Part A: Observations
The pupae have a long oval shape and are colored brown. There are width-wise grooves along the body.
The nasonia are much smaller than the pupae. They appear very developed; their features are distinguishable.
The nasonia are climbing on top of the nasonia and ………………………….stinging them.
Part B: Hypothesis
I believe the nasonia are stinging the pupae because they perceive them as intruders on their territory.
Part C: Experimental Design 2 test tubes are installed. Only pupae are placed in one tube, and both pupae and nasonia are placed in the other one.
Part D: Data Collection
One flesh fly emerged half way out
Part E: Conclusion Because of the lack of activity in the experiment, no conclusion can be reached. This should have happened.
No hypothesis could be proven correct or incorrect, because of the little amount of activity in the flesh fly and the absence of activity in the nasonia.
Nothing in concern to movement was observed so an explanation of why they are parasites is impossible.
No guess can be made since the pupae never fully emerged.
A caterpillar
They did not get into the Sarcophaga pupae.
First hypothesize, then design, observe, collect data, and draw a conclusion.
No developmental stage can be described because the nasonia never showed any sign of activity.
Microscope Activity Labs .
Description of Water Lens The lens is a hole poked out of an index card, covered with tape, and covered with water droplets on top of that.
It magnified, but not much
The microscope did not provide substantial evidence of how it is made. I observed a decreased resolution.
That which bends and magnifies the object.
The holder of a lens.
Microscope Activity Labs .
4x
Microscope Activity Labs .
40x
__4x___ ___ __ 10x___
__10x__ ____ ___ 10x_
____400x_ _____
______100x_
x______
______40x______ _ ___3mm__ _____
_____ 100x_______ ____5mm____ ___
______400x_____ __ _____.25mm____ ___
__4x___ ___4x___ __
__10x_ _____ __ 10x__
___
_________100x___ ___
__4x___ ______ __1.25mm ___
__1.75mm___ ___
______1 mm______ __1.25_mm__ ____ __1.75mm___ ___
128:1
91.42:1
Salt is used to preserve many foods today which normally spoil easily. These may include fish, bacon, steak, or beef jerky. These foods spoil because microorganisms such as bacteria or fungi release byproducts which can be harmful to humans. A salty exterior environment would cause the water within the microorganisms to diffuse out of the cell, thus causing the microorganism to shrivel up and die. Salt therefore, effectively slows down the spoiling progress, and is an excellent preserver of food.
Mendel Experiments: Activity 1
1/8
29
29
29
29
The larger sample would allow the results to balance out closer to a 50/50 ratio.
Aa
Aa
Aa
aa
Aa
aa
4 3/4 2/4 3/4 4/4
Genotype
Phenotype
1AA:2Aa:1aa
1AA:2Aa:1aa
YES
1Aa: 1aa
1A: 1a
Mendel Experiments: Activity 2
_WW (10x)____ _Purple (10x)__
_ww (10x)____ _white (10x)__
Because the plants are pure Homozygous dominant, the offspring from whoever they mate with will show their dominant trait.
There would be no change in the probability from dominant to recessive alleles, but a change in the type of traits these genes and alleles show.
Mendel Experiments: Activity 3
F1
Green
Red
Yellow
White
The dominant trait masks the recessive trait.
The zygotes were heterozygous every time.
GG gG
WW
wW
Gg
Ww
ww
gg 3:1
Yes
In the F1 Generation there was a 0% probability for recessives to appear. In the F2 generation, there was a 25% probability they would appear
Mendel demonstrated that genes separate during gamete formation and combine to form zygotes at a constant ratio which he observed in the F2 generation of pea plants.
Mendel Experiments: Activity 4
Round, Yellow Wrinkled, Green
1 RrYy
1RY
42 RY
20 Ry
13 rY
5 ry
42 RY: 20 Ry: 13 rY: 5 ry
Our results were fairly close to the expected.
Each pair of genes is independently distributed when gametes are formed: RY: rY: Ry: ry in a ratio of ¼: ¼: ¼: ¼
A three-based sequence on tRNA which complements a threebased sequence on mRNA. A three-based sequence on mRNA that determines which amino acid will appear during protein synthesis. The basic building block of DNA and RNA composed of a sugar, nitrogen base, and a phosphate group. An organelle found within the cytosol of the cell which binds to mRNA and facilitates the making of a protein. The process by which mRNA is constructed from a DNA template.
The process by which mRNA attaches to a ribosome for protein synthesis
C
T
A
C
G
G
A
T
G
G
A
T
G
C
C
T
A
C
Deoxyribonucleic . Acid
Doublehelix
Nucleus
Messenger Ribonucleic Acid
Single Strand
Nucleus/ Cytoplasm
Transfer Ribonucleic Acid
Hair Pin like
Cytosol
Found in mRNA Pairs with anti-codons Moves from nucleus to cytosol
Group of 3 nucleotides Necessary for protein synthesis Both contain uracil
Provides the blue-print for protein synthesis.
Contains the DNA code and is transported into the cytosol for the making of a protein.
Brings together the mRNA codon sequence and amino acids.
Found in tRNA Pairs with codons Found only in the cytosol
False- RNA
False- Translation
True
False- Cytosol
True
A SNP in the F5 gene causes a hypercoagulability disorder with the variant Factor V Leiden which causes excessive or inappropriate blood clotting.
