Jennifer Bewick BA(Hons) Illustration 2017/18 Title: Children and creative expression: An exploration into how meaning can be depicted within a child’s artwork.
5303 words
Acknowledgements Viktor Lowenfeld’s ‘Creative and Mental Growth’. Michael Wimmer for his research and interesting case studies.
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Contents
Chapter
Page Number
Chapter 1 – Introduction
4
Chapter 2 – Context & Themes
6
Chapter 3 – Case Studies of Practice
13
Chapter 4 – Reflective Practice
17
Chapter 5 – Conclusion
20
Images
22
Bibliography
23
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Chapter 1 – Introduction The artwork that younger generations produce has been a subject of extended investigation across many fields. This essay will explore the theories surrounding the way in which children develop artistically as they grow, as well as how they respond to emotionally traumatic events within their personal surrounding environment, and how they demonstrate these reactions creatively within the limits of the page. Drawing from therapists and theorists it will aim to attempt to explain how artwork can be used to interpret the innermost thoughts and emotions from children that they may not be confident enough to, or able to put across verbally.
Psychologist Jean Piaget theorised that “children construct an understanding of the world around them, experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment” (Mitchell, 2016). This essay aims to expand on the above statement, as well as create a discussion on how a child’s mental and creative progress can not only be reflected in their artwork, but also be affected, and even hindered, by events that take place in their surrounding everyday environment.
Alongside this, it will also aim to successfully provide theoretical explanations for the way in which children piece together their drawings. Are different colours indicative of an emotional state of being? Can significance be drawn from how objects are placed within the limits of the page?
The following essay will discuss factors like shape, colour and line pressure, and what deeper meaning can be deciphered through their employment. It will also touch on the use of symbols, with a number of case studies that contain points of interest concerning all the aforementioned questions.
It is near enough impossible to be completely certain of what a piece of artwork means, as only the creator can give a full explanation. Through research and a series of examples, however, this essay will hopefully give insight into how one can
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understand a child’s mentality, and their emotional responses to their personal environments by casting an analytical eye over the artwork that they produce.
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Chapter 2 – Context & Themes As can be seen in his text ‘Interpreting Children’s Drawings’, author Joseph H. Di Leo’s states that “a study of drawings may tell why a given child is acting out while others are sublimating” (Di Leo, 1983). Although one can never assume meaning behind a child’s piece of work that is confident in certainty, this does indicate that there are several things that can be looked out for and identified as baring relevance to external issues.
A common thought could be, ‘how does one examine a child’s drawing?’. Generally speaking, the way in which to analyse a child’s drawing is to look into several graphic elements, including subject, colour, shape and line pressure, to name a few. Alongside this, it is important to compare them with artwork created by their peers. When all factors are considered, one can often begin to piece together a wider depiction of what the child is attempting to communicate, as it “paints a broad and profound picture of the child’s inner world” (Wimmer, 2014. pg6). To further this, casting an analytical eye over artwork produced by younger generations can also help to create a more solid foundation when looking into aspects such as the psychology, behavioural tendencies and social skills of a child.
According to Viktor Lowenfeld, a professor of art education, there are “six clearly defined stages of artistic development” (Lowenfeld, 1947). Although each child may progress at differing rates, there is a common age bracket for each point, baring typical reoccurring artistic habits.
The first of the stages is the ‘scribble stage’, ages one to three years of age. At the very beginning of an infant’s artistic developmental process, they draw no real connection between the lines on the paper and real representation of their surrounding environment. As theorised by Jean Piaget (1977), they are still building the foundations of their environmental interpretations through sensory experiences. This is known as the sensorimotor stage.
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Although children initially use scribbling to solely engage in the act of putting pen to paper, it eventually develops into something more, as repeated patterns can begin to emerge, as well as rough shapes. As they progress towards the end of the sensorimotor stage, the child demonstrates “a change from a kinaesthetic thinking in terms of motion to imaginative thinking in terms of pictures” (Lowenfeld, 1947) as they begin to attempt to tell stories within the limits of the page.
Moving into the ‘preschematic stage’, ages three-four, the child begins to make communications through their drawings, and one can start to recognise representations of everyday objects as well as reoccurring features that may or may not have an underlying message. Naturally following this is the ‘schematic stage’, ages five to six, at which the child has learnt to assign shapes to objects, and can decipher ‘correct’ placement of things, for example what belongs on the ground and what belongs in the sky. Sizing comes into play, with how much of the page is taken by one thing correlating to how significant it is to the artist.
