Framing the existing A new structure to create a flexible space
by Jessica Bardella
Framing the existing A new structure to create a flexible space
by Jessica Bardella
All rights reserved under international copyright conventions. No part of this pubblication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storageterieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher or specific copyright owners. Academic Promotor _ Ignaas Back International Master of Science in Architecture KU Leuven, Faculty of Architecture, Campus Sint-Lucas Ghent Class of 2016-2017 June 2017
Table
of
Contents
_____________
1. INTRODUCTION
7. DESIGN METHODOLOGY
8 Introduction
78 Process
2. UNDERSTANDING THE FRAMEWORK
8. INTERVENTION
12 Nepal
96
14 16
Framing the existing
History, Geography, Climate, Religion
After the earthquake Life in the village Ghante overview, Local available materials
9. CREDITS 118 Bibliography 119 Sitography
3. AN ANALYTICAL VIEW OF THE “HARIHARPUR SECONDARY SCHOOL” 24 26 36 38 40
Organization and distribution The buildings The roofing system The playground and the sitting plat- form The other school
4. LEARNING FROM EACH OTHER 44
Case studies Mulan primary school, by Rural urban framework
50
Sasle school, by Noel Sampson School bridge, by Li Xiaodong Atelier
Model event
5. RESEARCH QUESTION
6. THEORETICAL INPUT 58 Frame 60 62 66
Historical applications Social spaces in Nepal Nepali building techniques Wood joinery, Sub-tropical climate, Warm temper- ate climate, Cold temperate climate, Alpine climate
120
Image credits
Introduction
Introduction _________________ This master dissertation fits into the research framework of “Nepal, the ideal school”. It is a research project that sees the collaboration between KU Leuven and the Nepali NGO “CEPP” which promotes school education as a right, placing teachers and pupils at the centre, pursueing to work in the interface between the school and the community. An ideal school for Nepal, to me, is a school that people can be proud of and it is only with the support of the people surrounding it that this goal can be achieved. This is why I believe that is important to have their involvement. I see a school also as a place for people to gather, since in the remote areas of Nepal it happens that communities have no fixed place to meet. In the case of my proposal the school is a pole of attraction that serves multiple needs, which is why I decided to work with the frame, since it would give me the possibility to tackle several issues by dealing with a flexible structure. The structure is would be built with the local construction techniques, this would allow the employment of the community in the making of the school; due to the fact that the site is situated in a remote area of Nepal, importing materials would result in high costs, so why not invest on the village instead? In the week that I spent in Ghante, I had the opportunity to get closer with the reality of the Hariharpur Secondary School, where I detected different issues from which follows my design proposal.
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Understanding
the
Framework
Nepal
High Mountain (2,500 - 8,848 m)
2
Middle Mountain (2,000 - 2,500 m) Hills (700 - 2,000 m)
_________________
Siwalik of Churia Hills (300 – 700 m) Terai (60 - 300 m)
HISTORY Nepal was known to the Ancient Indians, it was mentioned in classical Indian literature. In the 3rd century BC the great Indian Emperor introduced Buddhism into Nepal. About in 200 AD people called the Lichavis took power of the country. Under them Nepal flourished and great temples both Hindu and Buddhist were built, however the Lichavis eventually declined and a new era began in 879 AD, they were replaced by a series of kings called the Thakuris. From the 12th century a series of kings whose surnames ended in Malla reigned in Nepal. In the 14th century one of them, Jayasthiti Malla introduced the caste system. The power of the Malla dynasty reached a peak in the 15th century under Yaksha Mall. However after his death in 1482 his kingdom was divided between his three sons. Nepal was reunited in the 18th century by a man named Privthi Nayan Shah. He was wary of the growing power of the British in India and decided to isolate his nation. However in the 19th century the Nepalese were forced to come to terms with the British government. In 1814-1816 they fought a war after which the present boundaries of Nepal were drawn. Then in 1860 Nepalese soldiers began serving in the British army. Meanwhile in 1846 a man named Rang Bahadur seized power and declared himself “Rana” or prime minister. Afterwards the kings of Nepal were only figureheads and the Rana held the real power. Finally in 1923 the British and the Nepali government signed a new treaty. In 1950 the Rana was overthrown and the 1
Kathmandu
N 0
50
100
200 Kilometers
royal authority was restored. Then in 1959 elections were held in Nepal, however the king quarrelled with the elected Congress and dismissed it in 1960. Under a new constitution of 1962 the king had all the real power. In 1990 widespread protests led to the restoration of democracy, Nepal gained a new constitution and in 1991 elections were held. Then in 1994 a minority Communists government took power, but in 1995 the Supreme Court nullified the election results and reinstated the previous parliament. In 1996 a Maoist (Communist) insurgency began in Nepal which severely damaged the economy and caused a civil was that lasted until November 2006, when a peace accord was signed. In April 2008 elections were held and a coalition government came to power. In May 2008 the monarchy was officially abolished and Nepal became a republic. In the autumn of 2015, after the earthquake, the government signed a new constitution. GEOGRAPHY The Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, which has a population of 31 million, is located in South Asia and borders with China on the Himalayan side and with India in the South, East and West side. Its territory is extremely rich in diversity, it varies from the fertile plains of the Terai region (60 – 300 m), through the Siwalik of Churia Hills (300 – 700 m) and the Hills (700 – 2,000 m), up until the Middle Mountain region (2,000 – 2,500 m) culminating in the High Mountain region (2,500 – 8,848 m) which includes the Himalayas peaks. The capital, Kathmandu, stands at an elevation of 1,400 metres in the bowl-shaped Kathmandu
1 Narayanhiti Palace, or Narayanhiti Durbar is a palace in Kathmandu, which long served as residence and principal workplace of the reigning Monarch of the Kingdom of Nepal. 2 Physiographic regions of Nepal.
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Valley of central Nepal. Nepal is situated amongst the world’s seismically most active region, frequent earthquake events and associated damages are common as Nepal lies in the convergence zone of Indian plate beneath the Eurasian plate. Due to its geography there are no railroads, the only way to move from city to city is by jeep, bus or motorcycle. There are no tunnels, so to move around the country people are often forced to endless trips on dirt roads running up the mountains, that during the rainy season often transform in mud traps. CLIMATE The climate differs from region to region depending mainly on the altitude, it can be divided in five zones: the tropical and subtropical zones lie below 1,200 metres, the temperate zone (1,200 – 2,400 m), the cold zone (2,400 – 3,600 m), the subarctic zone (3,600 – 4,400 m) and the Arctic zone above 4,400 metres. The dry season alternates with the monsoon season, dictating the rhythm of life throughout the entire year, all considering that Nepal strives on agriculture, farming and tourism.
RELIGION Prior to the movement for democracy in early 2006 and the sacking of King Gyanendra in 2008, the country was officially a Hindu state. Hinduism is the majority religion in the state and profoundly influences its social structure, while Buddhism (Tibetan Buddhism)is practised by some ethnic groups in forms which are strongly influenced by Hinduism. Kiratism otherwise is the grassroots native religion of populations belonging to the Kirati ethnicity. Islam and Christianity have made inroads and are the religious identity of small populations. The caste system is still in use, people prefer to use the term “ethnic group”, though the rules are not as rigid as they were in the past. Inter-caste marriages have gradually gained acceptance due to the increasing education, employment, middle-class economic background and urbanisation. However it might be accepted but not supported, meaning that the family would disown the couple in most of the situations. For foreigners the only way to recognize the belonging of a person to an ethnic group is through his/ her surname, indeed the surname represent a person’s ethnic group while the untouchables go as “Nepali”.
3
3 Pashupatinath Temple in Kathmandu during Maha Shivaratri, a Hindu festival celebrated annually in honour of the god Shiva.
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After
the earthquake _________________
On the 25th of April 2015 Nepal was hit by an earthquake of magnitude 7.8 Mw or 8. 1 Ms, it caused nearly 9,000 victims and almost 22,000 people were injured. It happened on a Saturday at 11:56 local time, which on a positive note meant that the schools were closed, and since Nepalese people do not normally have lunch, most of them were outside their houses working the fields. Its epicentre was about 77 km northwest of Kathmandu, and its focus was about 15 km underground. Two large aftershocks shook the region no more than one hour after the main quake, and several dozen smaller aftershocks occurred in the region during the succeeding days. On May 12th a magnitude 7.3 Mw aftershock struck at 76 km east-northeast of Kathmandu, killing more than 100 people and injuring nearly 1,900. The earthquake left behind a country on its knees, thousands of houses were destroyed across many districts of the country, with entire villages flattened, especially those near the epicentre. The majority of the observed damage occurred in the Kathmandu Valley. The Gorkha earthquake of 25 April 2015 reflected the performance of various types of buildings. After the inspection of several buildings of various types, many kinds of construction as well as structural deficiencies were identified. Reinforced concrete (RC), unreinforced masonry (URM), rubble stone and adobe buildings were found to be the dominant construction systems of the country. The majority fraction of damage is found to be consisted by URM, rubble stone and adobe buildings of central and eastern Nepal. Moreover, RC damage is found to be 4
localized for many reasons except structural and construction deficiencies like liquefaction, local site effects, ground amplification, among others. The common types of failures in RC construction were identified as the soft storey, pounding, shear failure, and other failures associated with construction as well as structural deficiencies like building symmetry, detailing and others. Furthermore, for URM constructions, the structural integrity, heavy load accumulation, age, lack of bracing and pounding were the major cause of the complete collapse or failure out of plane. Similarly, binding and structural integrity, lack of tying members, heavy gable and roof construction were the leading cause of damage in random rubble construction and adobe constructions. 5
About 95% of the damage is shared by URM, random rubble and adobe buildings, so this earthquake was more devastating towards such buildings in comparison to the performance of RC buildings in the affected districts. All the damage was clearly concentrated into non-engineered or pre-engineered buildings with major flaws in construction or structural components so it could be inferred that engineered constructions should be the logical solution for seismically active regions like Nepal. The wooden framed houses were the most survived structures that performed very well during this earthquake, a paradigm that was reflected as well during 1934 Bihar-Nepal and 1988 Udaypur earthquake. It is necessary to understand and implement that, after every earthquake in Nepal, the existing structures are weakened thus in following earthquakes the survivors constitute the largest fraction at risk of new damage. The start of modern reinforced concrete construction began in the major urban
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4 Damaged building in Patan almost two years since the earthquake occurred. 5 A collapsed household in Dhulikhel, in the Kathmandu Valley.
centres of Nepal some thirty years back, and concentrated in the Kathmandu Valley and other urban centres. However, it did not supplant the traditional unreinforced masonry construction practices in some of the urban nuclei and especially in the rural areas, where these construction techniques are dominant consisting of more than 90% of the buildings. The trend of RC construction is being more popular than any other construction types though the economic limitations, the availability of construction materials and technology, the lack of optimized design, the lack in enforcement of building regulations are some of the loopholes that are degrading the quality of construction ultimately increasing vulnerability of the buildings. To the untrained eye the outcome of the earthquake is quite clear: reinforced concrete buildings are safe, while buildings built with traditional techniques are not safe. This is due to the compelling scenarios that people have witnessed throughout the country, little they know though that is not as simple as that. Studies have investigated what were the faults in the construction method of the buildings and it was found that one of the reasons is that the current unreinforced masonry constructions do not follow any more the traditional model of the Newari houses, a model that was developed through the years in order to mitigate the effects of earthquakes.