Archaebacteria
Cells without a nucleus. Makes own food from chemicals. Body form: single cells; rod-shaped, spherical, or irregular in shape. Found only in extreme environments: extremely hot temperatures, extremely salty water, or environments without oxygen. Reproduces only by asexual means. Taxonomy
Group Characteristics
No. 54 Name: Sulfolobus acidocaldarius Group: Thermophile Archaebacteria No. 26 Methanococcus voltaei Group: Methanogen Archaebacteria
Cells irregular in shape; found only in extremely hot sulfur-rich water; makes its own food from chemicals Cells spherical in shape: makes methane gas as a waste product.
Eubacteria
Cell(s) without a nucleus Motile or non-motile Makes its own food or feeds on others Body form: single cells, cells in chains, groups, or slender threads. Reproduces only by asexual means.
Taxonomy No. 45 Rizobium leguminosarum Class: Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria Phylum: True Bacteria No. 52 Borrelia burgdorferi Class: Spirochaete Bacteria Phylum: True Bacteria No. 20 Lactobacillus acidophilus Class: Fermentation Bacteria Phylum: True Bacteria
Phylum Characteristics
Class Characteristics
Cells without a nucleus, visible only through a microscope appearing as either: single cells or sometimes in chains or small groups. Cannon make its own food or make its own food from chemicals. Cells without a nucleus, visible only through a microscope appearing as either: single cells or sometimes in chains or small groups. Cannon make its own food or make its own food from chemicals. Cells without a nucleus, visible only through a microscope appearing as either: single cells or sometimes in chains or small groups. Cannon make its own food or make its own food from chemicals.
Makes nitrogen compounds.
Spiral shaped, parasitic.
Makes energy molecules by fermentation
Eubacteria (continued)
No. 17 Bacillus subtilis Class: Spore-Forming Bacteria Phylum: True Bacteria No. 25 Microcystis aeruginosa Class: Sphere Cyanobacteria Phylum: Cyanobacteria No. 50 Anabaena varia bilis Class: Thread Cyanobacteria Phylum: Cyanobacteria No. 43 Glopocapsa minuta Class: Sphere Cynobacteria Phylum: Cynobacteria No. 16 Oscillatoria chalybea Class: Thread Cynobacteria Phylum: Cynobacteria No. 13 Spirulina Platensis Class: Thread Cynobacteria Phylum: Cynobacteria
Cells without a nucleus, visible only through a microscope appearing as either: single cells or sometimes in chains or small groups. Cannon make its own food or make its own food from chemicals. Cells without a nucleus, visible only through a microscope appearing as long hair like threads or in groups called “colonies”. Cells have blue green color. Cells make their own food through photosynthesis. Cells without a nucleus, visible only through a microscope appearing as long hair like threads or in groups called “colonies”. Cells have blue green color. Cells make their own food through photosynthesis. Cells without a nucleus, visible only through a microscope appearing as long hair like threads or in groups called “colonies”. Cells have blue green color. Cells make their own food through photosynthesis. Cells without a nucleus, visible only through a microscope appearing as long hair like threads or in groups called “colonies”. Cells have blue green color. Cells make their own food through photosynthesis. Cells without a nucleus, visible only through a microscope appearing as long hair like threads or in groups called “colonies”. Cells have blue green color. Cells make their own food through photosynthesis.
Makes protective spores.
Cells arranged in groups called “colonies”.
Rectangular or bead-shaped cells arranged one-on-top of another to form a “thread”.
Cells arranged in groups called “colonies”.
Rectangular or bead-shaped cells arranged one-on-top of another to form a “thread”.
Rectangular or bead-shaped cells arranged one-on-top of another to form a “thread”.
Protista
Cells with a nucleus. Motile or Non-motile Makes its own food or feeds on others― many switch from one feeding method to the other. Great variety in body form: single cells, groups of like cells; thread-like chain of cells. Reproduces by either asexual or sexual means.
Taxonomy No. 55 Trypaosoma brucei Phylum: Flagellates No. 34 Dileptus anser Phylum: Ciliates No. 40 Euglena viridis Phylum: Flagellates No. 7 Amoeba proteus Phylum: Amoebas No. 30 Spirogyra communis Phylum: Thread Protists No. 51 Volvox globator Phylum: Colony Protists No. 47 Difflugia oblongo Phylum: Amoebas No. 33 Navicula capitata Phylum: Diatoms No. 60 Paramecium caudatum Phylum: Ciliates
Phylum Characteristics Cells do not move about; have glass shells with distinct and delicate patterns. Cells move using short hair-like structures called “cilia”. Cells move using long hair-like structures called “flagella”. Cells move about using finger-like projections or “pseudopods”; some may have shells. Cells arranged end-to-end in a thread.
Cells not arranged in a thread, but together in a group or “colony”. Cells move about using finger-like projections or “pseudopods”; some may have shells. Cells do not move about; have glass shells with distinct and delicate patterns. Cells move using short hair-like structures called “cilia”.
Kingdom Fungi
Body made up of many cells, each having a nucleus Non-motile. Gets food from others by absorbing nutrients found outside its cells. Body made up of a system of thread-like structures called “hypae”. Reproduces by either asexual or sexual means.
Taxonomy No. 11 Aspergillus niger Phylum: Molds No. 4 Coprinus comatus Phylum: Mushrooms No. 48 Penicillium chrysosogenum Phylum: Molds No. 24 Lycoperdon gemmatum Phylum: Mushrooms No. 44 Rhytisma acerinum Phylum: Sac Fungi No. 49 Ganoderma tsugae Phylum: Mushrooms No. 58 Rhizopus stolonifer Phylum: Molds
Phylum Characteristics Spore cases looks like “lollipops” or “brooms”.
Fungus appears spherical (ball-shaped), shelf-like, or “mushroom”-shaped. Spore cases looks like “lollipops” or “brooms”.
