make and they do not require heavy foundations. The downside is that they are very light structures and do not offer much protection from landslides. Branches and sticks are tied together to form a bundle. Then the bundles are placed on the slope and tied to the ground with wooden poles. These bundles start to rot and other vegetation starts to grow in them at some point.

Note that all the presented pictures are conceptual illustrations. NOT FOR CONSTRUCTION. 54

WOOD LOGS

STONE GABIONS

This type of retaining wall for a terrace is relatively strong and durable. Logs are placed horizontally on the edge and fastened to the ground with vertical logs that are rammed into the ground. The depth of the log in the ground determines how strong the wall is so it should be rammed deep enough.

These gabions (or baskets) are relatively easy and inexpensive to make. The gabion is made out of wire mesh (reinforcement mesh) and then filled with local stones. Other filling material like recycled rubble can also be used of it is safe for the environment and people.

OPEN & FLAT SPACE

DEFINED SPACE

WELL DEFINED SPACE

DIVERSE LANDFORMS

DEFINED SPACE

LOW-HIGH

WIND CONTROL

CREATING SPACE

Enhances the openness. Good for different sports and events. A dull space if too big or if the only option.

Slopes control access and views. Water brings a new element. Landforms can be used for opening or closing views.

Low landforms control access and bring diversity with landforms. Works for walkways and paths for example.

Low-lying parts can be inaccessible during rainy seasons or through out the year. Pathway on higher ground offers views to the water.

Slopes define s pace and control access and views. Can be used for walkways and path for example.

Landforms can be used to control winds. A small hill directs the wind upwards, creating a protected area on its other side.

TOPOGRAPHY & SOIL : DESIGN

DIFFERENT LANDFORMS - DIFFERENT SPACES

Create a diverse landscape to admire and to play in. Should be used only in rather small areas.

Landforms can also be used to create spaces. For example, a theatre can be placed in a concave landform.

3.10

WATER MANAGEMENT Water is the source of life but can also be a life threatening element. Site water management is not only essential for safety but has many other benefits too. In addition to physical safety and health, the benefits include improved resiliency and functionality of the site together with educational and aesthetical values.

ANALYSIS The analysis starts by collecting information about hydrological conditions of the site; rainy and dry seasons, average duration and intensity of rainfall and infiltration capacity of the soil. Detecting any nearby bodies of water (rivers, lakes, sea, ocean) as well as the relation of the site to its surroundings is significant; if lots of runoff flows into or through the site it increases the water amounts that need to be handled. Other observations include analysing the topography (highest and lowest points) and ground cover materials. Any existing equipment for water management (gutters, ditches, rainwater harvesting system and storage) and their current condition should be investigated too. The source(s) of potable water as well as any connections to communal water systems have to be identified and located for further design. When the water starts to move on the ground, instead of being infiltrated into the ground, it is called surface runoff. This happens when the ground material is not permeable (concrete, asphalt etc) or when the absorption capacity of the soil is full. When the water starts to form small streams it also starts eroding the soil. The more the water or stronger the flow - the stronger the eroding force. 56

TOO MUCH

If the water does not have anywhere to go, it forms puddles and then starts to flood. If runoff comes from polluted sites or has mixed with waste waters, it is polluted and should be handled as one. Waste waters or any polluted water whatsoever can cause a health risk. Runoff that is known to be “clean” – that has not been polluted by anything – can be recycled or infiltrated. Stormwater recycling is a practice of sustainable water management.

AVERAGE

SCARCE

QUESTIONS: • Does the site flood? Are there droughts? • Does the water have somewhere to go? Is there any drainage? If so, does it work? • Is there rainwater harvesting system on the site? If not, is it needed? • Is there risk of landslides due to heavy rains? • Is there access to potable water? Public water supply? A well? • Does the water form puddles? • Are there any large bodies of surface waters near by (river, lake, sea, ocean)?

RAINGARDEN

SMALL RIVER

GARDENS

RAINGARDEN RAINGARDENS

SMALL STREAM

RAINGARDEN North

North

Pistures show proposed rainwater management systems for the sites.

CASE 1

CASE 2

CASE 3

The new buildings have gutters to collect rainwater from the roofs. Unfortunately the water is directed straight to the ground, right next to the floor slab. This means that the water pouring down from the gutters slowly erodes the ground. The water flows along the concrete slab, slowly causing structural decay of the building foundation as well. Finally water flows into a ditch nextto the road on the lower western side of the plot.

Currently the flat site has no canals, drainage or other structures to control or manage water. During rain showers, the water runs directly to the ground from the roofs as there are no gutters. The water then gathers in front of the buildings and forms puddles. Some of the water flows across the yard as it has a minimal incline towards the other (picture left) side.

Like any other place in the Philippines, Tinaogan school also faces both heavy rains and drought.

The soil infiltrates some of the water but during heavy rains runoff waters can cause severe erosion on the site. There are no ditches collecting the water on top of the retaining wall which can cause severe problems if the water erodes the ground. Recommendations: Rainwater should be either harvested and stored for later use, or directed further from the buildings and then infiltrated into the ground. The runoff and rainwater coming from the roofs should be collected into drains and directed into the raingardens. The overflow should be safely directed into existing ditches.

The flowing water causes erosion on the site as large parts of the yard are covered with loose soil that flushes away with water. More severe the erosion problem is on the slope behind the schoolyard. Some of the water gets absorbed into the ground. During and after long or hard rains the schoolyard is wet, muddy and temporarily unusable. Rain water is harvested from some parts of the roofs into a water tank (back-right corner). There are no other sources of water available except rainwater. Recommendations: Ditches should be installed to collect runoff. Rainwater should be harvested from the roofs and stored or infiltrated into the ground (raingardens). Overall, water recycling should be improved.

Heavy rains can cause some erosion but in general the site is well protected from erosion. Most of the walkways are paved and there are only few paths that are prone to erosion. The unpaved surfaces are mostly vegetated with grass. Grass does offer erosion protection, but during heavy rains the runoff waters can damage the ground and cause erosion even on the vegetated parts. There are no ditches to collect the surface waters. All the runoff water flows down the slope towards the river. Some of the buildings have some kind of ditches to prevent the water from coming indoors. It can be assumed that during heavy rains some runoff waters flows down towards the buildings wall possibly causing damage to them. Rainwater is collected from some of the roofs through gutters but not all the buildings have them. Recommendations: Rainwaters should be harvested and used for watering the plants. Ditches should be made to collect the runoff from the hard surfaces. Raingardens could be made in the lower parts to collect and infiltrate runoff waters. 57

WATER MANAGEMENT : ANALYSIS

North

DESIGN GOALS The final outcome should be a schoolyard where water is managed in a sustainable and safe way and where it´s aesthetical and educational benefits are also valued.

DESIGN SOLUTIONS The site´s natural hydrology should not be changed dramatically. This means that the lowest parts should be allowed to collect water and the higher grounds reserved for building. Understanding and respecting the natural water cycle improves sustainability and safety of the site. There are two options for handling stormwaters: directing them away or managing them on site. The solutions presented here are focused on the latter. If all stormwater is to be directed away from the site, two issues have to be considered: how to direct it away and to where can it be directed without causing additional or cumulative problems. To avoid erosion and flooding, rainwater and any other runoff on the site needs to be managed carefully. Designing and installing a proper drainage system into the yard is crucial. In most cases this can be done with simple ditches but some sites may require additional underdrains. Careful on-site studies should be made to locate the best 58

places for the ditches. Note that the lowest point where all the water ends up is the most crucial. The best way to get rid of the excess runoff water is to divide it into several locations where it can be safely and efficiently infiltrated. The soil type affects on the infiltration capacity of the ground; sandy soils for example have good infiltration rates48 whereas clay has a really low one. Water infiltrates more easily into vegetated ground as the plants protect the soil from pounding rainfall and their roots loosen the soil. Vegetation also reduces the erosive power of the runoff. In urban areas, connecting to the communal stormwater or wastewater system can be an option, although managing the stormwaters on the site is always cheaper and more sustainable in the long run. This is due to avoided service payments, reduced demand on potable water (recycling) and recharge of local ground water resources (infiltration) among other benefits.

wetland vegetation and observe the changing of the seasons. Environmental education concerning especially water is vital in protecting and restoring natural water resources. 49 Rainwater harvesting and water recycling save resources and provide great learning opportunities about sustainability. Harvested rainwater can be used for hand washing, irrigation or it can be used in the kitchen. If harvested rainwater is used for drinking purposes it has to be treated. Note that good cooperation with the WASH Cluster and its members is essential in planning functional and efficient onsite water management systems. The WASH Cluster coordinates issues and projects connected to water, sanitation and hygiene.

The educational and aesthetical values can be taken into account in a raingarden for example. A raingarden can be a good tool to reduce and slow down runoff and to infiltrate water but at the same time it is a possibility to learn about 48 The infiltration rate is the velocity or speed at which water enters into the soil. It is usually measured by the depth (in mm) of the water layer that can enter the soil in one hour. An infiltration rate of 15 mm/hour means that a water layer of 15 mm on the soil surface, will take one hour to infiltrate. The rate for sand is 30 and clay 1-5.

49 Lolly Tai et al. p.130

WATER MANAGEMENT : DESIGN & KEY NOTES

Picture 13. Children fetching water from a well in Juba, South Sudan (left). Photo: UNICEF Picture 14. Kids playing with water in the Philippines (right)

KEY NOTES: • Water naturally collects always at the lowest areas • The natural water cycle should be understood and respected • Proper drainage and runoff control are essential in most sites to avoid on-site erosion and flooding • Water management can also have aesthetical and/or educational value • Sustainability and resilience of the site can be improved by water recycling and rain water harvesting

Picture 15. Health education for children in Janlay School, Guatemala. Photo: Tristan Moss/Blue Planet Network

EVAPORATION HARVESTED RAINWATER STORMWATER RUNOFF KITCHEN

HAND-WASHING POINT

(RAIN)GARDEN

SOIL 40% + SAND 60%

OVERFLOW INFILTRATION

WATER RECYCLING Recycling water on the site saves resources and improves the sustainability and self-resilience of the site. Especially in dry environments water recycling is essential as the scarce resources must be handled in a sustainable way to ensure continuity and safety. Infiltrating the water recharges the groundwater resources. Infiltration within the site can impact directly on the amount and quality of the groundwater. An efficient way to infiltrate water is to make raingardens within the yard.

GRAVEL (OR SAND)

WELL / BORE HOLE / COMMUNAL WATER

GROUND SOIL

RAINGARDEN Harvested rain water can be used for drinking (if purified), for cooking, hand-washing and for flushing the toilets. The greywaters (dirtwater from the kitchen or hand-washing) can be infiltrated within a raingarden or used for watering the garden. If greywater is used for watering edible plants, it must be ensured not to touch leaves or other edible parts of the plants; a drip watering system is ideal for this.