6
are usually built with a double frame, one within the external masonry leaf/wythe, and a slightly larger one within the internal masonry leaf/whyte. The frames are connected by timber elements embedded in the masonry; - Ring timber bands and plates to tied the roof to the walls or placed at different heights of the walls to tie the different leaves/whytes of the wall.
“Several construction details have been identified as being the main feature for its earthquake-resistant properties. Examples of such details are the fact that Newari houses have: - A symmetric plan arrangement; - A low height (usually up to three stories); - Double leaf/whyte masonry façades and side walls usually made of ma appa bricks in the external leaf/whyte and dachi appa bricks in the internal one. These walls are continuous and connected at the corners;
- Timber pegs called chokus to restrain floor joists from sliding over walls. At the roof level, two vertical pegs are inserted through a joist, on each side of the wall. For the intermediate storeys, the common practice is for the joists to be anchored with pegs on the internal face of the external wall and in-between the two masonry leaves/whytes. These pegs are very effective in preventing relative sliding of the floor structure on the walls in the presence of lateral forces, creating a box effect. The pegs are also effective in limiting out-ofplane movement of the external walls.� (Correia, 2015)
7
- A reduction of the weight of the building over its height, by using timber partition walls, timber columns, and by reducing the thickness of the main masonry walls in the upper storeys; - Small square timber windows with lintels extending well into the surrounding masonry. The small size of the windows allows for the development of larger masonry piers with adequate shear resistance between the openings. These windows
- 15 -
6 Damaged buildings. 7 The dachi appa brick with its typical trapezoidal shape.
Life
in the
Village
The wind blows generally from the river (South-West) to the hills (North-East); the period prior to the rainy season is characterized by heavy winds during which typhoons might occur, while the dry season has a consistent wind speed.
_________________ During my stay in Nepal I had the chance to travel around the country, I got to see breathtaking landscapes, I got to meet the most kind and warm people I have ever met, but this was nothing compared to the week that I spent in the village of Ghante and in the Hariharpur Secondary School. Ghante is situated in the Village Development Committees of Pipalmadi, within the Sindhuli District of south-eastern Nepal. The Hariharpur Secondary School belongs to Owda, the bigger “village” of whom Ghante is a part of. The altitude in this area is between 200-300 m, this is why the climate is more temperate here compared to the Northern part of the country where the Himalayan mountains make the weather conditions quite extreme. The average temperature is affected by the thermal excursion, as soon as the sun sets the heat is replaced by the cool night, with the exception of the monsoon season that raises the overall temperature.
Being this close to the equator line, the sun is always located at a greater height if compared to its position in the European sky, which means that its radiating power is greater being closer to the Zenith, as the shadows are found to have lower extension, if we compare them once again to our own. Another consequence of the proximity to the equator is found in the amount of light hours in a day, in this case it varies from 10 ½ hours (winter solstice) to 14 hours (summer solstice), while in Ghent for example it goes from 8 hours to 16 ½ hours during summer. The accessibility to this location depends on the dimensions of the Bagmati river which runs through the Kathmandu Valley. During the dry season indeed it is possible to reach the village by car, bus or even bike, thanks to the fact that these vehicles can ride through
Sindhuli
8
Sindhuli Average and Max Wind Speed and Gust (kmph)
10
Max, Min and Average Temperature (°c)
+ 20kmph
+ 30°c
+ 15kmph + 20°c + 10kmph + 10°c + 5kmph
0°c Jan '16
Mar '16
May '16
2010
Jul '16
2012
Max Temp (°c)
Sep '16
2014
Min Temp (°c)
0kmph
Nov '16
Jan '16
2016
Mar '16
May '16
2010
Avg Temp (°c)
Jul '16
Sep '16
2012
Max Wind (kmph)
2014
Avg Gust (kmph)
Nov '16
2016
Avg Wind (kmph)
Sindhuli
9
Sun Path Diagram
11
Average Rainfall Amount (mm) and Rainy Days
8-9-10 Diagrams of the temperature, the rainfall and the wind for the district of Sindhuli.
N 10°
330
30
20° 30°
+ 400mm 300
40°
18:59
05:07
50° 60°
18
60
06
11 Sun path diagram of the Sindhuli district.
70° 80°
+ 200mm
15
18:17 W
09
09
15
Mar '16
2010
May '16
Jul '16
2012
Sep '16
2014
12
17:12
0mm Jan '16
Nov '16
240
15
12
210
2016
05:51 E
12
18
06:47
09
120
150 S
Rain (mm)
Days
June solstice
- 16 -
Equinox (March and September)
December solstice
12-13 Map of Nepal and its districts. 14 Map of the Sindhuli district with its Village Development Committees. 15-16 Map of the area surrounding the Hariharpur Secondary School.
12
14
Kathmandu Ghante
13
15
16
Hariharpur Secondary School
Our host house
- 17 -
the almost empty bed of the river. A different situation occurs during the monsoon season, when the only way to get to Ghante is to cross the river over an inflatable tire and then one day of walk. All the materials and the necessities are brought to this site with this method, which makes them more expensive to transport and consequently reflects on the importance of this area to be as independent as possible from other cities.
group since they have most of the money and are normally well educated which is why they would never pitch in in labour activities. The Rais are the original people from the area and they are the most numerous, our host family belongs to this ethnic group.
17
The rhythm of life is articulated by the rhythm of nature since the prevalence of people there are farmers. The crowing of the rooster at dawn is the sign for everyone to wake up and start their day, women normally bathe early in the morning (or late in the afternoon) so that less people could be witnesses to this private moment. Then they go on to feed the animals, generally chickens, goats, buffaloes and sometimes cows. At 8am hot tea is served, followed at 9am by dal bhat, which is the typical Nepali dish and it consists of steamed rice and a cooked lentil soup called dal with the addition of other vegetables or even meat, depending on the occasion. Consequently children go to school while the adults continue with their daily routine of cleaning the house, taking care of the fields and the animals. At 4pm school ends and once the kids get home is time for them to have a snack consisting in hot tea, dried pressed rice and green peas. Dinner is served at 7pm while bed time is no later than 10pm. Given the fact that electricity is still a luxury for the inhabitants of the rural areas of Nepal, it is not common to hang out after sunset.
Although there is a carpenter, most of the man know how to build a basic building with the local materials such as sal trees, bamboo, mud, natural stones and straw. The normal layout of a household is about two stories height, where the ground floor consists in the living room and the kitchen and on the upper floor are the sleeping rooms. Verandas are to be found on both floors, this is where most of the time is spent since the interior of the house is normally very dark, they create a nice environment where it is not too hot or too cold and during the monsoon season is brings shelter from the heavy rains. The ground floor is raised from the ground to prevent flooding, it is generally built out of river stones covered in mud while the structure is out of sal trees, a darker colour is given to the ground and to the first 40 centimetres of the walls in order to facilitate the cleaning of the house. A wooden staircase connects the two levels and on the upper floor wooden planks are used to separate the rooms from the exterior, while the internal walls are normally made out of woven bamboo and covered in mud. A different structure, still in sal tree, supports the roof that can be made out of cement tiles, corrugated steel or, for buildings of less importance, straw.
In this area three are the main ethnic groups: the Tamang, the Newar and the Rai. The Tamangs are those with Mongolian features and they are the poorer of the three which makes them the best in labour. The Newari, even though they are the fewer in number, represent the most powerful
- 18 -
18
19
20
17 Road to Ghante through the Bagmati river. 18 Our host house with our host mother, Reelli Rai, while we were discussing with our translator in the veranda. 19 Interior of a house that has suffered damage due to the earthquake. To be noted is the presence of the sal tree structure and the natural stones used as filling to the walls. 20 Typical house from this rural area. The green building is the toilet and on the roof thatch is left to dry under the sun.
- 19 -
An
analytical view of the
“Hariharpur
secondary school”
- 22 -
- 23 -
Organization
and
Distribution
_________________ The Hariharpur Secondary School consists in nine buildings, two of which are toilets, one is abandoned and one hosts the teachers room and a storage room. The school has 264 students and 17 teachers, it involves a total of 349 households and it covers grades from 1st to 10th. To some children it can take up to 2 hours walking to and from the school through the rice fields, currently there are three teachers that have been living for months in one of the classrooms in the school since they come from too far, while in the house that was hosting us is also accommodating the Math teacher, Mukeshav, being that he comes from a different district, in exchange he has been tutoring the sons of the family. Two new buildings are planned to be built in the next future, one is to be a kindergarten while the other one is planned to be a “hotel� for the students and/or the teachers. There are three accesses to the school site, one from south, one in the north and one in the western side.
