The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes Against Humanity: Specific Case: Armenian Genocide by jiminianaimee

UniversitĂ della Svizzera Italiana FacoltĂ di Scienze della comunicazione Lugano The Responsibility of the Media in facing Crimes against Humanity: Specific Case- The Armenian Genocide

Thesis Dissertation Aimee Flores Jiminian 04-984-688 Thesis Coordinator: Prof. Dr. Francesca Rigotti Academic Year 2007-2008 September 2008 1 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

Index

I. Abstract

p. 3

II. Introduction

p. 4

III.Definition of Crimes Against Humanity

p. 4

A. Historical Development

p. 4

B. Definition and Elements of the Crime of Genocide

p. 6

IV. Media Ethics: Responsibility towards Society of broadcasting information

p. 7

A. Determinants of the International News Flow

p. 7

B. News coverage of Human Rights

p. 10

C. Ethical Reasoning

p. 11

1. Are Pictures worth “A Thousand Words” in Ethical Reasoning

p. 12

2. Is Prejudice an Issue when it comes to Ethical Reasoning

p. 13

3. Genocide is Everyone’s Responsibility

p. 14

V. Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

p. 16

A. The Armenian Situation before WWI

p. 18

B. The Armenian Situation during WWI

p. 22

C. The Armenian Situation after WWI

p. 26

D. The Armenian Genocide in the Media

p. 28

VI. Conclusion

p. 31

VII. Bibliography

p. 32

2 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

I. Abstract Nowadays there is a great lack of moral and ethical professional values when it comes to the media’s selection of news. I intend to shed some light on an issue such as Crimes against Humanity, mainly because the crimes committed against humanity go a long way back in history and they hardly obtain the media coverage they deserve in order to prevent further crimes against humanity. I will begin by defining Crimes against Humanity and the historical developments of their definition. Subsequently, I will evaluate the media’s responsibility to humanity of informing either educationally or through entertainment. While observing the developments in media ethics and the media’s selection criteria of the news by its determinants of international news factors. Also, how frequently and what portion of the news market is reserved for crimes against humanity. I will examine what effect this may have on public opinion and how this affects foreign policies and international relations. Finally, I will interpret particularly the Armenian Genocide. My criteria of selecting this specific case is based on the fact that I am of Armenian descent and as I was growing up I always heard the stories of my ancestors. The Armenian genocide has received coverage at the time it was happening, during WWI and in actual times as well. While it has been recognized in some countries in others it has not. Furthermore, I will criticize the media coverage that the Armenian Genocide has received in different mediums such as The New York Times newspaper during WWI, more specifically from the Armenian massacres committed by the Red Sultan in 1896 to the Independence of Armenia in 1921. An autobiographical book, “La Masseria delle Allodole,” (The Lark Farm) written by an important member of the Armenian Diaspora, Antonia Arslan Professor at the University of Padova, Italy. Her book which was then translated into a film by the Taviani brothers and two documentaries, the first “The Armenian Genocide Documentary,” by an expert on Genocide studies, Laurence Jourdan. The second, “Screamers,” directed by Carla Garapedian. Keywords /humanity/human rights/crimes against humanity/genocide/ media coverage/Armenian genocide

3 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

II. Introduction The casualties of WWI have been forgotten and obscured by those of WWII. After WWI the League of Nations was created with the purpose to prevent wars between nations, but failed because it had no military power to enforce sanctions on aggressor nations. Only after WWII did the International community create organizations, such as the United Nations that learning from the League of Nation’s failures, required each country upon joining to provide a military force at their disposal in order to be able to enforce sanctions. The Nuremberg Charter was created during the International Trials of the Nazi party to create a definition of war crimes. While only a year after the Tokyo Charter was created with some key diﬀerences from the Nuremberg Charter, such as the addition of the definitions of Crimes against Peace and Crimes against Humanity. The grave problem for both the Nuremberg and the Tokyo Charters was exactly that the war crimes and the crimes against humanity of WWI were not tried by any court of law and therefore there were no precedents. Something which Adolf Hitler was well aware of before he commanded the extermination of Polish men, women and children and furthermore the ethnic cleansing of the Jewish people in Germany for he said, “Our strength consists in our speed and in our brutality. Genghis Khan led millions of women and children to slaughter — with premeditation and a happy heart. History sees in him solely the founder of a state. It's a matter of indiﬀerence to me what a weak western European civilization will say about me. I have issued the command — and I'll have anybody who utters but one word of criticism executed by a firing squad — that our war aim does not consist in reaching certain lines, but in the physical destruction of the enemy. Accordingly, I have placed my death-head formations in readiness — for the present only in the East — with orders to them to send to death mercilessly and without compassion, men, women, and children of Polish derivation and language. Only thus shall we gain the living space (Lebensraum) which we need. Who, after all, remembers the annihilation of the Armenians?” August 22, 19391

III. Definition of Crimes Against Humanity A. Historical Development A definition of Crimes against Humanity was first articulated in the Nuremberg Charter2 in 1945. The failure of the Allies after WWI and the Leipzig and Istanbul Trials were emerging all over again after their victory in WWII. Whether this was a legislative act creating a new crime or whether it simply articulated a pre-existing crime in international law remains controversial. Mainly, because the Allies committed a grave mistake in disregarding the results of the Leipzig and Istanbul Trials as a precedent to the Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials. A fact which the defendants were well aware of and even used it in their defense stating the “ex post facto law” that states that if there is no law against an act committed it cannot be illegal and therefore cannot be punished. Another failure of the Allies was that they did not bring to justice the perpetrators of crimes against humanity of WWI which of course has remained in history invisible and unresolved still in actual times, precisely because of the ex post facto law.

“Statements on the Armenian Genocide,” Adolf Hitler, Armenian National Institute, http://www.armeniangenocide.org/hitler.html accessed June 7, 2008 10:30 2

“Nuremberg Charter,” http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/350?OpenDocument accessed June 20,2008 22:20

4 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

“The Joint Declaration of May 28, 19153 of France, Great Britain and Russia which denounced ‘the Massacre of Armenians in Turkey as crimes against humanity and civilization, and warned of prosecution;’ and the 1919 report of the Commission on the Responsibility of the Authors of War4 , advocating individual criminal responsibility for violations of the laws of humanity. With this background, the drafters of the Nuremberg Charter found themselves confronted with an appalling ‘policy of atrocities and persecutions against civilian populations,’ which in many cases did not fit the technical definition of war crimes (i.e.: inhumane acts against civilians who were not enemy nationals) and yet were questionably contrary to dictates of the public conscience and general principles of law recognized by the community of nations. The drafters therefore created a first definition which is represented in Article 6(c) of the Nuremberg Charter and defined crimes against humanity as murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, and other inhumane acts committed against any civilian population, before or during the war, or persecutions on political, racial or religious grounds in execution of or in connection with any crime within the jurisdiction of the Tribunal, whether or not in violation of the law of the country where perpetrated.”5 After the Nuremberg Charter, in 1946, the Tokyo Charter was drafted under the orders of General Douglas McArthur, at the time Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces in Japan with some differences, such as: there were seven judges instead of four, crimes against peace was a pre-requisite while other crimes would subsequently follow as additional charges and orders or positions would not allow the defendants to escape responsibility. Certainly, the Nuremberg and Tokyo Charters have become precedents to other crimes against humanity such as the Yugoslavia and Rwanda Trials, but there is still a controversy about the fact that it was a victors’ judgement and not a proper fair trial. According to Neil McDonald,6 the Allies have committed crimes against peace when the Soviet Union declared war on Japan breaking an existing treaty and crimes against humanity when the US dropped the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, but they were not tried. A significant difference between the Statute of the International Criminal Court at the Rome Conference is that it was not imposed by victors. Instead it involved negotiations between 160 states and has acquired great developments like for instance: crimes against humanity do not require there to be an armed conflict, nor does it require proof of a discriminatory motive and furthermore defines what had remained ambiguous in preceding definitions, inhumane acts such as apartheid and enforced disappearance. Decades later international instruments like the Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide and the Apartheid Convention have made further efforts to define, elaborate and identify other inhumane acts such as forced sterilization or pregnancy and rape; but genocide is the crime that will be treated in this dissertation.

“Joint Declaration of May 28, 1915,” http://www.armenian-genocide.org/popup/affirmation_window.html? Affirmation=160 accessed June 7, 2008 10:45 3

“Report of the Commission on the Responsibility of the Authors of War, May 6, 1919,” http://www.firstworldwar.com/ source/commissionwarguilt.htm 4

Robinson, Darryl, “Crimes against Humanity at the Rome Conference,” The American Journal of International Law, vol.93, No.1, (Jan.,1999), p.43-57 accessed April 10,2008 09:12 5

McDonald, Neil, “To What Extent did Victors Vengeance Influence the Tokyo Trials?,” WaiMilHist (The Electronic Journal of Military History within the History Department at the University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand), Issue 3, vol.1, July 1999 http://www.waikato.ac.nz/wfass/subjects/history/waimilhist/1999/victor1.htm accessed June 21,2008 08:45 6

5 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

B. Definition and Elements of the Crime of Genocide The term genocide deriving from Gk. genos “race, kind” (see genus) + -cide, from L. -cidere “kill,” combined form of caedere "to cut, kill" (see concise)7 . The proper formation would be *genticide; was coined in the mid-1940s by Raphael Lemkin8 (1900–1959), a lawyer of Polish Jewish origin who escaped from Poland after the Nazis occupied it in September 1939. Lemkin fled to Lithuania and then to Sweden before he arrived in the United States in April 1941. He published the book, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, in 1944 which documented the legal basis of the Nazis' policies of mass extermination, deportations, and slave labor. His book is now remembered for the first appearance of the word genocide. Lemkin defined it as “a coordinated plan of diﬀerent actions aiming at the destruction of essential foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim of annihilating the groups themselves.” The word became associated to the Holocaust although Lemkin, however, never intended the term to refer to the magnitude perpetrated by the Nazis against Jews. He intended the term to be used in accordance to the attempt to exterminate any civilian population even if the perpetrators succeed or not. However, the international legal definition according to articles II and III of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide approved by the General Assembly of the UN on December 9, 19489 : Article II: In the present Convention, genocide means any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group as such: a) Killing members of the group; b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. Article III: The following acts shall be punishable: a) Genocide b) Conspiracy to commit genocide c) Direct and public incitement to commit genocide d) Attempt to commit genocide e) Complicity in genocide This definition of genocide was also accepted in the Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court where the elements of the crime of Genocide were identified and which also follow the corresponding provisions of Articles 6 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court of 1998 and Article II of the Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide.