The main purpose of a raingarden is to collect runoff water and infiltrate it into the ground. A raingarden should be placed on the lower parts of the yard. The absorbing capacity of the soil should be verified. Especially if the capacity is poor, an option for overflow should be made. The structure of a raingarden is simple. It is slightly lower than the ground surface. There is a layer of gravel on the bottom and mixture of soil and sand on top. Vegetation for the raingarden needs to consist of durable species that tolerate standing water and dry conditions seasonally.

How to make a raingarden: 1. Select a place. A suitable place is on low ground and on absorbing soil 2. Dig a whole in the ground 3. Put a layer of gravel on the bottom 4. Fill in sand-soil-mixture, leave the top lower than the surrounding surface 5. Make sure that there is a possibility for overflow 6. Plant the vegetation A raingarden does not pose any risk of storing stagnant water if it is placed into a convenient location and designed and managed properly. The overflow of excess water is important to avoid flooding and stagnant waters.

Gravel Drain pipe

EROSION CONTROL

UNDERDRAIN

DRAINS

Vegetation serves as a natural erosion protection.

Underdrains can help keep the sides of the buildings or the main walkways dry. The benefits of underdrains should be carefully assessed before installing them to be sure they are really needed.

During rain, the surface water needs to be managed to prevent erosion and floods. Surface water management also helps to keep the schoolyard from turning into a field of mud.

The underdrains can get blocked by roots, if they are not installed deep enough.

Gutters should direct the water away from the main areas. The water can be used for watering the plantings or it can be infiltrated into the soil.

On a vegetated site, the raindrops hit the leaves of trees, shrubs and grass from one to several times, before hitting the ground. This weakens the eroding impact of the raindroplets on the soil, as well as slows down the flowing speed of the runoff. Vegetation also improves the infiltration into the ground thus reducing the amount of the runoff waters as well.

The measurements in the detail above are advisory, accurate measurements are always site specific and need to be calculated on site. Installing a underdrain is simple: Dig a trench and put some gravel on the bottom of it. Then lay the pipe on the bottom and fill in gravel, almost to the ground level (app. 150mm). Fill the rest with groundsoil. The pipe should be inclined at least 1% to enable the water flow. Consider where the underdrain takes the waters. The water outlet pint should not cause problems of eroding or floods for example.

Drains can be made out of different materials. The pictures above present two options; a concrete drain element or a drain made out or rocks and stones. Also rubble can be used for making ditches, especially for their subsurface layers. If ditches are made just by excavating trenches, their maintenance is crucial. Blocked trenches can cause flooding and health problems due to standing water.

WATER : DESIGN

Groundsoil

3.11

VEGETATION Vegetation is one of the main features in the schoolyard. It is a diverse material that can be used for multiple purposes but it can also cause risks. Vegetation is tightly linked with microclimate, water and topography.

ANALYSIS The location and condition of existing vegetation determines whether it can be saved or not. Weak or sick plants should be removed. If new buildings or other construction work comes really close to existing trees, it is better to remove them, rather than to wait for them to die because of the damage. Big trees close to the buildings can cause a safety risk and should be removed too. Before removing any vegetation, consider that it provides protection from wind, sun and erosion among other benefits. Thus existing vegetation should be preserved where ever possible. Remember that any changes in topography and hydrology of the site always have an impact on the vegetation. Changes in local hydrology affects the existing vegetation directly: there is no use preserving existing plants if they do not get enough (or if they get too much) water in the future. Cutting down existing trees and other stabilizing vegetation may increase the risk of landslides. The aesthetical and functional values of the greenery should be assessed too. This is a more complex issue but here are some basic questions that help with the assessment: • Does the vegetation look healthy and beautiful? Or does it look like messy or is it in bad condition? • Which parts are the most beautiful ones? Ugliest? Why? • Are there any unwanted sights that the vegetation 62

DENSE

• • •

blocks currently or should block in the future? What kind of plants do the locals prefer? Are there some plants that are generally disliked? How are the green spaces used currently? Do people thrive in vegetated areas or are they experienced as dangerous or otherwise uncomfortable? How would the people like to use the green spaces of the schoolyard? OR if there is none, would they like to have one?

It is very recommendable to make the vegetation-analysis together with the children. This way children can learn about different plant species, the importance of vegetation and biodiversity as well a about environmental management.

MEDIUM

SCARCE

QUESTIONS: • Which plants should be saved? Removed? Why? • What kind of vegetation grows on the site? If none, why? (Lack of water, bad soil etc.) • What are the main species found on the site? • Can the existing vegetation be preserved? Is it safe to do so? • Which plants have a positive affect on the visual character of the site? Negative? • If existing vegetation has to be removed, does it increase the risk of erosion, landslides, floods or other natural hazards? • Can new vegetation be planted on the site? Is there space? Suitable soil? • Which parts of the yard are sunny? Partly sunny? Shaded? (Influences on the selection of suitable species)

The best time to plant a tree is 20 years ago, the next best time is today.

GARDEN LOW SHRUBS AND GRASSES

GRASS & TREES GARDEN

RAINGARDEN

CASE 1

CASE 2

Vegetation on the site is scarce; there are only few trees. It can be assumed that trees and other plants used to grow on this site because the surrounding areas are verdant.

Here the vegetation is scarce. Some grass is growing on the yard but it is worn out. The slope behind the school grounds is more vegetated although signs of erosion and landslides are visible.

Recommendations: More vegetation should be planted on these school grounds. Especially durable groundcover plants would be good for erosion protection. Small trees could be planted, but to prevent risks, they should not be too close to either the buildings or the retaining wall. Different shrubs would bring greenery and beauty to the small schoolyards. A small garden could be made on the upper terrace with planting boxes. A nice detail could be grasses and other â&#x20AC;&#x153;riversideâ&#x20AC;? plants along the meandering ditch on the upper yard. These small habitats add diversity and bring visually interesting elements in the outdoor spaces.

There is lots of space to plant new trees and other vegetation. The climate and resources are also favourable for new plantings as there is enough sunlight, water and relatively fertile soil. Recommendations: This yard would need a lot of new plantings. Trees should be planted in groups to block winds and create shaded areas. A school garden would bring functional greenery to the site and could show an example for the community. The garden should be close to the hand washing point and/or the rainwater storage to make the watering easier. Raingardens would fit this site very well. Greenery can also make the yard more beautiful and interesting.

VEGETATION : ANALYSIS

A chinese proverb

FRUIT TREES POTENTIAL BOTANICAL GARDEN

HARVESTED RAINWATER

GARDEN RAINGARDEN

CASE 3 This site is verdant; many trees and shrubs grow on the site, together with planted species in pots and planting beds. The open spaces of the yard that are not paved are covered with grass. The school also has a small field for growing some vegetables. Vegetation seems to be taken care of by the school staff and children. Recommendations: This schoolyard is already a green and diverse place. The uphill garden could be improved and developed further. A raingarden could be made in the lower yard. The knowledge and skills that the school already has could be shared to the community through workshops and lessons. 64

The green spaces could be utilized more efficiently for educational purposes. The different species could be studied and labelled to create a small botanical garden. Fruit trees and other edible plants could be planted on the upper slopes of the site, next to the school garden. Harvested rainwater from the new school building could be utilized for watering the garden. A small shop for seeds and seedlings could bring in some extra income that could be used to maintain and develop the outdoor spaces.

POTENTIAL OUTDOOR CLASSROOM

DESIGN GOALS A diverse, durable and beautiful vegetation that offers functional and safe settings for outdoor learning and recreation and improves the resilience and microclimate of the school grounds.

Another aspect on selecting the species is safety. Only safe and edible plants should be selected. Poisonous, spiky or otherwise risky plants should be avoided and removed if such plants already exist on the site.

Trees and shrubs can protect the site from erosion, noise and dust. They can also be used as protective barrier against wind, or the opposite, to reinforce wind. Vegetation also provides shade. See the Microclimate-chapter for some basic solutions on how to use vegetation.

When deciding plants for the yard and the garden local experts should be consulted. Local gardeners or farmers know best what kind of species should be preferred and where they should be bought or relocated from. These experts also know how to plant the selected species. Seeds for the garden should always be local. If an expert cannot be consulted a good option is to interview locals. They usually have some kind of experience of growing edible plants and they know which species are safe.

Vegetation can be used to create spaces: it can divide, shelter or enclose spaces. Some examples of different plantings and spaces can be found on the next page and in the next chapter.

New plantings need care and attention. In some cases new plantings need watering for the first few weeks or months, depending in the local climate. To save resources the best way to water the plants is to use harvested or recycled water.

Selecting the right species is extremely important; strong and native species that are well adapted to the local conditions should always be preferred. Using several different species is better than a narrow selection. This is because in temporary extreme conditions some species might die but most likely not all if there is variety. Multiple species also improve the biodiversity more efficiently.

The green areas of the schoolyard can also be developed as mini-sized nature reserves or botanical gardens. Endangered and rare local species can be nursed in these spaces and maybe even sold or shared with the community for wider conservation and better knowledge of local species.

DESIGN SOLUTIONS

VEGETATION : DESIGN & KEY NOTES

Picture 16. This green and wet corner of a schoolyard can be seen either as an unwanted element - or - as an opportunity for an ecological wetland that also offers great learning possibilities. Photo: FCA (2014)

KEY NOTES: • Vegetation is a good way to protect the site from erosion, dust, noise and wind • Vegetation offers shade and affects the microclimate • Selecting the right species is very important • Plants need water and care • Green spaces can be used for educational purposes • School gardens and other green spaces can act as nature reserves

BIG TREE Even a tree can create a place. It provides shade. Trees also beautify the scene and fruit trees provide healthy food. Single trees provide shade but let the air flow under the canopy which is good especially in hot climates.

PROTECTIVE PLANTINGS

â&#x20AC;&#x153;GREEN POCKETâ&#x20AC;?

SENSORY GARDEN

A group of different heights and types of plants funcions as a protective buffer especially from wind and dust. It also beautifies the area and improves biodiversity by creating important habitats for flora and fauna.

A small space, a green pocket is a calm space to relax during the day. It can be created with almost any kind of vegetation that is planted in a circle-form with a small gap for entrance. Narrow and high bushes that are not spiky or poisonous should be preferred. These pockets also provide shelter from wind.

A variety of blooming plants of different colours and smells and of different heights creates a space that stimulates all senses. This garden can act as a mini-size botanical garden too. Local plants can be gathered here for educational purposes like local flora. Seeds can be collected and new seedlings grown for new planting in the yard or for selling.