Lowenheld labels the following two stages as ‘dawning realism’ and ‘pseudonaturalistic’, ages seven to thirteen. At these points the child has developed a sense of self-criticism when in the process of creating. The understanding of light comes into play, and the child often puts stress on the level of realism achieved within the image, and can grow frustrated, as this is how they identify their level of “success” (Matt Fussell, 2015).
All children do not always achieve the final stage, ‘the decision stage’, usually attained during adolescence, as it is when the child engages in creating without seeing it as an activity deserving of “merit” (Matt Fussell, 2015).
Understanding this process is a vital part of being able to pick apart their artwork. The child can experience any sort of change or trauma within their surrounding environment at any given time, and the way they may communicate this creatively
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will always bare relevance to the artistic development stage they themselves are currently at.
Other elements that bare importance when analysing children’s creative responses are both colour and line pressure.
It is a common belief that usage of particular colours within art relay deep meaning. There are millions of colours in the world, each one having it’s own varying tones, accompanied by a theory behind what they connote and how they implicate on the mind.
Red has the longest wavelength, therefore attracts the attention of the human eye first. It is also indicative of love, danger and aggression. Yellow is the colour that bares the most impact on emotion, with brighter tones being able to raise spirits and self-esteem, whereas darker tones can have the opposite effect, particularly when placed in relation to other colours in a scheme. Blue is known as the ‘colour of the mind’, with bright tones stimulating the mind and lighter tones helping to aid concentration and communication. It is also associated with being cold. Green is the colour of balance, as it is in the very centre of the spectrum. It is also a colour of comfort, as it communicates with the human mind on a primitive level, suggestive of green land, water and flourishing pastures (Suresh M. Makvana, 2016 pg118).
Despite each colour having it’s own theorised connotations, the idea that these can be used to completely interpret a child’s drawing is in fact misconstrued.
It is common belief that the use of black within an image can mean the drawer is depressed, however it can also simply mean that the child sees it as the “strongest colour”, or they like the way in which it creates a contrast between itself and the typically white stock of the paper (Wimmer, 2014 pg16).
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A habit of repeated use of colour is when a concern could be necessary. It could be that the colour is simply the child’s favourite, however, in contrast with the above statement, colour can of course be indicative of emotional states, whether the child is aware of it or not.
Taking into consideration the aforementioned psychological properties of certain colours, it could be argued that a consistent use of red that dominates large parts of the child’s drawings could show a sense of inner anger. Wimmer argues that an “excessive use” of the colour red is “common amongst aggressive children”. He states that when black is combined with a strong pressure on the page the child may be experiencing “emotional blocks” or a “fear of criticism”. It is the combination of colour and other artistic habits that qualify as a reason for concern, something that is discussed further below.
Coming from experience even now, many find that their handwriting or artistry begins to slip when they feel mentally drained or exhausted. One thing to focus on when attempting to interpret meaning within children’s artwork is the pressure placed on the page. Indicators of conditions such as anxiety and inner frustration can often be seen when the child “applies so much pressure that the page is torn” (Wimmer, 2014 pg25.), or when they are too wary of spilling over the edges of the page or ‘colouring outside the lines’.
Contrastingly, when the child makes a conscious decision to colour outside of the lines it could be construed as them choosing not to follow the rules. It could be said that “staying within the lines follows systematic regimen and order, it does not allow thinking beyond the boundaries” (Kathleen Grace, 2014). This creates a possible discussion over the two points, suggesting that artistic methodology demonstrated by different children also illustrate their different characteristics. One child refuses to colour outside the lines, growing frustrated if they do, suggesting that they can grown anxious over issues such as perfectionism and performance. Another child appears to enjoy colouring outside of the lines, indicating a possible desire to go against normal order, or that they feel a sense of restraint. Jennifer Bewick
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In juxtaposition to this, which would be applying weak pressure, or just failing to engage fully in creative activities, can also be implicit of a struggle to cope with the child’s surrounding environment. It may imply a lack of confidence, not just when approaching artistic challenges, but also in the child’s character (Klepsch, 1988 pg46).