“Genocide,” Online Etymology Dictionary, http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=genocide accessed June 9, 2008 11:45 8

“Genocide-Origins and Evolution of the Concept,” Science Encyclopedia, The History of Ideas vol.3, http:// science.jrank.org/pages/9496/Genocide-Origins-Evolution-Concept.html accessed June 9, 2008 11:55 9

“Genocide Convention,” United Nations, Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights, Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide, http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/p_genoci.htm accessed June 9, 2008 12:27 6 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

Elements of the Crime of Genocide, as according to the Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court10 include: a) Killing members of the group- includes direct killing and actions causing death. b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm- includes inflicting trauma on members of the group through widespread torture, rape, sexual violence, forced or coerced use of drugs, and mutilation. c) Deliberately inflicting conditions of life calculated to destroy a group- includes the deliberate deprivation of resources needed for the group’s physical survival, such as clean water, food, clothing, shelter or medical services. Deprivation of the means to sustain life can be imposed through confiscation of harvests, blockade of foodstuﬀs, definition in camps, forcible relocation or expulsion into deserts. d) Prevention of Births- includes involuntary sterilization, forced abortion, prohibition of marriage, and long-term separation of men and women intended to prevent procreation. e) Forcible transfer of children- may be imposed by direct force or by fear of violence, duress, detention, psychological oppression or other methods of coercion. The Convention of the Rights of the Child defines children as persons under the age of 18 years. Genocidal acts need not kill or cause death of members of a group. Causing any of the other four elements are acts of genocide when committed as part of a policy to destroy a group’s existence.

IV. Media Ethics: Responsibility broadcasting Information

towards

Society

“All I know is what I read in the papers” -Will Rogers, New York Times, 1923 “Public opinion is one of the major factors that shape the development of foreign policy in democratic societies. This is why scholars have argued that international news coverage can trigger changes of foreign policy and transformation of international relations.” (Wu 1998)

A. Determinants of the International News Flow According to Haoming Denis Wu, University of North Carolina, the hypothesized and/or discovered determinants of international news flow can be divided into two broad categories: gatekeeper perspective and logistical perspective. Gatekeeper Perspective Wu11 states that news professionals and international news agencies contribute to the gatekeeper eﬀect by deciding the amount of coverage a country receives or determining the topics or issues that will be emphasized if a country is covered at all. So basically, what news goes through the gate and which stays inside the gate. Furthermore neglecting the audiences interests on international news and acting on intuitive assumptions of reader’s needs, as according to previous studies.

“Elements of the Crime of Genocide,” Prevent Genocide International, from the Report of the Preparatory Commission for the International Criminal Court, 6 July 2000, http://www.preventgenocide.org/genocide/elements.htm accessed November 27,2007 11 Wu,

Haoming Denis, “Investigating the Determinants of International News Flow,” Communication Studies, Gazzette vol.60, No.6, pp.493-512, December 1998 accessed June 10, 2008 18:30 7 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

The media- newspapers, magazines, radio and television are the gatekeepers of the international news flow. What criteria do they use to select what goes through the gates and what stays in? In a regional study criminal events, relevance to the country, potential for social change and geographical distance were found to be the factors that distinguished the events covered from those that did not receive coverage. In another study, criminality was found to be of more newsworthiness than political or economic factors. Regarding Third World countries against the West, there is evidence that the Third World developing countries receive more negative coverage. However, in another study, it was demonstrated that media tend to produce news that involves violence, even though coverage between the West and Third World countries did not show significant differences. Although, there are other factors such as a nation’s “elitism” that may explain why there is coverage of only “bad news” in Third World countries, but not of their increasing developments. When a nation is an elite on the international scene, it is more likely for that nation to receive more coverage in many of that country’s characteristics such as economy, politics, etc. It may be this privileged position of a country that attracts the foreign press’ attention. Logistical Perspective The structural theory of international news flow, proposed by Galtung and Ruge12 in 1965 states that, “a great deal of the news is fed from other sources - the journalist is only summarizing a wire report, or official statement. News is often supplied to newspapers, radios and TV stations by a news agency… Some agencies concentrate on a particular region or nation, and may have a distinct ideological slant… Therefore, those who present the news to us construct it from other sources in the same way that any other media text-maker would. News consists of an artificial narrative, with stories shaped around a beginning, middle and an end. There is also a hierarchy of news - a series of news values that editors and other gatekeepers use in order to decide which news stories to communicate and in what order.” When deciding what makes a story there are 10 questions a journalist may ask: 1) WHO did this happen to? 2) WHAT happened? 3) WHERE did it happen? 4) WHEN did it happen? 5) WHY did it happen? 6) WHO wants to read this story? 7) WHAT is going to happen next? 8) WHERE are the effects of this story going to be felt? 9) WHEN did this story first appear? 10) WHY is this story categorized as important news?

Regarding news values, Galtung and Ruge proposed a table of factors determining the amount of coverage one country receives in the press of another, tested and operated by many scholars and which is depicted below.

Galtung, J. & Ruge, M. Holmboe, “The Structure of Foreign News. The Presentation of the Congo, Cuba and Cyprus Crises in Four Norwegian Newspapers,” Journal of Peace Research, vol. 2, No.1(1965) pp. 64-91 12

8 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

Value Negativity

Description Bad news - involving death, tragedy, bankruptcy, violence, damage, natural disasters, political upheaval or simply extreme weather conditions - is always rated above 'positive' stories (royal weddings, celebrations etc)

Proximity (Closeness to home)

Audiences supposedly relate more to stories that are close to them geographically, or involve people from their country, or those that are reported that way. Ne ws gatekeepers must consider carefully how meaningful a story will be to their particular audience Newspapers are very competitive about breaking news - about revealing stories as they happen. 24 hour news channels such as CNN and BBC World also rate this value very highly. However, as we have seen with the events of September 11, stories may take a while to develop, and become coherent, so recency is not always the best value to rate.

Recency

Currency

Continuity

Uniqueness

Simplicity

Personality

Predictability

Elite Nations or People

This is almost opposite to recency, in that stories that have been in the public eye for some time already are deemed valuable. Therefore a story - for instance about the abduction and murder of a child - may run for weeks and weeks , even if nothing new really happens. Events that are likely to have a continuing impact (a war, a two week sports tournament) have a high value when the story breaks, as they will develop into an ongoing narrative which will get audiences to 'tune in tomorrow'. 'Dog Bites Man' is not a story. 'Man Bites Dog' is. Any story which covers a unique or unusual event (twoheaded elephant born to Birmingham woman) has news values Obvious, but true. Stories which are easy to explain ('Cat stuck up tree') are preferred over stories which are not (anything to do with the Balkan or Palestinian conflicts) Stories that centre around a particular person, because they can be presented from a 'human interest' angle, are beloved of newspapers, particularly if they involve a well-known person. Some say this news value has become distorted, and that news organizations overrate personality stories, particularly those involving celebrities ('Posh Goes Shopping'). What do you think? Does the event match the expectations of a news organization and its audience? Or, has what was expected to happen (violence at a demonstration, horrific civilian casualties in a terrorist attack) actually happened? If a news stor y conforms to the preconceived ideas of those covering it, then it has expectedness as an important news value Any story which covers an important, powerful nation (or organization) has greater news values than a story which covers a less important nation. The same goes for people. George Bush is newsworthy whatever he does.

9 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

Exclusivity

Size or Threshold

Also a major factor when setting the news agenda. If a newspaper or news programme is the first and only news organization breaking a story, then they will rate that very highly. The UK Sunday papers are very fond of exclusives, and will often break a story of national or international importance that no one else has. does matter when it comes to news stories. The bigger impact a story has, the more people it aﬀects, the more money/resources it involves, the higher its value.

With these factors mediating the channels of international news, it seems obvious that the representation of the world today is very far from a truthful reflection of global realities.

B. News Coverage of Human Rights Ovsiovitch13 argues that the media can be very influential in many areas of social life. He retains that reporting human rights issues can educate people and shape public opinion. The public’s reaction might persuade legislators to consider human rights in their foreign policy. News could also serve as an informal means of documenting human rights violations, and we see in history that the absence of coverage from certain unalienable events has certainly brought humanity to forget by condemning itself to repeat certain errors. Ovsiovitch goes on to remind us that human rights issues may not be forgotten if violations were covered in news reports and how the integration of foreign television has been linked to political changes such as the collapse of East Germany in 1989. Non-governmental organizations such as the International Committee of the Red Cross and Amnesty International, and organizations whose activities include the realm of human rights have been investigated by scholars, but one potentially influential group has not received much academic attention: the news media. The presence of the media is never redundant when it comes to human rights. The media’s presence and activity corroborate police oﬃcial fact-gathering procedures. For example, at a national level in any country the media frequently tend to initiate decision making by defining certain behaviour as improper. This latent role of watchdog for society of private national media is even more urgently needed internationally. Since human rights is a concern involving humanity, everyone should be involved where, for instance, private national media do not have access to other countries and the private media in those countries will certainly not be interested in the bad publicity of their nation concerning human rights violations. An outraged public might motivate legislators and other policy makers to consider human rights when developing foreign policy. News reports also serve as an informal means of documenting human rights violations, i.e.: Amnesty International’s use of newspaper and radio transcripts to verify torture allegations. Ovsviovitch14 also states that the media may also correct International Governmental Organizations’ failures by keeping human rights on the international agenda. The penetration of foreign television has been linked to political changes including improvements in human rights. There are very few foreign correspondents that are willing to cover human rights stories and also the media are very aware of the high salaries they have to pay foreign correspondents because of their scarcity and also because of the dangers these correspondents face. The more closed a regime and the more systematic and eﬃcient it is in the suppression of information about its activities, ironically, the more unblemished or flawless it is likely to be represented in the Ovsiovitch, Jay S., “News Coverage of Human Rights,” Political Research Quarterly, vol.46, No.3. (Sept. 1993), p. 671-689 accessed December 1,2008 15:15 13