VEGETATION : DESIGN

TRUNK FLARE

MULCH

ROOT BALL

HOW TO PLANT A TREE 1. Select the location for the tree. Remember that the tree grows taller and wider and that itÂ´s roots spread to a larger area as well. 2. Dig a hole. The size of the hole should be at least three times the size of the root ball. The depth of the hole is determined by the height of the root ball, measured from the bottom to the trunk flare.

SOIL

3. Place the tree into the hole in an upright position. 4. Fill the hole with the excavated soil. Gently pack the soil and water it. 5. Put mulch as the topmost layer but leave a mulch-free circle around the trunk.

Picture 17. â&#x20AC;&#x201A;School Garden. Photo: School Garden Weekly.

SCHOOL GARDEN 50

Site selection

Watering

The main idea behind the school garden is to provide an experience that promotes environmental, social and physical well being for the people involved, and fosters a better understanding of nature and its dynamics. School garden is not only a platform for learning, but it can also improve the nutrition of the children. The garden should never be considered as source of income or food but as an activity that additionally benefits nutritional and educational needs.

Placing the garden needs careful planning. It should be placed so that it gets enough, but not too much sunlight and water. Having the garden close to the classrooms and other active parts of the yard helps to keep the garden well maintained as it is close by and easily observed. The garden should not be exposed to pollutants like highways or industry.

The garden needs water, so proximity of a water resource is essential. Recycled water from hand washing point or from the kitchen is a great way to save water as well as teach pratical recycling. If water is recycled and used for edible plants, good hygiene and safe watering techniques are essential to avoid any health risks.

The soil is the foundation of the garden. It should be nutritious enough for he plants. Soil that is contaminated with lead or other heavy metals should not be used for cultivating edible plants. If the soil is not good, container gardening is an option.

Plants

A school garden can be anything from few containers to a small farm with plants and domestic animals. The key is that the garden is the right size, it should be easily managed by the children and their teachers. The methods used in the garden should be kept simple.

50â&#x20AC;&#x201A;Adapted from Natural Learning Initiative (NLI)

The garden should be started with a limited selection of plants that are durable and easy to grow. With time and skills learned the number of species can be increased. Local species should always be prioritized. Plants, seedlings or seeds can usually be bought from local markets or farms.

max.1200mm

ACCESSIBLE PLANTING BOX

VEGETATION : SCHOOL GARDEN

600mm

Picture 18. â&#x20AC;&#x201A;A school garden of Taugtog II Elementary School in the Philippines Photo: TreesForTheFuture (2013)

Other resources

Maintenance and cooperation

Some basic tools are needed for the school garden. Buckets, shovels and watering cans are basic gardening tools needed in every garden. Some kind of baskets or wheelbarrows are also good tools for moving soil and tools as well as collecting weeds. Some kind of storage is also needed for all the tools.

To keep the garden maintained needs lots of work. The parents and other community members should be involved in the garden to ensure continuity in maintenance. Participating the community also helps to share skills and knowledge and to create a sense of ownership over the garden.

Always consult a local expert (garneder, farmer etc) on how to start a garden at your school. Good and detailed information on school gardens can also be found on the internet. See the useful resources list for reference.

According to UNICEF 51 close cooperation with the community also helps to avoid the potential of exploiting childen for school income. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has published a good and comprehensive manual for Setting up and running a school garden. The manual can be found and downloaded from FAO website, see the link in the end of this thesis.

51â&#x20AC;&#x201A;UNICEF 2, p.10

3.12

OUTDOOR SPACES This chapter focuses on creating different spaces within the schoolyard. A set of different spaces brings variety and diversity into the school grounds, and makes it more interesting place to be in and to explore.

ANALYSIS To clarify the terms used in this chapter; the term place is used for describing the entity - the physical and the psychological environment. The term space describes the spatial characteristics; the dimensions and materials for example. In a nutshell: a place is a combination of space and feelings.

Genius loci

QUESTIONS:

Space

In landscape architecture the term Genius loci is widely used to describe the ´spirit of place´. It is not religious or spiritual term at all but just a term used for describing the identity and characteristics of the place. In some cultures this identity can be described with other terms so it is recommendable to do a small background research of this theme in the local cultural context.

What kind of outdoor spaces can be found within the school grounds depends on many things: topography, vegetation and the equipment or furniture. The local microclimate affects on how comfortable or uncomfortable an outdoor space is.

The idea of identifying the genius loci is that the design must always adapt to its place and respect its characteristics. The genius loci is formed by both the physical environment and the feelings that the place evokes. The genius loci should be consulted together with the current and future users.

• Is the space nice and comfortable? Unpleasant? Dangerous?

The school grounds can consist of multiple spaces or it can be just a single space like in the Case 2 for example. Some of the most usual spaces within the school grounds are sports field, an event ground, some kind of playground and the spaces where children just hang out.

• What kind of spaces are there within the school grounds? • What is the sites genius loci like? What defines the place and gives it its identity?

• Are some places more popular than others? Why? • Are there parts within the yard that are never used? Why? • What kind of places do local girls and boys want? Ask them. • What kind of places do the teachers need? Ask them.

OPEN VIEW

CASE 1

building.

The small plot and the steep slope have led to an outcome of long and narrow outdoor spaces shaped by the buildings and the high retaining wall.

The genius loci of this place as a whole is dominated by the narrow spaces and the strong differences of the two yards. The hard materials create a rough atmosphere that is not inviting to thrive or play.

The lower terrace (left) is a narrow outdoor space that feels almost like a big room without a roof. The space is framed by the classroom building on the western, the latrine on the northern and the high terrace wall on the eastern side. The southern and the narrowest side is open. All the surface materials of this space are hard: gravel, stones and concrete. The single tree in the middle of the space feels lonely and is too high to create any kind of roof for this space. The upper yard (right) is also a narrow and long space in front of the building, right on the edge of the retaining wall. On the contrary to the lower yard, this space is like a big balcony that has great views across the valley. This space is open to two directions, north and west. The classroom building frames the space on the east. The south-east corner of the plot is in temporary use and will be used for a additional classroom

OUTDOOR SPACES : ANALYSIS

“ROOF”

Recommendations: The lower yard has great potential to be developed as an outdoor classroom or a space for relaxing as it is well protected and could easily be shaded. Some kind of canvas shelters for example can provide shade and create a “roof” for this outdoor space. The space needs softer materials; plants and wood for example. The upper yard could be developed as a more active space. The beautiful views that open from the terrace should be valued and highlighted with the design. A narrow planting bed for gardening can be installed on the edge to bring in some greenery and to prevent children from going close to the edge. 71

GARDEN OPEN SPACE OPEN SPACE

WALKWAYS GREEN SPACE

GARDEN

CASE 2

CASE 3

There is practically only one, large and open outdoor space on this site. All the buildings are situated on the fringes of the plot. The spatial openness and the ratio of the dimensions makes the yard feel huge and empty.

Tinaogan school has three different yards.

Recommendations: The site has huge potential to be developed into a spatially diverse place.

The second yard is the central open space (in the photo above). The flat and paved open space is framed by permanent (or temporary) buildings. There are also some green spaces around the small event ground that could be developed as tiny botanical gardens for example. This space is the central part of the school and could form the “heart” of the school grounds.

To do this the yard could be divided into four different zones. The first zone, nearest to the street, can be a green space with trees, shrubs and raingardens. A small forest would create a semi-closed green space into the yard. The second zone would be the open space for events and sports. The third zone on the back of the yard would be another green space; a school garden. The fourth zone would be the paved walkways and porches that go along the yards edges. All the children gather to these spaces before and after the classes so for short moments along the day walkways can be really busy sites.

The lowest yard is on the steepest part of the slope (see photo on page 60). It is a more green and semi-closed space.

The third yard is right next to the previous one. It is formed by the meadow and the garden together (see photo on page 60). It is the “wildest” and most natural part of the site and really valuable because of these features. This yard does not have very clear edges. It is framed by the neighbouring buildings on the western and one of the classroom buildings on the northern side. Uphill, on the southern part is the new classroom building. A slope down starts from the eastern part of the site.

Recommendations: Each of the three yards already have different characters and uses. These qualities should be identified, valued and reinforced. The lower yard could be developed as the small and active green space. The lower yard could be made even more intimate by dividing it into smaller spaces. The central one could be the open and active space while the upper yard would be the green space for gardening and recreation.

Picture 19. (left) Primary school in Gando, Burkina Faso, by Keré Architecture. This school is of high architectural quality but minimal attention has been given to the outdoor spaces. Photo: Schulbausteine

DESIGN GOALS The goal is to create a schoolyard that has a variety of inspiring and beautiful places. These places should be functional and serve the needs of both the recreational and the educational purposes.

DESIGN SOLUTIONS Creating different places does not have to be difficult or expensive. There are lots of simple ways to give an identity for a place. Here are just some features that should be considered while planning the outdoor spaces. Keep in mind that one place can consist of multiple features. The simple divisions presented next will give a good basis for spatial design of the school grounds. Open, Semi-open and Closed space The nature of different spaces can vary. The pictures shown on the next page illustrate the differences between closed and open spaces. A closed space should feel safe and private but not distressing or agonizing. A closed space can also encourage to calm down and to focus on something.

A closed space needs some kind of frames. These frames can be created with for example buildings, fences or vegetation. An open space on the other hand is based on a large free space where there are no visible boundaries close by. Open spaces usually call for action and invite people to gather. A sports field is a good example of an open space. Green – Built Sometimes the division is made also between natural and built environments but in the scale of a schoolyard natural environment seems to be inaccurate. Green spaces bring nature with all its colours, smells and diversity closer to the children. Green spaces can also provide places for creative play as they are more flexible than built spaces. Built spaces like walkways or playgrounds with different structures are places for more controlled or planned action. They have intentionally been made for some specific purpose. Also outdoor classroom (shelter-like), a stage or any kind of theatre can be considered as built spaces.