Another point worthy of investigation when investigating the context of a child’s image is where the elements within the frame actually lie on the page. Are some objects far away from each other or placed close together? Are some parts drawn bigger than others? Is there a use of negative space? All are questions relevant to what the child may actually be thinking or attempting to communicate at the given time.
A common characteristic within many drawings is a ‘baseline’, which is something placed at the bottom of the page, such as a strip of land. This is believed to provide the child with a sense of security within the frame, as they have a starting point for the other subjects to stem from (Klepsch, 1988 pg46). This can be construed as the child needing a sense of safety, whether they have that currently in their own personal environment or not, and in some cases possibly a sort of further support outside of the activity. Klepsch also proposes the theory that drawers that prefer to place objects at the bottom of the page may be more “reality-orientated”, suggesting the child may possess a more grounded mentality.
Furthering on from the above point, objects drawn towards or at the top of the page can imply that the child is one that likes to indulge in fantasy, or is often ‘up in the clouds’. It could also be demonstrating a desire to “[strive] for achievement” or in fact a “difficulty” to reach their personal goals (Klepsch 1988 pg46).
In addition to this, child placing objects, particularly figures, potentially within their family, at different distances apart from other objects within the frame can be
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indicative of how the they feel towards that person or thing. As aforementioned in this essay, children often draw objects/persons that they bare significance to larger, and vice versa, so when a another element within the page is drawn close to that it can demonstrate “preference” to the object/person, whereas more space between the two can contrastingly portray a negative feeling towards that/them (Di Leo, 1983 pg74).
In relation to the above paragraph, children often draw their families, so when one parent or family member is drawn closer or further away it can not only show a preference, but can also tell of further issues within the home. For example a parent may not live with the rest of the family, therefore it is only natural for the child to place them separately from themselves and the rest of the family, as it is all they know. Furthermore, children who experience a difficult home life can often show “resistance to drawing the family” (Di Leo, 1983 pg74).
Di Leo’s referencing to children who demonstrate a refusal to drawing their family when they are from a home that is perhaps failing to function in what would be considered a ‘normal’ way brings about the discussion as to what it means when a child won’t draw at all, or finds it difficult to communicate certain contexts within the limits of the page. A child’s resistance to drawing certain situations can show that they are uncomfortable thinking about them, also showing that even a lack of drawing can provide invaluable information to those attempting to understand how they are feeling and responding to their surrounding environments.
Another thing that can happen, relevant to the child’s progress discussed earlier, is artistic regression.
As discussed earlier in this essay, no one can make certain analyses of children’s artwork that is entirely precise to it’s meaning, however it is possible to pick up on factors that bare indictors of particular emotions and events within their life and mentality, as the child experiences no pressure to communicate exactly that they
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want to say or how the may be feeling in that moment, unlike if they were asked to give a verbal response.
In support of this idea, author Cathy A. Malchiodi, in her book ‘Understanding Children’s Drawings’ (1998), recalls an interaction she had with an eight year old girl, stating that she “spoke so poignantly about herself through drawings, depicting what she could not verbalise because of depression, fear and lack of self-esteem” (Malchiodi, 1998 preface, xi). Although this essay’s primary focus is on child development, struggling to communicate emotions and the intensity of current life events is something that is common throughout all age groups. Many find it difficult to articulate their exact feelings through speech, as well as explain the way in which surrounding circumstances are impacting them, whereas artistically there are many creative methods that can be used to express these, as explained previously in this essay surrounding the relevance of colour and shape, and as discussed in the following paragraphs.
Different stages within drawing that correlate with the child’s cognitive development process, and a tendency to jump between, or regress from alternate stages are often construed as relaying meaning. Returning to a previous way of drawing within the developmental stages can often be indicative of the child wanting to feel “[protected]”, as they view it as “[returning] to a familiar and ‘safer’ stage” (Wimmer, 2014, pg24). This suggests that traumatic or stressful periods in a child’s life hinders progress, or even makes them actually afraid to progress further cognitively and artistically, as their own stable state of mind is jeopardized or possibly distracted by the events of their surrounding environment that are out of their personal control. When their attention is withdrawn from their artistic progress, it is only natural for it to come to a stand still, or even regress back on itself.