Ovsviovitch, Jay S., “News Coverage of Human Rights,” Political Research Quarterly, vol.46, No.3 (Sept.1993), p. 672 accessed December 1,2008 15:15 14

10 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

reality conceived by the media. Considering as an example North and South Korea, both are authoritarian, repressive regimes although there are many discrepancies between them. The availability of the South Korean regime allows the foreign correspondents to speak with former prisoners, their families, lawyers and these can also benefit from decisively important information given by opposing political parties and groups. As a result, South Korea is represented rather accurately by the media. In contrast, North Korea is represented as completely closed. Even if foreign correspondents can enter, it will be very unlikely that they will be allowed to speak to prisoners, former prisoners nor their families out of fear. This resulting in a more obscure reality as perceived by the media. In this particular case, the media ought to presume that the government in question has good reasons for concealment and the suspicion of atrocities should be reported. However, if reliable information is obtained, foreign correspondents face incredible dangers such as the revoking the correspondent’s visa, threats, kidnapping and even execution. Although, not only foreign correspondents undergo these risks, national correspondents as well, such as Hrant Dink who was murdered in Turkey, for having stated in an interview of the documentary Screamers (2006) directed by Carla Garapedian, that the Turkish government should admit what their ancestors did, referring to the Armenian Genocide; and Anna Politkovskaya who was also murdered in Russia for denouncing the ferocious abuse against the Chechens.

C. Ethical Reasoning When analyzing news selection one usually attributes the responsibility of content to journalists, and journalists take the blame for all the moral and ethical criticism of the public. Are journalists void of moral values? Are journalists to blame for what we see in the news? According to Morresi,15 there are many ethical and professional codes that regulate the media. These codes of conduct for journalists evolve around three nuclei. The first refers to the content of information: respect for the facts, reliable sources and correcting mistakes. The second refers to methodology: loyalty, respect of the people’s right to privacy, equality and professional secrecy. The third refers to power relations: independence and distinguishing from news and advertising. In his book, Morresi16 makes reference to Russ-Mohl (1994:p13), who observes the unresolved dualism between individual and collective responsibility, enumerating diﬀerent factors, some internal and some external to the mass media industry: codes, but also discipline counsels, educational structures and professional updating, monitoring institutes, pressure groups (watchdogs), professional associations, academic research, etc. Russ-Mohl further elaborates that to obtain quality in journalism, there is no need to invest in more codes of conduct, but in infrastructures that support, analyze and criticize journalism. The only problem that arouses in Europe which is not so in the United States, is specifically the fragmentation of cultures and languages. Morresi17 brings to our attention also to the German philosopher Habermas, who states that a diﬀerent and modern civil society endows the family, informal groups, and volunteering associations, whose variety and autonomy include multiple life forms, followed by cultural and communication organizations, but also the intimate sphere where the formation of the individual and the moral choices take place.

Morresi Enrico, Etica della Notizia, Edizioni Casagrande s.a., 2003, Bellinzona, p.40

Morresi Enrico, Etica della Notizia, Edizioni Casagrande s.a., 2003, Bellinzona, p.45

Morresi Enrico, Etica della Notizia, Edizioni Casagrande s.a., 2003, Bellinzona, p.93

11 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

Judicial structures and fundamental rights ought to see to it that the state and the economy do not interfere in all of this. It is here, in this sphere of the power of the State like that of the market, in which journalists and advertisers play an enormous role in responsibility while controlling the inclusion of subjects, contributions and authors. Wilkins and Coleman18 revealed that journalists are the fourth professional group with the highest ethical and moral standards according to Kohlberg and Piaget’s previous studies. The first professional group were seminarists/philosophers, the second were medical students and the third were practicing physicians. The results show that journalists appear to be strong ethical thinkers and the factors that influence this are: Education, the Journalistic Domain of Knowledge (journalists think even better about ethical problems connected with that domain than they do about ethics in general), Choice (give journalists a choice in the sort of professional work they attempt, expose them to the rigors of investigative reporting, moderate the influence of work-based rules) and Religion and journalists are capable of high-level ethical thinking. When analyzing ethical reasoning, one may wonder if the content that is being analyzed has anything to do with the dilemma being analyzed. More explicitly, is there any diﬀerence at the moral and ethical reasoning level about the kind of information we are receiving in order to be more critical about the dilemma? Do we have all the information or just a part of it? How does having more information, not only written but also visual of the dilemma at hand change ethical reasoning.

1. Are Pictures “a Thousand Words” in Ethical Reasoning? Scientific research has shown that people acquire information differently through visual images. Television video of atrocities in Vietnam motivated Americans to think critically about that war. Correspondents from CNN made a great difference in showing the horrors that occurred in Yugoslavia calling to attention human rights issues. Journalists are well aware of the power of photographs and videos, some news organizations even have policies prohibiting photos of dead bodies or pictures that show blood. Scientists who study the anatomy of the brain have known for a very long time that speech and writing are physically processed through the left area of the brain whereas emotions and images are processed on the right area of the brain. This split-brain theory19 has been confirmed with brain imaging data showing that the thinking process differs in images and in language resulting in different outcomes. It states that when written data enters the left hemisphere of the brain they follow a path through specific structures. These structures process the information analytically and it is consciously controlled. In contrast when photographs or video images enter the right hemisphere of the brain, the person experiences an emotion and that information takes a completely different path which encounters different processing structures which are automatic, immediate and do not require reflection. However, this does not mean that one or the other type of information is inferior or superior when compared. They are merely complementary. Receiving one or the other requires only one type of process meanwhile receiving both types of information means that the path that these data will structure in the brain will be central and it is expected that a deeper level of reflection on the issue will lead to better ethical reasoning results and a better memory of it. Wilkins, Lee, Coleman, Renita, The Moral Media: How Journalists Reason About Ethics,, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers,2005, London, England, p.39 18

Wilkins, Lee, Coleman, Renita, The Moral Media: How Journalists Reason About Ethics,, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, 2005, London, England,p.70 19

12 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

Wilkins and Coleman20 also observed that images have the ability to change the person’s ethical reasoning by improving it and photographs alone highly elevated all of the participants’ ethical reasoning in the study. It was also noted that the degree of emotional involvement changes drastically their ethical reasoning. Uninvolved participants’ ethical reasoning was significantly higher than that of the more emotionally involved participants. How about another element that will drastically change the moral and ethical reasoning of an individual? Is there any other additional type of information that will elevate or decrease the level of ethical reasoning? There is a rather discomforting, outrageously enduring-in-time issue which is xenophobia.

2. Is Prejudice an Issue when it comes to Ethical Reasoning? Xenophobia has been the cause of many conflicts throughout history. The misrepresentation of the “other” because of our failure to understand that which is diﬀerent from us and intolerance of it has blemished humankind for centuries. The attribution of negative qualities to those who are diﬀerent is the root of many problems. In doing so, the person attributing the negative qualities to the other remains, unfortunately, truly superficial reasoning. Racial prejudice remains an enduring problem in the world, and along with it the criticism that the media contribute to this problem because of the way they depict ethnic and racial groups, i.e.: the hate speech of the Rwanda media which incited the genocide of the Tutsi people. While it is true that journalists are capable of high-level ethical reasoning, let us not forget that they are human beings and they, much like the audiences they influence, also may have negative perceptions about people from certain racial or ethnical groups. People form stereotypes from past experiences, as they repeatedly experience the same events, they expect these events to follow the same patterns leading to the same results . This mental representation serves as an anchor that makes new experiences easier to deal with, otherwise the new flood of information would become unbearable. Although, one must never take stereotypes to the extremes, these bring only superficial initial instincts that need to be further developed to truly be able to represent the other in a truthful manner. When stereotypical representations of certain races of people become too general or negative, they can lead to misrepresentations where prejudice will be reflected in actual behaviour. Philosophers have another way of articulating this problem. Stereotypes lead people to judge others or their actions based on the category of the actor and not on the actions of an individual. Linguists may also refer to it as synecdoche, when one takes the part for the whole or the whole for the part, for instance if we say, “Blondes are stupid” or “Latin Americans are lazy and corrupt” or “Slavs are violent”. It is these kinds of generalizations that create certain conflicts and taken to the extremes may even incite to genocide. Wilkins and Coleman21 remind us of Kohlberg’s stages of ethical reasoning, starting from the lowest stage at infancy and reaching the highest stage in adulthood. Although, most people operate most of the time in the middle range being also capable of rising to higher levels at some times and sinking to lower levels at others.

Wilkins, Lee, Coleman, Renita, The Moral Media: How Journalists Reason About Ethics, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, 2005, London, England,p.75 20

Wilkins, Lee, Coleman, Renita, The Moral Media: How Journalists Reason About Ethics, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, 2005, London, England,p.84 21

13 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

This lower flow of ethical reasoning quality may be taking place when people with negative stereotypes about certain races of people make ethical decisions concerning them. Psychologists have reached the conclusion that stereotyping happens automatically for most people and that it is very diﬃcult if not impossible to control. Wilkins and Coleman22 sustain that race does matter when making ethical decisions. The 53 participants who knew the race of the people in the dilemmas because they saw photographs demonstrated significantly lower levels of ethical reasoning when the people in the photographs were black than when they were white. As would be expected from what scholars know about the way stereotypes and schemas work. Wilkins and Coleman23 demonstrate that research has shown that subliminal perception occurs on the right side of the hemisphere of the brain which is responsible for visual processing. Therefore, we may be particularly susceptible to prejudice when processing visual information, especially the kind that reveals a person’s race. If journalists’ ethical reasoning about certain ethnical or racial groups is somehow impaired and of lower quality than it is about others, then the negative portraits of those groups in the media will persist. The media are responsible for racial or ethnical portrayals that because of their imperceptibility are today even more evil than the more obvious racism of the past. To who do we attribute the responsibility to acts of genocide? Is it really only a crime involving the perpetrator and the victim? If so then how come it is classified oﬃcially as a crime against humanity?