Fungus appears spherical (ball-shaped), shelf-like, or “mushroom-shaped”. Spore cases are sac-like fingers, with inside spores arranged like “peas in a pod”. Fungus appears spherical (ball-shaped), shelf-like, or “mushroom-shaped”. Spore cases looks like “lollipops” or “brooms”.
Plantae
Taxonomy No. 59 Thalassia testudinom Class: Monocot Phylum: Angiosperms No. 57 Anthoceros punctatus Phylum: Hornworts No. 37 Polytrichum longisetum Phylum: Mosses No. 53 Zea mays Class: Monocot Phylum: Angiosperms No. 19 Lycopodium obscurum Phylum: Mosses No. 10 Polypodium virginianum Phylum: Ferns
No. 15 Quercus alba Class: Dicot Phylum: Angiosperms No. 23 Picea pungens Phylum: Conifers No. 2 Helianthus anuus Class: Dicot Phylum: Angiosperms
Body structure made up of many cells, each having a nucleus. Most with fluid-transporting tissues Organs present ―roots, stems, and leaves. Non-motile Makes its own food from the energy in sunlight (photosynthesis) Reproduces by either asexual or sexual means.
Phylum Characteristics
Class Characteristics
Plant with broad-shaped leaves; seeds produced within fruit; flowers present.
Plant has leaves with parallel veins; plant embryo has single “seed leaf”.
Flat body with spore cases shaped like horns sticking up from the plant Plant body leafy and upright.
N/A
Plant with broad-shaped leaves; seeds produced within fruit; flowers present.
N/A
Plant body leafy and upright.
Plant has leaves with parallel veins; plant embryo has single “seed leaf”. N/A
Plant has broad, triangular leaves; round spore cases containg spores found on the underside of leaves; root-like stems called “rhizomes” present. Plant with broad-shaped leaves; seeds produced within fruit; flowers present. Plant with needle-shaped leaves; seeds produced in cones; no fruits or flowers present. Plant with broad-shaped leaves; seeds produced within fruit; flowers present.
N/A
Plant has leaves with net-like veins; plant embryo has two “seed leaves”. N/A
Plant has leaves with net-like veins; plant embryo has two “seed leaves”.
Animaliae
Body structure made up of many cells, each having a nucleus Most with tissues and organs Most are motile Cannot make its own food ― all feed on others
Taxonomy
Reproduces by either asexual or sexual means.
Phylum Characteristics
Class Characteristics
No. 36 Euarctos americanus Class: Mammals Phylum: Chordates
Body not within a shell; has an internal stiffening rod or backbone made of cartilage or bone; a nerve or spinal cord; with gills sometime during life; most with paired appendages.
Body with an internal skeleton made of bone; body covered with hairs; teeth usually with four well-developed types; young born alive and feed on milk produced by the female parent.
No. 14 Lumbricus terrestris Phylum: Annelids
Body divided into many similar sections; no joint appendages. Body has a soft outer covering; worm-like in appearance.
N/A
No. 18 Scolopendra polymorpha Class: Centipides Phylum: Arthropods No. 28 Daphnia magna Class: Branchipods Phylum: Arthropods No. 22 Onchorhynchus mykiss Class: Bony Fish Phylum: Chordates
Body divided into two or three parts; with jointed appendages and a hard outer covering.
Flattened body; one pair of legs per body part.
Body divided into two or three parts; with jointed appendages and a hard outer covering.
Very small in size; one of the 2 pairs of antennae very small.
Body not within a shell; has an internal stiffening rod or backbone made of cartilage or bone; a nerve or spinal cord; with gills sometime during life; most with paired appendages.
Body with an internal skeleton made of bone; bondy covered with flattened scales; breathes through covered gills; with paired fins
No. 27 Lycosa carolinensis Class: Spiders Phylum: Arthropod No. 56 Astertas vulgars Class: Sea Stars Phylum: Echinoderms No. 39 Argonanta pacifica Class: Octopi and Squid Phylum: Molluscs No. 6 Spongilla lacustris Phylum: Sponges No. 38 Alligator mississippians Class: Reptiles Phylum: Chordate
Body divided into two or three parts; with jointed appendages and a hard outer covering.
Lives on land; simple eyes; breathes through tiny tubes
Body covered with projecting spines is projecting arms joined at the base; moves about by tube feet. Body with either an internal or external shell; some with tentacles
Star shaped; usually with five broad arms joined at the bases.
Body without organized form; no tissues or organs
N/A
Body not within a shell; has an internal stiffening rod or backbone made of cartilage or bone; a nerve or spinal cord; with gills sometime during life; most with paired appendages.
No. 8 Rana pipens Class: Amphibian Phylum: Chordate
Body not within a shell; has an internal stiffening rod or backbone made of cartilage or bone; a nerve or spinal cord; with gills sometime during
Body with an internal skeleton made of bone; bone covered with dry, scaly skin; breathers through internal sacs or lungs; two pairs of limbs; leathershelled eggs Body with an internal skeleton made of bone; body covered in smooth skin; breaths through both skin and lungs; eggs laid in clusters; most with
Internal shell; tentacles on head.
Animalae (continued)
life; most with paired appendages. Body not within a shell; has an internal stiffening rod or backbone made of cartilage or bone; a nerve or spinal cord; with gills sometime during life; most with paired appendages.
two pairs of limbs Body with an internal skeleton made of bone; body covered with hairs; teeth usually with four well-developed types; young born alive and feed on milk produced by the female parent.