All the factors discussed in this chapter are essential to consider when attempting to decipher meaning within a child’s drawing, whether it be immediately apparent or underlying. On there own they may not raise any queries, however when combined they can often relay a deeper explanation. Jennifer Bewick
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Chapter 3 – Case Studies of Practice There is an endless range of children’s drawings that have been subject to an indepth analysis of a more complex meaning than just their aesthetic. Wimmer focuses on one piece (figure 1. 2014) made my Harry, a 7 year old boy who offers a “lack of cooperation” (Wimmer, 2014 pg22), when approached by professionals to discuss his progress.
Immediately there are several elements within the page that can be picked up on, the first being the spacing of objects.
As previously discussed, many children use a ‘baseline’ within their artwork, something that can immediately be seen within Harry’s image with the ground drawn at the bottom of the page. Referring back to previous research it could be assumed that Harry himself is possibly lacking that sense of security within himself and surrounding environment that everyone commonly needs to feel comfortable and safe.
From the ground grows a set of flowers, which usually would bare connotations of life and happiness, however when the viewers eyes go the corner of the page they can see the sun, positioned as far away from the flowers as possible, making it impossible for them to feel it’s warmth.
The sun is something typically associated with positivity and even an elevated state of mind, however when focusing on the significance of it’s employment in children’s artwork, child psychologist Dr Christopher Hastings states that “a sun drawn in the upper corner of a drawing could indicate signs of anxiety regarding authority figures” (Hastings, 2016). Wimmer’s own words prove to bare some support of this statement, as he goes on to say that “when a child feels rejected he tends to emphasize the difference between himself and other figures in the drawing” (Wimmer, 2014 pg22).
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When considering these two supporting statements, it could be assumed that Harry sees himself as the sun in the picture, and his peers as the flowers. Harry quite possibly feels removed from the people in his surrounding environment, or as if there is a “difference”. The sun in Harry’s image also shows a sad facial expression, again highlighting that he feels uncomfortable and even far removed from the social circles he is involved with on a daily basis. He may not feel capable to provide any warmth to those around him, or as if they want to return any to him. This is a common feeling when anyone feels a sense of social rejection.
This theory could also be considered when looking at the vast use of negative space. All the objects within the frame are placed at the very edge, with just a thin strip of sky at the top. The main part of the image left blank, something that Wimmer also picks up on when attempting to identify a sense of social rejection within a child and their group of peers, saying that it can be common with those that “experience difficulty in social interaction or feel their presence is not meaningful for those around them” (Wimmer, 2014 pg25). The negative space also highlights the lack of colour in Harry’s image, again suggesting that he feels a lack of confidence.
Going back to looking at the positioning of the elements of the image, and after drawing on the fact that Harry may be attempting to identify himself as the sun, it could be picked up on that he has also included a thin strip of sky at the top of the page upon which ‘he’ sits. This could be linked back to research about ‘baselines’. As previously touched on, author Marvin Klepsch says that children who tend to place objects at the top of the page often see themselves as “striving for achievement” or finding “difficulty” in doing this (Klepsch, 1988 pg46).
When this link to Harry’s work is combined with the previous analysis of other factors, it is easy to see the relevance, and to make an assumption that Harry is struggling with social interaction, whereas his peers, or the flowers, who are portrayed as grounded, and placed close together, are excelling.
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Another drawing in which several factors can be analysed to construe meaning is that of Danny, aged five and a half (figure 2. 2014).
At the time, Danny’s mother was suffering from postpartum depression, and was awaiting treatment. Obviously an event that would affect Danny’s home environment, and entire family dynamic, there are several elements that can be highlighted within the image that could be seen as a clear communication of what Danny himself was feeling at the time.
The first noticeable factor is the facial expression on what could be seen as the ‘main’ figure, which is identified as Danny’s father by Wimmer. His father appears as upset, with tears running down his face. This not only demonstrates a clear tension at home, but also that Danny is aware of the seriousness of the situation, and that he, and many other children, pick up on and respond emotionally to their surrounding environments.
Furthermore it can be seen that he has also applied a harder pressure when adding the tears. Drawing on previously mentioned theories, it could be assumed that Danny is feeling “frustration” (Wimmer, 2014 pg26), at the situation, and that he understands that the emotions his father is demonstrating are negative, despite his young age.
Danny has used a limited colour pallet, mainly using blue. Considering the connotations of this colour, the theory that he is attempting to communicate a feeling of sadness is only emphasized. Blue is also a colour associated with concentration, and when this is combined with the tough pressure he has applied to the tears, the most obvious link to emotional distress within the image, it could be said that his feelings of exasperation and discomfort with his home situation are only accentuated to the viewer.