3. Genocide is Everyone’s Responsibility “All that is necessary for evil to triumph in the world is for good people to do nothing.” -Edmund Burke As stated before, genocide is the pre-meditated, systematic extermination of an ethnic group or race whether totally or partially by means of killing, deliberately causing bodily or mental harm, intentionally inflicting calculated conditions of life that will cause the elimination of its members, forcing measures to prevent births within that group and forcibly moving children of that group into another group. The moral issues raised by genocide are not confined to perpetrator and victim. Individuals that witness acts of genocide regardless of their proximity or distance to the event constitutes them as bystanders. Genocide is a crime against humanity, so whether one chooses to act for it, against it or even ignore it, as long as any individual is aware of an act of genocide, he or she share the responsibility. Bystanders become aware of genocide through television, radio, newspapers and any other sources of information such as books, magazines, films and documentaries, and ultimately the internet even if they are not oﬃcially involved in it.

Wilkins, Lee, Coleman, Renita, The Moral Media: How Journalists Reason About Ethics, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, 2005, London, England,p.88-89 22

Wilkins, Lee, Coleman, Renita, The Moral Media: How Journalists Reason About Ethics, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, 2005, London, England,p.90-91 23

14 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

According to Vetlessen24 there are three different categories of bystanders. The passive bystander, is the direct eye-witness. The bystander by formal appointment, is engaged as a third party to the interaction between two parties directly involved. This is in principle one of impartiality and neutrality, typically underlined by a determined refusal to take sides. The bystander by assignment, for instance the UN personnel assigned to monitor ceasefire between parties at war and to control that civilians in the UN declared “safe zone” are effectively guaranteed “peace and security”. To grasp a more explicit idea, bystanders are individuals with the potential to stop the ongoing process of genocide. The perpetrator of the genocide will fear the bystanders to the extent that he believes that the bystander will have the power to intervene halting his intent of genocide. However, to the perpetrator, bystanders represent resistance while for the victims of genocide they represent their only source of hope left. Vetlessen25 also cites the French philosopher Ricoeur who stated that “choosing inaction is still an action, the action of neglecting, not doing anything or allowing something to be done to someone else”. This inaction also means complicity, it raises the question of moral responsibility of the bystander. The bystander has the choice whether the harm caused by any aggressor stands to be rectified or not. The choice of not taking sides, indifference legitimizes the acts of genocide of the aggressor and also sends out the message that such violence may continue, as in fact it has. Vetlessen26 alluding to the German philosopher Hegel, acknowledges that not recognizing or ignoring the act of genocide constitutes ideological preparation for it.

Vetlessen, Arne Johan, “Genocide : A case for the Responsibility of the Bystander”, Journal of Peace Research, vol. 37, No.4, Special Issue on Ethics of War and Peace, July 2000, p.520-521 24

Vetlessen, Arne Johan, “Genocide : A case for the Responsibility of the Bystander”, Journal of Peace Research, vol. 37, No.4, Special Issue on Ethics of War and Peace, July 2000, p.522 25

Vetlessen, Arne Johan, “Genocide : A case for the Responsibility of the Bystander”, Journal of Peace Research, vol. 37, No.4, Special Issue on Ethics of War and Peace, July 2000, p.529 26

15 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

V. Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide Photo extracted from the documentary film “Screamers” 2006

Armenians being deported into the desert.

“When the Turkish authorities gave the orders for these deportations, they were merely giving the death warrant to a whole race; they understood this well, and, in their conversations with me, they made no particular attempt to conceal the fact. . . . I am confident that the whole history of the human race contains no such horrible episode as this. The great massacres and persecutions of the past seem almost insignificant when compared to the suﬀerings of the Armenian race in 1915” Henry Morgenthau Sr. U.S. Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire Ambassador Morgenthau's Story, 1919 For the Armenian Genocide to be understood as such, one must not consider the isolated event of genocide throughout the years 1915-1920 when it took place. The act of genocide as defined by the Israeli genocide scholar Israel Charny’s model:27 1.Societal forces supporting human life versus societal forces moving toward destruction of human life. a.Cultural values and tradition b.Structural processes and institutions c.Human Rights status 2.Key historical, economic, political, legal and social events and transitions. 3.Formation of genocidal fantasy and ideology 4.Precipitating factors or context 5.Mobilization of means to genocide Astourian, Stephan, “The Armenian Genocide : An Interpretation,” The History Teacher, vol.23, No.2, Feb.1990, p. 113 27

16 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

6.Legitimation and institutionalization of genocide 7.Execution of genocide and experience-denying mechanisms. In other words, genocide is a process which requires pre-meditation and which is systematically organized. One must consider the elements and events leading to the act of genocide. Charny devised this model to serve as a warning signal in order to prevent further genocides and also to study the structural and functional causes with that of their cultural and ideological dimensions which can be applied to the investigation of past genocides. My intent with this dissertation is not to prove that the Armenian Genocide happened, because other scholars have done a greater eﬀort in doing so such as, Astourian,28 Dadrian,29 Melson,30 Masseret,31 Duclert,32 and many others despite the fact that some of these scholars have been highly discredited because of their condition of being of Armenian descent. My intention is rather to resurface the facts of the genocide and consider its historical revisionism as a result of its absence of coverage in the media and how the latter is crucial for divulging such information to those unfortunate masses who ignore this genocide because of lack of access to crucial information that the Turkish government insistently tries to leave out of the international agenda and to those masses who will pressure the policy makers to take action in recognizing it in order to send out the message that such acts are intolerable for all humanity. To understand better the architecture of the Armenian genocide I will apply Charny’s model of the historical context of the Ottoman Armenians which were the elements, political transitions, and events that led to their genocide. Despite Turkish eﬀorts of declaring the Armenian Genocide, “unfortunate massacres occurring a period of war during the First World War,” and its constant denial of the genocide after 93 years, the Armenian cause has gone a long way for its recognition although a lot more could have been done and it is still a work in progress which will not stop until its complete recognition to also avoid ongoing genocides that may root in the first genocide of the 20th century. Also, there are 21 countries which do recognize the Armenian Genocide:33 1) Argentina 2) Armenia 3) Austria 4) Belgium 5) Canada 6) Chile 7) Cyprus 8) France 9) Germany 10) Greece 11) Italy 12) Lebanon 13) Lithuania 14) Netherlands 15) Poland 16) Russia 17) Slovakia 18) Switzerland 19) Uruguay 20) Vatican City 21) Venezuela

Astourian, Stephan, “The Armenian Genocide : An Interpretation,” The History Teacher, vol.23, No.2, Feb.1990, p. 111-160 28

Dadrian, Vahakan N., “The Naim-Andonian Documents on the World War I Destruction of Ottoman Armenians : The Anatomy of a Genocide,” International Journal of Middle East Studies,vol.18, No.3, August 1986, p.311-360 29

Melson, Robert, “Paradigms of Genocide : The Holocaust, The Armenian Genocide and Contemporary Mass Destructions,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol.548, The Holocaust: Remembering for the Future, Nov.,1996,p.156-168 30

Masseret, Olivier, “Le Reconaissance par le Parlement Français du génocide Arménien de 1915,” Vingtième Siècle, Revue d^histoire, No. 73, Jan-Mar., 2002, p.139-155 31

Duclert, Vincent, “Les historiens et la destruction des Arméniens,” Vingtième Siècle, Revue d^histoire, No. 81, JanMar., 2004, p.137-153 32

"Recognition of the Armenian Genocide." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 10 Aug 2008, 21:01 UTC. 31 Aug 2008 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Recognition_of_the_Armenian_Genocide&oldid=231091021>. 17 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

Although, the United States have not oﬃcially recognized the Armenian Genocide as such, 42 out of the 50 states have recognized it:34 1) Alaska 2) Arizona 3) Arkansas 4) California 5) Colorado 6) Connecticut 7) Delaware 8) Florida 9) Georgia 10) Idaho 11) Illinois 12) Kansas 13) Kentucky 14) Louisiana 15) Maine 16) Maryland 17) Massachusetts 18) Michigan 19) Minnesota 20) Missouri 21) Montana 22) Nebraska 23) Nevada 24) New Hampshire 25) New Jersey 26) New Mexico 27) New York 28) North Carolina 29) North Dakota 30) Ohio 31) Oklahoma 32) Oregon 33) Pennsylvania 34) Rhode Island 35) South Carolina 36) Texas 37) Tennessee 38) Utah 39) Vermont 40) Virginia 41) Washington 42) Wisconsin

A.THE ARMENIAN SITUATION BEFORE WWI The O ttoman Ar meni ans had obtained the status of Dhimmi during the Ottoman Empire, the dhimmi were prote c te d nonMuslim subje ct s of a Muslim s t a t e . Th i s q u a l i fi e d t h e m a s “inferior” to the Muslim people. For their life and property to be secured they had to pay a poll tax, higher commercial ta xe s and irregular taxes that the Muslims were not obliged to pay. Fu r th e r m o r e , th e i r o ath w a s unacce ptable or wor thle ss in Islamic court and therefore they could not te stif y ag ainst any Muslim citizen.

Photo extracted from the documentary film “Screamers” 2006

Armenian prosperous village 500 Armenian houses and 300 Turkish houses

The dhimmi were prohibited a great deal of things such as, public exhibition of crosses, ringing of bells, carrying of arms, and even the clothes they could wear in public. During the early Ottoman period until the mid-sixteenth century the Ottoman Empire was at the total will of the Sultan who enjoyed absolute power and as he conquered new lands, mass deported its native citizens which were considered inferior. However terrible these measures may seem, they did not include mass killings of these “inferior” subjects.