No. 12 Romalea guttata Class: Insects Phylum: Arthropods No. 31 Philodina roseola Phylum: Rotifers
Body divided into two or three parts; with jointed appendages and a hard outer covering.
Three pairs of legs on the middle body part; one or two pairs of wings
Body with characteristic “wheel organ� made up of two discs of rotating cilia in the head; either with or without a shell. Smallest of animals.
N/A
No. 46 Hydra fusca Class: Octopi/Squid Phylum: Cnidarians No. 41 Pantera leo Class: Mammal Phylum: Vertebrate
Body with stinging tentacles at one end.
Internal shell; tentacles on head
Body not within a shell; has an internal stiffening rod or backbone made of cartilage or bone; a nerve or spinal cord; with gills sometime during life; most with paired appendages.
Body with an internal skeleton made of bone; body covered with hairs; teeth usually with four well-developed types; young born alive and feed on milk produced by the female parent.
No. 42 Helix Pomacea Class: Snails and Slugs Phylum: Molluscs No. 3 Heterorhabits marelatus Class: Phylum: Roundworms No. 5 Cyclops bicuspidatus Class: Copepods Phylum: Arthropods No. 32 Petromyzon marinus Phylum: Chordate
Body with either an internal or external shell; some with tentacles.
Shell, if present, coiled; head distinct.
Body worm-like, not segmented; transparent with tapered ends; some are parasites.
N/A
Body divided into two or three parts; with jointed appendages and a hard outer covering.
Very small in size; one pair of long out-stretched antennae; bowling pin body shape.
Body not within a shell; has an internal stiffening rod or backbone made of cartilage or bone; a nerve or spinal cord; with gills sometime during life; most with paired appendages.
N/A
No. 12 Romalea guttata Class: Insect Phylum: Arthropods No. 35 Falco Peregrinus Class: Birds Phylum: Chordates
Body divided into two or three parts; with jointed appendages and a hard outer covering.
Three pairs of legs on the middle body part; one or two pairs of wings.
Body not within a shell; has an internal stiffening rod or backbone made of cartilage or bone; a nerve or spinal cord; with gill slits sometimes during life; most with paired appendages.
Body with an internal skeleton made of bone; body covered with feathers; no teeth; forelimbs modified as wings; hard shelled eggs.
No. 9 Alces alces Class: Mammal Phylum: Chordates
Animalae (continued)
No. 29 Dugesia tigrina Class: Turbellarians Phylum: Flatworms No. 21 Homarus ameria anus Class: Decapods Phylum: ArthropodsCrustaceans
Body wormlike in appearance; flat
Not a parasite; no parts or segments
Body divided into two or three parts; with jointed appendages and a hard outer covering.
Large in size; has 10 legs
2: Prokaryote and eukaryote.
2: multicellular and unicellular.
Animalae, Plantae, Protista, Fungi, Eubacteria, and Archaebacteria.
Animalae, Plantae, Protista, Fungi, Eubacteria, and Archaebacteria.
Potato plants bud to reproduce.
Unicellular without a nucleus.
Photosynthesis, digestion, and respiration.
R1. Circular, red, large R2. Triangular, red, large R3. Circular, red, small R4. Bumpy, red, small R5. Triangular, small, red R6. Rectangular, red, large, rectangular hole in middle R7. Bumpy, red, large R8. Rectangular, red, large R9. Rectangular, small, rectangular hole in middle R10. Rectangular, small, red
Characteristics Determining Grouping A. Color B. Sides
Types of Figures Red and Blue 0, 3, 4, 8
C. Angles D. Shapes
Right, acute, none Rectangles, circle, triangles, bumpy
E. Holed or not F. Size
Holed or not holed Large or small
Number of Figures 10 blue, 10 red 8 “0 sides”, 4 “3 sides”, 4 “4 sides”, 4 “8 sides 8 “0 sides”, 4 “3 sides”, 4 “4 sides”, 4 “8 sides 8 rights, 4 acutes, 8 nones
8 rectangles, 4 circles, 4 triangles, 4 bumpies 4 holed, 16 not holed 10 large, 10 small
I.
Title: Natural Selection
II.
Purpose: To determine how natural selection acts on the color and size of a moth.
III.
Materials: environmental tray with dark interior, an environmental tray with light interior, a set of moths with varying intensities, a set of squares with different sizes.
IV.
Procedures: 1) Randomly select 5 specimen from each of the 6 boxes 2) Tally the specimens based on characteristics
V.
Data: Color # of Moths selected Total Class count
A. The selection of varying intensities of moths White 1 25
5
1
0
Grey 3
59
16
14
26
0
0
3
Black 2
9
7
27
41
B. The selection of different sized squares Color # of
1/2” 2
3/4” 0
1” 8
1 ¼” 0
1 ½” 2
1 ¾” 1
2” 2
33
1
100
1
2
53
40
squares
selected Total Class count
VI.
Analyze & Conclude: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)
Yes. The class selected more lighter-colored moths. The lighter moths stood out more against the black box More smaller-sized squares were selected. The smaller ones were of a greater quantity, and were easier to pick up. This was a surprising result because one would be led to think more large squares would be picked up since they are bulkier. 6) More dark moths would be eaten in this environment, because they stand out to predators and do not blend in with the trees’ color. 7) They would produce more light-colored offspring over time. 8) The tree trunks became darker. 9) Lighter-colored moths would now be eaten more frequently because they stand out to predators and do not blend in the trees’ color. 10) They would produce more dark-colored offspring over time. 11) The entire moth population would become darkcolored. 12) The change in the color of the tree bark caused the change of moth color. 13) A favorable phenotype increases an organisms chances for survival 14) Nature was selecting the favorable traits. 15) The short-necked giraffes died off because they were unable to eat from the tall trees while the tall-necked giraffes were able to and so survived to produce offspring. 16) According to Darwin, the fittest individuals survive 17) Microevolution, because the moth did not become an entirely new species, but simply became a more specialized version of that species. This example can illustrate macroevolution by suggesting that if microevolution can work on a small scale, it can work on a large scale over a large period of time
Joseph & Andrew Guernsey Mr. Synder Biology I January 26, 2008
The Clam Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Mollusca Class: Bivalvia Genus: Mya Species: arenaria
I.