The subjects that are been taught are 8: Nepali, English, Math, Health and Physical, Population and Environment, Social Studies, Education and Science. For the younger classes normally a teacher covers half of the standaert program while a second one deals with the other half, so that children do not have to adjust to multiple figures in their educational life. Though, it happens often that teachers do not attend the class, in that case students are left alone and it either happens that another teacher steps in, while maybe has been teaching another class, or they study on their own, or they simply mess around. Lessons last 40 minutes and although there is a lunch break, there is no lunch involved, expect for 22
21
some very young children that bring a snack to eat, but not every family can afford that.
School starts at 10AM, for the first 30 minutes the students gather around the central courtyard for the morning prayer standing in front of a platform, made out of river stones and cement, where four flags of different colours and the Nepalese flag are being set up everyday for it, next to them are the stones with the number of the grade of whose students are standing in line behind them. The morning prayer includes some physical exercises, questions related to school subjects to random students, and singing the national anthem. When this is over the students go in line of grades back to class, once there they sing together a song connected to their grade.
During the break the students normally set up the volleyball net that is being stored in the storage room, the older boys play while the girls are watching in the shade of the big holy tree in the courtyard, while others play in the playground recently designed and built by some fellow students from KU Leuven, and some kids play in the rice field just behind the school during the dry season.
- 24 -
23
21 Morning prayer. 22 Young children having a snack during the lunch break. 23 Students playing volleyball during the break. 24 Plan of the school site.
a 1st, 2nd, 3rd grade and the room where three of the teachers are sleeping.
24
b 4th and 5th grade. c 6th grade and an empty class. d Abandoned building. l
e 7th and 8th grade. f Teacher’s room and storage room. g 9th and 10th grade.
f
h Toilets. i Tap water.
g
j Central courtyard where kids play. k Platform e
l Playground k
a j
d h i
c
b
h
h
The
buildings
walls are doomed to create issues inside the buildings. Another major problem is the overheating of the classes during the hottest parts of the year, during which the metal roofs are heated by the sun, creating an unbearable climate under them. It does not help the fact that the local people cut the trees that were shading some of these roofs for money, leaving them now completely exposed to the sun rays.
_________________ All the buildings were built before the earthquake occurred, the latest one was the two stories concrete building, while the oldest are the ones on the western part of the site. Their design comes from a pre approved project by the government that does not take into account the different climates and topography of the country, but it is being replicated all around Nepal. Of this there are normally two typologies, one that uses river stones and bricks with corrugated metal sheets as roof, and one that uses merely concrete which is the most appreciated by the communities since they picture a concrete building to be more safe and modern, and they look at it as a symbol of progress.
27
25
Acoustic problems are present in all of the buildings due to the lack of windows, insulation and a complete separating wall between classrooms. There are no windows since they have to deal with strong winds that would end up breaking them, so it is common to be disturbed by external noises, but at the same time it allows the air to flow through the class, cooling down a bit the temperature. Most of the Nepalese buildings are not insulated, still exposed concrete and unfinished
The interior of the buildings is quite bare, with the exception of the first three grades where learning materials have been painted on the walls, thanks to volunteers work, nothing has been hanged on the walls, also because some of the buildings are missing the perimeter walls. There is no desk for the teacher, who normally has to stand or sometimes sits among the students, there is no place for them to place their books and some of the classes have more benches and desks than people. The benches are made out of wood and are quite heavy to be moved, while in the younger classes lessons are being taught on the floor of a wooden platform with a synthetic green carpet, which prevents pens from falling in-between planks, in their case small benches are used as desks and they can be moved around depending on the activity.
26
28
25 Interior of the 10th grade. 26 Interior of the room where the teachers are sleeping. 27 Interior of the 2nd grade. 28 Typical desk-bench.
- 26 -
N
0
5
10
20 m
teachers room and storage room
__ __ __ Materials: - concrete; - wooden doors and shutters.
Issues: - acoustic problems; - no opportunity to hang materials on the walls due to the material used; - the storage room serves also as com puter room.
7.40
7.40
5.04
29
15.69
- 27 -
N
1st, 2nd, 3rd
0
5
10
20 m
grade and the room where
three teachers are living
__ __ __ Materials: - concrete; - wooden doors and shutters.
Issues: - acoustic problems; - no opportunity to hang materials on the walls due to the cement, the learning material is painted on the walls so there is no flexibility; - on the rooftop the reinforcement bars are exposed to the elements with the risk of hurting the students as well. 4.40
3.34
4.40
1.40
9.30
6.90
30
13.34
- 28 -
N
0
5
4th
10
20 m
and
5th
grade
__ __ __ Materials: - plinth in river stones and cement; - steel structure; - bricks for separating wall; - corrugated metal sheets.
Issues: - acoustic and overheating problems; - no opportunity to hang materials on the walls since there are not any; - the benches are too big for some of the students.
6.55
6.55
5.00
31
14.00
- 29 -
N
6th
0
5
10
20 m
grade and an empty room
__ __ __ Materials: - plinth in river stones and cement; - steel structure; - bricks for separating wall and two exter- nal walls; - corrugated metal sheets.
Issues: - acoustic and overheating problems; - no opportunity to hang materials on the walls since there are not any; - one room is empty. 6.55
6.55
5.00
32
14.00
- 30 -
N
Empty
0
room and
5
10
20 m
“storage�
for unused wood
__ __ __ Materials: - plinth in river stones and cement; - steel structure; - corrugated metal sheets.
Issues: - the structure of the plinth is falling apart, with exposed reinforcement bars; - no walls; - the building is abandoned.
6.55
6.55
5.00
33
14.00
- 32 -
N
0
5
7th
10
20 m
and
8th
grade
__ __ __ Materials: - plinth in river stones and cement; - steel structure; - bricks for external and separating walls painted white; - corrugated metal sheets.
Issues: - acoustic and overheating problems; - no opportunity to hang materials on the walls due to the bricks.
5.99
5.99
3.94
5.10
34
14.00
- 33 -
N
0
9th
5
10
20 m
and
10th
grade
__ __ __ Materials: - plinth in river stones and cement; - steel structure for the building, wooden structure for the roof and the windows, even though the glazed part is missing; - walls in bricks covered with cement; - corrugated metal sheets.
Issues: - acoustic problems; - no opportunity to hang materials on the walls due to the cement. - dark classrooms since they are shaded from the tree and the adjacent building.
6.51
6.51
4.99
6.15
35
15.03
- 34 -
The
37
roofing system _________________
One of the pressing problems is the roof that is being used for all the buildings except the concrete ones, multiple pieces of corrugated metal sheets, because it causes overheating and acoustic issues. During the monsoon season it becomes impossible to have class when it rains due to the noise that the water creates when it encounters the metal, meanwhile on sunny days the heat caused by the metal generates an unbearable climate inside the classrooms. In two of the buildings they tried to fix these problems by adding some untreated bamboo beams to support earth bags resulting in an effective solution, although now time has passed and the bamboo and the steel structure have started to bend which puts in danger the students in the classes. The lack of financing makes it difficult to be able to replace the bamboo and at the same time the community is always waiting for the government to intervene since they believe it is 36
building is used as a place to play, while the overhanging slabs serve as a “tribune� to watch other students playing volleyball during the break. In Nepal it is common to gather on the rooftop on a building, especially during winter when they seek for the warmth of the sun, since the interior of the buildings can be cold, depending on the altitude. The height of a building reflects the status of the school, since in Nepal 70% of them are of one story height, having a concrete building that has two floors contributes to it, meanwhile the idea of a building being more than 3 stories height frightens them due to high risk of earthquakes. 38
not upon them to take care of the facilities. Still, this does not solve though the acoustic problems caused by the wall separating the two classrooms. A wooden structure is used in one of the buildings to support the roof, this is important because it shows a direct involvement with the community that helped in the construction process. Combining traditional elements of the Nepalese vernacular architecture with modern materials seams to be working since it helps them to become more acquaint with steel while still adopting materials and techniques close to their culture. The rooftop of the two stories concrete
- 36 -
39
40
36 Bamboo beams support a layer of splitted bamboo, covered by a layer of plastic while supporting earth bags for insulation. 37 Interior of the 9th grade, where a wooden structure is being used to support the roof. 38 Interior of the 8th showing the materiality of the walls and how the bamboo is bending the steel structure that is supporting it. 39 The abandoned building is one of the two where this insultating system has been tried. 40 Interior of the 7th grade, where the bended bamboo is supporting the earth bags.
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The
42
playground and the sitting
platform des _________________ This past summer (2016) Eleni Tsiamparta, Stien Poncelet and Desislava Iroslav Petkova, three students from KU Leuven, were hosted by our same family in Ghante for a total period of six weeks. With the help of the Nepali NGO CEPP, they took part in a development cooperation project during which they researched the area and designed a playground and a sitting platform for the school. The design process took into account the feedbacks of some of the teachers and it was built by the local community using leftover wood and recycled materials like plastic bottles filled with sand/earth and unused tires. The sitting platform was built around the big holy tree in the courtyard, they had to convince the people not to use concrete, but to adopt the wood in order to let the tree breathe and given that wood is a more suitable material to use for a sitting area. Different heights made it so that the students of all the ages would find an appropriate place to sit. 41
Desislava left, the local people decided to paint the playground to make it more joyful, it is an important fact because normally their attitude towards the school is more passive, while in this occasion they took it upon them. The swing was removed to make space for one of the buildings planned to be built, while next to the sitting platform a small sanctuary was built using cement and stone rivers. These interventions were successful under different aspects, not only they provide a space for the students to play and help socializing, but after that they were decisive in the decreasing of the drop out phenomenon and on top of that they showed to the local community that they are able to support the school with their own means, still using the knowledge they have in the local construction techniques.
The playground included a big structure with different activities and a three people slide, a swing and a balance beam. It was built next to the northern entrance, since it is the highest point of the site and it is next to the street to give it more visibility.