"Recognition of the Armenian Genocide." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 10 Aug 2008, 21:01 UTC. 31 Aug 2008 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Recognition_of_the_Armenian_Genocide&oldid=231091021>. 18 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

Photos extracted from the documentary film “Screamers” 2006 Armenian family pictures

It is important to realize that by the middle of the sixteenth century there was a full Islamisation process of the Ottoman society and the rise within the askerî class (the Sultan’s subjects) which did not include the Armenians, of a small elite. Whatever high positions in government any Armenian subject reached it was attributed only to his or her technical or linguistic knowledge, but this did not guarantee any power at all. This lack of political integration is one of the factors that made the Armenian genocide possible. During this time the Ottoman Empire suﬀered an economic crisis which led to the weakening and corruption of it, causing horrendous abuses to the non-Muslim population. The Serbs, Greeks and Albanians initiated relations with foreign powers opposing the Ottomans. As a result, there were significant territorial losses to Austria and Russia from 1718 to 1829. This led to the necessity of reforming the empire and this period of reform better known as Tanzimat took place from 1839 to 1876. The Tanzimat period caused many controversies. Mainly because it implied equality among all of the empire’s subjects regardless of their religion even though there was no intention of abolishing the millet system35 which was a “socio-cultural and communal framework based firstly, on religion and secondly, on ethnicity which in turn reflected linguistic diﬀerences.” The Hatt-i Hümayun or Imperial Transcript36 of 1856 encountered great opposition among the Turks b e cause of it s ambig uity. On the one hand, it proposed a secular concept of Ottoman citizenship and on the other, a political structure based on the religious conception of society.This enraged the Turkish people because of the liberty that it would have allowed the Armenians who were already enjoying their economic upraise even with all the abuse and restrictions and their invisibility in the legal system. . Photos extracted from the film “La Masseria delle Allodole” 2007 Turkish officials

Astourian, Stephan, “The Armenian Genocide : An Interpretation,” The History Teacher, vol.23, No.2, Feb.1990, p. 117 35

36 Astourian,

121

Stephan, “The Armenian Genocide : An Interpretation,” The History Teacher, vol.23, No.2, Feb.1990, p.

19 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

Photos extracted from the film “La Masseria delle Allodole” 2007 Armenians traditional dance

Meanwhile, the Armenians had great expectations of how their suﬀering would end with these reforms, especially because the situation was unbearable for those more unfortunate ones, the peasants, and since the courts ignored their appeals to be liberated from the abuse of the Kurds and the Zaptiehs (the Turkish gendarmerie) that openly oppressed the Armenian peasants devoid of rights. Furthermore, Armenian intellectuals, having studied in Europe were inspired by liberal ideas and established a local press, schools and political parties so as to educate the peasants and create resistance by promoting self-defense against the Turkish oﬃcials and the Kurds. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 resulted in the defeat of the Ottoman Empire and the occupation of Anatolia which presented the opportunity for the Armenian Patriarch, Nerses Varzhapetian, to request that a clause be included in the peace treaty in order to protect the Armenians. The result was the Treaty of San Stefano which was revised in the Treaty of Berlin, mostly because of the British and Astro-Hungarian opposition to Russia. The clause that protected the Armenians was not included in the Treaty of Berlin, leaving Armenians again unprotected. Unfortunately, this also resulted in the growing hatred of the Turks against the Armenians and in the first Armenian Massacres ordered by the Red Sultan “Abdul-Hamid II” from 1894 to 1896 where 200,000 Armenians perished.

Photos extracted from the film “La Masseria delle Allodole” 2007 Armenians traditional dance

Eﬀorts were made by the authoritarian and centralizing forces who had to put aside their ideologies and join those of the liberal forces in order to overthrow the Sultan by any means possible. Other massacres continued during April, 1909 killing more than 20,000 Armenians with the participation of the Young Turkish army (at that time allies of the Armenians in order to overthrow the Sultan) which had been sent there to halt the massacres and instead aided them.

20 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

Enver Pasa

By 1911, Armenians broke alliances with the Young Turks and two new ideologies rose: Turkism and National Economics which then led to the exclusion of the liberal government in a military coup engineered by Enver Pasa on January 23, 1913 and a dictatorial regime emerged by June 1913 led by a triumvirate consisting of Talât Pasa(1874-1921), Cemal Pasa (1872-1922) and Enver Pasa (1881-1922) which were to lead the Ottoman Empire into the First World War and organize the Armenian genocide. According to Astourian37 by 1914, the Unionist leaders were faced with both a diplomatic and a military threat. On the one hand, Russia’s renewed interest in the Armenian question, therefore a Russian military threat. On the other hand, the Armenian’s formal appeal for European inter vention in the atrocities that were taking place against them. This led to six of the European states’- France, Great Britain, Russia, Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungar y- to compose a reform act (diplomatic threat) in which the Armenian provinces would be divided into two Talat Pasa administrative districts, each supervised by a European inspector-general. Also, a mixed Christian-Muslim gendarmerie would be established (instead of the Zaptiehs), the irregular Kurdish units disbanded, and cultural freedom guaranteed. Djemal Pasa

Unfortunately, the secret treaty of alliance with Germany on August 2,1914 and the entrance of the Ottoman Empire on the side of the Central Powers did not allow this to take place. They were instead motivated by Enver Pasa’s PanTurkism and anti-Russian designs, with the hidden agenda of annihilating the Armenian population. The declaration of war extracted from Prof. Jacob M. Landau’s38 “Pan-Turkism in Turkey” who specializes in Political Science at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and it reads: “Our participation in the World War represents the vindication of our national ideal. The ideal of our nation and our people leads us towards the destruction of our Muscovite enemy, in order to obtain thereby a natural frontier to our Empire, which should include and unite all branches of our race.”

Of course that ideal of one nation, homologizing their race, did not include the Armenians, rather it concealed an ulterior motive, in order to unite all branches of their race they surely had to get rid of the Armenians.

Astourian, Stephan, “The Armenian Genocide : An Interpretation,” The History Teacher, vol.23, No.2, Feb.1990, p. 136 37

Astourian, Stephan, “The Armenian Genocide : An Interpretation,” The History Teacher, vol.23, No.2, Feb.1990, p. 136 38

21 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

B.THE ARMENIAN SITUATION DURING WWI Enver Pasa launched the attack against the Russians which resulted in his defeat, this led him to believe that the Armenians betrayed Turkey, rather than thinking that logistical mistakes and poor weather were the real cause of his defeat. He therefore suggested the removal of the Armenians of the eastern regions from their places and relocated where they could not cause further problems. On April 25, 1915 the Unionists arrested and murdered 600 Armenian intellectuals and political leaders. Shortly after all the Armenian soldiers were disarmed and sent to labour camps were they were worked to death or executed by Kurd oﬃcials, Armenian men were gathered, imprisoned and murdered in order to eliminate the possibility of reproduction and so as no man would later seek vengeance. The women and children were then deported from their homes and into the desert were most of them star ved, were continuously raped or ill from starvation, dehydration and lack of hygiene for they were not allowed to drink water or to bathe. They were all to reach the desert areas near Aleppo and most of them met their fate through secret killing squads organized by the members of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP). Photo taken by German photgrapher and missionary Armin T. Wegner

The Armenian homes and riches were equally divided by the members of the CUP and formed the new and rising Turkish bourgeoisie. Other ethnic groups were also massacred in this attempt to create a “Turkey for Turks,” such as the Greeks and the Assyrians, and later the Kurds who were initially, the executors of the other races. Photo taken by German photgrapher and missionary Armin T. Wegner

Photo extracted from the documentary film “Screamers” 2006

22 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

According to Dadrian,39 in the Naim-Andonian documents, Mehmed Talat, then Interior Minister and Chief leader of the Ittihad party validates these policy decisions: “Armenians including ‘babes’ to be outside of the pale of law (No.4), and therefore slated for ‘complete extermination’ (No.5) or for maximum decimation (No.14). In the last document, a dateless cipher from Talat (No.52), the Armenians are labelled as ‘a curse for centuries.’ The process of destruction through extermination is described in Deputy Director of Deportation Abdulahad Nuri’s two ciphers (Nos. 29 and 42). Encouraging brutality and murder by forbidding any prosecution of the officials involved (No.45), Talat in one telegram reiterates the point that these crimes serve the purpose of the government (No. 8). This resolve is restated in the circular (the only document not supplied by Naim but avowedly furnished by a Turkish officer) of War Minister Ibrahim Enver (No.43), and war is held to be the circumstance propitious to carrying on the long-decided extermination (No.44)...In four other telegrams Talat exhorts his functionaries to show no mercy for women and children or the infirm and sick. He orders them to act harshly and swiftly to speed up the desired deaths in accordance with the government’s grand policy (Nos. 3, 4, and 5).” Dadrian40 points out that in all communications the Armenian victims are referred to as the “known persons,” indicating the method of extermination as the “known procedures,” disguising the procedures by “secret means,” and implementing “the required” or “the mandated” purposes of the government as distinct from the purported ones. Certainly the credibility of both the Naim-Andonian documents whether they were true or false and even the mere existence of Naim has been doubted by Turkish intellectuals and authors in the Turkish Historical Society. Stating numerous ludicrous allegations such as the forgery of those documents, and the grammatical errors of Turkish officials which is impossible then and even now, even the use of the type of paper involved. Dadrian41 does in fact recognize that there are many errors of dates, date conversions from the Ottoman Photos taken by German photgrapher and Turkish language into French, English and German missionary Armin T. Wegner and typography. The Turkish authors, focusing on these errors degraded the volumes to the point of dismissing them, not realizing that their own volumes were full of the same mistakes.

23 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

However, Dadrian42 concludes that the argument of falsification of these documents is questionable for the argument only involves irregularities, which a government system known for its enduring erratic methods of transactions cannot be held exempt from such irregularities, which also in the middle of an ongoing war such secret transactions were integral part of that mentality to cover up their real intentions.