Purpose: The purpose is to examine the clam internally and externally by dissection.
II.
Materials: 1) Dissection Tray 2) Clam 3) Scalpel 4) Dissecting Needle 5) Scissor 6) Forceps 7) Dissecting Probe
III.
Methods: A. External Upon examining the external anatomy of the shell, the dissector first noticed the smooth ridges of the shell and the crack near its uttermost edges on the ventral side. Another attribute the dissector noticed on the exterior of the clam was the concentric growth lines which resembled the rings of growth on tree trunks. The dissector observed a color gradient of whiteness near the umbo which gradually became brown nearing the ventral side. Next the dissector examined the thin hinge ligaments which held together the two valves. B. Internal Before being able to examine the internal anatomy of the clam, the dissector, with a firm but delicate thrust, pried open the clam’s two valves, tearing through the posterior and anterior adductor muscles to reveal the mantle’s thin, pink tissue. The dissector next proceeded to remove the mantle, followed by the thin, lined gills. The dissector could now see clearly the intricately composed visceral mass and protruding foot. The dissector removed the entire visceral mass from its attached valve for further dissection; a thin, transparent, and membranous tissue became immediately visible on the interior of the valve. The dissector continued, and opened the visceral mass to reveal green digestive glands, tan and mushy gonads, and an abundance of tubular structures. Finally, the dissector observed the tubular, circularly-lined incurrent and excurrent siphons which allow for the exchange of materials into and out of the clam.
IV.
Observations A. External Anatomy of a Clam
B. Internal Anatomy of a Clam
V.
Conclusions: 1) Why are clams called bivalves? Clams are called bivalves because they have two valves. 2) What is the function of the mantle? The function of the mantle is to cover the internal organs of the visceral mass, to line the interior of the shell, and to secrete the nacre (which makes the shell). 3) Describe the path of water through a clam. First, cilia on the gills, mantle and visceral mass push water through the incurrent siphon into the mantle cavity. Water (carrying food and other materials to be filtered) passes through small openings called ostia on the lamellae of the gills into the gill chambers. From there, water moves upwards by tubes to the cloacal chamber. Finally the water is expelled through the excurrent siphon. 4) Describe the filter-feeding process of a clam. As water, having entered the clam via the incurrent siphon, passes through the gills, food particles and other materials become trapped in the mucus that lines the surface of the gills. Food-containing mucus is moved to the labial palps. Here, indigestible material is separated from digestible material. Food into the mouth, while rejected material is transported to the mantle edge for expulsion. 5) Identify and describe the role of digestive organs in a clam. The role of digestive organs in a clam is to efficiently extract nutrients from obtained food to produce energy for the clam. 6) Describe how clams reproduce. Some clams are hermaphrodites, while others have distinct sexes. Regardless, gonad(s) are embedded in the upper portion of the foot. Eggs are lodged in the gills and sperm is released into the surrounding waters via the excurrent siphon. Water carrying sperm passes through the gills and fertilizes the eggs. The embryos develop in the gills until they are able to survive on their own. 7) Describe the nervous system of the clam The central nervous system of the clam is the ganglia, each pair of which is a source of nerve fibers which lead to adjacent organs. Statocysts, pairs of small sense organs, detect changes in equilibrium, and are located posterior to the pedal ganglions. 8) Describe how a clam uses its foot to move. In response to its environment the foot extends, expands, and contracts to move the clam.
9) Describe the development of a freshwater clam. The fertilized egg of a freshwater clam first develops within the gills of its mother and enters a larval stage, during which it is known as a glochidium. When the glochidium reaches a particular size it is expelled by the parent into the surrounding waters. Here the glochidium either sinks to the bottom or becomes suspended in water. Glochidia in either case attach by clamping their valves to superficial tissue on a passing-by fish. If the glochidium does not attach to a host within a few days of leaving their parents, it dies. Tissues of the fish it attaches to grow around the glochidium, and during this encystment the glochidium undergoes marked changes and the adult organs are formed. After 10 to 30 days the young clam breaks free of its host, falls to the bottom and begins the juvenile phase. This phase lasts for one to eight years until the clam becomes sexually mature. 10) Summarize your dissection experience of the clam. The experience of dissecting an organism was not a first for the dissector; however, the clam was not a specimen dissected previously. Despite its repugnant smell and small size, dissecting the clam proved to be a delightful experience. The dissector furthermore achieved a more well-rounded understanding of mollusks, particularly clams; this is a feat which could not have been achieved without this dissection. The dissector enjoyed looking at the simple yet complex design of the gills underneath a microscope. The initial opening of the clam also brought much delight. All in all, this dissection experience has proven to be a more than beneficial exploration of the world of mollusks.
Joseph & Andrew Guernsey Mr. Snyder Biology I February 5, 2009
The Earthworm Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Annelida Class: Oligochaeta Genus: Lumbricus Species: terrestris
I.
Purpose: The purpose is to examine the earthworm internally and externally by ‌‌...dissection.
II.