43
41 The sitting platform after it was built during the summer of 2016.
In order to let the constructors understand the project, different colours were used to indicate the height of each part of the design, being that they are not familiar with technical drawings. This methodology helped with the communication that is already hard even with a translator. After Eleni, Stien and
42 Drawings of the playground’s project made by Eleni, Stien and Desislava. 43 The sitting platform and the new sancturary during February 2017.
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44
45
44 The playground after it was built, summer 2016. 45 The playground in February 2017.
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The
47
other school _________________
Over the short time we spent in Ghante we had the opportunity to visit a different school, the “Shree Tinkanya Primary School Tapkedanda”, it hosts a grades from 1st to 5th and has about 100-150 students and it took us almost two hours walking to reach it from our house. There are 5 teachers, but here too it happens that one of them does not show up to school leaving the students unattended. The school consists in three buildings, a concrete one, a wooden one built by the parents and the toilets. Thanks to the funding of a Nepali NGO a new building is under construction, it will be built by the parents with local materials such as river stones and bamboo. We were there on a Friday when school ends at 12.30PM, leaving time to the students to go home earlier or, as it in this case, to help carrying the stones from the bed river to the
school. Although the wooden building looks like a dilapidated building, it is a good construction that clearly shows to capability of the local community. Corrugated metal sheets are used for the roofing system, while the structure and the planks are made out of timber, the building has an “L” shaped plan and hosts four small classrooms, whereas the concrete building hosts one grade and the teacher’s room. The classes of the wooden construction were filled with drawings and learning
46
Hariharpur Secondary School
Host house
Shree Tinkanya Primary School Tapkedanda
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materials hanging on the walls, since this material is more suited for this purpose, while in the concrete building there was a wooden platform covered by a synthetic green carpet and the walls were painted with the alphabet and other elements too.
51
A big platform, made of river stones, earth and cement, surrounds two big trees giving to the students and to the community a shaded place to sit, even though during the afternoon the shade moves to the grass field behind it. While our visit a group following the Maoist party gathered around to discuss matters concerning the community and the school in the shade of the trees.
48
52
49
53
46 Overview of the area with the path we took to reach the school. 47 The school. 50
54
48 The wooden building. 49-50 Interior view of two different classrooms. 51 School site. 52 The platform with the two big trees. 53 Students help carrying the river stones, needed to build a new building, after school. 54 Parents carrying a earth bag needed in the construction.
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Learning
from each other
Case
studies
government’s desire to consolidate the total number of primary schools. In the process, some older schools will have to be demolished and others enlarged to make up for the loss and also to provide for a larger realm of population distribution. The existing school is a simple tiled roof block with an overhanging eave supported on columns. The building forms part of an edge of a wall, which frames a courtyard. The strategy of the design was not only to extend the school but also to extend the courtyard and organize the site through a series of open, linked spaces.
_________________ MULAN PRIMARY SCHOOL by RURAL URBAN FRAMEWORK, CHINA. The Mulan Primary School is situated in the surroundings of Huaiji, a county in the Guangdong Province of approximately 100,000 people. The projects consists in the expansion of an existing primary school of 5 classrooms; RUF worked along with the local education authority and a Hong Kong based charity to add a new building of 6 classrooms. What motivated this expansion is the
The new building defines the edge of the site as a U-section with one side of the courtyard left open. The roof plane is a continuous
55
56 4 a
b
c
d
e
f
57 f
55 Picture showing children playing in the courtyard.
h
56 Diagram explaining the development of the project: a. Existing school; b. 6 new classrooms are added as the village expands; c. The wall is removed to create a continuos open space; d. The public space is defined by creating a stepped concrete plinth; e. Voids penetrate the steps and roof to create interior courtyards; f. The toilet waste water is naturally filtered by a reed bed that retains the slope and provides the edge of the new playground.
g
e
a
c d
b
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57 Plan of the school: a. Existing classrooms; b. Existing teacher’s block; c. Courtyard; d. New classrooms; e. Library; f. Wetland garden; g. Playground; h. Toilet.
ribbon that rises from the ground as a series of steps forming a new public space and outdoor classroom that then becomes roof, before dropping down again to form a ground plane that defines the edge of the courtyard. The steps are punctuated with small micro-courtyards that continue into the library. The roof is clad in old, recycled tiles collected from numerous villages in the local area. At three moments the roof tiles become vertical walls and help direct run-off water to the ground. A perforated screen wall encourages climbing plants that then cool the air in the hot summer months. Smooth, mirror-tiles are deployed on the courtyard façade and on the vertical faces of the steps. This creates visual mirages and distorted reflections that animate as children play in the courtyard and steps. Through the provision of this open public space and library, the school can become a community focal point opened to all as the village evolves. The project also included the construction of a new school toilet and playground. The majority of school toilets in China are in extreme conditions and Mulan’s was no exception, a small brick hut with dirt pits and no running water was the only facility. Three strategies
were deployed: to open both sides of the roof to maintain fresh air; to collect rainwater so that the toilets can be flushed regularly; and to develop a septic tank and reed-bed filtration system to filter the water and remove toxins. The reed-bed is built into the slope at the back of the site, reinforcing the earth to prevent slippage. The channels bifurcate and split apart to create small discovery gardens and play spaces. As they step down, following the natural contours of the site, concrete seats and steps are inserted for viewing the playground and basketball court. When this second phase of the project was completed, the constellation of open spaces created an educational landscape allowing the life of the school to use these “outdoor rooms” during different periods of the day. The intention was that the school would be open to the community so that they can make use of the open forum, library or any of the outdoor areas. As the urbanization of Huaiji begins to expand and encroach on the village, through the provision of these common, shared areas, the school can become a community focal point and active site for discussions, meetings, study, play or relaxation.
58
60
59
61
58 Aereal picture of the new building. 59 Aereal picture of the playground and the toilets building. 60 Interior view of one of the new classes. 61 Picture clearly showing the pattern of the used tyles.
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SASLE SCHOOL by NOEL SAMPSON, NICARAGUA.
less, caused the overburden of rivers and the destruction of San Gabriel in Jinotega, which left the community uncommunicative for several weeks.
The Sasle School, located in the mountains and buffer zone of the Miraflores Nature Reserve in Jinotega, Nicaragua, serves as the only education facility for this rural community of 1600 people. Since the opening of four years ago, the three classrooms connected by translucent vestibules have seen a steep increase in school enrollment. They currently host 190 primary school students each weekday and 80 secondary school students during the weekend.
Using a combination of metal and wood cladding the building pays homage to local construction techniques. Maximizing natural ventilation and light was important to keep energy consumption and operation costs low. The school deals with natural ventilation and natural light by using translucent sheets in the two entrance vestibules, wooden elements were designed to help avoid direct solar exposure and brick walls to achieve thermal balance. The selection of materials that were accessible in the locality made the school construction feasible and highly replicable for other rural communities in the department of Jinotega.
The school also functions as a community center and, in case a natural disaster occurs, as an emergency shelter and a warehouse for storing supplies. The community of Sasle is prone to hurricanes, flooding and droughts; in 1998, Hurricane Mitch, that made 10% of the national population in Nicaragua home62
63
a
c
b
64
c
a
62 Picture of the main faรงade. 63 Plan of the school: a. Classroom; b. Community hall & classroom; c. Entrance. 64 Front elevation.
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The central classroom features an angled wall that also forms a portion of furniture meant for reclining. This classroom serves the local community and NGO’s for the organization of meetings and workshops when classes are over. When all doors are opened, the three classrooms are used as a single space.
67
The school was sponsored by Bridges to Community Canada and built by the Sasle community and volunteers from Bridges to Community. This participation scheme not only reduced construction costs but also created project ownership among local community, which have improve school attendance in the last four years. Nowadays, the school, as a result of its improved design and facilities, has started to provide secondary education on Saturdays to students from Sasle and surrounding communities. 65
68
66
65 Picture showing a meeting of the local community in one of the classrooms. 66 Interior view of one of the classrooms. 67 Detailed picture of one of the entrances. 68 Picture showing children’s work to embellish the façade.
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SCHOOL BRIDGE by LI XIAODONG ATELIER, CHINA. Located at a remote village, Fujian Province in China, the project does not only provides a physical function - a school + a bridge, but also presents a spiritual centre. The main concept of the design is to enliven an old community (the village) and to sustain a traditional culture (the castles and lifestyle) through a contemporary language which does not compete with the traditional, but presents and communicates with the traditional with respect. It is done by combining few different functions into one space – a bridge which connects two old castles cross the creek, a school which also symbolically
connects past, current with future, a playground (for the kids) and the stage (for the villagers). A light weight structure traverse a small creek in a single, supple bound, essentially, it is an intelligent contemporary take on the archetype of the inhabited bridge. Supported on concrete piers (which also has the function of a small shop), the simple steel structure acts like a giant box girder that’s been slightly dislocated, so the building subtly twists, rises and falls as it spans the creek. Inside are a pair of almost identical. Wedge-shaped classrooms, each tapering towards the mid point of the structure (which holds a small public library). Although it’s
69
70
71
69 Picture of the main façade. 70 Overview of the surrounding area. 71 Plan of the school.
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possible to use the building as a bridge, a narrow crossing suspended underneath the steel structure and anchored by tensile wires offers an alternative and more direct route.
75
Catalysing a sense of history, the project is more than just a school, but a social centre of the entire village. Physically lightness and spatial fluidity are key. By a means of sliding and folding doors, the school can be transformed into an impromptu theatre or play structure. The steel frame is wrapped in a veil of slim timber slats, which filter light and temper the interior with cooling breeze – Fujian, on China’s south-east climate. With an assurance that belies its rustic setting, the new building also acts as a foil to the mass and weight of the neighbouring historical structures. 72
76
73
74
72 Interior photo showing how the panels that divide the spaces function. 73 Picture of the bridge situated under the building. 74 Night photo of the school. 75 Interior view of one of the classrooms. 76 Section and elevations.