Photos taken by German photgrapher and missionary Armin T. Wegner

Regardless, of the attempt of the present Turkish government in discrediting the Naim-Andonian documents, there are other official documents British as well as American that testif y to the horrors perpetrated on the Armenian people during the First World War. Let us not forget the reports of the missionaries that were there as volunteers of relief of the war. All these and also special wire telegrams sent to newspapers all throughout the world. An excerpt from one of the British official documents from the Turkish Army Officer, Report by an EyeWitness, Lieutenant Sayied Ahmed Moukhtar Baas:43

“Besides the deportation order referred to above an Imperial "Iradeh" was issued ordering that all deserters when caught, should be shot without trial. The secret order read "Armenians" in lieu of "deserters". The Sultan's "Iradeh" was accompanied by a "fatwa" from Sheikh-ul-Islam stating that the Armenians had shed Moslem blood and their killing was lawful. Then the deportations started. The children were kept back at first. The Government opened up a school for the grown up children and the American Consul of Trebizond instituted an asylum for the infants. When the first batches of Armenians arrived at Gumush-Khana all able-bodied men were sorted out with the excuse that they were going to be given work. The women and children were sent ahead under escort with the assurance by the Turkish authorities that their final destination was Mosul and that no harm will Photo extracted from the film “La Masseria delle Allodole” 2007 befall them. The men kept behind, were taken out of town in batches of 15 and 20, lined up on the edge of ditches prepared beforehand, shot and thrown into the ditches. military escorts had strict orders not to interfere with the "Shotas". Hundreds of men were shot every day in a similar manner. The women and children were attacked on their way by the ("Shotas") the armed bands organised by the Turkish Government who attacked them and seized a certain number. After plundering and committing the most dastardly outrages on the women and children they massacred them in cold blood. These attacks were a daily occurrence until every woman and child had been got rid of. The children that the Government had taken in charge were also deported and massacred. Dadrian, Vahakan N., “The Naim-Andonian Documents on the World War I Destruction of Ottoman Armenians : The Anatomy of a Genocide,” International Journal of Middle East Studies,vol.18, No.3, August 1986, p.339 42

“First-hand account by a Turkish army officer on the deportation of Armenians from Trebizond and Erzerum. December 26, 1916,” Sample of Official Documents, Armenian National Institute, http://www.armenian-genocide.org/ br-12-26-16_1.html 43

24 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

The infants in the care of the American Consul of Trebizond were taken away with the pretext that they were going to be sent to Sivas where an asylum had been prepared for them. They were taken out to sea in little boats. At some distance out they were stabbed to death, put in sacks and thrown into the sea. A few days later some of their little Photo extracted from the documentary film Screamers 2006 bodies were washed up on the shore at Treb izond. In July 1915, I was ordered to accompany a convoy of deported Armenians. It was the last batch from Trebizond. There were in the convoy 120 men, 700 children and about 400 women. From Trebizond I took them to Gumish-Khana. Here the 120 men were taken away, and, as I was informed later, they were all killed. At Gumish-Khana I was ordered to take the women and children to Erzinjian. On the way I saw thousands of bodies of Armenians unburied. Several bands of "Shotas" met us on the way and wanted me to hand over to them women and children. But I persistently refused. I did leave on the way about 300 children with Moslem families who were willing to take care of them and educate them. The "Mutessarrif" of Erzinjian ordered me to proceed with the convoy to Kamack. At the latter place the authorities refused to take charge of the women and children. I fell ill and wanted to go back, but I was told that as long as the Armenians in my charge were alive I would be sent from one place to the other. However I managed to include my batch with the deported Armenians that had come from Erzeroum. In charge of the latter was a colleague of mine Mohamed Effendi from the Gendarmerie. He told me afterwards that after leaving Kamach they came to a valley where the Euphrates ran. A band of Shotas sprang out and stopped the convoy. They ordered the escort to keep away and then shot every one of the Armenians and threw them in the river. At Trebizond the Moslems were warned that if they sheltered Armenians they would be liable to the death penalty. Government officials at Trebizond picked up some of the prettiest Armenian women of the best families. After committing the worst outrages on them they had them killed. Cases of rape of women and girls even publicly are very numerous. They were systematically murdered after the outrage. The Armenians deported from Erzeroum started with their cattle and whatever possessions they could carry. When they reached Erzinjian they became suspicious seeing that all the Armenians had already been deported. The Vali of Erzeroum allayed their fears and assured them most solemnly that no harm would befall them. He told Photo extracted from the film “La Masseria delle Allodole” them that the first convoy should leave for 2007 Kamach, the others remaining at Erzeroum until they received word from their friends informing of their safe arrival to destination. And so it happened. Word came that the first batch had arrived safely at Kamach, which was true enough. But the men were kept at Kamach and shot, and the women were massacred by the Shotas after leaving that town. The Turkish officials in charge of the deportation and extermination of the Armenians were: At Erzeroum, Bihas Eddin Shaker Bey; At Trebizond; Naiil Bey, Tewfik Bey Monastirly, Colonel of Gendarmerie, The Commissioner of Police; At Kamach; The member of Parliament for Erzinjian. The Shotas headquarters were also at Kamach. Their chief was the Kurd Murzabey who boasted that he alone had killed 70,000 Armenians. Afterwards he was thought to be dangerous by the Turks and thrown into prison charged with having hit a gendarme. He was eventually executed in secret.” 25 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

C.THE ARMENIAN SITUATION AFTER WWI Before 1915, the Ottoman Armenians in Turkey amounted to 2,000,000 and they had been living in Ottoman Armenia for 3,500 years. By 1919, 1,500,000 Armenians were put to death, and an ancient culture along with its traditions were burned to the ground from the face of the Earth. After these events the Victors of WWI designed the peace treaty in the Treaty of Sevres44 that dissolved the Ottoman Empire and required it to hand over the persons responsible for the Armenian genocide, as well as the division of the Turkish territory between the Allied Powers giving back to Armenia their land and heritage and constituting it as an Independent Republic. The Sultan Muhammad VI accepted, but Mustafa Kemal Pasha, better known as “Ataturk” refused and created the Turkish War of Independence during which anarchy took place in Turkey while the Turks killed thousands of Greeks and Armenians in Smyrna45 , ransacked their homes, stores, burned down 50,000 houses, 24 churches, 28 schools, 5 consulates, 7 clubs, 5 banks, and an unknown number of stores and warehouses all in 24 hours in order to put pressure on the Allied Powers to design another Peace Treaty. Turkey regained all its sovereignty and no reparations were defined for the Armenians in the new peace treaty, the Treaty of Lausanne.46 The conditions explicated that justice was to be brought to the perpetrators of the Armenian genocide and the leaders of the CUP were sentenced to death, although they fled Turkey and met their fate in the hands of Armenian Avengers, Talat Pasa met his fate in the hands of Armenian survivor Soghomon Thleryan,47 who had hunted him down during his studies in the United States of America, Switzerland and finally Berlin where he found him and killed him. He was tried in Berlin for the murder of Talat but he was acquitted. Jemal Pasa fled to Germany and later served as a Military attaché in Afghanistan for the period of 1920-1922, when returning to Turkey on July 25, 1922 he met his death verdict in Tiflis at the hands of Armenian avengers Petros Ter Poghosyan and Artashes Gevorgyan.48 Enver Pasa fled to Germany while he was also sentenced to death in absentia. In 1921 he led the anti-Soviet movement Basmachian of Middle Soghomon Thleryan Asia where he met his death to the Armenian Commander Hakob Melkumov.49 Sayid Halim, Behaeddin Shakir and Jemal Azmi had all been very involved in the mass slaughters of Armenians. They too, had fled and while Sayid Halim was killed in Rome on December 6, 1921 by

“Treaty of Sevres,” World War I Document Archive, http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Section_I%2C_Articles_1__260 44

“Chronology of the Armenian Genocide, 1922,” Armenian National Institute, http://www.armenian-genocide.org/ 1922.html 45

“Treaty of Lausanne,” World War I Document Archive, http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Lausanne

“The Armenian Revenge Takers,” Genocide.am, http://www.genocide.am/?view=article&aID=4&1=e

26 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

Armenian avenger Arshavir Shirakyan,50 Behaeddin Shakir and Jemal Azmi met their death in Berlin on April 7,1922 at the mercy of Armenian avengers Yerkanyan and Arshavir Shirakyan.51 Mustafa Kemal Pasa “Ataturk” for the initial period of his rule kept his word in bringing to justice few minor officials in Turkey while he admitted that the Armenian Genocide did happen, but he quickly followed his forefathers’ footsteps by freeing the others involved and committing other Armenian massacres during the year 1923, after he had already acquired victory in the Treaty of Lausanne. Since then, the Turkish government’s efforts to keep the word “genocide” out of the Armenian question have been endless. They quickly respond to scholars, writers, and filmmakers in order to exclude their involvement in such a horrible crime which they deny to this day. They declare only 800,000 Armenian deaths caused by an ongoing war and state, in addition, that other minorities perished as well and that their involvement cannot be called genocide. According to Astourian52 “the denial continues and has reached such a point that it has now become quite fashionable among members of the Middle East Studies Association of North America. There is a petition signed by 69 U.S. scholars to the effect that the ‘weight of evidence uncovered so far about the events of 1915 points in the direction of inter-communal warfare…complicated by disease, famine, suffering, and massacre in Anatolia and adjoining areas during the First World War,’ which bears witness to large-scale academic denial.” Astourian53 cites Nobel Prize winner Czeslaw Milosz’s prophecy about totalitarian regimes also relevant to the Armenian genocide and to the recent opening of the Ottoman archives, although no open debate has been allowed on the matter and only scholars who have knowledge of the Ottoman language and who will favour Turkey are allowed access to said archives which may have been “sanitized”, and the quote to Milosz’s prophecy reads: “The records of crime will remain for many years, hidden in some place that is remote and secure; then, a scholar of the future, reaching through dust and cobwebs for the old files, will consider the murders committed as insignificant misdeeds compared with the task accomplished. More probably, however, no such files exist; for, in keeping step with progress, the emperors of today have drawn conclusions from this simple truth: whatever does not exist on paper, does not exist at all.” Milosz may be right and papers may be destroyed in the Ottoman archives, but there are also official papers from ambassadors of France, Great Britain, Italy, Spain, Germany and many eye-witness reports along with the testimony of the survivors of the Armenian Genocide and very distinguished organizations of the Armenian Cause that have documentation. All of these cannot be destroyed by Turkish government’s efforts. The media also play a very important role as stated many times before in changing foreign policy also on this subject. If a certain issue is not present in the newspapers, nor on television, nor on the internet, nor in films and documentaries, it might as well be as if it never existed. Ninety-three years have passed since the Armenian Genocide, what has been its presence in the media?

