ARC 634: The Architecture of Revolutions Professor Jean-François Bedard How Napoleon Bonaparte Used Architecture to Enhance His Political Regime in Europe James Marsh INTRODUCTION
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE is a revered figure of French history known for his military leadership and charismatic political guidance. He was named Empeurer des Francais on May 18, 1804, closely following the French Revolution: a time of violence and upheaval from 17891799.1 As the subject of the phrase “Napoleonic Caesarism,” Bonaparte was credited with a “seizure of power at a time of real or alleged national crisis by a leader owing his prestige to real or associated military triumphs.” 2 Napoleon was a man of politics, but he also cleverly used architecture to establish himself in a powerful and memorable manner. He became invested in Roman architecture, for its prestige and ancient power, and Egyptian architecture, after a military campaign in the country exposed him to its massive scale and magnificence, which later his personal architects, Percier and Fontaine, fused into their own distinct style called the Empire Style. There are five main factors to Napoleon’s successful use of architecture during his regime in Europe. Between his magnificent ideas to embellish Paris as the most wondrous city in the world, his monumental designs that refer to antiquity, his commissioned infrastructural projects to combat unemployment and social turmoil, his use of architectural propaganda to cover up military failure, and the overarching tenacity he held to be visually depicted as the greatest ruler
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of French history, architecture was vitally instrumental in Napoleon’s reign as emperor of France. The state of France directly following the French Revolution was in shambles. The country was saturated with fear of their families’ and neighbors’ livelihoods. Paris was plagued with vandalism for the ten years of turmoil. At St. Denis statues of French monarchs were defaced, pedestals stood around the city absent of their statues which they were meant to hold, and many churches had been totally destroyed. The famous Notre-Dame cathedral of Paris was scheduled for demolition and its stones were even being auctioned off to the highest bidders. 3 The façade of the Tuileries Palace was riddled with bulletholes. As a city in complete disarray, Paris was quite a challenging undertaking for the new emperor. Napoleon would face this challenge head-on with tenacity and rigor. THE VISION TO EMBELLISH THE CITY OF PARIS In wake of the French Revolution, Napoleon never lost his sense of fantastical goals and visions for the city of Paris. He believed that history judged rulers by the magnificence of the projects and buildings they commission while under power. 4 This concept motivated him to pursue the goal of “rebuilding Paris to be the most beautiful city which will ever exist.” 5 This would prove to be a huge undertaking in his mind as he once said “to embellish Paris there is more to demolish than to build.” 6 The new Emperor was France’s fresh start after the brutal and violent French Revolution. He “promised to reverse the anarchy,
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destruction, and decay left behind by a decade of revolutionaries.” 7 At this fragile time in France, he was seen as “a master brimming over with new ideas.” 8 He was a very progressive personality and is not always remembered for his interest in pushing new materials such as iron because he was quite often commissioning neoclassical projects. Bonaparte was obsessed with immortalizing himself as a fixture in French and world history for centuries to come. He often thought of how his work and his reign would be reflected upon by future generations. For this reason his vision tended to be impressive in scale and ambition, and it is said the he only saw beauty in the grand. 9 In fact often his projects were so outstanding that they were not finished in his time as ruler or even at all. Napoleon’s personal secretary, Louis Antoine Fauvelet de Bourrienne, once remarked the Emperor’s “passion for monuments almost equaled his passion for war… the destruction of men and the construction of monuments were two things perfectly in unison in the mind of Bonaparte.” 10 His grandiose dreams were very rarely accomplished as needs in France changed and projects disappeared when they had ceased to remain a priority. 11 Also his appetite to expand France’s land to rival that of ancient Rome left funds depleted and projects unfinished. Nevertheless, Napoleon would persevere in his life goal to become immortalized as an omniscient leader through his wide use of Roman an Egyptian architecture in Paris. COMMISION OF ROMAN AND EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE Lacking proper architectural training, the emperor formed a close relationship with two architects who would design a majority of his 3