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Model
78
event _________________
For the short week we spent in Ghante we had prepared an event where we presented seven models of existing projects to the local people in order to receive some feedbacks to grasp their thoughts on different designs. 77
Before leaving for Nepal we prepared by doing some research on three case studies each and a chosen topic; from all the case studies 10 were picked by the professors and each of us had to prepare and bring the maquette of a project chosen from the selected ones. The choice of the model as an illustrative tool was to give the locals a better understanding of the projects since they would not have been able to read plans and sections, and showing only pictures would not have given them a complete representation of the designs. The models we brought to the Hariharpur Secondary School were the followings:
in our opinion was the most suited place for the event and at the same time we wanted to show them, even though the building is empty, there are ways that this space can serve for other functions. Our translator, Keshav, instead would have rather preferred to use the teacher’s room in the concrete building and had a bit of a hard time accepting our choice. Parents, students and teachers were invited with the help of Keshav, Bisnu (teacher and daughter of our host family) and Lila (10th grade student and son of our host family). We placed the models on the plinth of the room and brought some benches and set them up in a semicircle to enhance the discussion. We thought to give them the opportunity to vote their two favourite projects, although this turned out to be not such a good idea since everyone was trying to check which model had less votes in order to have a more even result. First we explained the projects to Keshav and 79
- Education Center Nyanza, by Dominikus Stark Architekten, Ruanda; - Floating in the Sky School, by Kikuma Watanabe, Thailand; - Floating School, by NlÉ architects, Nigeria; - Louisiana Hamlet Pavillion, by Helloeverything, Pavilion to be reused as a school in Kenya; - Mulan Primary School, by Rural Urban Framework, China; - Plan Selva, by Elizabeth Añaños, Perù; - Suoi Re Village Community House, by 1+1>2, Vietnam. The event took place on a Saturday, since it is the only day that the schools are closed; we decided to set up the exhibition in one of the rooms of the abandoned building because
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80
81
77 The poster we made to promote the event at the school. 78 The English teacher busy explaining the project to some of the mothers. 79 Children assisting at the event. 80 The English teacher explaining the project to Shambhu (the father of our host family), a woman and Lila. 81 The event gathered around people of all ages.
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to the English teacher, who then translated for us to the people that came. At first it was hard for them to understand that these were actual schools, considering that they never saw such variety, then they started asking questions and a small debate took place. It was a successful event, almost 50 people showed up and we received very constructive feedbacks from them, whereas it brought them new inputs on different building layouts and the opportunity to express their opinions, which I believe is the first step towards their empowerment. The least favoured project was the Louisiana Hamlet Pavilion, they were confused by the context and definitely did not approve the choice of plastic sheets being used as a frame to the school since it would cause the building to overheat. They liked the presence a communal space and the fact that the school had two levels.
82
The modular nature of the Plan Selva school, along with the fact that the buildings are lifted from the ground to prevent from flooding, were appreciated.
84
Of the Floating School they liked the concept but they had some concerns about the height of the building and the triangular shape did not seem to convince them entirely. A question was raised about the materiality used for the structure, when they heard it was made out of wood they asked if it would not have been better to use a steel structure, thus we explained them that wood was definitely a better choice since its proximity to the water, which would have otherwise damaged the exposed steel. Another aspect they liked was the openness of the ground floor and its public use.
85
The Floating in the Sky School, although it was loved by the older women, did not receive a positive feedback, the lack of windows and the vernacular look were two of the key factors in their decision.
83
82 Louisiana Hamlet Pavilion, maquette by Lize Weyenberg.
The Education Centre Nyanza was the project more close to the Nepali schools, they liked the idea of having different buildings for different uses, especially the presence of a kitchen in the school, but as soon as they saw the corrugated metal sheets adopted for the roof, they expressed their opposition
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83 Floating in the Sky School, maquette by Charlotte Vercauteren. 84 Plan Selva, maquette by Davide Agostini. 85 Floating School, maquette by Orphee Konings.
towards the use of them. 86
The Suoi Re Village Community House was one of the favourite ones thanks to its similarity to their traditional architecture, although the fact that it was set on a lower level compared to the context gave them the feeling of an army building, which is something they do not want a school to resemble. 87
About the Mulan Primary School they liked the presence of a library and the cosiness of the small courtyard, while they were impressed by the staircase as a multi-functional space for the school and the community and kept on asking questions related to the used materials. 88
86 Education Centre Nyanza, maquette by Sofie Standaert. 87 Suoi Re Village Community House, maquette by Nesma Sharrouf. 88 Mulan Primary School, maquette by Jessica Bardella.
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Research
question
After analysing the area and the feedbacks received during the model event a decision on how to proceed on developing a proposal can be made. The main project focus is to deal with four emerging issues: - the interior comfort’s quality of the classrooms; - neglected status of the school; - congestion of the site; - lack of space for the community. Therefore the research question is the following: How can an architectural intervention, which uses the frame as a tool, improve the conditions of the Nepali schools, while involving the community and being truthful to the identity of the local construction techniques?
Theoretical
input
Frame _________________ “The permanent, or durable component of the house, constitutes the frame within which change can take place. This frame defines the space for change. The frame itself is specific and has qualities that determine the architecture for a long period of time. The space inside the frame is general, its use unspecified; this space I have called generic space.� (Leupen, 2009) A frame is then a structure formed by distinctive fixed elements that allows any configuration on its inside and is open to any possibility. The question though is what is the relationship between the frame and the exterior space? Is there a general explanation or does it varies depending on the porosity of the frame?
If I were to apply this definition of frame to the buildings of the Hariharpur Secondary School, I would recognize three different frame typologies depending on the configuration of the analysed building. The first consists in the frame being the plinth, the structure and the roof; the second would take into account also the brick walls in the frame, while the third would be the concrete structure.
89
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90
The lack of walls increases the porosity of the frame, making the interior space more exposed to the exterior resulting in a visual and noise disturbance.
6.55
7.40
7.40
5.00
5.04
6.55
Due to its function and its materiality, this frame reflects very little porosity.
15.69
14.00
The level of porosity of the frame decreases in this situation, still the lack of windows or doors allows the interior space to interfere with the exterior and viceversa. 6.51
4.40
3.34
4.40
1.40
9.30
4.99
6.15
6.90
6.51
Even though the materiality of the frame allows little porosity, its design balances it thanks to the veranda that creates a moment where the interior space can fully dialogue with the exterior. In addition the presence of an accessible flat roof adds an extra layer of porosity missing in all the others.
15.03
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13.34
89 View of grade 6th. 90 Porosity of the buildings.
Historical
93
applications
_________________ In this segment I am going to analyse several examples from different times and cultures to see how frames, particularly focusing on the top part of the building, have evolved throughout history and how the innovation of new materials have influenced the relationship they have with space. ÇATAL HÜYÜK, CENTRAL TURKEY, 72006500 BC The town rose in terraces towards what may have been an open area, the houses consisted in independent units but were set so close to each other that there were no roads or walkways between them: access between houses and into each house was by the rooftop. You could say that in this case the frame of a house was extended to the entire settlement by simply creating two kinds of spaces, a private one being the interior of the houses and the space on the rooftops, which was the public one.
91
DOME OF FLORENCE, BRUNELLESCHI, 14201436 Brunelleschi’s intervention was second to the church of Santa Maria del Fiore, which had begun its construction in 1296 to showcase the status of Florence as one of Europe’s economic and cultural capitals, grown rich on high finance and the wool and silk trades. It was later decided that the crowning structure would be the largest cupola on Earth, ensuring the church it would be “more useful and beautiful, more powerful and honourable” than any other ever built, as the grandees of Florence decreed. The impressive dimensions are not the only notable features of this design, the clever use of a double structure to lighten the dome was what made the project possible. UNITÉ D’HABITATION, LE CORBUSIER, 19471952 It was the first of a new housing project series for Le Corbusier that focused on communal living for all the inhabitants to shop, play, live, and come together in a “vertical garden city.” This concept was based on bringing the villa within a larger volume that allowed for the inhabitants to have their own private spaces, but outside of that private sector
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91 Drawing of Catal Hüyük. 92 Assonometric view of a typical household in Catal Hüyük. 93 Overview of the Santa Maria del Fiore church in Florence. 94 Assonometric view of L’unité d’habitation.
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they would shop, eat, exercise, and gather together. With nearly 1,600 residents divided among eighteen floors, the design required an innovative approach toward spatial organization to accommodate the living spaces, as well as the public, communal spaces. Interestingly enough, the majority of the communal aspects do not occur within the frame of the building; rather they are placed on the roof. The roof becomes a garden terrace that hosts a running track, a club, a kindergarten, a gym, and a shallow pool. Beside the roof, there are shops, medical facilities, and even 95
to house the pavilion’s main exhibition spaces. While the enormous canopy spans an area of 70 meters by 50 meters, it is a mere 20 centimetres thick, giving it the appearance of thin floor rug hanging gently from its tassels. From afar, with the slender profile clearly visible, it looks impossibly light and weightless. From underneath, however, the solidity of the concrete and the sheer vastness of the enclosure creates a heavy and somewhat oppressive sensation that forces the visitors’ attention to the views framed by the structure. From this perspective, only at the very joint between the roof and the porticoes is the thinness of the canopy evident. Here the concrete stops abruptly before the wall and reveals the thin cables that connect the canopy to its supports. FUJI KINDERGARTEN, TEZUKA ARCHITECTS, 2007 For the main design of the kindergarten the designers used an oval form, so the children could keep running in circle thanks to the lack of separating internal walls. 97
a small hotel distributed throughout the interior of the building. The Unite d’Habitation is essentially a “city within a city” that was spatially, as well as, functionally optimized for the residents. PORTUGUESE NATIONAL PAVILION, ÁLVARO SIZA VIEIRA, EXPO’98 The focal point of the project is a large, open public plaza shaded by a suspended overhead canopy. The architect, emphasizing the connection between the space and the view beyond, wanted to frame the vista of the river with an enclosed and column-free space. Two monumental porticoes support the roof, behind one of which sits a building designed 96
The roof frames the internal space while it hosts a whole open space on its top that serves some of the school’s recreational activities. Although the school director did not want a rail on the roof, due to safety issues that was not possible, thus they chose to use a very thin metal one, which ended up being a playful component of the construction since the children occasionally shake the balustrade. The presence of skylights allows the kids inside the class to interact with the children playing on the roof, broadening the kids’ way of communicating and allowing them to experience different play typologies.