“The Armenian Revenge Takers,” Genocide.am, http://www.genocide.am/?view=article&aID=4&1=e

Astourian, Stephan, “The Armenian Genocide : An Interpretation,” The History Teacher, vol.23, No.2, Feb.1990, p. 145 52

Astourian, Stephan, “The Armenian Genocide : An Interpretation,” The History Teacher, vol.23, No.2, Feb.1990, p. 145-146 53

27 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

VI.THE ARMENIAN GENOCIDE IN THE MEDIA From the beginning of the First World War there has been media coverage on the Armenian Genocide. At first, certainly not on television, for there was none. The means of communication was through telegrams, most of them ciphered because of the war. Special telegrams reached all of the newsrooms throughout the world expressing the Armenian suﬀering. I have chosen the New York Times archive because to the present day the importance of the New York Times in Washington D.C. and in the journalistic community is tremendous. Also, because the New York Times has great international reach and is referred to as “the professional setter of standards” in journalism. During WWI at least once a week, during the years of the genocide and even before at key periods when the Armenian massacres started, articles were written stating the Armenians’ suﬀering, the atrocities committed, and many times and in many instances there was reference to these acts being well-known, programmed and executed by the Committee of Union and Progress which was in power at the time in present day Turkey. These acts were condemned in the International community and were already referred to as crimes against humanity in the International Press. Special wires from London, England newspapers, from France, Italy, Spain all these countries at the time condemned these acts in their newspapers. Clearly at the time film was starting to evolve from documentaries even if many of the films have been lost in history. It was very expensive at the time to create films and very few people had access to video cameras, although many volunteers photographed the events. One of these was the German intellectual, Doctor in Law, photographer, writer and poet Armin T. Wegner (1886-1978) whose photographs have stood the test of time and until today demonstrate the horrors committed to the Armenian people. Many books have been written on the subject of the Armenian Genocide, for instance: Ravished Armenia by Arshalouis Mardiganian (1918) which was later translated into film (1919) by Oscar Apfel even if all known copies of the film have since been lost, the book still exists, The Forty Days of Musa Dagh by Franz Werfel (1934), The Story of the Last Thought by Edgar Hilsenrath (1990), The Lions of Marash (1973) and Starving Armenians (2003) by Stanley Kerr, The Burning Tigris by Peter Balakian (2003), La masseria delle allodole by Antonia Arslan (2004), and finally, German protestant missionary, Johannes Lapsius’s “Bericht über die Lage des armenischen Volkes in der Turkei” (Report on the Situation of the Armenian People in Turkey) and “Der Todesgang des Armenischens Volkes” (The way to Death of the Armenian People) which included an interview with one of the chief architects of the genocide Enver Pasa, and had to publish his report secretly because of Turkey’s alliance with Germany. Films, mostly documentaries, as follows:54 1975 – The Forgotten Genocide (dir. J. Michael Hagopian) 1983 – Assignment Berlin (dir. Hrayr Toukhanian) 1988 – An Armenian Journey (dir. Theodore Bogosian) 1988 – Back To Ararat (dirs. Jim Downing, Göran Gunér, Per-Åke Holmquist, Suzanne Khardalian) 1990 – General Andranik (dir. Levon Mkrtchyan) 2000 – I Will Not Be Sad in This World (dir. Karina Epperlein) 2002 - Ararat (dir. Atom Egoyan) 2003 – Germany and the Secret Genocide (dir. J. Michael Hagopian) 2003 – Voices From the Lake: A Film About the Secret Genocide (dir. J. Michael Hagopian)

Armenian Genocide, Documentary films, Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_Genocide

28 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

2003 – Desecration (dir. Hrair "Hawk" Khatcherian) 2003 – The Armenian Genocide: A Look Through Our Eyes (dir. Vatche Arabian) 2005 – Hovhannes Shiraz (dir. Levon Mkrtchyan) 2006 – The Armenian Genocide (dir. Andrew Goldberg) 2006 – Screamers (dir. Carla Garapedian) 2007 - La masseria delle allodole (dir. Taviani brothers) However, after ninety-three years one can hardly attribute these lists as enough presence in the media so as to inform the public of it. Most people do not even know that this material exists or is available. Fortunately, the most recent material, enjoys the privileges of fearless people with enough money and power to advertise their creations in favour of the Armenian Cause. Hopefully, this will trigger the interest of many others motivating them to search for the truth. Arslan’s novel “La masseria delle allodole” (The Lark Farm), narrates the story of her own family, children who survived the genocide thanks to the efforts of the members of their family in Italy and which she knew herself as her aunts and uncles. It is certainly a great novel, one that focuses on the genocide as well as on a love story, an impossible love such as that of Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, between her Armenian grandmother, in the book “Nunik” and a Turkish official. It also focuses on the fact that one must not judge the Turkish people, for many of them were themselves slaves to their empire and thought they did not have the power to stop such horrors even if they risked their own lives and Turkish honour in order to save many of the Armenian people who were also their friends. The book includes many details of the genocide, how the deportations took place, how they killed all the men shooting them, slaying them by sword, decapitating them as well as the young boys. Leaving the women defenceless and subject to rape, starvation, illnesses, the burning sun of the dessert, crucifying those who tried to escape mocking their religion and their traditions, burning them alive and decapitating them and even forcing them to kill their own babies. But it also, shows the fragile side of those Turkish officials who were very human after all, who despised what their country was doing, who fell in love and protected many Armenian women, who did everything in their power without their evil companions knowing about it and who thanks to them many successfully escaped in order to now be able to redeem their people. The Taviani Brothers’ film based on Antonia Arslan’s book, respecting the novel in its entirety and expressing such horrors in a very artistic fashion. As one views the film, one can only identif y with the Armenian suffering. A great work of art and cinema which allo w s the v ie wer to re-live the genocide through the lives of an Armenian family and understand the pain the Armenians went through. A film that also depicts the strength of these Armenian women, who survived very ingeniously even after the despair that star vation and dehydration and illnesses and constant humiliation and tortures would bring.

29 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

”Screamers” is a powerful documentary featuring the heavymetal band System of a Down, composed of Armenian members , denouncing the Armenian genocide and all genocides known or unknown. It particularly adheres to the concept of humanity and how we should all be screamers in the face of governments that stand still while genocide happens. It also includes the participation of Hrant Dink, Turkish journalist who was murdered for speaking openly about the Armenian genocide, Pulitzer Prize winner Samantha Powell, the testimony of many Armenian genocide survivors, the testimony of many Rwanda genocide survivors mostly orphan children, historians and policy makers from all over the world. The media can be a great instrument of divulging crucial information in order to ameliorate humanity and society in general. It is the voice of so ciety ’s representatives in journalism and in the print industr y as well as the film industry and the internet. It can also be a means to entertain while informing at the same time. It is a question of what is important to humankind, and what we promote in the media will always reflect in society. This is why it is of great importance to promote altruism, moral values however diﬀerent they may be in each and every culture, there are values that are universal and which humanity must live up to.

30 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

VII.CONCLUSION At first the diﬀerent countries that made up the international community used as an excuse the fact that there was not even a word to define the atrocities that happened to the Armenian people. Later, the failure of these countries to give justice to the Armenian question caused the Jewish Holocaust. Thanks to Lemkin the birth to the word “genocide” came into the world so as policy makers and lawmakers would create the laws necessary to prevent such horrors. The failure to recognize the first genocide in history has sent out the message that genocide is allowed. After this horrifying event of genocide of the Ottoman Armenians eliminating almost sixty percent of their population, 1,500,000 Armenians, their history, landmarks, culture and tradition; the elimination of 6,000,000 Jews occurred, after this the Bosnian people lost 200,000; the Rwandan people lost 800,000; the Cambodian people lost 2,000,000; Darfur has lost 400,000 people. Genocide will persist as long as humanity does not recognize it and even then, recognizing it is not enough. Having a word for it is not enough, having laws against it is not enough, to halt further genocides the entire world must be informed, educated, and most of all understand that it is not right to kill or exterminate and entire ethnicity or race just because they are diﬀerent. Laws may not be retroactive for individuals, but in the case of genocide they should be, because it gives the perpetrator of the genocide Carte Blanche to continue with further acts of genocide. The media serve well to the purpose of divulging information. The problem at hand is always the economic interests which is also the problem at hand for policy makers to make decisions regarding genocides. Economic interests should not trump human interest nor the greater good of society. In response to Hitler’s quote: “Who, after all, remembers the extermination of the Armenians?” I can only say that he remembered it well, and other governors too, since they continue to allow it. I for one remember it, and if humanity was well aware of the atrocities committed in certain countries it would never forget it.