Materials: 1) Dissection Tray 2) Earthworm 3) Dissecting Needle 4) Dissecting Probe 5) Scissors 6) Pins 7) Forceps 8) Scalpel
III.
Methods: C. External Anatomy With a plastic ruler, the dissector first measured the earthworm to be 28.5 cm. Upon examining the external anatomy of the earthworm, the dissector first noticed the repeating segments which were about 150 in number. Each segment had a smooth texture individually; however, the overall feel of the earthworm was bumpy, due to the linking of these many segments. The dissector further observed that the segments gradually both became lighter in color as they progressed from the anterior to the posterior end, and also were lighter on the ventral side than on the dorsal side. On the ventral surface, the dissector felt the bristly setae and distinguished the small sperm ducts in the anterior portion of the earthworm. On the dorsal surface, despite finding no setae, the dissector distinguished the dorsal blood vessel running along the length of the earthworm. Next, the dissector inserted his dissecting probe into the mouth to see the protruding upper lip, and conducted similar procedures to view the anus. The pinkish, smooth band termed the clitellum was conspicuous to the dissector, closer to the anterior end of the earthworm than the posterior. From segments near the clitellum, he peeled away portions of smooth, membranous cuticle, which lined the uttermost surface of the earthworm. Having done these things, the dissector proceeded to pin the worm down at both ends, dorsal side up, in order to begin a dissection of the worm. D. Internal Anatomy In order to examine the internal anatomy of the earthworm, the dissector made a shallow, dorsal cut 3 segments posterior to the clitellum, towards the head, pulling apart the resistant septae, which anchored the internal organs to the skin. The dissector then pinned the skin on both sides to the dissection tray to expose the internal organs. Beginning his observations at the utmost anterior end and moving posterior, the dissector first observed the cerebral ganglion. He then proceeded to see the fleshy pharynx which led to the esophagus. The dissector next observed the large white seminal vesicles and tiny seminal receptacles which were beside the esophagus. Immediately, he then caught notice of the five aortic arches on the ventral side of the worm which resembled black sausages. The dissector further observed that the esophagus led to the soft-felt crop, and from there to the firm, hard gizzard. He noticed that the gizzard was smaller in size than the crop, thus hypothesizing that this was a result of the function of the crop to store food. Following the gizzard, the dissector took notice of the stomach, leading into the intestine, which spanned the length of the worm. Cutting open the intestine, the dissector discovered organic material, namely dirt. As a concluding internal observation of the earthworm, the dissector found the white ventral nerve cord and the ventral blood vessel running underneath the internal organs and intestine.
IV.
Observations: C. External Anatomy of an Earthworm
D. Internal Anatomy of an Earthworm
V. Conclusions: 1) List the characteristics shared by all annelids. Characteristics shared by all annelids are a body divided into segments or metameres know as somites, well developed cephalization (sense organs concentrated at the anterior or “head” end), an elongate body, and a closed circulatory system with hemoglobin and amebocytes. 2) What is the function of the setae? The function of the setae is to provide traction for locomotion. 3) What is another name for the body segments of an earthworm? Another name for the body segments of an earthworm is “metameres.” 4) What is the function of the clitellum? The clitellum functions as the attachment location for the exchange of sperm in sexual reproduction, it produces mucus for copulation, and it also secretes the cocoon into which eggs are deposited. 5) How many hearts does an earthworm have? An earthworm has five pairs of “hearts” or aortic arches. 6) Describe the process of digestion in an earthworm. First, food is sucked into the mouth. After proceeding down the pharynx, the food then passes through a tube called the esophagus, and is deposited into the crop, the temporary storage area. From the crop the food passes on to the gizzard where it is ground and mashed, releasing and breaking up organic matter. The food then proceeds to the lengthy intestine, where the digested nutrients are absorbed by the blood. Typhlosole, an infolding of the intestinal wall, aids in this process of absorption by making more surface area available. The undigested material is expelled from the earthworm’s body through the anus. 7) What is the function of the typhlosole? The function of the typhlosole is to increase surface area of the intestine available for the digestion and absorption of food, which thus increases the efficiency of the processes. 8) What is the term given for the slowing down of an earthworm’s body ......functions? The term given for the slowing down of an earthworm’s body functions is diapause.
9) Describe between the different families of class Oligochaeta. Oligochaetes of the family “Aeolosomatidae” are microscopic, live exclusively in fresh water, reproduce asexually, and feed on algae. The members of the family “Tubificidae” contain the tubifex worms (or “bloodworms”) which live on the muddy bottoms of freshwater ponds or in streams, occur in large clumps, and have cranial ends which they wave back and forth to collect floating detritus. The family “Enchytraeidae” includes both aquatic and terrestrial species. They are whitish in appearance and are up to 25 millimeters long. 10) Summarize your dissection experiences (in one paragraph). Although the dissector’s experience of dissecting an earthworm was not a new one, this second time doing it proved to be much more beneficial than the first due to an increased understanding of the internal processes of the earthworm. The earthworm was in many ways relatively simple. However this simplicity gives it extraordinary beauty. The slimy skin proved to be a familiar feel to the dissector’s vivid memories of bug hunting in early childhood. The dissector also appreciated that the earthworm did not smell so pungently as the previously dissected clam. Nevertheless, dissection is always a pleasure to the dissector because it brings the abstract concepts of the internal workings of biology, in particular regarding the earthworm, into a concrete flesh and blood (though dead) experience, thus distinguishing biology from the other theoretical sciences.
Joseph & Andrew Guernsey Mr. Snyder Biology I February 13, 2009
The Crayfish Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Arthropoda Class: Crustacea Genus: Cambarus Species: sp.