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95 View of one of the buildings on the roof of L’unité d’habitation. 96 The Portuguese National Pavilion and its canopy. 97 Top view of the Fuji kindergarten.
Social
spaces in
Nepal
99
_________________ DEGA TEMPLE Incorrectly defined as a ‘pagoda’, the dega temple developed its own aesthetic quality and construction system from a central cell with a walkway delimited by walls around it, to a cell with an external peristyle. In the Nepalese temple, the structural components are used essentially to ensure static stability, thus a pure form that is easily read and has architectonic clarity is derived from this concept. It is often to find people sitting on the staircases/plinth of temples, both to contemplate and as gathering.
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98 Temple in the Durbar square in Kathmandu. 99 Axonometric view of a Dega temple.
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100
101
100 Section of a Dega temple. 101 Nyatapola Temple in Bhaktapur.
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PATI
103
The ‘Pati’ belongs to the Newari Style Architecture; the word Pati generated from the Sanskrit word ‘Pattika’ which is a resting place for travellers. As well as being a shelter for travellers, it serves the closely interwoven Newari society living in its neighbourhood, as a meeting place for games or social and religious gatherings. Sometimes it is also used as the place for women to do their laundry and even used as barn. The Pati consist of a raised platform that is covered with a sloped roof. Some of the Patis are free standing and some are incorporated into a residential house or attached to an existing building like a lean-to and named Dupat (two corner Pati). The layout of each Pati is practically identical and consists of a rectangular brick platform raised about 60 cm and covered with wooden floorboards. As it is sited to overlook roads ponds and streams the front is always of a post and lintel construction. Generally the same construction is also used for the side walls. The rear wall is of solid brickwork, returning along each side for about 30 cm to act as a brace for the rear wall. Brick, Timber and Jhingati tiles are three main building materials used in the Pati.
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102 Pati in Bhaktapur. 103 Axonometric view of a Pati. 104 People sitting in a Pati. 105 Exploded axonometric of the Pati.
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105
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Nepali
building techniques
106
_________________ Depending on the climate of the region, different building techniques have developed throughout the country. One characteristic though that all shares is the wood joinery technique, it is a very intelligent system that allows to build complex structures that perform well during earthquakes, thanks to the flexible nature of the wood. 107
106 Assembly of a traditional wooden staircase. 107 Wooden joint where four beams intersect with a pillar with no need of extra materials. 108 Roof structure in Ghante with cement tiles and double pillars system,
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108
A pattern in the use of local materials can be recognized as the following. SUB-TROPICAL CLIMATE 109
Material: thatch. Shape: pitched roof with triangular opening at either end and the low windows to ensure the permanent inflow of air from the shaded area below the eaves. The roof overhang protects walls from direct sun radiation. Verandas are formed by extending the roofs and provide a comfortable place to work and even sleep at night. Tharu architecture Tharu people inhabit mainly the southern belt
of Nepal called Terai and the adjacent valleys and plains between the Chure hilly ranges called inner Terai. Their settlement areas are spread from east to west of Nepal. Tharu people normally choose plain lands at the jungle side or river side for house construction. They usually settle in a group of their own community members, forming a dense settlement in one area. Their houses are constructed of local materials like mud, wood and grass. The houses are aligned with longer sides along north-south orientation. The size of the house and thus the numbers of rooms vary depending on the number of family members. A passage called ‘Piryari’ runs along the centre of the house with rooms to its east and west side. The north-eastern room is used as God’s room and the north-western room is used as kitchen. The next room situated to the south of the God’s room is the bedroom of the head of the house in which no other member of the family can sleep. The most southern room is used as a barn to keep the domestic animals. Tharu Houses are built of locally available natural materials. Another special feature is their climate responsive aspects that make the houses always cool in summer and hot in winter. The houses are built as detached units, with each its own field and vegetable garden which is separated from neighbouring
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109 Thatched roof with bamboo walls plastered with mud. 110 Tharu houses.
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houses by a narrow or broad alley. The prosperous Tharu houses also have another rest house ‘Bangla’ adjacent to the main house. The Tharu people have very good reputation of maintaining very neat and artistic appearance to both, exterior and interior of the houses. The Tharu culture is strongly based on worshipping of nature and they also celebrate some Hindu festivals. The Tharu women have a strong role in their community that they are the guardians of culture and tradition. They are skilled in wall paintings, which is usually done to please the Goddess of wealth, Laxmi. The majority of the wall painting is done before Deepavali, the festival of Lights and Cow in November. They worship the cow as symbol of good fortune and wealth. Similarly, sacred plants and trees, such as Ficus religiosa and Ficus benjamina, are often planted around the house. Jhapa-Ilam architecture The Ilam district, lying in hilly Eastern region of Nepal is situated at a distance of about 600 km from Kathmandu. It is a tea-producing town in Nepal and also famous for its natural sceneries and landscapes. Perhaps being neighbouring towns, Ilam and Daarjeeling share similar features in their local architecture. The houses are usually rectangular, one or two story height and built mainly of wood. But, there is one interesting difference in
112
spatial layout of houses from other parts of Nepal. The ground floor usually consists of a covered front porch which gives access to the living room and the bedrooms. There is a separate block adjacent to or behind the main building which serves as spacious kitchen/dining room. Jhapa lies in the fertile Terai plains of eastern region of Nepal and receives 250 to 300 cm of rainfall a year. Due to hot and humid climate in summer and abundant rainfall during the monsoon season, the houses are usually constructed on stilts. They are rectangular in shape but with more spacious/open plan surrounded by a terrace all around the house. Another interesting feature of the local architecture is the use of bamboo and mud, the walls are usually made from lattice of bamboo strips plastered with cement or clay.
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111 - 112 Examples of Ilam’s households.
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WARM TEMPERATE CLIMATE
114
Materials: timber structure covered by locally available thatch, stone slates or tiles. Shape: pitched roof with a large roof overhang of minimum 50 cm to protect the walls from the heavy monsoon rain and to avoid solar penetration of the facade during summer Newar architecture has developed a water inclusive roof design of burnt clay tiles which are placed upon a mud layer of 4–10 cm. Limbus architecture Of the seven major population groups belonging into this ethnic group, the Limbus, who have settled in far eastern Nepal, build one of the more remarkable house types. Covered by abundant monsoonal forests, the ridge of the Mahabharat range in the eastern Nepal separates the fertile lowland of Terai from “Limbuwan”, the Land of the Limbus. Poetically sited below steep hillsides of the Mahabharat Lekh or dotting the rolling land of the eastern Nepal Midlands, the dispersed villages of the Limbus are found between altitudes of 800 to 1,500 meters above sea level. Traditionally also referred to by the Limbus themselves as the ”Pallo-Kirant” or “Far-Kirant”, this region includes an area east of the Arun river and west of the Nepal-India border. 113
Sited conventionally amid dry cultivated fields, the yards of the Limbu houses may often be beautified by planted beds of colourful flowers. The houses are built of stone, mud packed, and characteristically washed with white and ochre mud. Typically, each Limbu house has the same type of front elevation. It is entered via a small porch, constructed like the balcony above it out of timber or bamboo. Designed with a small window above the balcony, the roof is of a gable type. Although in most instances the houses are roofed with thatch, the most prominent of the Limbus cover their houses with sun-baked shingles. For the most part, there is not much variation in the design, although here and there one may come across interesting horn-like tiles extending upwards from the ends of the gable triangle, a feature reminiscent of the Far Eastern architecture. The main living and sleeping area, including the kitchen hearth, is on the ground floor. Grain, seeds, tools, and different sorts of family valuables are ordinarily stored on the second floor. Cattle is kept in shelters built in the vicinity of the house. Himalayan House Style of the Rais One of the dominant Ancient Nepalese ethnic groups that populate the Nepal Midlands in this region are the Rais. Generally, the Rais have settled west of the Arun River in altitudes between 1,300 and 2,250 m above sea level, however, their settlements can be found also on or very near the bottom of the Arun gorge, in altitudes even less than 300 m. Here the Rai houses are constructed on
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113 Limbus household. 114 House with timber structure, stone tiles and mud plastering, typically found in the warm temperate climate.
stilts and woven out of bamboo and reed. In some instances the Rai settlements can be quite compact, with the porches of the neighbouring houses practically touching and narrow passages lead between the houses, but for the most part, Rai low river valley villages are dispersed. Packed with mud like the entire house floor, including the front elevation of the house, the porch is a viable work area. As the structures are only one story high, storage is partially provided on the outside of the house. Cattle and other livestock are typically kept below the house. A special thrashing and milling area is built usually in close vicinity of the house. Another house type is built by the Rais higher on the west bank of the Arun, in a region immediately south of the Lhomi Tibetans, but even here the altitude where they settle does not exceed 1,500 m above sea level. Although bamboo is still used abundantly, particularly in the construction of the animal shelters, the building material used for important constructions is natural stone. The facades of the houses are frequently richly decorated with geometric ornaments and “flowers of luck� designs, and images of gods as expression of worship to reward the house with prosperity. Some of the houses have adjacent to them fine fenced vegetable gardens. Typically the houses are roofed with thatch, although
116
bamboo mats may occasionally be used. In villages above 1,800 m, as is the case on the northern side of the Salfa Phedi pass, separating the watershed of the Arun from that of the Dudh Kosi, the roofs of the Rai houses are covered with wooden shingles.
115
115 - 116 Examples of Rais houses.
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COOL TEMPERATE CLIMATE
from Pokhara (915m), its local architecture is mainly referred to the Gurung and the Thakali houses of the region. The houses are usually rectangular in shapes, though in some cases round shapes are also found. The longer façade has a front porch running along its whole length, faces the entrance courtyard. The houses constructed with local materials are usually two and a half story.