31 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

VI. Bibliography 1. Abrahamian, Ervand, “The US Media, Huntington and September 11,” Third World Quarterly, Vol. 24, No. 3 (Jun., 2003), pp. 529-544 2. Arslan, Antonia, La Masseria delle Allodole, Biblioteca Universali Rizzoli BUR Scrittori Contemporanei, marzo 2007, Milano, Italia p. 1-231 3. Astourian, Stephan, “The Armenian Genocide: An Interpretation,” The History Teacher, vol.23, No. 2, Feb.1990, p.111-160 4. Bettetini, Gianfranco, Quel che Resta dei Media: Idee per un’etica della Comunicazione, Armando Fumagalli, 1998, FrancoAngeli s.r.l., Milano, Italia, p.19-44, 200-236 5. Christians, Clifford G., Rotzoll, Kim B., Fackler, Mark, Mckee, Kathy Brittain, Woods, Jr., Robert H., Media Ethics: Cases and Moral Reasoning, 2005, Pearson Education, Inc., p. 1-71 6.Dadrian, Vahakan N., “The Naim-Andonian Documents on the World War I Destruction of Ottoman Armenians : The Anatomy of a Genocide,” International Journal of Middle East Studies,vol. 18, No.3, August 1986, p.311-360 7.Duclert, Vincent, “Les historiens et la destruction des Arméniens,” Vingtième Siècle, Revue d’histoire, No. 81, Jan-Mar.,2004, p.137-153 8. Felson, Richard B., “Mass Media Effects on Violent Behavior,” Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 22, (1996), pp. 103-128 9. Galtung, J. & Ruge, M. Holmboe, “The Structure of Foreign News. The Presentation of the Congo, Cuba and Cyprus Crises in Four Norwegian Newspapers,” Journal of Peace Research, vol. 2, No.1 (1965) pp. 64-91 10. Hubbard, Jeffrey C., Melvin L., DeFleur, and DeFleur, Lois B., “Mass Media Influences on Public Conceptions of Social Problems,” Social Problems, Vol. 23, No. 1 (Oct., 1975), pp. 22-34 11. Jakobsen, Peter Viggo, “National Interest, Humanitarianism or CNN: What Triggers UN Peace Enforcement after the Cold War?,” Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 33, No. 2 (May, 1996), pp. 205-215 12. Jakobsen, Peter Viggo, “Focus on the CNN Effect Misses the Point: The Real Media Impact on Conflict Management Is Invisible and Indirect,” Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 37, No. 2 (Mar., 2000), pp. 131-143 13. Kansteiner, Wulf, “Nazis, Viewers and Statistics: Television History, Television Audience Research and Collective Memory in West Germany,” Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 39, No. 4, Special Issue: Collective Memory (Oct., 2004), pp. 575-598 14. Karnik, Niranjan S., “Rwanda & the Media: Imagery, War & Refuge,” Review of African Political Economy, Vol. 25, No. 78, Whose News? Control of the Media in Africa (Dec., 1998), pp. 611-623 15. Keith, Susan, “Images in Ethics Codes in an Era of Violence and Tragedy,” Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 21(4), 2006, p. 245-264 16. Malkassian, Mark, “Disintegration of Armenian Cause in the US 1918-1927,” International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol.16, No. 3, Aug. 1984, p.349-365 17. Marcus, David, “Famine Crimes in International Law,” The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 97, No. 2 (Apr., 2003), pp. 245-281 18. Masseret, Olivier, “Le Reconaissance par le Parlement Français du génocide arménien de 1915,” Vingtième Siècle, Revue d’histoire, No. 73, Jan-Mar.,2002, p.139-155 19. McDonald, Neil, “To What Extent did Victors Vengeance Influence the Tokyo Trials?,” WaiMilHist (The Electronic Journal of Military History within the History Department at the University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand), Issue 3, vol.1, July 1999 http://www.waikato.ac.nz/wfass/subjects/history/ waimilhist/1999/victor1.htm

20. Melson, Robert, “Paradigms of Genocide: The Holocaust, the Armenian Genocide, and Contemporary Mass Destructions,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 548, The Holocaust: Remembering for the Future (Nov., 1996), pp. 156-168 21. Moresi, Enrico, Etica della Notizia, Edizioni Casagrande s.a., 2003, Bellinzona, Ticino, Svizzera, p. 37-101 22. Ohanian, Misak, “Armenians-an invisible ethnicity,” Feminist Review, No.73, Exile and Asylum: Women Seeking Refuge in ‘Fortress Europe,’ 2003, p.132-135 32 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

23. Ovsiovitch, Jay S., “News Coverage of Human Rights,” Political Research Quarterly, vol.46, No. 3, Sep. 1993, p. 671-189 24. Philipose, Liz, “The Laws of War and Women's Human Rights,” Hypatia, Vol. 11, No. 4, Women and Violence (Autumn, 1996), pp. 46-62 25. Reisman, W. Michael, “Reporting the Facts as they are not known: Media Responsibility in Concealed Human Rights Violations,” The American Journal of International Law, vol.78, No. 3, July 1984, p. 650-652 26. Robinson, Darryl, “Defining Crimes Against Humanity at the Rome Conference,” The American Journal of International Law, vol. 93, No. 1, (Jan.1999), p.43-57 27. Robinson, Piers, “The Policy-Media Interaction Model: Measuring Media Power during Humanitarian Crisis,” Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 37, No. 5 (Sep., 2000), pp. 613-633 28. Rudolph, Christopher, “Constructing an Atrocities Regime: The Politics of War Crimes Tribunals,” International Organization, Vol. 55, No. 3 (Summer, 2001), pp. 655-691 29. Sacco, Vincent F., “Media Constructions of Crime,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 539, Reactions to Crime and Violence (May, 1995), pp. 141-154 30. Smith, Charles Anthony, “The Primary of Politics: Justice, Power, and War Crime Trials,” The Online Journal of Peace and Conflict Resolution, Issue 2.3, August 1999, ISSN 1522-211X, published by The Tabula Rasa Institute http://www.trinstitute.org/ojpcr/p2_3smith.htm 31. Ter Minassian, Anahide, “Les arméniens au 20 siécle,” Vingtième Siècle, Revue d’histoire, No. 67, Jul-Sep.,2000, p.135-150 32. Vetlesen, Arne Johan, “Genocide: A Case for the Responsibility of the Bystander,” Journal of Peace Research, vol.37, No. 4, Special Issue on Ethics of War and Peace, July 2000, p. 519-532 33. Wilkins, Lee, Coleman, Renita, The Moral Media: How Journalists Reason About Ethics, 2005, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, p.32-44, 69-88 34. Wu, Haoming Denis , “Investigating the Determinants of International Ne ws Flow,” Communication Studies, Gazzette vol. 60 No. 6, December 1998, p. 493-512

Websites 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Antonia Arslan http://www.antoniarslan.it Armenian Genocide http://www.armeniapedia.org Armenian Genocide http://www.armenocide.org Armenian Genocide Posters http://www.armeniangenocideposters.org Armenian National Institute http://www.armenian-genocide.org Etymology Online Dictionary http://www.etymonline.com First World War http://www.firstworldwar.com Genocide.am http://www.genocide.am Committee of the Red Cross, Treaty Database, Criminal Repression http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/ TOPICS?OpenView# Prevent Genocide International http://www.preventgenocide.org Science Encyclopedia http://science.jrank.org/ Tabula Rasa Institute http://www.trinstitute.org The Forgotten http://www.theforgotten.org Transcend http://transcend-nordic.org United Nations Oﬃce of the High Commissioner of Human Rights http://www.unhcr.org World War I Document Archive http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Main_Page

33 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

Videography 1. Fratelli Taviani (Paolo e Vittorio), “La Masseria delle Allodole,” 01 Distribution S.r.l., 2007, Italy 2. Jourdan, Laurence, “The Armenian Genocide,” Arte, 2005, France 3. Garapedian, Carla, “Screamers,” The Raﬀy Manoukian Charity, 2006, United States of America

Corpus New York Times Archive: a. April 18-1897-wednesday-page 22 b. April 11-1898-wednesday-page 7 c. April 12-1898-wednesday-page 8 d. April 15-1900-wednesday-page 1 e. April 30-1900-wednesday-page 8 f. April 25-1909-Sunday-page 1 g. April 25-1909-Sunday-page 3 h. April 28-1909-Special Cable The London Daily Mail-Wednesday-page 1 i. Jan.24-1915-Sunday-Special Articles Real Estate Letters from Readers Business Financialpage XXI j. April 26-1915-Monday-page 3 k. April 29-1915-thursday-page 2 l. June 1-1915-Special Cable-Tuesday-page 7 m. Aug. 6-1915-Special Cable-The Daily Chronicle London-Friday-page 6 n. Aug.11-1915-wednesday-page 4 o. Aug.27-1915-Friday-page 3 p. Oct. 13-1915-Wednesday-page 4 q. Oct.15-1915-Friday-Page 4 r. Oct.18-1915-Monday-page 3 s. Dec. 23-1915-thursday-page 3 t. Sept.1-1916-Friday-page 8 u. Oct.8-1916-Sunday-Lord Bryce on Armenian Attrocities Fashions Drama-page X2 v. Nov. 12-1916-Sunday-page 18 w. Nov.12-1916-Sunday-Society Fashions Week's War Operations Drama Music Queries on the War-page X12 x. Nov.12-1916-Vahan Cardashian-Sunday-Editorial Section-page E2 y. Jan.1-1917-Special Cable-Monday-page 9 z. Jan.7-1917-Sunday-Section The NY Times Magazine-page SM8 aa. Sept.30-1917-Sunday-page 8 bb. Nov.25-1918-Monday-page 3 cc. Dec.8-1918-Sunday-page 6 dd. Dec.30-1918-Monday-page 8 ee. Jan 2-1919-Thursday-page 2 ff. Jan.9-1919-Thursday-page 9 gg. Jan.24-1919-Friday-page 5 hh. April 14-1919-Monday-page 1 ii. April 18-1919-Friday-page 3 jj. April 19-1919-Saturday-page 2 kk. June 1-1919-Sunday-page 14 ll. Dec.23-1919-tuesday-page 8 mm. Feb.15-1920-sunday-page 5 nn. Feb. 29-1920-Sunday-page16 oo. Feb.27-1920-friday-page 3 pp. March 5-1920-friday-page 10 qq. March 7-1920-sunday-page 2 34 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide

rr. March 8-1920-monday-page 8 ss. March 11-1920-Special Cable-thursday-page 1 tt. May 25-1920-Special-Tuesday-page 1 uu. May 26-1920-wednesday-page 2 vv. Sept.4-1920-saturday-page 9 ww. Nov.13-1920-saturday-Real Estate-page 24 xx. Jan.25-1921-M.T.Kalaidjian-tuesday-page 10 yy. May 7-1922-Haig Yeprat-sunday-Arts and Leisure-page 85 zz. Sept.17-1922-Aghavnie Yeghenian-sunday-special features-page 97

35 The Responsibility of the Media in Facing Crimes against Humanity-Specific Case: The Armenian Genocide