INTRODUCTION Welcome to my Grammar Lab. This course has been designed for students from complete beginner to high-intermediate level, however the teacher has to guide to the students in each topic of this book. I hope you enjoy using these materials. There are as many methods and approaches to grammar teaching as there are teachers. Here are some simple guidelines that may be instructive and useful. Students need to be able to recognize and produce the written form of the new target structure. Writing models of the target language aids memorization and gives students a record of the language that they can refer back to. It is very important to read the related topics. Encourage students to use a new structure to produce sentences about real events, real people, real feelings, real opinions, etc. in their own lives. As annex, I am attaching a grammar guide written in Spanish about the most important topics in the English learning. You have to learn grammar reading examples, identifying patterns, making rules and doing practices activities.
MADRID VIVANCO, JOEL PIERRE
2008
ENGLISH TEACHER FROM PERU
Nouns
In other cases, the word "male" or "female" is added, if it is considered necessary to be specific:
•
Gender
•
a female cat
•
Plural
•
a male giraffe
•
Related topics Note: If the gender of the person or animal is known, one will generally use the pronoun "he" or "she" to refer to it, as appropriate. When the gender is left unstated, the pronoun "he" is generally used when
Gender
speaking of people, or "it" when speaking of animals. Some objects are also considered to be In English nouns rarely change form, even to indicate gender. As a general rule, only nouns referring
gendered in certain usages: some people may refer to a boat or a car as "she."
to people and some animals reflect gender in their form. By the same token, unlike many other languages, the adjectives modifying nouns will remain unchanged.
Example:
Certain nouns (especially the names of professions) are traditionally associated with men or women, in which case one signals exceptions to the tradition by adding "woman" (or "lady") or "man" to the
•
My poor little dog died.
term:
However, certain nouns -- especially those referring to people -- may have different forms to indicate
•
They are in a group of male dancers.
masculin or feminine usage:
•
My wife prefers to see a woman doctor.
•
man -- woman
•
gentleman -- lady
•
actor -- actress
•
uncle -- aunt
•
father -- mother
The same can be said of certain male and female animals:
Plurals
As a general rule, the plural is formed by adding "-s" to the singular form of nouns.
•
shoe --> shoes
•
book --> books
•
river --> rivers
•
a buck, a doe
•
a ram, a ewe
•
a bull, a cow
•
bus --> buses
•
a stallion, a mare
•
kiss --> kisses
Nouns ending in "s" or "s" will generally take the ending "-es" :
Words ending in "y" will generally take the ending "-ies" in place of the "y":
Words of Greek or Latin origin which have retained their original endings will generally take the plural form associated with the language they are drawn from:
•
party --> parties
•
supply --> supplies
Certain words have very irregular forms in the plural:
•
one alumnus --> two alumni
•
one syllabus --> two syllabi
•
one alumna --> two alumnae
•
•
one alga --> many algae
one man --> two men
•
•
one criterion --> many criteria
one woman --> two women
•
•
one forum --> many fora (or : forums)
one person --> two people
•
•
one thesis --> two theses
one foot --> two feet
•
•
one hypothesis --> two hypotheses
one mouse --> two mice
•
•
one phenomenon --> two phenomena
one goose --> two geese
•
•
one cactus --> two cacti (or : cactuses)
one tooth --> two teeth
•
•
one diagnosis --> two diagnoses
one wife --> two wives
•
•
one oasis --> two oases
one child --> two children
•
•
one analysis --> two analyses
one knife --> two knives
•
one thief --> two thieves
•
one dwarf --> two dwarves (ou: dwarfs)
•
one potato --> two potatoes
•
She gave me some information.
•
one leaf --> two leaves
•
Michelle has a lot of clothes.
•
one life --> two lives
•
one loaf --> two loaves
•
one half --> two halves
A few nouns are invariable or collective, always indicating a plural meaning:
Capital letters
Certain nouns are generally capitalized, including: days of the week and months; names of holidays,
A small set of words do not change form in the plural:
cities (or states, etc.) and religions; nouns of nationality:
•
one moose --> two moose
•
Minneapolis
•
one sheep --> two sheep
•
Jewish
•
one aircraft --> two aircraft
•
Monday
•
April
Related topics
Countable and Uncountable Nouns
•
Adjectives
Countable nouns are used to name things we can count.
•
Definite articles
One apple, two apples, three carrots, four fingers, etc.
•
Indefinite articles
•
Partitive articles
Uncountable nouns are used to name things we cannot count. Bread, water, air, sand, etc.
Countable nouns have a singular as well as a plural form. a chair a banana
two chairs
some chairs
the bananas
many bananas
Remember! Use an in front of a word that begins with a vowel sound. An apple
an orange
an hour
Uncountable nouns do not usually take the indefinite article a or an. They are often used without any article at all, and they do not usually have a plural form.