117
Material: wood or slate (if available) in the form of square or rectangular roofing tiles. Heavy stones are placed on top to prevent them from being blown off by heavy monsoon winds. Shape: pitched roof due to the heavy rains. Ghandruk architecture Pokhara, located west of Kathmandu, is the third largest city of Nepal after Kathmandu and Biratnagar. It has one of the highest precipitation rates of the country (over 4,000 mm/year). The climate is sub-tropical but due to the elevation the temperatures are moderate: the summer temperatures average between 25–35°C, in winter around 5–15°C. Ghandruk (1939 m) lies 42 kilometres drive
House architecture of Lhomi Tibetans of upper Arun River, Eastern Nepal Himalayas The diversity of the house types built by the Tibetan population groups in the Nepal Himalaya from one area to the next is quite fascinating. The Lhomi Bhote, whose villages are found as far north as where Arun breaches the high Himalayan massif, build themselves houses that range from all bamboo and bamboo matting type of structures elevated on stilts of tree trunks or stones, to all stone houses with wooden shingles, or even houses of solid timber. The Arun River, one of the greatest Himalayan Rivers, originating in Tibet, breaks through the high Himalayan range at an altitude of only little more than 1,200 m above sea level. High above its deep gorge, affected significantly by monsoonal rains, are situated the villages of the Lhomi Tibetans. The Lhomi villages are compact settlements, sited on broad ledges or on steep slopes.
118
117 Buildings with stones placed on top of the roof as safety measure. 118 Building in Ghandruk.
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The houses in the villages built in the lowest elevations, around 1,500 m above sea level, are constructed on stone stilts or on all-stone foundations. The walls are made of stone or quite often of woven bamboo, which is also used exclusively in the covering of the roofs. In higher elevations, natural stone begins to predominate in the house architecture. In the highest situated Lhomi villages, where the altitude is over 2,500 m, however, timber structures appears, and at times solid timber houses erected on stone stilts may be found. Bamboo, which is cut in typical stalks that are split into thin strips then woven into mats, continues to be utilized in the coverage of the roofs.
ALPINE CLIMATE 123
119
Material: typically stone and mud laid on a timber post and beam structure. Shape: generally flat roof due to the scarcity of rainfall. Vernacular architecture of this region has developed different techniques to make the roof waterproof. For example, in Humla roofs consist of dried juniper branches laid over roughly cut timber boards with an added layer of black mud and a final waterproof layer of fine white mud. This technique protects from the wet snow that typically falls in the early winter months. Thakali and Manang people have also developed a roof finishing system that uses a fine mud layer to ensure waterproofing. Furthermore, wood is piled on the border of roofs that provides protection from the strong wind. In some mountain houses a slight roof overhang can be seen for protecting semiclosed spaces in front of the house.
120
121
122
Thalaki architecture The Thalaki group originated from the Thak Khola region of the Mustang district in the Dhaulagiri zone of Nepal. The region is characterized by very little rainfall and it is extremely cold during most of the year, with temperatures dropping significantly at night. The essential design feature of the Thalaki house is the presence of an enclosed courtyard and the use of the ground floor as grain storage rooms/animal barns. The kitchen is usually located on the ground floor, abounding in a variety of shiny brass pots displayed on shelves around the room. The wealthy
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119 - 122 Lhomi houses. 123 Himalayan architecture.
Thalaki house usually has spacious interior courtyards entered through a gate located below elaborately carved wooden balconies. The upper floor consists of sleeping rooms, a family chapel room, additional storage rooms as well as the main living quarters including another kitchen area, typically containing a ceremonial fire pit. The ceremonial, ornamental fireplace is set up by the Thakalis only symbolically, no fire is ever lit in it. In the wealthy Thakali houses, the second floor rooms are entered through a fine wooden gallery, typically built around the entire interior perimeter of the house. The houses have flat mud roofs due to minimum rainfall of the region and this mud construction also helps to maintain the temperature balance inside the houses. The flat roof, which is accessible by characteristic tree trunk ladders, is a multi-purpose social space which is also suitable for drying of grains. It’s interesting to note that social and economic status of the house owners are indicated by quantity of stacks of wood piled along the walls and on top of the flat roofs of the houses.
126
127
128
124
129
125
130
124 - 130 Thalaki houses.
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Design
methodology
Process _________________ After analysing the site it was clear to me that I would have worked on the buildings that are more in need at the moment, this is why I focused on the four buildings on the western side of the site. Throughout the design process I explored different design typologies, some more traditional and other more modern, but the main focus was always about the top part of the building and how it would be possible to improve the comfort of the classrooms while adding a new floor. The interesting part of this process was to always design on a masterplan level while also
researching on the detailing scale, to always keep in mind the quality of certain materials. The first idea was to develop a structure based on geometrical shapes that could function both as roof and as independent buildings. The first idea was to develop a structure based on geometrical shapes that could function both as roof and as independent building. This kind of structure would require though too much materials for not enough reasons so I tried to search for a method to decrease the amount of it.
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m e roo rag sto
m s roo er' ch
6
6
10,01 6
tea
10,01 6
20
20
2,5
Detail of the existing steel roof structure.
11,33
2,5 2,5
11,33
Detail of a bamboo roof structure.
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2,5
I rotated it then on the vertical axes ending up with a building with an organic shape whose structure consisted in wooden beams and pillars putted orthogonal to each other. The roof overhang is to enhance the flow of the rainy water and to increase the amount of shade on the building and on the site.
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Existing playground
Traditional classes
Kindergarten
Hostel for teachers and students, kitchen and dining room
Entrances
Green area with trees and playground Classes for new teaching method
Multifunctional building for the school and the community
Furthermore I started thinking of the materiality of the building and gave it a shape that was less organic and that could fit with the existing plinth of the classrooms.
Existing situation: the concrete "plinth" will be the only component that will not be demolished. The new structure will be attached to it in order to help its stability.
Skin: rattan or bamboo weave will consist in the outer and inner layer of the walls. This technique is know by all the women in Nepal.
Main structure: Sal tree is a tropical hardwood which grows close to the school and its use is common all over Nepal.
Insulation: straw, hemp, earth and rubble will be used to fill the two rattan layers, depending on the availability of each material.
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Thanks to the height of the building new shades will be provided.
The stipness of the wall will prevent the rain from flowding while the overhang prevents the water to filter through the joints.
The shape of the building mitigates the wind flow
A single layer of rattan of bamboo weaved will close the openings. The space inbetween the new and old structure can be used as storage for the classroom.
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The issues with this design though were its lack of contact with the context, while it could have been an interesting shape to develop even more, it missed the Nepali component that I was aiming for, this design was more related to my view for an ideal school in general. This resulted in the start of a complete new design that focused more on having a shared space for the community, that the school could also benefit from. The upper floor is thought to host people that are listening to the professor teaching
Existing building
on the lower floor, in this way the space would work to educate the older generations while including them on the daily life of the school. The interior comfort of the classroom would also benefit from the addition of a floor, since it would enhance the ventilation. The space in front of the building is a big staircase that can be used also for school related activities and it would have the advantage of being shaded by the building itself, creating this way a shaded outdoor space.
Intervention
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This construction would require a too big amount of materials though, so I tried to see if it were possible to use the existing roof structure in the design, but this would have meant to base my design entirely on these buildings, loosing the idea of having this structure being replicated also in other schools.
Existing building
Intervention
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Intervention
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Framing
the existing _________________
After exploring different design proposals that helped me understanding better the local construction techniques, I came up with a project of a structure that could be replicated in other schools in Nepal that share the same climate that is found in Ghante. This flexible structure is thought to serve different purposes that aim to reconnect the school to the community while increasing its status and its visibility. Furthermore it is built according to the local construction techniques which makes it possible for the inhabitants of Ghante to build it themselves, and since its materiality includes bamboo weaving it allows the involvement also of the female community.
the buildings share due to the climate. The latest structure has the upper floor divided in two, one part is to be used as storage space, this will allow the room that currently is used for storage, to be freed by its materials and to be used as a small library. The other part of the floor is indirectly communicating with the classroom below, which means that listening to the lessons will be possible by everyone who is interested to. It could be that students will use this space in case their teacher is missing, or adults of the community could also benefit from it.
By adding this structure to three of the buildings and rearrange the functions, it will be possible for the school to have space for two kindergarten classrooms, a small library, a dormitory for both teachers and students, a kitchen, a workshop room and two spaces that can be used by the community and by the school itself, to listen to the lectures that are being taken without disturbing the natural course of the lesson. In this way the footprint of the building on the site will remain the same, by raising the height of the buildings and adding some vegetation it will be possible to have more shaded outdoor spaces which are lacking at the moment. The first structure I designed hosts the dormitories, it also has an elevated veranda that can be used also during the day, but mainly is thought to provide its inhabitants additional space that can benefit by the natural light. The addition of this extra floor will permit to remove the bended bamboos that are currently in the top part of the classroom used as a support for earth bags, which serve as insulation system. The southern building has instead a big room that can be used for workshop by either the school or the local people. It happens that teaching workshops for teachers are being held in some of the private households at the moment, the new class will be able to host these kind of activities. A veranda is also present in this building as it is a space that all
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a 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 10th grade. b 4th and 5th grade; Terrace and workshop room. c 6th and 7th grade; Two listening areas and stor age space. d Kitchen. e 8th and 9th grade; Dormitory. f Teacher’s room, library and computer room. g Kindergarten. h Toilets.
f
g
a e
d
c
b
h
0
5
15m
A’ A C’
C
Ground floor plan scale 1:250
B
B’
A’ A C’
C
First floor plan scale 1:250
B
B’
Ground floor and first floor plan of one building unit, old and new construction. Scale 1:200
Prospective section A-A’
Prospective section B-B’
Interior view of the added workshop space.
Prospective section C-C’
Interior view of the space used for listening to the lectures.