Within reach – unreachable An space that is within ones reach varies according to age, height and on the ability to climb or crawl for example. A space that is within reach for a 13-year-old may not be that for a 5-year-old. Playing with the limits of reach is a good way to create inviting and interesting spaces for different age groups. This also improves the safety as the smallest children do not have to play within the same places together with the older children. Some parts of the schoolyard can be unreachable for all the users. A reserve for wild vegetation or a pond are examples of spaces that can only be enjoyed by watching them from a far. It must be remembered that many times unreachable spaces appear to be the most inviting ones for the children. This is why dangerous places should be clearly marked and really made inaccessible. In addition some places can intentionally be made seemingly unreachable but at the same time they can offer a safe challenge for children who want test their abilities and physical boundaries. Active – Passive A playground or a sports field are active spaces whereas a bench under a tree can be a passive space. The activity of a space can be controlled with the size and the equipment that is provided. A total control of the usage of a particular space 73

OUTDOOR SPACES : DESIGN

Picture 20. (right) Collège Mixte Le Bon Berger in Haiti is a new school finished in 2012. Even a small and narrow yard could have offered space for some greenery or play instead of being just an empty sand ground. Photo: Open Architecture Network

is naturally out of question as children usually create their own activities where ever they feel good about it. Challenging – Relaxing Relaxing spaces are important for children that need tranquillity. Challenging spaces such as adventure tracks or climbing structures are good for children in many ways. They allow kids to use their energy and they provide challenges that develop their physical skills. These spaces can also provide problem solving challenges that require for example logical thinking or mathematics. Permanence – Change It is good to have spaces that are always the same and spaces that are flexible. Spaces that do not change can either feel safe and calming or boring and passive. What ever the case, these spaces of permanence are important especially in disaster affected schools where the surroundings are under constant change. Flexible spaces that can easily be modified are also valuable. Environments that children can modify and that adapt to 74

different purposes give the users more freedom. They also encourage to take action and provide experiences of control. For example, the school garden is a constantly changing space. In a garden both natural cycles as well as human action change the space every day. Changing spaces make the whole schoolyard more interesting place to be as it is not the same every day. Simple – Complex Simple space is not the same as a dull space. Simple spaces can be calming, relaxing, passive or they can be simply distraction-free spaces. Simple spaces can also be considered to be spaces where orientation is easy and where people with visual impairments can easily move around. Simple spaces are easy to understand and remember. Complex spaces include for example playgrounds, climbing structures and verdant green spaces. A complex space offers excitement for a long time as new interesting details or challenges appear long after the first impression.

KEY NOTES: • Different types of spaces make the schoolyard more interesting • A variety of spaces can be created even into the smallest schoolyard • Identifying and developing places within the school grounds should be participatory and involve all girls and boys as well as teachers and other staff members

SEMI-CLOSED GREEN SPACE

SMALL GREEN SPACE

OUTDOOR SPACES : DESIGN & KEY NOTES

LARGE OPEN SPACE

SMALL CLOSED SPACE

3.13

WALKWAYS & PATHS Walkways and paths form a network that links all the places together within the school grounds. The walkways are essential in making the school grounds functional, safe and accessible for all.

ANALYSIS By studying the paths that have formed on the ground a lot can be learned about how people use this area or site. Pathways tell us where people come and go, which places are the most used ones and which people never visit. Walkways are usually made to connect the most important places to each other at the shortest possible distance. That is why they are usually straight and placed in the central parts of the yard. Another option is a circular route around the yard connecting all the entrances. Other solutions possible solutions can also be used, mainly depending on the topography and the layout of the site. Keep in mind that the current layout might not be the best one and that there might be other, better solutions for the site. The accessibility and the materials of the main walkways should be analysed and all faults should be listed for future improvements.

QUESTIONS • Where do people come and go? Do the walkways serve the users? • Are there paths on the site? • What is the condition of the walkways? Are they safe to use? • Are the main walkways accessible for all? • What material has been used in the walkways? • Do the walkways or paths cause erosion?

existing walkway or path

planned walkway

existing path, needs improving

CASE 1

CASE 2

CASE 3

The porches of the buildings and the stairs are the main walkways of this site. They are not designed or constructed to even connect with each other, instead there are big gaps between them. The porches of the buildings have a hard and even surface that would be accessible for all. The problem is the lack of continuity and the big height differences within the site.

There are no marked or paved walkways or paths on this site but the worn off grass tells a lot about how people use this site.

This site has a good network of paved walkways that connects the buildings and the entrance. The stairs and steep slopes makesthe site inaccessible for the disabled users.

There is a roughly 5 to 15 meters wide zone in front of all the buildings that is eroded and sandy. It is obvious that this zone is the most used part on this yard. The eroded area also surrounds the flagpole, which can be interpreted to be because of the ceremonials and other events that take place around the flag. The central part of the yard is more green because of the grass although the grass is also worn out.

A new path leds to the new building on top of the hill. Currently the path is not paved but will most likely be paved once the building has been finished.

The stairs are high, steep and there is no handrail. This makes them challenging especially for the smallest and for the physically challenged users. The three meter high wall is really dangerous as it has no fence or any kind of railing on top if it to prevent children from falling. Recommendations: The main routes of the users should be observed and the walkways completed according to the observations. For example the gaps between the porches and the terrace should be fixed. Safety should be improved by installing handrails and fences where needed.

The entrances to the classrooms and other indoor spaces are not accessible for all because they all have at least one step in front of them. The yard itself could be considered accessible, at least some part of the year. When the ground is dry it is fairly even and hard enough for a wheelchair. During the rainy season when the yard turns into mud it also becomes inaccessible, first for the disabled and in the worst case for everyone.

Recommendations: All the existing walkways should be revised and repaired to prevent any accidents caused by the broken structures. New paths could be introduced to the lower yard, an adventure track for example. Accessibility for the partly sighted or blind people could be improved with handrails and bright colours that highlight the stairs and other changes of levels or materials.

Recommendations: Proper walkways should be made in front of the buildings to make the entrances accessible for all and to control erosion on the site. A network of paths should be created. 77

WALKWAYS & PATHS : ANALYSIS

North

DESIGN GOALS All the walkways should be functional, safe and of good quality. Walkways should be clearly marked and kept clear. The main walkways should also be accessible for all and offer inspirational and adventurous routes within the school grounds. The walkways should be categorized to create more diversity and to save resources.

DESIGN SOLUTIONS Walkways should be divided into primary and secondary routes. At least the primary routes,those that connect the most important buildings, entrances and latrines to each other, should be accessible to all: wide enough to fit two passing wheelchairs (2,5 - 3m) and have some kind of hard, non-slippery and even paving. The overhead clearance should be 2,5 - 3m. Primary walkways also act as main evacuation routes in case of emergency. In sites where flooding is usual the main walkways should be slightly elevated to keep them dry even during minor flooding. Secondary walkways connect all the rest of the facilities and activities to each other. They can be more narrow and softer but their surface should be non-slippery and fairly even. 78

The third route-type is the pathway. It is a narrow path that offers more challenge and adventure. It can be soft or hard, even or uneven and it might be made of multiple materials. These paths are meant for able children to challenge themselves. Stairs should be avoided and all the entrances should be accessible for all. At sites where it is not possible to have all the facilities on the same level, slopes and ramps need to be made, with pitch preferably less than 8% ( 1:12). All ramps and slopes need to have somekind of a handrail.

KEY NOTES • To save resources and to generate diversity the walkways should be divided into primary and secondary ways. • Pathways can be more challenging and adventurous routes • All main walkways have to be accessible for all • The materials of the walkways should be carefully selected • Walkways need to be well maintained and safe • The main walkways are usually also the evacuation routes

300mm

min.1000mm

MAIN WALKWAY

WALKWAYS & PATHS : DESIGN & KEY NOTES

min.1500mm

PATHWAY

SECONDARY WALKWAY

2 x H + B = 610 - 660 (mm) 900mm

300mm

600mm

420mm H

120mm

EXAMPLE OF DIMENSIONS FOR OUTDOOR STAIRS AND HANDRAILS

BASIC RULE FOR STAIR DIMENSIONING

0,2m 0,7m ≥ 0,3m

5-8% 5-8%

≤6m

≥ 2m

≤6m

≥ 2m

≥ 0,3m

ACCESSIBLE SLOPES FOR OUTDOOR SPACES 79

3.14

ENTRANCES, GATES & FENCE Entrances have an important role; they give the first impression of the school grounds while they also act as orientation points and landmarks. Gates and fences improve the general safety of the site and form a clear border for the school grounds.

ANALYSIS The first question to answer is whether there is a fence and gates or marked entrances to the site. If there is no fence or marked entrances the next step to analyse is where are the official borders of the plot (if they are established and known) and where people come into the site. If there is a fence, its condition and functionality should be analysed. The existing gates and entrances should also be assessed; are they in good condition, do they function well, are they easy to use and find, is the entrance welcoming and is it on the right place?

QUESTIONS • Does the site have a fence, gates or marked entrances? • Is the main entrance welcoming? Is it easy to locate? • Is the entrance right size? • Is there a fence around the schools grounds? Is it in good shape or does it need repairing? If there is no fence, is it needed? • What purposes should the fence serve?

PROPOSED FENCE & GATES

North

EXISTING FENCE & GATES

North

CASE 1

CASE 2

CASE 3

This site does not have fencing, gates or marked entrances to the site. The road enters the most southern corner, next to the temporary classroom. People come from this direction as well as from the street that passes the site on the western side.

This school does not have any fences nor marked entrances to the site.

This school has a clear main entrance to the site. It is marked with a bright green port and red gates. There is also a colourful low walls or fences along the main walkways.

Recommendations: A fence between the schoolyard and the street should be installed as soon as possible, most of all for safety. A fence would mark the school grounds and visually separate them from the surroundings, making the yard also more private.

Some parts of the school grounds are fenced and some are not but visually the borders of the site are clear. Where there is no fence, the vegetation marks the border.

Recommendations: Installing a fence on the edge of the terrace should be the first priority. A fence around the school site would improve safety and ease the control and maintenance of the site. An inviting and welcoming entrance could be installed to the southern corner of the school grounds.

The main entrance to the site should be made to be welcoming. A marked access point to the school grounds would also help to control which are the main walkways thus also controlling erosion on the site. As the site is large two entrances should be built.

Recommendations: The upper part of the schoolyard could be fenced, at least when the new building has been finished.

Bamboo for the fence and other structures could be grown within the school grounds.

ENTRANCES, GATES & FENCE : ANALYSIS

NEW FENCE

DESIGN GOALS All the school sites should have some kind of fencing for better safety. The gates and entrances to the site should be safe, accessible and welcoming. All these structures should be well functioning and logically placed.

DESIGN SOLUTIONS The places of each entrance should be carefully planned, all need to be at safe locations and easily accessible in and out of the school grounds. As the entrances act as evacuation routes, they should also be wide enough and connected to a road or street if possible. The main entrance needs to be wide enough to allow cars or other vehicles to enter the site. This makes the usage and maintenance a lot easier. Usually vehicles should not enter the site but in case of emergency or when delivering something, driving into the schoolyard should be possible. Fencing defines the borders and improves the safety of the school grounds. The main purpose of the fence is to separate the school grounds from the surroundings and protect what is inside. A fence can also separate different activities from each other or deny access to dangerous or hazardous areas.