projects and buildings: Charles Percier and Pierre Francois Leonard Fontaine. Pierre Fontaine worked so assiduously in collaboration with his friend Percier that their names can hardly be mentioned apart. They knew each other since they were teens, and in 1784,at the age of twenty, Percier won the “grand prix.” 12 Together they rebuilt the highly dilapidated Chateau de la Malmaison in 1800 for Napoleon and Empress Josephine, they designed the facades along Paris’s rue de Rivoli in 1802, they carried out extensive interior alterations of the Louvre in 1805, and they erected the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel in 1806. 13 Another major project of Napoleon’s architects was to renovate existing homes that had succumbed to the elements. “Focused on establishing imperial residences for the emperor of France. many of these dwellings were the maisons royales of the Bourbon dynasty, which had fallen into disrepair in the aftermath of the Revolution. They were restored to surpass their former grandeur by Napoleon’s lead architects.” 14 By returning to their training and studies of ancient monuments in Rome after winning the Grand Prix, Percier and Fontaine fused military themes and Roman motifs to embellish the emperor and relate him with antiquity. In fact many of Napoleon’s architectural commissions are linked to an association with antiquity. This was a common stance at this time in France. Bonaparte would have agreed with Nicolas Francois Blondel and most of the world at the time that Greek and Roman architecture was the pinnacle of architectural design. While Blondel wrote of Vitruvian proportions and absolute beauties, 15 (Mallgrave 70-72) Napoleon was much more interested in the political connotations of ancient 4
architecture. One could say that he introduced the French population to Roman architecture in 1789 when he brought pieces from Italian museums back to Paris to host one of the first exhibitions of paintings and sculpture open to the public at that period of time. 16 His role model and rival was Augustus. He sought to emulate the emperor, and wanted to associate himself with Rome and its architecture. The Vendome Column, Fig 02 completed in 1810, was Napoleon’s reinvention of Trajan’s Column in Rome Fig 01 to commemorate the victory of Austerlitz; it features a statue of Bonaparte atop the large column where he is depicted wearing ancient Roman garb. 17 By placing himself atop a giant Romanesque column, he was using architecture to establish himself as a leader as prestigious and magnificent as the highly touted emperors of ancient Rome. “Cast within each band is a narrative of French military glory—reliefs that recall triumphal battle scenes adorning Trajan’s Column. The parallel between Napoleon’s regime and imperial Rome was more apparent in this monument.” 18 The Roman arch held an elegant beauty to Napoleon. His Arch de Triomphe de l’Etoile Fig 03 was another reference to Augustus and Rome and the Arch of Augustus of Rimini Fig 04. The arch structure which has a long history of commemorative purpose was dedicated to the Grand Armee. He wanted to impress Europe with the magnitude of his power by erecting such a massive arch. 19 This arch was not the only triumphal arch to be commissioned under Napoleon; he also ordered the erection of the Arch du Carrousel Fig 05 in 1806 designed by Percier and Fontaine. This was a triple arched monument modeled after the precedent of the Arch of
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Constantine in Rome. Fig 06 One could say that Napoleon was quite fond of Roman architectural motifs. Another ancient style caught the military commander eye before he became emperor. From 1798 to 1801 Napoleon led a campaign in Egypt. This foreign endeavor was seen as one of his only military failures which was very uncharacteristic of him. Regardless of the outcome of the campaign, Bonaparte highly respected the power the emanated from Egyptian architecture from the Great Pyramids to obelisks to ornamentation. This aligned with Giovanni Battista Pairanesi’s 1769 work Diverse maniere where he challenged that ancient Greece was superior in the arts, and instead posited that designers could seek influence from the art and architecture of ancient Egypt. 20 Napoleon would use a variation of Egyptian motifs to commemorate his fictitious military glory in the Egyptian campaign.21 While Augustus ruled Rome, he brought obelisks back to the city to commemorate the Roman Empire’s defeat of Egyptian lands such as the Obelisk of Montecitorio.Fig. 08 In Napoleon’s defeat at Egypt, he was unable to capture Egyptian obelisks, but this would not stop the tenacious emperor in his pursuit to rival Augustus. He would manufacture his own Egyptian ruins, so he commissioned Francois Joseph Belanger to design the obelisk at Pont Neuf Fig 07 in 1809. 22 Napoleon used many forms of architecture to sell his military victory to the public. “The expedition was further commemorated in the Empire furnishings designed by architects Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine, which consisted of a blend of Egyptian and imperial motifs similar to those exhibited in the regime’s 6