The design deals with the warm tropical weather that characterizes Ghante; the first floor’s overhang provides the ground floor of much needed shade, making it unnecessary to have external walls in the classrooms, so that natural light can filter through. The shape of the roof enhances the natural ventilation, while it protects the interior of the building from the strong rainfall that occurs during the monsoon season.
The structure is entirely made out sal wood tree, it uses the typical Nepali double pillars system, which makes the first floor independent from the roof. Wooden joints are also integrated to shorten the length of the beams so that they are easily handled by the builders. A bracing system is present to enhance the stability of the building in case of earthquakes.
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Reuse of the existing metal sheets with an added layer of hemp insulation
Wooden roof structure
Mud floor and mud plasered walls
Wooden planks
Wooden secondary beams
Existing plinth and new wooden structure
Credits
Bibliography _________________ Bay, Joo-Hwa, and Boon-Lay Ong. Tropical Sustainable Architecture. Oxford: Architectural Press, 2006. Print.
Mecca, Saverio, Letizia Dipasquale, and Mariana Correia. Versus. Firenze: Firenze University Press, 2015. Print.
Bodach, Susanne, Werner Lang, and Johannes Hamhaber. “Climate Responsive Building Design Strategies Of Vernacular Architecture In Nepal”. Energy and Buildings 81 (2014): 227-242. Web.
Sestini, Valerio, and Enzo Somigli. Sherpa Architecture. (Paris): Unesco, 1978. Print.
Caplan, L., and Jesper Trier. “Ancient Paper Of Nepal: Results Of Ethnotechnological Field Work On Its Manufacture, Uses And History.”. Man 9.3 (1974): 497. Web. Chitrakar, Rajjan Man, Douglas C. Baker, and Mirko Guaralda. “Urban Growth And Development Of Contemporary Neighbourhood Public Space In Kathmandu Valley, Nepal”. Habitat International 53 (2016): 30-38. Web.
Shakya, Manjip et al. “Seismic Vulnerability And Loss Assessment Of The Nepalese Pagoda Temples”. Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering 13.7 (2014): 2197-2223. Web. Shrestha, Nanda R. Nepal And Bangladesh. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 2002. Print. Slusser, Mary Shepherd, and Gautamavajra Vajracarya. “Two Medieval Nepalese Buildings: An Architectural And Cultural Study”. Artibus Asiae 36.3 (1974): 169. Web.
De Cesaris, Filippo. Gli elementi costruttivi tradizionali, in G. Carbonara (a cura di), Restauro architettonico, Torino, UTET, 1996, vol. II, sezione E, 3-288. Print.
Upadhyay, Anir Kumar, Harunori Yoshida, and Hom Bahadur Rijal. “Climate Responsive Building Design In The Kathmandu Valley”. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering 5.1 (2006): 169-176. Web.
Gautam, Dipendra et al. “Common Structural And Construction Deficiencies Of Nepalese Buildings”. Innovative Infrastructure Solutions 1.1 (2016): n. pag. Web.
Vaidya, Pooja. “Rethinking Shangri-La. Revival Of The Sustainable Courtyard Dwellings”. Master Dissertation. North Dakota State University, 2013. Print.
Gautam, Dipendra et al. “Disaster Resilient Vernacular Housing Technology In Nepal”. Geoenvironmental Disasters 3.1 (2016): n. pag. Web.
VV.AA. “Appropriate Technologies” In The Conservation Of Cultural Property. Paris [França]: Unesco Press, 1981. Print.
Guo, Jun, Jing Tang, Yu Wen, Jia Liang Zhang, and Yu Shun Li. “Development Status of Modern Bamboo Structure Building”. Applied Mechanics and Materials 351-352 (2013): 26-29. Web.
VV.AA. Bamboo Construction Source Book. India: Hunnarshala Foundation, 2013. Print. Weiler, Katharina Maria Lucia. The Neoclassical Residences Of The Newars In Nepal. [S.l.: s.n.], 2009. Print.
Halacy, D. S, and George R Clark. Understanding Passive Cooling Systems. Arlington, Va.: Volunteers in Technical Assistance, 1986. Print. Larsen, Olga Popovic. Reciprocal Frame Architecture. [Place of publication not identified]: Routledge, 2016. Print. Leupen, Bernard. Time-Based Architecture. Rotterdam: 010 Publ., 2006. Print.
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Sitography _________________ http://www.archdaily.com/ https://www.architectural-review.com/ https://www.dezeen.com/ http://nepalitimes.com/article/Nepali-TimesBuzz/In-perfect-harmony,3251 http://nepalitimes.com/article/Nepali-TimesBuzz/The-beginning-of-history,3225 http://nepalitimes.com/article/nation/ rebuilding-new-structures-using-old-traditions,2827 http://nepalitimes.com/article/nation/rebuilding-temples-a-chance-to-creat-jobs-andto-revive-woodcarving-industry%20,2347 http://nepalitimes.com/article/Nepali-TimesBuzz/Footsteps-of-our-past,3167 http://nepalitimes.com/page/rebuilding-Kasthamandap http://nepalitimes.com/article/nation/falsesense-of-security-about-strength-of-cementstructures,2240 https://phys.org/news/2016-06-afterslip-april-nepal-earthquake-buildup.html
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Image
credits _________________
1 https://www.traveladdicts.net/2014/03/ nepal-civil-war.html 2 Own design 3 - 5 Photographs by Jessica Bardella 6 https://phys.org/news/2016-06-afterslip-april-nepal-earthquake-buildup.html 7 Photograph by Jessica Bardella 8 – 11 http://www.gaisma.com/en/location/kamalamai.html 12 – 14 Own designs 15 Designed by Davide Agostini 16 https://www.bing.com/maps 17 Photograph by Jessica Bardella 18 Photograph by Sofie Standaert 19 – 20 Photographs by Jessica Bardella 21 Photograph by Lize Weyenberg 22 Photograph by Jessica Bardella 23 Photograph by Charlotte Vercauteren 24 Own design 25 Photograph by Jessica Bardella 26 Photograph by Nesma Sharrouf 27 Photograph by Lize Weyenberg 28 – 38 Photographs by Jessica Bardella 39 – 40 Photographs by Sofie Standaert 41 – 42 Photograph and drawings by Eleni Tsiamparta, Stien Poncelet and Desislava Iroslav Petkova 43 Photograph by Lize Weyenberg 44 Photograph by Eleni Tsiamparta 45 Photograph by Jessica Bardella
46 https://www.bing.com/maps 47 – 48 Photographs by Jessica Bardella 49 – 50 Photographs by Charlotte Vercauteren 51 https://www.bing.com/maps 52 Photograph by Lize Weyenberg 53 – 54 Photographs by Charlotte Vercauteren 55 – 61 http://www.archdaily. com/376589/mulan-primary-school-rural-urban-framework 62 – 68 http://www.archdaily. com/784045/sasle-school-noel-sampson 69 – 76 http://www.archdaily.com/45409/ school-bridge-xiaodong-li 77 – 78 Photographs by Jessica Bardella 79 Photograph by Lize Weyenberg 80 – 89 Photographs by Jessica Bardella 90 Own schemes 91 https://s3.amazonaws.com/ s3.timetoast.com/public/uploads/ photos/1724094/32500-catal-huyuk. jpg?1473737381 92 https://s3.amazonaws.com/classconnection/6/flashcards/6430006/png/ screen_shot_2015-12-07_at_30313_ pm-1517EB6A8B97FE23639.png 93 http://lifeglobe.net/media/entry/4682/13.jpg 94 https://classconnection. s3.amazonaws.com/629/flashcards/4749629/jpg/unite_d%27habitation2-146456125DE2A585278.jpg 95 http://farm3.staticflickr. com/2932/14148656983_a8068194cb_b. jpg
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96 http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Wc7CxkBb1KM/UNDazuX_NVI/AAAAAAAAEYk/lKx_USiYGTk/s1600/16.jpg 97 https://www.opencollege.kr/uploads/ photo/image/11001/large_5c6ac30de5a0ca9c027a9ea76096ac1b.jpg
figure/fig6/AS:296083931582468@14476 03318399/Figure-12-Floor-plan-and-elevation-of-Sherpa-house-after-17.png 118 Photograph by Jessica Bardella 119 – 122 https://shingsa.wordpress. com/2011/10/15/house-architecture-of-lhomi-tibetans-of-upper-arun-river-eastern-nepal-himalayas/
98 – 103 Photographs and drawings by Jessica Bardella
123 https://www.researchgate.net/figure/263812612_fig8_Figure-16-Floor-planof-Thakali-house-in-Taglung-after-16
104 http://www.grammatix.de/wordpress/ wp-content/gallery/khulla-dhoka-dhokaima-ktm/grammatix-1040788.jpg
124 – 130 http://www.toptravelleads. com/thakali-people-of-lower-mustang-district-mixed-traditions-between-dhaulagiri-and-annapurna/
105 – 108 Own designs 109 https://www.researchgate.net/profile/ Susanne_Bodach/publication/263812612/ figure/fig5/AS:296083931582467@14476 03318310/Figure-7-Tharu-house-with-wideroof-overhang-and-shaded-veranda-in-Chitwan.png 110 http://www.wellnepaltreks.com/ pagegallery/tharu-village-tour96.jpg 111 http://roundsimaging.com/galleries/ nepal-photo-history-contributors/contributor-display-albums/john-hughes/thumbnails/ JH-0009.jpg 112 http://roundsimaging.com/galleries/ nepal-photo-history-contributors/contributor-display-albums/john-hughes/thumbnails/ JH-0014.jpg 113 https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg. com/236x/81/a8/c6/81a8c66f76fe39ab1012b8ea8f52d3ef.jpg 114 Photograph by Jessica Bardella 115 https://c1.staticflickr. com/8/7172/6586997737_a7aaa1a9b6_z. jpg 116 https://maison-monde.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/maison-rai-nepal-6. jpg 117 https://www.researchgate.net/profile/ Susanne_Bodach/publication/263812612/
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