A fence can define different types of spaces or it can become a place itself when used as a climbing wall. The fence that borders the site should be tall and strong enough to provide protection. Risks, like children getting stuck or climbing too high or to the wrong side, should be avoided by selecting a suitable materials and structures for the fence. Natural materials like wood, wooden sticks or branches and bamboo are good examples of ecologically sustainable materials that are easy to work. A fence made of concrete is naturally much stronger and requires less maintenance but it is also more expensive and slower to make. A planted fence can also be considered, growing plants can form a thick and durable wall that is also green and beautiful. Planning should take into consideration the need for and type of fencing around a school. Often in rural settings, the school will need to be physically separated from the rest of the community in order to create a child-friendly space and maintain that space differently from the rest of the environment. The fence and gates are also important to protect the property during non-school hours. In the case of school gardens, the fence protects the garden from pilferage and animal pests.52 The entrance, or entrances, many times act as meeting points where parents meet with each other and with the teachers. Using colours and other decorations, painted by 52â&#x20AC;&#x201A;UNICEF 2, p.10

the children for example, gives the entrance character and makes it unique. The entrance can act as a landmark to ease orientation within the school grounds and to make it easier to find the school in the village.

ENTRANCES, GATES & FENCE :DESIGN & KEY NOTES

Picture 21. Bamboo fence in DRC. Photo: FCA 2014

KEYNOTES MIN.900mm

• The location of the entrances should be carefully planned • All the entrances, gates and the fencing must be safe and easily accessible • Fence helps to control who comes and goes to the school grounds • Functional, durable, safe and sustainable materials should be selected for the fence and entrances

ACCESSIBLE GATE

3.15

ACTIVITIES Play, recreation and sports are important activities during the day. Different outdoor activities can support educational activities and make learning more inspiring and efficient.

ANALYSIS The analysis of different activities is based on two things; the facilities and equipment and the way children and other people use them. Studying all structures and equipment that are meant - or suitable - for either play, sports or recreation forms the basis for the analysis. These structures include fences, climbing structures, sand pits, swings, slides and sports fields with goals or baskets and so on. It is as important to study how children and staff use these elements. Children have great imagination and ability to use spaces and structures in different ways. This is something that should be respected and valued when analysing and designing outdoor activities. To be able to make a proper analysis some time has to spent time outdoors observing what children do during the day. Participatory methods should be used for analysing the current activities as well as the needs and wishes of the users for future activities within the school grounds.

Unfortunately it resulted impossible to use participatory methods for this thesis. The analysis of the activities is thus based on the experiences and observations of FCA staff and general assumptions based on general guidance on how to design outdoor spaces for children.

QUESTIONS • What do the kids usually do in the yard? • Do the children have any organised activities? • Are there any equipment or structures for play? For sports? • What do the children want to do in the schoolyard? Ask them! • How much space is available for different outdoor activities? • Could the indoor and outdoor activities be partly combined? • Are there some restrictions regarding the outdoor activities? • Why are children using some specific parts of the yard? What makes them popular? Why are some parts not used at all? • Is there any other functions on the yard? A stage? • Is the yard used outside school hours?

GARDEN

RAINGARDEN

SPORTS & EVENTS GARDEN

RAINGARDEN

PLAY

SPORTS & EVENTS

BOTANICAL GARDEN

PLAY GREEN PLAY SPACE

SENSORY GARDEN

PLAYGROUND

GARDEN

PLAYGROUND RAINGARDENS

RAINGARDEN

North

CASE 1

CASE 2

CASE 3

The site does not currently offer many opportunities for play, sports or recreation. The small courtyards are dull and empty even though they do offer good settings for different activities.

The yard consist of a flat ground and there is practically no equipment for recreational activities. The courtyard acts as a gathering ground during events and other festivities. Daily ceremonies are held around the flagpole.

Recommendations: The lower yard could be developed as a playspace and/or as an outdoor classroom. This can be achieved with simple structures for play, like climbing structures or sand pits. The possibility for sitting outdoors can be created with simple benches. Permeable and colourful shades create the feeling of a pleasant outdoor room. Some small gardening could also be practised in the lower yard too.

The flat yard provides a good ground for sports such as football. The most popular activities in the yard seem to be playing in the open space and sitting on the porches of the buildings. The porches are too small to provide all the children shade or rain cover – making it inconvenient to enjoy breaks outside the classroom during hot or rainy seasons.

This schoolyard is inspiring and encourages different activities to take place in there. The small grass covered parts especially on the lower yard are good for free play. The school also has a garden and lots of planted pots around the school grounds.

A garden and a “natural” creek to play with water bring activities to the upper yard. They are activities that connect children with nature. In the future sports could be arranged on the southern corner of the yard where the temporary storage stands currently. This is of course until the last classroom will be built on that space.

Recommendations: This large and open schoolyards needs to be zoned for different activities and spaces. These zones could be for example a playground, sports and event ground, green spaces and an active garden.

The small event ground in the central yard provides space for some sports and events. Recommendations: Improving the existing facilities and activities would make the site even more active and interesting. Seating could be made next to the central yard where drama and other performances could be presented. Some equipment and structures for play (younger children) and sports could be installed on the upper yards. The existing garden could be improved by widening and terracing it for example. The small green space next to the central yard could be developed as a sensory garden with a variety of different plants. A playground could be established on top of the hill. There is a small, flat space under some trees that has great views to the bay on both sides. 85

ACTIVITIES : ANALYSIS

PLANTINGS

Picture 22. â&#x20AC;&#x201A;Football is one of the most played sports and particularly popular among boys all over the world. Photo: UNICEF

DESIGN GOALS The schoolyard should be an active and inspiring learning space that also provides the possibility for active play and sports as well as recreation. The outdoor activities should support the educational goals of the curricula. At the same time some of the outdoor activities should provide an escape from the school tasks while encouraging children to relax within creative play and sports.

DESIGN SOLUTIONS Safety All the structures and equipment meant for play, sports or any kind of recreation must be safe. This means that they are strong enough, there are no sharp edges or poisonous materials, they do not allow children to fall from too high or to get stuck and they do not pose any other risks for the children. All safety assessments and decisions should be done carefully in the design phase. It is also important that the quality of the construction work and the final outcome is high.

Versatile playground

Challenge

It is possible to create a versatile playground with really small resources; it all depends on imagination. A small playground can be made with just some pipes, rope and pillars for example. When designing and making a playground it should be kept in mind that the children using them are of different ages and sizes. Especially some of the playing equipment should be designed for smaller children whereas the climbing structures and sports equipment can be made for older children.

Stimulating and activating outdoor environment encourages the child to experience and play. The outdoor environment should encourage children to try new activities by providing challenge and acceptable level of risk. Children learn by taking risks, as long as it is not too hazardous or dangerous. The environment should enable the child to learn from his/her mistakes and evaluate the type and scale of danger. For example climbing is very popular among children and it should be encouraged as it is good physical exercise and improves gross motor coordination. At the same time climbing has risks; children can fall from high places and hurt themselves. This is a risk one has to take but the risk of injury can be decreased by limiting the height of the climbing walls or structures and by installing softer ground material underneath the structure.

Using different colours is an easy and usually cheap way to make the playground more inviting and fun for the children. Concrete and wooden structures like walls and fences as well as some recycled materials like tyres can easily be painted with basic paints. Participating the children in the painting activities is recommendable as long as their safety is guaranteed. Using recycled materials reduces costs and shows a practical example of a more sustainable solution as well. The safety issues should be kept in mind when making structures out of recycled materials; especially the toxicity and the structural strength must be carefully studied beforehand.

Unintentional use One important aspect when designing environments for children is that they will use any designed structure or equipment in all possible ways, not just the way it was intended to be used. There are two sides to this aspect, it gives a lot of opportunities and inspiration for the design but it also sets up a challenge for designing safe structures for play.

KEYNOTES • All equipment and structures for play and sports have to be safe for the children to use them • A versatile schoolyard does not require lots of resources but imagination

ACTIVITIES : DESIGN & KEY NOTES

Picture 23. Learning landscape in use. Learning landscape is a system developed by Project H for outdoor lessons. It is a fun way to learn for example mathematics. Photo: Project H. Picture 24. Climbing structures do not need to be complex to be fun and serve their purpose. This simple structure is made out of bamboo in Myanmar. Photo: Pilot Projects Picture 25. Pupils and staff of Santa Elena de Piedritas School are making this beautiful decoration for the entrance out of old plastic bottle caps. Photo: Architecture for Humanity Picture 26. Trees can serve as playing grounds too. Photo: DFID - UK Department for International Development Picture 27. Disabled children playing basketball in Uganda. Photo: UNICEF

• Using colours is a easy and relatively cheap way to make the environment more interesting and fun • Recycled materials are a great resource as long as they are proved to be safe • Some parts of the outdoor environments should provide challenge for the children to test their skills and abilities and to learn to evaluate risks • Children will most likely use any elements and structures of the school grounds for their play, even those that were not intended for it

26 87

Play!

Here are some activities for the playground that can be done with small resources and materials that are usually easily available. 1. Pipe phone This phone can be done with a hollow pipe, two stakes and any kind of light rope or few screws. Point the pipe-ends a bit downwards to keep the rainwater out of the pipe. It is good to perforate the lowest part of the pipe before burying it to let the water infiltrate into the ground in case water gets into the pipe. 2. Musical instruments Outdoor instruments like xylophones or drums can be made out of recycled pipes or barrels. For the drums a old barrel and three stakes are needed. The xylophone can be made out of recycled pipes. The drumsticks can be made out of any kind of stick, some soft material and small piece of canvas or just durable tape. Outdoor instruments are a good way to offer children the possibility to explore their musical skills and creativity. 3. Sandpipes are great fun for smaller children. A hollow pipe is attached to a wall or fence, to a level where a small kid can easily reach the top of the pipe. The pipe should be large enough so that the sand does not get stuck in it. Also water can be used in the play. 88

The pipe phone, the musical instruments and the sandpipes can be made accessible for all with careful design. Their height should be adjusted to fit the needs of disabled children and they should be placed in a easily accessible area of the yard. The surface material underneath the equipment should be suitable for wheelchairs. 4. Bridge Stakes, some lumber and rope are needed to make a bridge to the playground. This structure offers challenge and develops childrenÂ´s balance and coordination. To avoid injuries from falling down, the surface material underneath the bridge should be soft (sand of grass).

5. Adventure track This track can be made to all sites. It adapts to the site, it can be long or short, wide or narrow and made out of the materials that are locally available. The main idea is to create a track that offers challenge and adventure for the abled children. The track can be made with sand, gravel, grass, pieces of wood, stones, crushed tiles or something else. The main principle is that the materials should change along the track offering different surfaces and level of resistance. Land can also be moulded so that the track has small hills and pits. Additional challenge can be added by placing different obstacles like logs on the way.

9. ACTIVITIES : DESIGN

6. See-saw

8. Newspaper pillow

9. Hammocks

The seesaw might be the simplest playing equipment in the playground. It is a long and narrow board (usually wood or metal) that is attached to some kind of stabile stand in the middle. A used tire or a block of wood is a good material for the middle stand. Something to hold on to is essential too, a rope or small rail is good.