military monuments. The celebration of Bonaparte’s Egyptian expedition was most apparent in the decorative arts inspired by plates from the campaign publication Description de l’Égypte.” 23 One interesting aspect of Napoleon’s Egyptian themed structures is that his architects had to make inferences about style while studying Egyptian precedents because many of them were found in ruins or partially covered by sand, so it was necessary for the designers to reconstruct what they had seen of the ancient style. 24 Soon Napoleon’s architectural interests would spawn a new style that was realized with the help of his top royal architects. Bonaparte’s fondness for both Classical and Egyptian architectures and themes led to a new style called the Empire Style. This was a culmination of his ideal fantasy of neo-classical-Egyptian design. 25 This new Empire Style can be found in the work of Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine. Percier and Fontaine sought to provide a counterpoint to the excess of the baroque and rococo styles, so the Empire Style had a much simpler aesthetic. Like Piranesi, the architects modernized Classical motifs by applying them to contemporary structure.26 It is described as “a style of simple shapes and flat surfaces modestly but effectively articulated by two-dimensional ornamental and figurative patterns in wonderfully simple, rhythmic compositions, almost naïve in appearance… an imaginative creation, not a revival.” 27 Not only did the Empire Style appear in architecture, but later in the century it was said “perhaps the most characteristic period in the history of furniture in France is that of the first Napoleon… [it] is entirely different from that of any reign that preceded it.” 28 The style also seeped into silverware, 7
jewelry, and industrial arts.29 Napoleon embraced Percier and Fontaine’s ideas that design of architectural elements can seep over into dÊcor such as furniture and the arts. Their book Recueil de decorations interieures was a very influential book that contained patterns that constituted the Empire Style. The emperor was not only interested in this rich style exclusively, but also understood that a leader had to commission works of civic function and utilitarian purpose. IMPROVING PERSONAL POLITICS THROUGH ARCHITECTURE In addition to architectural and monumental structures, Napoleon also commissioned public works and infrastructural projects. These projects were sometimes undertaken out of a sense of necessity; he understood that his popularity could not be maintained unless the government could restore public confidence in his leadership abilities. He commissioned public works projects where he forged a route through Simplon and Mont-Cenis in the Alps, as well as ordering the SaintQuentin Canal. 30 Both of these projects could help solve widespread unemployment in France after the revolution while expanding trade and commerce routes which would be perceived as beneficial to the wellbeing of the country and its inhabitants. Another civic project he undertook was the erection of fifteen public fountains throughout Paris in 1806. They were meant to supply water to the city and improve sanitation and health conditions. This was again an imitation of Augustus and relates to other public water projects in Rome such as aqueducts for water transportation and distribution and public baths for hygienic purposes. 31 Although these fountains were functional in utility, they also 8
served as symbolic edifices. They often adorned ancient Roman or Egyptian motifs that related to power and magnificence. These projects showed that Napoleon understood he needed ratings to accomplish his goals. By publicly declaring his concern for the unemployed through infrastructural projects and solidifying his reputation as a world-class military leader, Bonaparte could focus on his attempt to embellish Paris through magnificent and massive projects rather than the possibility of a negative public image in France. ARCHITECTURE AS PROPOGANDA Napoleon’s greatest embarrassment as military leader of France was his Egyptian campaign from 1798-1801. He would not let this tarnish his image as the most powerful man in France. Since the emperor had the power to mold most affairs of his public appearance, “it was portrayed as a resounding success in the art created during his reign.” 32 False depictions of the Egyptian campaign were commissioned by Napoleon’s regime. This included paintings and sculptures of events that were sometimes quite fictional. “These painted fabrications conceal horrific acts of war committed by the French army in Egypt and Syria. Furthermore, artists imbued their paintings with authenticating elements to provide convincing depictions of reality.” 33 By depicting events that had quasi-real or believable elements in them, Napoleon was able to propagate his success as the long known military figure he was most widely known for. A mark on his reputation of leadership and military record would have been not only humiliating, but would have promoted the French people to second guess his emperorship. These artistic 9