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Purpose: The purpose is to examine the crayfish internally and externally by ……...dissection.
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Materials: 1) Dissection Tray 2) Crayfish 3) Scissors 4) Dissecting Probe 5) Dissecting Needle 6) Forceps
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Methods: E. External To begin the examination of the external anatomy of the crayfish, the dissector identified the specimen to be male, indicated by the large pair of uttermost anterior swimmerets found in on the dorsal side of the crayfish. The specimen measured 12 centimeters from the rostrum to the uropod, and displayed impressive 10 centimeter chelipeds. In color, the crayfish was red-violet at its cephalothorax; the dissector also found this color present in the claws and jointed legs, which were attached to the body segments. The dissector observed that the first pair of walking legs, on which were found sensory hairs, formed small claws, which he pried open with no significant difficulty. On the ventral side, the dissector noted the ventral blood vessel, running along the length of the crayfish. On the dorsal side, moving posterior to anterior, the dissector located the telson on the 7th abdominal segment with the uropods attached to both sides of it. Seven segments towards the anterior of the specimen, the dissector encountered the bumpy carapace, noting the line of fusion between the head and the thorax known as the cervical groove. By slightly prying open the carapace, the dissector was able to catch a dorsal view of the feathery gills, connected to the legs. Using his forceps, the dissector removed the swimmerets, walking legs, and clawed chelipeds, the latter two of which emerged from segments underneath the carapace. Furhermore, he organized the appendages into piles. Having reached the head, the dissector removed the glossy pair of compound eyes, followed by the long antennae and shorter antennules. The dissector then proceeded to remove the many-haired, claw-looking, first pair of maxillipeds on the dorsal side. He also removed both pairs of feathery maxillae. With difficulty and wiggling, the dissector at last uprooted the mandibles which were orangish in color. F. Internal In order to begin to examine the internal anatomy of the crayfish, the dissector inserted the scissors, making a shallow, window cut around the entire dorsal side of the crayfish, from the head to the anus. Having completed this task, the dissector pulled out the cut exoskeleton with the forceps. An immediate glance into the newly unveiled interior of the specimen found the black cardiac stomach, in the area under the carapace, as its target. Next to it, the digestive glands spilled out yellow matter upon being cut. The dissector further identified, the mushy gonads, which contained the testes. Upon removing the gills, the dissector found the anteriorly-located green glands, preceded by the ear-looking bladder in location to the immediately dorsal brain, which was connected to the ventral nerve cord by strings of nerves. By removing these internal organs, the dissector was able to identify the ventral blood vessel, which spanned the body length of the crayfish. In the abdominal region, the crayfish’s innards were composed mainly of powerful muscles, in the middle of
which ran the intestine, leading from the digestive gland to the anus. At this point, the dissector realized that the heart was nowhere to be found in the interior. A quick look through the removed segments and carapace revealed that it was most likely attached to the carapace during removal. The heart was later identified by the dissector from among the other organs strewn about the dissecting tray.
VIII.
Observations: E. External Anatomy of a Crayfish
F. Internal Anatomy of a Crayfish
V. Conclusions: 2) Identify at least four animals that belong to subphylum Crustacea. Four animals that belong to subphylum Crustacea are crabs, crayfish, lobsters, and shrimp. 3) Identify at least three distinguishing characteristics of subphylum Crustacea. Distinguishing characteristics of crustaceans include two pairs of branched antennae, a pair of maxillae and mandibles, gills, and a body covered by a chitinous exoskeleton strengthened with calcium salts. 4) What characteristics do annelids share with arthropods? Both annelids and arthropods are metameric (segmented bodies), exhibit protostome development, and have a brain located cranially and dorsally followed by a ventral nerve cord with a ganglionic swelling in each segment. Also, primitive arthropods show paired appendages for each segment which can be compared with the paired parapodia (or setae in the earthworm) of each metamere in the annelids. 5) What distinguishing characteristics do crustaceans have from annelids? Distinguishing characteristics in crustaceans which are not shared by annelids include hard protective body coverings called exoskeletons. Crustaceans also have a complex series of specialized muscles to control the limbs and tail in contrast to the simple body musculature of annelids. The circulatory system also is a point of dissimilarity as a crustacean’s is open while an annelid’s is closed. Additionally, annelids have five hearts, while arthropods have evolved theirs into a single distinct dorsal heart. 6) Identify and describe the functions of all the mouthparts found in a crayfish. The mouthparts found in the crayfish are multiple, but critical for sense and feeding. The two pairs of maxillae originate from the head, and manipulate food and draw water currents over gills. The mandibles also originate from the head, and are used for chewing food. The three sets of maxillipeds, which arise from the thorax in the region nearest the mouth, function in touch, taste, and the manipulation of food. 6) Identify the five major arteries found in a crayfish. What organs are ......supplied by these arteries? The five major arteries are the Ophthalmic artery which supplies the head and esophagus, the Antennary artery which supplies the green gland, the Dorsal Abdominal artery which supplies the intestine and tail muscles, the Hepatic artery which supplies the hepatopancreas, and the Sternal artery which supplies the leg and tail muscles.