This simple pillow made out of old newspapers turns a hard or hot surface into a more comfortable seat which might come in handy in situations where there is lack of furniture and children have to sit on the ground. The pillow is simply made out of rolled newspapers that are tied together with a cord or a string. They are easy and cheap to make and light to carry around. They can also be useful during outdoor classes where the surface to sit on might be dirty or hot.

Hammocks offer a place to rest and relax. They can be made out of recycled cord, rope or tarpaulins or even from plastic bags that are tied together. The hammock can be attached to trees or poles. The poles can be installed so that they create a grid where several hammocks can be tied on each one of the poles.

7. Balance seesaws The balance seesaw is based on multiple seesaws that are placed in line and attached to each other. The ned of the board are tied together with a flexible cord or rope to allow them to move. The unstable board that moves up and down develops childrenÂ´s balance and gross-motor skills.

Note: All playing equipment where children can fall from should have soft material (sand, mulch etc.) underneath them. They should also have a buffer zone around them that is free from hard materials, sharp objects and other playing equipment and structures.

430mm

VISUAL SIGNAGE 3.17

OUTDOOR FURNITURE

min.670mm

3.16

min.600mm

500mm 500mm

ACCESSIBLE FURNITURE (ADULT SIZE) VISUAL SIGNAGE Visual signage is important in every school. For example latrines, entrances and evacuation routes need to be visually easy to find, understand and follow. Visual signage includes all signs, posters, guideposts and highlighted details (edges of stairs and ramps for example). In general the characters and symbols used in signs should always contrast with the background, either light characters on dark background or vice versa. The colour of the signs is as important as the contrast. Combination of red and green should be avoided. The typeface used in the signs should be easy to read. All the signs should have non-glare finish. 53 Highlighting (painting) the edges of stairs and other changes in floor levels helps especially partly sighted people to see them.

OUTDOOR FURNITURE All the outdoor furniture should be fitted for it´s users; their size, abilities and needs. Smaller children naturally need lower benches and tables, smaller steps and play structures that are suitable for their gross-motor skills. Older children need slightly bigger benches, chairs and tables. 53 Adapted from ADAAG Accessibility Guidelines and SuRaKu-cards

The special needs of disabled children and adults must be considered in the designs as well. Accessible benches, tables and structures for play allow the disabled children to join the play and other activities. Creativity and imagination are the key for an inspiring and active outdoor equipment. All materials should be durable as the sunlight, temperature changes and rains together with the use put pressure on them every day. For example recycled jerry cans, buckets, bottles and tarpaulins are durable materials to be used outdoors. Consideration should be used whether heavy and permanent or light and mobile furniture should be selected. Heavy furniture is usually more durable and more difficult to damage or steal, but they are also fixed to their location and cannot be moved. Light and mobile furniture are good when the same place is used for multiple purposes, they are in general also cheaper and faster to get. The down side is that light and mobile furniture is easy to steal so a lockable storage is necessary.

HEIGHTS OF CHAIRS AND TABLES FOR CHILDREN OF DIFFERENT SIZES

3.18

LIGHTS WASTE Picture 28. Tanzanian children with their self-made toy-cars. Photo: Anni Valkola, 2013.

LIGHTS

WASTE

At least part of the schoolyard should be have lights to lengthen the daily active time. The main parts of the schoolyard and the sports ground should be the first priority to be lighted as they are the multi-purpose spaces and most likely to be used after school hours too.

A proper waste management is necessary within the school grounds. The waste management systems should be planned and established together with local authorities and /or NGOs that are focused on this theme.

Remember that lighting also improves the safety of the school grounds. Electricity for the lights can be produced with sun panels that are fixed on the roofs for example.

All the school grounds should be kept clean of waste at all times. Waste can cause health risks – especially when human waste is in question. Waste can also cause environmental problems if it pollutes the soil or ground water. Waste blocking the drains can cause floods within the site. Efficient use of all resources and recycling are the best ways to reduce the amount of waste in general. Organic waste can be used to produce bio-gas or it can be composted and used in the garden and other green areas. Efficient waste management within the school grounds is also an important example and learning opportunity for the children. The importance of the functional drains for example can be demonstrated by blocking the drains with plastic waste and observing how the water starts to flood. This can be a useful and important lessons for all community members too as waste is one of the biggest problems in many communities54 and one of the underlying reasons for urban floods as well. 54 Lamond, J. et al. Page 2

SIGNAGE, OUTDOOR FURNITURE, LIGHTS & WASTE

3.19

3.20â&#x20AC;&#x201A;

MATERIALS

Soil is essential for the vegetation and an important resource for all green spaces and gardens. Different landforms can be created by modifying the soil. Sustainable use of soil is important and soil conservation should be considered especially in eroded or arid environments. After earthquakes, typhoons and even floods rubble is usually available. Rubble can be used for example in landfills or as erosion protection in natural-like canals and streams.

Sand is one important ingredient of concrete. It is also good material for creative play as it is easy to mold and work with. It can be dug, sifted, sculpted, poured and drawn upon. It is also suitable for constructional play when mixed with water. Sand can be used as a softer surface under playing equipment. 92

Gravel is a durable, semi-permeable material used in pavings and as base material of ditches and walkways. Gravel grain size can vary, from resembling sand to bigger stones.

Stones are usually available and cheap. Permeable and durable surfaces can be made out of natural stones. They can be used for pavings or making decorations. They can also be played with.

Concrete is a durable and impermeable material that forms hard and even surface. It is a common construction material all over the world. It can be used in walkways, supporting structures and murals. For pavings and other structures that do not have to full fill structural safety requirements, different materials can be mixed into the cement to create different surfaces.

Wood in different forms is a good material for many purposes. It can be used as construction material for different structures like climbing posts, fence or furniture.

Earthblocks can be used for low retaining walls of walls for gardens and so on. They are prone to weather conditions, especially rain, and are thus not very durable.

Wood can also be used as paving material although if it is in contact with wet soil it must be treated (impregnated) first. Bamboo is also a good material for many purposes. It can be used like wood in general. If it is chemically treated it becomes really strong and durable material. Bamboo grows fast and does not need much space so it could be grown even within school grounds.

Pipes are a general building material that is usually available in some form anywhere in the world. Especially left over parts from building sites can be collected to be used in the playground. Great playing opportunities can be created even with short plastic pipes and sand or water. Leaves, branches and roots of different plants can be used for making carpets and shades for example.

Rope and string can be used for dozens of different purposes. Swings and climbing walls can be made out of rope. Thinner rope or string can be used for making hammocks. Old car tires have become a popular material in playgrounds. Where old tyres are available they can be modified and sculpted to serve as seats for swings, hills for climbing, planting boxes as well as earth stabilizing structures on slopes and river benches for example.

Tarpaulins are a common material in disaster affected areas. When the rebuilding starts and the temporary shelters can be removed there can be even excess of tarpaulins as material. They could be used as shades in the outdoor spaces. Planting sacks can be made out of tarpaulins with small modifications; they must be somehow shaped or supperted to form a sack and then perforated at the bottom to let excess water out.

Groundcover plants can be used for erpsion protection on areas that are not actively used. Durable and local species with strong roots should be preferred.

Grass is a relatively good ground cover. It is a permeable surface good for playgrounds or green spaces although it is also prone to erosion and wearing off.

Barrels and buckets can be used for play. They together with pots and containers can also be planted. It is important to check that all these containers etc. are safe, that they do not contain any traces of toxins or that toxins do not dissolve from them.

MATERIALS

Picture 29. â&#x20AC;&#x201A;Spaces can be created with different walls. Here is an example of a wall made out of recycled plastic bottles with caps of different colours. This project was made in Mantanani learning centre in Malaysia. Photo: Open Architecture Network

3.21

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN: CASE 1

The safety of this yard has been upgraded with an improved ditch and vegetation that protects the ground from erosion. A small bridge over the ditch has been proposed to ease the access to the yard. A climbing structure is an example of active play. It could also be replaced with a sandbox or swings for example, depending on the age and needs of the children using it.

SHADE

The permeable shades form a “roof” for the space as well as protect it from hot sunlight. Simple wooden benches offer a place to relax between the classes. They can also be used as an outdoor learning space.

PLAY / SPORT

IMPROVED ACCESS TO YARD

SEATING DITCH

VEGETATION

PLANNED

North

The natural-like ditch collects the runoff and overflow from the watertank and directs it into a raingarden behind the building. Some vegetation is proposed along the ditch to add greenery and diversity to the small yard. A small school garden along the fence not only adds greenery but improves outdoor activities and learning possibilities as well.

TEMPORARY SPACE / EVENT & SPORTS GROUND

The fence on the edge is essential for safety. It also frames the space and provides protection from wind. The space behind the yard can be used as an event or sports ground after the temporary storage has been removed, until the new building will be constructed. Simple stairs are added in front of the terrace to ease the access between indoor and outdoor spaces. The stairs also offer a place to sit and observe the water in the ditch or the plants in the garden.

VEGETATION NATURAL-LIKE DITCH

SMALL SCHOOL GARDEN

FENCE

CONCEPT DESIGN : CASE 1

EXISTING

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN CASE 2

Multiple new solutions have been proposed for the currently empty and dull schoolyard. New walkways connect the buildings and the main entrances all together. New walkways and ramps make the access into the buildings easier.

TREES

A fence around the site improves safety and makes the siteÂ´s boundaries visible for all. It also marks the entrances to the site. New water management system collects all the runoff water and directs it into raingardens and eventually into the small river behind the site. Two separate playgrounds have been proposed, one within the green space and another in the open space. An adventure track runs beneath the trees. A spacious open space has been left for sports and events in the middle of the school yard.

PLAY RAMP WALKWAY

DITCH

RAINGARDEN

GARDEN SPORTS / EVENT GROUND ADVENTURE TRACK

VEGETATION

Protective vegetation, trees and shrubs have been placed on the eastern side of the yard. This green zone act as a biffer between the street and the school yard, providing protection from wind, dust and noise. Trees also create shaded outdoor spaces underneath them.

FENCE

A garden has been placed on the western side of the yard. It is close to the existing watertank and easily accessible from the walkway. It also creates a green zone that together with the larged green space, forms green edges for the event ground in the middle.

GARDEN PLAYGROUND SPORTS & EVENTS TREES PLAYGROUND

FENCE

RAINGARDEN

North 97

CONCEPT DESIGN : CASE 2

NOW

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN CASE 3

Lots of new activities have been proposed for this site. The existing garden has been terraced. Rainwater harvested from the upper building can be used for watering the garden. A small sensory garden is placed in the central yard to offer more interesting places for the children and to bring in even more greenery within the central part of the site. Existing stairs have been extended to provide seating next to the event ground. Additional colour has been brought to the site with paintings on the ground. For example brightly coloured lines can act as visual guides and ease orientation within the site.