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Another factor to be considered when attempting to interpret this drawing is the artistic developmental stage that Danny is at. According to the theories proposed by Lowenfeld, children aged five to six understand the difference between what belongs on the ground and what belongs in the sky, and are able to place objects on the page in correlation to how they would appear in real life.
When looking at the work that Danny has produced, despite the flower and the sun being in their common place, the figures appear to almost be ‘floating in space’, without any sort of realistic representation. This suggests that Danny has regressed back to an earlier drawing stage.
As previously discussed, children tend to regress when faced with difficult situations within their personal sphere, as it “allows them to return to an earlier, more familiar and less threatening stage of development” (Wimmer, 2014 pg26). Considering this, along with the other factors within Danny’s image, it could be safe to assume that the events within his immediate environment have started to block his personal progress, particularly artistic, and he has begun to regress back to a stage before he was experiencing difficulty as an “effective defence mechanism” (Wimmer, 2014 pg26), even if he doesn’t realise it himself.
Considering all this, it can be presumed that Danny has been deeply affected by the happenings within his home life, and that he has picked up on the disposition of his parents. Furthering this he has developed an emotional response himself as well; apparent through the work he has created.
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Chapter 4 – Reflective Practice After conducting my research period, and focusing particularly on areas concerning the understanding of how children communicate their own personal difficulties, whether they be social or relating to their current home-life situations, through their artwork, I decided to try and tackle a subject that is both sensitive and familiar to my own family – the death of a loved one.
Losing my own Father at the age of seventeen I understand the emotional turmoil and stress that such an event can bring upon a family, however with my brother only being eight, I often thought about how he was dealing with such a traumatic event, whether he understood the situation completely, and if there was a way that everything could be communicated to him in a way that was both engaging and helpful, without baring any tones of patronisation.
This spurred me to attempt to illustrate the lengthy experience of processing the death of a loved one. I wanted to keep it focused particularly on how the different emotional stages can be communicated simply and sensitively, despite the obvious complexity and intense impact it has on both the mental stability of the child and the security of their overall family dynamic.
I started by thinking about how I could illustrate a topic with such natural complications through basic imagery, and whether a simple metaphor would be a successful direction to take with it, keeping it simple enough for children to understand and interpret on their own. I considered the fragility of the human mentality, and every day objects that could draw links to this. That’s when I came up the idea of using a vase as the main subject of the story. The images follow a story of a vase, full of flowers, falling and smashing to pieces, before slowly being built back together to the stage where it can hold a bunch of flowers again. Despite this there is a still a piece missing.
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With this use of imagery, I hoped to demonstrate the way in which experiencing such an event can often leave you feeling somewhat ‘broken’ or ‘incomplete’, as such a significant element of your life is now gone. The vase, a representation for the child’s common existence or life, smashing to the floor is emblematic of the moment of the death itself, and how in that moment one’s life can feel instantly changed, and possibly even irreparable. The following images in the sequence, which show the vase gradually being built back together, mirror the way in which, over time, life begins to almost ‘put itself back together’, so to speak. In the final frame the vase, although missing a piece of its original structure, can be used to hold flowers, a symbol of one’s happiness or content state of mind, also shown in the beginning frame, once again.
As well as the physical objects drawn within the frames, I also wanted to draw on what I have learnt from researching the significance of consistent use of certain colours within children’s artwork, and how I could use it effectively to communicate with the infant mind-set.
Each object within the frames of my practical project is representative of a different aspect or emotion, so I thought it to be only logical to link colour to each one respective to the theory.
When looking at the images in simple terms, two main components can be identified – the vase and the flowers. Although they work in harmony with each other, they also bare connotations to separate things. When viewed metaphorically, they are both symbols for life, however the vase is delicate and takes time to reconstruct, baring a likeness to the mental state of the child, or the typical human in fact. As previously discussed, blue is a colour associated with a number of things that relate to the sequence of events within the images, first of which is fragility. This links directly to how both a vase can be broken by a knock, and how the human mind can be affected by a traumatic event, which in this case is death. Secondly sadness. The term ‘feeling blue’ is a common phrase used when experiencing feelings of misery or upset, and is also used to respectively in imagery to denote both the former and the Jennifer Bewick
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latter. Thirdly, blue is linked to concentration. It takes time and focus on your own well being to eventually find general happiness in life again. This takes time, however, as demonstrated within the frames of the vase being put back together, and the final image, it is entirely possible.