devices of illusion were even used in the academic literature about the campaign. In Description de l’Egypte there was a “portrayal of a superior French army juxtaposed with an uncivilized enemy.” 34 For the average Frenchman, there was a landslide of evidence to point towards the success of France in Egypt and it seemed to even be celebrated. Napoleon even imitated Egyptian architecture as a statement of his dominance over the country. Like Augustus he wanted to showcase how he could conquer a foreign land and bring back its spoils as trophies. Napoleon would never quite live up to this because he instead built his own replica Egyptian monuments. “The regime commissioned monuments resembling those of ancient Egypt—architectural works which commemorated the Egyptian campaign.” 35 One such Egyptian replica was built on the site of the half-finished Madeleine church. He commissioned architect Pierre Vignon to design the Temple of Glory which commemorates Napoleon’s Grand Armee. In a show of power, the emperor vetoed the winning competition entry in favor of Vignon’s third place winning entry. The design was a colossal Imperial temple that presented an overwhelmingly massive and dominating presence in scale and proportion. Vignon visited the ancient Roman precedent of the temple of Mars Ultor and the Maison Carree in Nimes to link Bonaparte’s Empire again to ancient Rome and two examples from the reign of Augustus. 36 One of the fifteen fountains Napoleon built around Paris was called the Fontaine de Fellah located on the Rue de Sevres. This fountain in particular was another homage to the Egyptian campaign. The design by Francois-Jean Bralle reminisces structures that were imagined for the false depictions, in this case of illustrations of 10
Egyptian temple doors, in the Description de l’Egypte. Atop the fountain is a statue of a figure nearing water; this figure is depicted wearing a headdress similar to the ones worn by ancient pharaohs which symbolizes Napoleon as a Pharaoh of France who gives water to the people. 37 The fountain symbolizes Bonaparte’s successful conquer of Egypt as well as his humanitarian attitude towards his constituency. Other projects by Napoleon help explain how he was able to pull off such acts of propaganda in a believable fashion. One of many examples is the Rue de Rivoli. It was built in 1801 by Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine to commemorate the Napoleonic victory against Austria in 1797. This victory was a true military triumph rather than a manufactured cover-up to preserve the emperor’s perfect martial record. It is parallel to the royal axis and is made up of three story apartments above a rhythmic arcade at the ground. 38 This long straight axis of repetitive façade gives one a sublime experience while looking down the street. The long straight axis was designed to showcase the grand processions of the Grand Armee. It even had balconies on either side of the street to view such a spectacle of French power. Only certain shops were allowed on the ground floor and there could not be signage because this might have taken away from Napoleon’s military venue. By building the architectural works related to his Egyptian “victory” just as he had done for any other victory, Napoleon legitimatized his right to rule France and never showed his true possibility of human weakness. Because he commissioned legitimate celebratory projects such as the Rue de Rivoli or the Arc de Triomphe l’Etoile, Napoleon was able to avoid facing his embarrassment in Egypt. 11
DEPICTION AS A GREAT FRENCH LEADER Napoleon was savvy enough to realize the opportunity to immortalize himself as a leader through architectural sculptures also. He commissioned a huge number of sculptures, enough that it was said to keep the sculptors of France busy for twenty years, many of which were either portrayals of himself or of his family.39 He placed himself atop Vendome Column in order to rival Augustus and depict himself as a new age leader who brought the prestige of ancient Rome to France. “Following his rise to power, Napoleon and his administration set out to realize this dream by having several monuments built in honor of his reign.” 40 Napoleon was also well aware of the emotion that could be expressed through interior design. Percier and Fontaine were called upon multiple times to decorate the interiors of rooms for the emperor. One such instance is the council room meant for meetings between Napoleon and the members of his ministry. The room was designed after an army encampment and the ceiling and walls were covered in striped fabric to recall the image of a tent set up on the military battlefield. Along the walls of the room were weapons and trophies of battle that were meant to inspire thoughts of Napoleon’s military domination. “These decorative accolades recalled the victories Napoleon experienced on the battlefront, portraying him as a strong and capable ruler.” 41 The Tuileries palace was also a place of congregation for Napoleon and the aristocracy. This room