GARDEN SENSORY GARDEN FENCE SEATING

VISUAL GUIDANCE EVENT GROUND

PLAYGROUND EVENTS

RAINGARDEN North

SCHOOL GARDEN

New playgrounds have been proposed. One on top of the hill and another on the lower yard. Raingarden on the lowest parts of the yard could collect the runoff water and slow down runoff. Th eoverflow from the raingardens can be directed into the existing creek next to the site.

GARDEN PLAYGROUND

Some new, edible trees could be planed on the western side.

North

SENSORY GARDEN

CONCEPT DESIGN : CASE 3

PLANNED

NOW

100

4 CONCLUSIONS I started to study the topic of developing schoolyards within humanitarian projects approximately one year ago. As I have always been interested in humanitarian work, I wanted to know if landscape architecture had something to offer. I quickly understood that it was a wide and complex topic. So, for this thesis, I narrowed it down to schoolyards. The most important finding is the existing lack of guidance regarding the outdoor spaces of learning environments. That is, within the humanitarian field. Fortunately, it seems that this gap has been recognized and that there is need for more comprehensive guidance on this topic. Another important finding has been that the role of outdoor spaces is much more than might appear. They are linked to so many issues and topics. I strongly believe that great outcomes can be created with just small investments on the outdoor spaces. As UNDP has calculated, 1 dollar spent on preparing for disasters saves around seven dollars in economic losses. I believe that in the case of schoolyards, one dollar can result in benefits worth much more than 7 dollars. The objective of the thesis I presented three questions in the introduction, that this thesis should answer. These questions were: â&#x20AC;˘ Why should schoolyards be improved in disaster affected areas?

â&#x20AC;˘ â&#x20AC;˘

How can they be improved? What are the benefits of these improvements?

I believe this thesis has answered to those three questions. The Chapters 1 and 2 provide a good description on why schoolyards should be improved. A brief answer to why is because the improvements can make the schoolyard a more safe, resilient, functional and pleasant place. The third chapter, the design manual, describes how the improvements can be made. The most important issue in how to make the improvements, is to consider the site as an entity and system where all elements are linked to each other. The benefits of these improvements have been described through out this document. They include better disaster resilience, preparedness and sustainability. The quality of the schoolyard as an outdoor learning space, playground and recreational area are also important benefits. Another notable benefit of improving the schoolgrounds is that, it is a place where the knowledge and skills are likely to spread within the community. This way the benefits of a improved schoolground can have an impact on the whole community. Limitations and assumptions

varied and has contained some gaps of information. Assumptions have been made in order to showcase all different themes. I have also been well aware of the fact that the case studies are not comprehensive, due to unrealized site visits. Also the inefficient knowledge of the cultural context has been recognized and accepted as a minor disadvantage. Future suggestions The next step for the design manual would be to test it on the field. Further development of the manual should be made in close cooperation with experts of humanitarian work. A simple and compact manual could be developed for the field operations. I hope that this thesis receives a warm welcome in Finn Church Aid and that this document helps to bring an additional perspective to their school construction projects. I hope to continue my work with Finn Church Aid to create a more comprehensive approach that includes the schoolyards into the design and construction projects. The best reward from this work would be, if even just one schoolyard would be improved because of this thesis.

Some limitations and assumptions apply to this thesis. The amount and quality of initial data for the case studies has 101

102

ACRONYMS AND TERMINOLOGY 4. 1 Acronyms

4. 2 Terminology 55

DRM

Disaster Risk Management

Adaptation

Climate change

DRR

Disaster Risk Reduction

EOS

Educational Outdoor Space

The adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities.

EiE

Education in Emergencies

Child-friendly spaces (CFS)56

FCA

Finn Church Aid

IDP

Internally Displaced People

Child Friendly Spaces are a child right’s programming approach that supports children’s well-being in the midst of emergencies. Used widely since 1999, CFS protect children by providing a safe space with supervised activities, by raising awareness of the risks to children, and mobilizing communities to begin the process of creating a Protective Environment. CFS can be defined as places designed and operated in a participatory manner, where children affected by natural disasters or armed conflict can be provided with a safe environment, where integrated programming including play, recreation, education, health, and psychosocial support can be delivered and/or information about services/supports provided. Generally CFS refer to a relatively short to medium term programme response, and are very often operated from tents and/or temporary structures (i.e. in schools, under a tree or a vacant building). They are usually operated by NGOs or governments.

The Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate change as: “a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings, or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in landuse”

INEE An International Network for Education in Emergencies LRRD

Linking Relief, Rehabilitation and Development

NGO

Non-Governental Organization

SPHERE

The Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response

UNHCR

The United Nations High Commissariat for Refugees

WASH

Water, sanitation and hygiene

Disaster A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources. Disaster risk The potential disaster losses, in lives, health status, livelihoods, assets and services, which could occur to a particular community or a society over some specified future time period.

55 UN 2 if not mentioned otherwise 56 UNICEF 2

103

Disaster risk management (DRM)

Education in Emergencies (EiE) 58

Natural hazard

The systematic process of using administrative directives, organizations, and operational skills and capacities to implement strategies, policies and improved coping capacities in order to lessen the adverse impacts of hazards and the possibility of disaster.

Education in Emergencies refers to education in situations where children lack access to their national education systems, due to man-made crises or natural disasters.

Natural process or phenomenon that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.

Disaster risk reduction (DRR)

The reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives and needs.

The concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyse and manage the causal factors of disasters, including through reduced exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and property, wise management of land and the environment, and improved preparedness for adverse events. Drought57 A drought is a period of abnormally dry weather that persists long enough to produce a serious hydrologic imbalance, causing, for example, crop damage and shortages in the water supply. The severity of a drought depends on the degree of moisture deficiency, the duration, and the size of the affected area.

57â&#x20AC;&#x201A;American Red Cross

104

Environmental degradation

Hazard A dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage. Mitigation The lessening or limitation of the adverse impacts of hazards and related disasters.

Preparedness The knowledge and capacities developed by governments, professional response and recovery organizations, communities and individuals to effectively anticipate, respond to, and recover from, the impacts of likely, imminent or current hazard events or conditions. Public awareness The extent of common knowledge about disaster risks, the factors that lead to disasters and the actions that can be taken individually and collectively to reduce exposure and vulnerability to hazards. Recovery The restoration, and improvement where appropriate, of facilities, livelihoods and living conditions of disaster-affected communities, including efforts to reduce disaster risk factors.

58â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Sinclair. M. 2001.

Resilience

Risk management

The ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate to and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions.

The systematic approach and practice of managing uncertainty to minimize potential harm and loss.

Risk The combination of the probability of an event and its negative consequences. Risk assessment By the definition used by UNDP risk assessment is a process to determine the nature and extent of such risk, by analyzing hazards and evaluating existing conditions of vulnerability that together could potentially harm exposed people, property, services, livelihoods and the environment on which they depend. A comprehensive risk assessment not only evaluates the magnitude and likelihood of potential losses but also provides full understanding of the causes and impact of those losses.

Runoff Surface runoff is the flow of water that occurs when excess water from rain, meltwater, or other sources flows over the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface. This might occur because soil is saturated to full capacity, or because rain arrives more quickly than soil can absorb it. Surface runoff is a major component of the water cycle. It is the primary agent in soil erosion by water. Sustainable development Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Vulnerability The characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard.

105

106

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UNICEF 4. Education in Conflict and Transition contexts. Case studies from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Nepal and Southern Sudan. PDF available at http://www. unicef.org/education/files/EiE_Field_Notes_2010.pdf (12.3.2014) UNICEF 5. A Practical Guide to Developing Child Friendly Spaces. PDF available at http://cpwg.net/resource/a-practical-guide-to-developing-child-friendly-spaces-unicef-eng/ (24.1.2014) UNICEF Madagaskar. Constructing Child & Eco-friendly schools in Madagaskar. UNICEF 2010. PDF available at: http://www.hayzara.org/eng/Knowledge-bank/Environment/Constructing-Child-Eco-friendly-Schools-in-Madagascar-UNICEF-2010 108

Norman K. Booth. Basic Elements of Landscape Architectural Design. Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc. New York. 1983.

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(22.5.2014) Global Partnership for Education. http://www.globalpartnership.org/focus-areas/children-with-disabilities (25.9.2014) IFRC. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. http://www.ifrc.org/en/what-we-do/disaster-management/about-disaster-management/ (22.8.2014) INEE 2. http://www.ineesite.org/en/education-in-emergencies (12.3.2014) Level. The authority on sustainable building. http://www. level.org.nz/site-analysis/ (22.9.2014) National Wildlife Federation: Health benefits. http://www. nwf.org/be-out-there/why-be-out-there/health-benefits. aspx (25.9.2014) Natural Learning Initiative. http://naturalearning.org/ (19.9.2014) Plan International. Children widely ignored in Philippines recovery. 2013.Retrieved from http://www.trust.org/ item/20131220104132-nckdu/?source=search (14.1.2014) PreventionWeb: Disaster Statictis. http://www.preventionweb.net/english/ (6.10.2014) The Sphere Project. http://www.sphereproject.org/about/ (27.8.2014) UN 1. http://www.un.org/disabilities/default.asp?id=18 (25.9.2014) UN 2. The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction Terminology. Retrieved from http://www.unisdr. org/we/inform/terminology (24.3.2014)

UNEP. United Nations Environment programme. http:// www.unep.org/climatechange/Introduction.aspx (25.3.2014) UNEP 1. Disasters and Conflicts Factsheet. Retrieved from http://www.unep.org/disastersandconflicts/ (25.3.2014) UNEP. Environmental Degradation Triggering Tensions and Conflict in Sudan. 2007. http://www.unep.org/documents. Multilingual/Default.asp?ArticleID=5621&DocumentID=512 &I=en (25.9.2014) UNICEF 1. Education in Emergencies and Post-Crisis Transition. http://www.unicef.org/education/bege_61685.html (25.3.2014) UNISDR. United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. Found at http://www.unisdr.org/who-we-are/what-is-drr (26.3.2014)

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19. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Primary School Gandoâ&#x20AC;? by Schulbausteine - Own work. Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons - http://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:Primary_School_Gando.jpg#mediaviewer/ File:Primary_School_Gando.jpg (27.10.2014)