In juxtaposition with the connotations of sadness brought from the blue in the images, the yellows and pinks within the flowers are the ultimate representation of optimism and a ‘new lease of life’. When discussing the psychological properties of colours, it is believed that yellow, despite being one of cheerfulness, has the most affect on human emotions. Its warmth brings comfort, however differing tones, particularly darker, can in fact have a negative affect on the human mentality. Baring this in mind, I went for a brighter shade, along with the pink which is linked to both unconditional love and nurturing.
When linking all these colours together with their associated properties, along with the subjects of the images, the message I am trying to communicate through the story becomes clearer. Hopefully I have created something that is both moving and easy to understand in its simplicity, despite the mixture of complex emotions that are inevitably involved with instances of trauma and loss.
Something else that I think is crucial when addressing such a sensitive subject, particularly when the child’s mind is the target audience, is to make sure that the images can be interpreted universally. After researching how the way in which children produce their artwork can be indicative of their own home life and how they feel about their own presence within their surrounding social circles, I felt that showing no bias towards a certain group of children with certain lifestyles was essential, as such events as the death of a close family member can happen to anyone.
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Chapter 5 – Conclusion Considering the theories explored within this essay, it could be said that there can indefinitely be meaning behind the images that children create.
When looking deeper into both hypothesized ideas, and conducted case studies for reference, one can easily begin to create links between a child’s emotional wellbeing and what has been drawn on the page. After analysing factors including line pressure, use of negative space, and the placement of objects, one can often begin to understand how a child may be responding to the on-going experiences within their own personal spheres.
Alongside this, using theories proposed by psychologists such as Piaget and Lowenfeld about a child’s cognitive development, one can also take into account the child of interest’s personal progress, whether that be mental or creative, by seeing how they piece together the art that they produce, and whether it coincides with behaviour typical to their age group.
This can furthermore be used to monitor whether a child is regressing, which can be considered to be a clear indicator of a negative response and even insecurity concerning their current surrounding situation, whatever that may be.
After conducting such periods of research surrounding the theories discussed in this essay, one could say that analysing the artwork that a child creates is an undoubtedly useful tool in understanding the way in which they view the events closest to them. Considering that many children may find it difficult to talk about their feelings directly, attempting to depict meaning within their drawings can be considered to be another form of communication, as whatever they cannot express verbally, can often be shown within the limits of the page.
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As established already, no one can ever be entirely confident in what a child is trying to say about certain on-going situations in their world when not discussed directly. From the discussions within this essay, however, it seems that through a combination of considering both aesthetic qualities of a piece, the development stage that a child could typically be at, and their overall behaviour, an underlying meaning or emotional response to personal issues can often be detected and explained.
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Images
Figure 1. Wimmer, M. (2014) ‘Interpreting Children’s Drawings – Drawing as windows into the inner world of children’. Roshida. (pg22)
Figure 2. Wimmer, M. (2014) ‘Interpreting Children’s Drawings – Drawing as windows into the inner world of children’. Roshida. (pg25)
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Kellogg, R. (1970) ‘Analysing Children’s Art’. Palo Alto, California, National Press.
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Lille, W (1926) ‘The Nature of Colour Associations’ Oxford University, The Mind Association, Assessed 2017.
Lowenfeld, V (1947) ‘Creative and Mental Growth’ Makvana S.M, (2016) ‘The International Journal of Indian Psychology, Volume 3, Issue 2, No. 7’ Redshine Publication. Inc. Malchiodi, C.A, (1997) ‘Breaking the Silence: Art Therapy with Children from Violent Homes’ Psychology Press.
Malchiodi, C.A, (1998) ‘Understanding Children’s Drawings’ Guilford Press.
Piaget, J (1951) ‘The Child’s Conception of The World’ Rowman and Littlefield.
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Piaget, J (1976) Piaget’s Theory’ Springer-Verlag, New York. Thomas, G.V and Gray, R, (1992) Children's Drawings of Topics Differing in Emotional Significance–Effects on Placement Relative to a Self-Drawing: a Research Note’ John Wiley and Sons Ltd. Wimmer, M. (2014) ‘Interpreting Children’s Drawings – Drawing as windows into the inner world of children’. Roshida.
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