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was designed by Percier and Fontaine to impress those who would enter with a theatrical display of power. Napoleon had a throne built that was guilded in gold and upholstered expensive fabrics with intricate designs. A golden crown of laurel leaves was above the throne which refers to a common ancient Roman symbol. The chair was engraved with eagles and other symbols of power, and the chair and the wall behind the throne were designed with “N’s” to stand for and be remembered as the Napoleonic reign of France. 42 Napoleon even ordered that the money of France be designed to glorify himself. “In addition to the arts, the French emperor celebrated his rule through other means such as coin production and the press. Bonaparte’s methods of self-promotion followed a precedent established above all by the most powerful French monarch, Louis XIV.” 43 The emperor went to great lengths to embellish his own name not only for his own life, but for his megalomaniacal vision of the overall history of the world. CONCLUSION Bonaparte extraordinarily implemented his influence and power on the built environment in Paris while he was emperor of France. He used architecture to supplement his political life and took the artistic liberty to paint the picture he desired of his own history and persona. He covered up what may be his most embarrassing military defeat during the campaign in Egypt by commissioning architecture and art as propaganda to cover his humiliation from the French. He left behind a number of timeless structures while always fulfilling his goal to become immortalized as a great ruler and military leader in France. “Napoleon’s 13
attention to self‐representation was a vehicle for conquering, for sustaining his power, and for creating and nourishing the legitimacy of his reign.” 44 Napoleon was a political genius who uniquely wielded the arts including painting, literature, sculpture, theatre, and architecture to meticulously create the environment and history in France that he wanted to be remembered for generations to come. He was creative and convincing in his “monumental projects that functioned on several planes: fostering national unity and love of the country, inspiring great actions, celebrating and immortalizing the glorious accomplishments already achieved, and discouraging any thoughts of disloyalty by their very magnificence and imposing nature.” 45 Through his vision to make Paris an city unrivaled in beautiful that will be reminisced for centuries into the future, his monumental projects to link himself to ancient magnificence, his utilitarian urban commissions to sway the politics of Paris towards himself, his use of military propaganda to cover his public embarrassment, and his infatuation with depicting himself as an immortal ruler among men, Napoleon Bonaparte was truly a mastermind of architecture as a political tool during his regime in France.
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CITED FIGURES
Figure 01 APOLLODORUS OF DAMASCUS, architect (AD 113) Sectional elevation and elevation of Trajan’s Column in Rome, Italy Pen and ink London, F. Cresy and G.L. Taylor, The Architectural Antiquities of Rome, 1922
Figure 02 JULES HARDOUIN-MANSART, architect (Paris 1646 - Paris 1708) Perspectival photograph of Vendome Column in Paris, France Philadelphia, James W. Shepp and Daniel B. Shepp, Shepp’s Photographs of the World, 2008
The practice of placing statues on top of columns originated most likely from ancient Greece. One of the most famous columns was erected by the Romans is Trajan’s Column built in AD 113 to commemorate Emperor Trajan’s victory in the Dacian Wars. This column is known as “the prototype of many others since erected during both ancient and modern times.” 46 Napoleon’s version of Trajan’s Column , named the Vendome Column and located in Paris, was designed by Gondouin, a pupil of Blondel, in the Doric fashion, and erected in 1810 to commemorate military victories. 47 It supports a statue 15
of Bonaparte dressed in a Roman toga cast from 1,200 enemy firearms in his wars. 48 While Trajan’s Column in Rome measures 115 feet tall, Napoleon’s Vendome Column is 116 feet tall: a symbolic gesture to how Napoleon felt about himself.