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USEFUL LINKS ELECTRONIC PUBLICATIONS STANDARDS AND MANUALS: INEE Minimum standards by The Inter-agency Network for Education in Emergencies (PDF) http://toolkit.ineesite.org/toolkit/Toolkit.php?PostID=1002 The Sphere Handbook by The Sphere Project (PDF) http://www.sphereproject.org/handbook/ Child Friendly Schools Manual by UNICEF (PDF) http://www.unicef.org/publications/index_49574.html Shelter Safety Handbook by IFRC (PDF) http://www.ifrc.org/PageFiles/95526/publications/305400Shelter%20safety%20handbook-EN-LR.pdf

Water, sanitation and hygiene standards for school in low. cost settings by WHO (PDF) http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/ wsh_standards_school/en/

WEBSITES

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION:

Information for humanitarian relief organizations (UN) www.reliefweb.int

Guidebook for planning education in emergencies and reconstruction (Chapter 5.5.:Community participation) http://toolkit.ineesite.org/toolkit/Toolkit.php?PostID=1042 GARDENING: On-farm practices for the safe use of wastewater in urban and peri-urban horticulture (FAO, 2012). http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/greenercities/en/resources/ index.html

Environment and climate change (UNICEF) http://www.unicef.org/environment/

Playground ideas www.playgroundideas.org Accessibility http://www.ada.gov/2010ADAstandards_index.htm http://www.nwf.org/How-to-Help/Garden-for-Wildlife/ Schoolyard-Habitats/Create/Accessibility.aspx

A practical guide on developing Child Friendly Spaces by UNICEF (PDF) http://www.unicef.org/protection/A_Practical_Guide_to_ Developing_Child_Friendly_Spaces_-_UNICEF_(1).pdf Climate change and Environmental Education by UNICEF (PDF) http://www.unicef.org/environment/files/CFS_Climate_E_ web.pdf

111

ATTACHMENT A

INEE Minimum Standards: Access and Learning Environment Standard 3: Facilities and Services Education facilities promote the safety and well-being of learners, teachers and other education personnel and are linked to health, nutrition, psychosocial and protection services.

Key actions (to be read in conjunction with the guidance

notes) • Learning sites and structures are safe and accessible for all learners, teachers and other education personnel (see guidance notes 1-4). • Temporary and permanent learning environments are repaired, retro-fitted or replaced as needed with disaster-resilient design and construction (see guidance notes 2 and 4). • Learning spaces are marked by visible protective boundaries and clear signs. • Physical structures used for learning sites are appropriate for the situation and include adequate space for classes, administration, recreation and sanitation facilities (see guidance notes 2 and 4). • Class space and seating arrangements meet agreed ratios of space per learner and teacher in order to promote participatory methodologies and learner-centred approaches (see guidance note 4). • Community members, including young people, participate in the construction and maintenance of the learning environment (see guidance notes 1-3). • Adequate quantities of safe water and appropriate sanitation facilities are provided for personal hygiene and protection, taking into account sex, age and people with disabilities (see guidance notes 3 and 5-6). • Skills-based health and hygiene education is promoted 112

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in the learning environment (see guidance note 6). School-based health and nutrition services are available to address hunger and other barriers to effective learning and development (see guidance note 7). Schools and learning spaces are linked to child protection, health, nutrition, social and psychosocial services (see guidance note 8).

Guidance notes 1. Location: Education facilities should be built, reconstructed or relocated to sites that promote equity and the physical safety of learners, teachers and other education personnel. It is important to consider whether the sites of education facilities before the emergency should be reused. Rebuilding physical structures in their previous locations may continue discrimination against certain groups within the community or may put learners at risk of natural disaster. Careful conflict and disaster risk assessments are essential. These should include consultations with representatives from national authorities and a wide range of community members, especially vulnerable groups. They can provide valuable information on where educational facilities can be built. Collaboration with other sectors (such as camp coordination and management, shelter and health) is essential to ensure that schools and education facilities are close to learners’ homes and to other services. 2. Structure, design and construction: It is important to consider the following elements in the design and construction of temporary and permanent education facilities. • Safe site selection: the structural safety of damaged school buildings needs to be assessed by qualified professionals, and buildings prioritised for re-occupancy, repair, retro-fitting or replacement, based on need and cost. • Inclusive and disaster-resistant design and construction: international planning and building code standards for schools (or local codes when they are of a higher standard) should be applied to temporary and permanent construction. School facilities should be designed, constructed and maintained to be resilient in the face of known hazards and threats such as fire, storms, earthquakes and landslides. Reconstruction efforts should ensure that going to school will not expose learners, teachers or other education personnel to avoidable risks; design and construction should ensure adequate light-

ing, cross-ventilation and heating (as appropriate) to promote a quality teaching and learning environment. • Whether the structure can be maintained by local authorities and the local community at an affordable cost: locally procured materials and labour should be used to build the structure wherever feasible. Steps should be taken to ensure that structures are cost-effective and that physical features (e.g. roofs, floors) are durable. • Available budget, possible current and long-term uses, and involvement of communities and education planners and managers. Structures may be temporary, semi-permanent, permanent, extensions or mobile. The involvement of members of groups differently affected by the emergency in joint activities, such as construction and maintenance of schools, may support conflict mitigation.

The building structure, including sanitation facilities, and furniture, including desks, chairs, blackboards, should be maintained regularly. Members of the community and the community education committee can contribute to the maintenance of the learning spaces with labour, time or materials.

3. People with disabilities: The needs of people with physical and visual disabilities should be carefully considered in the design of education facilities. Entrances and exits need to accommodate people in wheelchairs or using other assistedmobility devices. Classroom space and furniture, and water and sanitation facilities, should meet the needs of people with disabilities. When identifying sites and reconstructing education facilities, cooperation at local and national levels is recommended with organisations representing people with various types of disability, parents of children with disabilities and youth with disabilities.

Sanitation facilities should be accessible for persons with disabilities and should maintain privacy, dignity and safety. Toilet doors should lock from the inside. To prevent sexual harassment and abuse, separate toilets for boys/men and girls/women should be located in safe, convenient and easily accessible places. Sphere guidelines for school toilets call for one toilet for every 30 girls and one toilet for every 60 boys. If provision of separate toilets is not initially possible, arrangements can be made to avoid girls and boys using the toilets at the same time. If toilets are not located within the learning site, nearby facilities can be identified and children’s use of them monitored. Sanitary materials and culturally appropriate clothing, if necessary should be provided to female learners so that they can participate fully in learning.

4. Design and maintenance of learning spaces: Education facilities should be designed giving careful thought to who uses the learning space, and how. Spaces need to be appropriate to the sex, age, physical ability and cultural considerations of all users. A locally realistic standard should be set for maximum class size. Enough space should be allowed, if possible, for additional classrooms if enrolment increases, to enable a progressive reduction in the use of multiple shifts. Entrances and exits need to allow students, teachers and other education personnel to exit safely in an emergency.

5. Sanitation facilities should be available within or close to the learning environment. Collaboration with the water and sanitation sector is important in achieving this. Sanitation includes: solid waste disposal facilities, such as containers and waste pits; • drainage facilities, such as soak pits and drainage channels; • adequate water for personal hygiene and to clean toilets.

6. Safe water and hygiene promotion: Learning environments should have a safe water source and should provide soap. Hygiene practices, such as hand and face washing, should be incorporated as daily activities. Sphere guidelines for minimum water quantities in schools call for 3 litres of water per student per day for drinking and hand washing.

7. School-based health and nutrition services: School-based health and nutrition programmes link education with resources in the health, nutrition and sanitation sectors. They address barriers to learning and promote healthy development. Programmes may include: • school feeding programmes to address hunger needs; • de-worming to treat parasitic infections; • communicable disease prevention programmes (such as for measles, diarrhoea, HIV and AIDS); • provision of micronutrient supplements (such as vitamin A,iron and iodine). Programmes should follow recognised guidelines such as the World Food Programme’s guidelines on school feeding. Coordination with the health and nutrition sectors is important. 8. Access to local services and referrals: Teachers and other education personnel can use referrals to local services to support and promote learners’ physical, psychosocial and emotional well-being. They should be trained to recognise signs of physical or psychosocial distress and other protection concerns, such as children who have been separated from their families. They should share information on threats to learners’ well-being with relevant partners from other service sectors. To ensure that the referral system operates effectively, formal links with outside services should be established. Services may include counselling, psychosocial and legal services for survivors of sexual and gender-based violence, and social services for suspected cases of abuse or neglect. Children formerly associated with armed forces and armed groups may need help with family tracing and reunification.

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ATTACHMENT B SELECTED NOTES FROM THE SPHERE MINIMUM STANDARDS Sphere Minimum standards in shelter, settlement and non-food items:

Shelter and settlement standard 5: Environmental impact

Key actions: • Use existing settlement patterns and topographical features to minimise adverse impact on the natural environment • Involve the affected population in the planning of temporary communal settlements by family, neighbourhood or village groups as appropriate

Key actions: • Assess and analyse the adverse impact of the disaster on the local natural environment and environmental risks and vulnerabilities • Consider the extent of available local natural resources when planning the temporary or permanent settling of the affected population • Manage local natural environmental resources to meet the ongoing and future needs of disaster-affected populations • Retain trees and other vegetation where possible to increase water retention, minimise soil erosion and provide shade

Guidance notes: 5. Site selection and drainage: Surface water drainage and the risks of ponding or flooding should be assessed when selecting sites and planning temporary communal settlements. The site gradient should not exceed 6 per cent, unless extensive drainage and erosion control measures are taken, or be less than 1 per cent to provide for adequate drainage. Drainage channels may still be required to minimise flooding or ponding. The lowest point of the site should be not less than three metres above the estimated maximum level of the water table.

Guidance notes: 1. Environmental assessment: The impact of a disaster on the natural environment should be assessed to inform the response and mitigating activities required. Many natural disasters, for example landslides, are often a direct result of the mismanagement of natural environmental resources. Alternatively, they may be due to existing environmental risks or vulnerabilities, such as seasonal flooding in low-lying areas or the lack of natural environmental resources that can be safely harvested. An understanding of these risks is essential to inform settlement planning and to ensure that known vulnerabilities including the impact of climate change are addressed as part of the response. 2. Sustainability and the management of environmental resources: Where the environmental resources required to support a substantial increase in human habitation are limited, any such unsustainable demand on the natural environment should be mitigated. Where such natural resources are available, temporary communal settlements should be managed

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to minimise environmental damage. Sustainable external supplies of fuel and options for livestock grazing, agricultural production and other natural resource-dependent livelihood support activities should be provided and managed.(...) 5. Erosion: Shelter and settlement solutions should be planned to retain trees and other vegetation to stabilise the soil and to maximise the opportunities for shade and protection from the climate. Natural contours should be used for such elements as roads, pathways and drainage networks in order to minimise erosion and flooding. Where this cannot be achieved, any likely erosion should be contained through the provision of excavated drainage channels, piped drainage runs under roadways or planted earth banks to minimise water run-off