7) Identify the habitats of crayfish. Some habitats of crayfish are freshwater ponds, lakes, and streams around the world. They typically burrow in stream banks; the burrows often have entrances that open to the ground surface. 8) Identify the four genera of crayfish. The four genera of crayfish are Procambus, Orconectes, Cambarus, and Astacus. 9) What do crayfish eat? The crayfish’s diet consists of snails, tadpoles, insects, aquatic and terrestrial plants, and decaying organic matter. 10) Describe your dissection experience (in one paragraph). Like the earthworm, the crayfish was not a new specimen for the dissector. The dissector again however learned more the second time then the first. The crayfish allowed for useful experience in the art of dissecting. Because of the delicate nature of the crayfish’s exoskeleton and in order to find the dorsal heart, the dissector had to take care not to exert too much pressure when pulling out the mandibles and removing the exoskeleton. This careful handling is good preparation for the cadaver we will dissect next quarter. Utmost care must be taken when dissecting the human brain. Setting aside the humerus for the moment (no pun intended), the dissector truly did enjoy dissecting the crayfish as a learning experience with regard to arthropods---both inside and out. Despite rumors of their notorious smell, the dissector looks forward to dissecting an echinoderm in the near future.
Joseph & Andrew Guernsey Mr. Snyder Biology I February 23, 2009
The Starfish Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Echinodermata Class: Asteroidea Genus: Asterias Species: sp.
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Purpose: The purpose is to examine the starfish internally and externally by ‌‌...dissection.
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Materials: 1) Dissection Tray 2) Starfish 3) Scissors 4) Dissecting Probe 5) Dissecting Needle 6) Forceps
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Observations: G. Anatomy of a Starfish
V. Conclusions: 7) In what way are starfish unique to the other invertebrates that you have studied so far? Star fish are unique due to the fact that they exhibit deuterostome development unlike the past invertebrates that we have studied which all displayed protostome development. 8) What are the major differences between protostomes and deuterostomes? Protostomes have complete segmentation, determinate embryonic cleavage, brains above their guts with nerve cords below their guts, no mesodermal skeletons, and their blastopores become mouths. In contrast, deuterostomes have incomplete segmentation, indeterminate embryonic cleavage, both their brains and nerve cords above their guts, mesodermal skeletons often present, and their blastopores become anuses. 9) Where do all Echinoderms live? All Echinoderms live in saltwater. 10) Identify five classes of Echinoderms. Five classes of Echinoderms are Crinoidea, Ophiuroidea, Echinoidea, Holothuroidea, and Asteroidea. 11) How many species of starfish are there? There are about 1,700 species of starfish. 12) Identify at least four external features of a starfish. Four external features of a starfish are a large button-like madreporite, an inconspicuous anus, numberous tube feet, and a small eyespot which is located at the end of each arm. 13) Describe the process of water movement through a starfish’s water vascular system. First, water enters the system through the madreporite on the aboral surface. Next, it passes down the stone canal and then into the ring canal which encircles the mouth. On the inner edge of the radial canal there are nine sacs called Tiedemann’s bodies. These sacs produce the amoeboid cells that are found in the fluid of the water vascular system. From the ring canal, water passes into radial canals which extend into each arm. Ampullae are linked to the radial canals, which then contract to force water into the tube feet, extending and enabling it to attach to the substratum with its sucker. Muscles in the tube feet contract to force water back into the ampulla, thus shortening the foot. Eventually, water is excreted via the tube feet, skin gills, or anus, to be replaced by fresh water from the ocean.
14) Identify and describe the digestive organs of a starfish. The cardiac stomach is ejected through the mouth to engulf and digest its prey. The cardiac stomach, containing partially digested food is then brought back inside the body where food is moved to pyloric stomach. The pyloric stomach breaks down food with enzymes it receives from the large paired hepatic ceca (or digestive glands) though the hepatic duct. The hepatic ceca function as secretory glands to aid digestion. Further digestion occurs in the intestine. 15) Describe the skeleton of a starfish. The skeleton of the starfish is an endoskeleton composed of a network of ossicles. The largest ossicles, ambulacral ossicles, support the ambulacral groove and provide attachment for the tube feet. The skeleton is hard, but flexible, and facilitates the feeding process of starfish. 16) Summarize your dissection experience (in one paragraph) The dissector enjoyed the dissection of a starfish perhaps the most out of the previous ones because he did not have to compose a methods portion of the lab. The smell that emitted from the starfish was particularly putrid, but well worth plugging one’s nose to observe. The dissector found the intricate interweaving of the endoskeleton quite beautiful, as well as the orderly symmetry displayed in each ray of the starfish. The dissector had a hard time initially finding the gonads as they were pulled out together with the digestive glands, but he found them eventually. A point of highlight in the dissection was distinguishing the gender of the starfish by observing the gonads under a microscope. A flagellum indicated the starfish was male. In the opinion of the dissector, the starfish was overall very worthwhile and quite worthy of the time invested in its exploration. The dissector now looks forward to moving up the animal kingdom and dissecting vertebrates in the near future.
* Skin is dry and scaly * .Eggs protect embryo from drying out and can be laid on land
* Thin skin permeable to gas and water * Lay eggs in water * Pass thru aquatic larva stage
* Feathers, hollow bones, and a unique respiratory system enable flight * Over 10,000 species
* Have hair * Nurse young with milk * 14,000 species
* Have jaws, bone skeleton * .23,000 species
* Elongated, eel-like bodies * .Lack jaws, paired fins, and bone * 80 species
* Jaws and paired fins * .Skeleton made of cartilage * Skin covered by unique scale * About 800 species
Analyze & Conclude Questions 1) Characteristics shared by all vertebrates at some point in their life are a notochord, a dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal pouches, and a post-anal tail. 2) Condrichthyes and Osteichthyes differ in that Condrichthyes’s skeleton is made up of cartilage, while Osteichthyes’s skeleton is made up of bone 3) The extinction of the dinosaurs allowed for the diversification of mammals who had to fill their roles. 4) Reptilia and Aves share the most recent common ancestor.