Figure 03 JULES HARDOUIN-MANSART, architect (Paris 1646 - Paris 1708) Perspectival photograph of Arc de Triomphe de l’Etoile, France Philadelphia, James W. Shepp and Daniel B. Shepp, Shepp’s Photographs of the World, 2008
Figure 04 ROMAN SENATE, dedicated to Emperor Augustus (27 B.C.) Perspectival photograph of Arch of Augustus in Rimini Hotel Mon Lays
Designed by Jean-Francois-Therese Chalgrin, The Arch de Triomphe l’Etoile, was started in 1806. It is 162 feet tall and 150 feet wide: a massive structure to memorialize the Grande Armee. 49 It’s located in Paris along the city’s main royal axis and acts as a massive and impressive gateway to the city. Emperor Augustus made this type of structure famous by erecting a number of them in the Roman Empire including his namesake the Arch of Augustus in Rimini, Italy. Of course, Bonaparte’s arch had to be larger than Augustus’s, and in fact it was the largest triumphal arch in the world at the time. Its proportions rivaled the
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scale of much smaller Roman arches such as the one at Porte SaintDenis. 50 The Arch de Triomphe l’Etoile was seen as one of Napoleon’s most magnificent structures. Because of this it took some time to complete. In 1810 when Bonaparte married Marie Louise of Austria, only the monument’s foundations had been laid. He ordered a full scale wooden replica be built to convey the grandeur of the occasion. 51 The stone structure would not be finished for years to come; in 1814 the arch had reached six meters in height. 52
Figure 05 CHARLES PERCIER and PIERRE FONTAINE, architects (Paris 1806) Perspective of the Arc du Carrousel in Paris, France Pen and ink and watercolor wash Paris, Louis-Pierre Baltard
Figure 06 ROMAN SENATE, dedicated to Emperor Augustus (Rome 315 AD) Perspective of Arch of Constantine, Rome, Italy Pen and ink Italy, Rossini, early 1800s
While the Arch de Triomphe l’Etoile was a massive single arch, the Arch du Carrousel is a small triple arched monument. It was designed by Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine in the courtyard of the Louvre. 53 It is modeled after the Arch of Constantine constructed at the northwest corner of the Roman Forum in AD 203. 54 It has a number of important characteristics in terms of relation to the city of Paris. It marks the 17
entrance of the Tuileries Palace and Gardens, to serve as a monument to the armies of Austerlitz, and to provide a terminus of a new street. 55
Figure 07 FRANCOIS JOSEPH BELLANGER, architect (France, 1744-1818) Elevation of the Obelisk at Pont Neuf Pen and ink with watercolor wash Paris, Francois Joseph Bellanger
Figure 08 AUGUSTUS BROUGHT FROM EGYPT TO ROME (Egypt 595-598 BC) Perspective of the Obelisk at Montecitorio in Rome Pen and ink with watercolor wash Francesco Barbazza
In 1809, Napoleon commissioned an Egyptian monument be built to commemorate his military exploits in Prussia and Poland. 56 This was the obelisk at Pont Neuf. Napoleon had been to Egypt and seen these structures, and he knew well that the Romans had brought obelisks from Egypt back to the Empire to commemorate different victories. One such structure was the Obelisk of Montecitorio at the time of Augustus. Napoleon’s largest military embarrassment had taken place in Egypt, so he had not been able to capture authentic obelisks. He employed Francois Joseph Belanger to manufacture a grand obelisk which would be like a perfect project for his ideals. He would first be able to match Augustus, 18
second construct and ancient and inherently powerful and memorable structure in Paris, and third he could use it as propaganda to show France how successful he had been in his Egyptian campaign failure. James Marsh December 2014
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NOTES 1. THODY, Philip. French Caesarism from Napoleon I to Charles de Gaulle. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989: 181. 2. THODY, Philip. French Caesarism: 32. 3. Horne, Alistair. Seven Ages of Paris. New York: Knopf, Borzoi Books, 2002: 162. 4. KAIN, Roger. Napoleon I and urban planning in Paris. Devon, UK: Exeter University, 1989: 44. 5. WEISER, Abby Brianne. Egypt, The Fictive Theater of Napoleon’s Glory: A Celebration of The Egyptian Campaign in Paintings, Architecture, and Decorative Arts. Kansas City, Missouri ProQuest LLC: 2013: 46. 6. KAIN, Roger. Napoleon I and urban planning in Paris: 45. 7. Horne, Alistair. Seven Ages of Paris: 161. 8. Ibid: 159. 9. KAIN, Roger. Napoleon I and urban planning in Paris: 44. 10. STEINER, Frances H. Building with Iron: A Napoleonic Controversy. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981: 701. 11. KAIN, Roger. Napoleon I and urban planning in Paris: 49. 12. The Style of "The Empire". New York: The Art Amateur, 1881: 11. 13. ZANTEN, David Van,Fontaine in the Burnham Library. Chicago: The Art Institute of Chicago, 1988: 133. 14. WEISER, Abby Brianne. Egypt, The Fictive Theater of Napoleon’s Glory: 43. 15. MALLGRAVE, Harry Francis. Architectural Theory: Volume I An Anthology from Vitrivius to 1870. Malden, MA, Blackwell Publishing, 2006: 70-72. 16. The Style of "The Empire". The Art Amateur, 1881: 11. 17. WEISER, Abby Brianne. Egypt, The Fictive Theater of Napoleon’s Glory: 49. 18. Ibid: 38. 20
19. Ibid: 50. 20. Ibid: 48. 21. Ibid: 4. 22. Ibid: 51. 23. Ibid: 59. 24. Ibid: 57. 25. KAIN, Roger. Napoleon I and urban planning in Paris: 46. 26. WEISER, Abby Brianne. Egypt, The Fictive Theater of Napoleon’s Glory: 59. 27. ZANTEN, David Van,Fontaine in the Burnham Library: 134. 28. The Style of "The Empire". The Art Amateur, 1881: 11. 29. Ibid. 30. DUFRAISSE, Roger. Napoleon. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992: 68. 31. WEISER, Abby Brianne. Egypt, The Fictive Theater of Napoleon’s Glory: 41. 32. Ibid: 6. 33. Ibid. 34. Ibid. 35. Ibid: 35. 36. Ibid: 36. 37. Ibid: 42. 38. Ibid: 39. 39. ENGLUND, Steven. Napoleon: a political life. New York: Scribner, 2004: 13. 40. WEISER, Abby Brianne. Egypt, The Fictive Theater of Napoleon’s Glory: 36. 41. Ibid: 45. 42. Ibid: 47. 21
43. Ibid: 59. 44. MORRISSEY, Robert. Napoleon: Héros, impérator, mécène by Annie Jourdan. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2006: 34. 45. MORRISSEY, Robert. Napoleon: Héros, impérator:35 46. ADSHEAD, S.D. ,Monumental Columns: The Decoration and Furnishing of the City. England:Liverpool University Press, 1911: 95. 47. ADSHEAD, S.D. ,Monumental Columns: 96. 48. Ibid. 49. WEISER, Abby Brianne. Egypt, The Fictive Theater of Napoleon’s Glory: 38. 50. Ibid: 39. 51. Ibid. 52. KAIN, Roger. Napoleon I and urban planning in Paris: 48. 53. ZANTEN, David Van,Fontaine in the Burnham Library: 133. 54. VERMEULE, Cornelius. The Arch of Septimius Severus in the Roman Forum by Richard Brilliant. New York: Archaeological Institute of America, 1968: 296. 55. KAIN, Roger. Napoleon I and urban planning in Paris: 47. 56. WEISER, Abby Brianne. Egypt, The Fictive Theater of Napoleon’s Glory: 40.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. ADSHEAD, S.D. ,Monumental Columns: The Decoration and Furnishing of the City. England:Liverpool University Press, 1911. 2. Art. V.-the Downfall of Bonapartism. New York: The British Quarterly Review, 1871 3. BERGERON, Louis. France under Napoleon. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981. 4. BRAHAM, Allan. The architecture of the French Enlightenment. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980. 5. DUFRAISSE, Roger. Napoleon. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992. 6. ENGLUND, Steven. Napoleon: a political life. New York: Scribner, 2004. 7. HORNE, Alistair. Seven Ages of Paris. New York: Knopf, Borzoi Books, 2002. 8. KAIN, Roger. Napoleon I and urban planning in Paris. Devon, UK: Exeter University, 1989. 9. MALLGRAVE, Harry Francis. Architectural Theory: Volume I An Anthology from Vitrivius to 1870. Malden, MA, Blackwell Publishing, 2006. 10. MORRISSEY, Robert. Napoleon: Héros, impérator, mécène by Annie Jourdan. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2006. 11. PICON, Antoine. French architects and engineers in the Age of Enlightenment. Cambridge [England: Cambridge University Press, 1992. 12. SMITH, Kevin C.,Victor Hugo and the Vendôme Column: "Ce fut le début de la rupture..." Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996. 13. STEINER, Frances H. Building with Iron: A Napoleonic Controversy. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981. 14. The Style of "The Empire". New York: The Art Amateur, 1881. 15. THODY, Philip. French Caesarism from Napoleon I to Charles de Gaulle. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989. 16. VERMEULE, Cornelius. The Arch of Septimius Severus in the Roman Forum by Richard Brilliant. New York: Archaeological Institute of America, 1968. 23
17. WEISER, Abby Brianne. Egypt, The Fictive Theater of Napoleon’s Glory: A Celebration of The Egyptian Campaign in Paintings, Architecture, and Decorative Arts. Kansas City, Missouri ProQuest LLC: 2013. 18. ZANTEN, David Van,Fontaine in the Burnham Library. Chicago: The Art Institute of Chicago, 1988.
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