(some) bread
(some) coffee
(some) fruit
Personal pronouns
Use of predicate pronouns:
•
Forms
Predicate pronouns will always have the same form whether they are used as direct, indirect, or
•
Subject pronouns
prepositional objects. The forms are: "me", "you", "it", "him", "her", "us", "them."
•
Predicate pronouns
•
Order of pronouns
•
Related topics
Here are the different forms for personal pronouns in English:
Whatever the form of the sentence (affirmative, negative, interrogative), direct objects -- or the pronouns replacing them -- will follow the verb:
•
Did you buy it?
•
You didn't buy it.
•
You bought it.
Prepositional objects will come after their preposition:
•
Will you come to the store with me?
•
He left without her.
Indirect objects will generally come after the proposition "to," except if the pronoun precedes the direct Use of the subject pronoun
Subject pronouns reflect the nouns they replace. Since English nouns rarely show gender, the pronouns "he" and "she" are generally used only for people or animals; in the case of objects or impersonal expressions, the pronoun "it" will be used.
Examples:
object, in which cas the proposition "to" disappears:
•
I have spoken to her.
•
I gave this present to them.
•
Mais : I gave them this present.
Order of pronouns
When a verb is followed by two or more pronouns, the following sequence is observed:
•
She wants to eat.
•
You look tired.
•
It is hard to cook well.
Reciprocal pronouns To show that two people, represented by a single grammatical subject, are acting on each other, one uses the reciprocal pronouns: "each other" or "one another".
Examples :
•
Don't tell that to him.
•
He couldn't sell the car to them.
•
They hate each other.
•
They killed one another.
•
We talk to each other often.
Reflexive pronouns Reflexive pronouns are used to show that the actions described by a verb act upon the subject of the
Exception: As noted above, one may omit the preposition "to" in front of an indirect object, in which
verb: the subject and the object are thus the same. The forms of reflexive pronouns correspond to the
cas the indirect object pronoun precedes the direct object:
forms of the subject pronouns:
•
He gave me it for Christmas.
•
I --> myself
•
Don't tell him that.
•
you (singular) --> yourself
•
He couldn't sell them the car.
•
you (plural) --> yourselves
•
he --> himself
•
she --> herself
Related topics
•
it --> itself
•
Relative pronouns
•
we --> ourselves
•
Reflexive pronouns
•
they --> themselves
•
Reciprocal pronouns
•
Demonstrative pronouns
To use a verb reflexively, the reflexive pronoun must follow the verb (and, in the case of an intransitive
•
Possessive pronouns
verb, it will follow any preposition used with the verb). If there are multiple verbs in the sentence, the reflexive pronoun follows the verb to which it applies:
•
I told myself it would never happen.
•
She talks to herself all the time.
•
Look at yourself in that mirror!
•
I would like to give myself a raise.
At the end of a sentence, one can add reflexive pronouns as a way of accentuating the subject in the
General information
Relative pronouns are used to join two sentences. For example, the following two sentences,
sentence. In this case, the verb does not have reflexive power:
• •
I would rather do that myself.
•
Can you talk to him yourself?
Related topics
•
Relative pronouns
•
Subject pronouns
•
Object pronouns
•
Reciprocal pronouns
I found an apartment. This apartment has three rooms.
may be joined using a relative pronoun:
•
I found an apartment which has three rooms.
Relative pronouns have many different forms: who, whom, whose, that, which, that which, what. The pronoun is selected based on the following criteria:
1) What is the grammatical function of the pronoun? Is it a subject, a direct object, or a prepositional object?
2) Does the pronoun refer to a person or a thing (or a situation)?
Relative pronouns •
General information
•
Subject pronouns
•
Object pronouns
•
Possession ("whose")
•
As prepositional objects
•
Time
•
Space
•
Related topics
3) Does the pronoun have an antecedent, or does it represent an unknown entity?
4) Does it represent a special case (possession, time, or space)?
According to the role it plays, the pronoun will take one of the following forms:
Objects
The pronoun "whom" (in spoken language one often hears "who") expresses a grammatical object when this object is a person; "that" or "which" are used (indifferently by most speakers) to represent objects which are things, events, situations, etc.
•
She is a person whom I respect a great deal.
•
He ordered a beverage which he didn't drink.
•
She is talking about the trip that we're going to take.
Note: Use of the relative pronoun is optional (except in the case of "what" or "that which" when referring to specific antecedents); the same sentences as above may be written correctly without the Subjects
pronoun:
The pronoun "who" expresses a grammatical subject when this subject is a person; "that" or "which"
•
She is a person I respect a great deal.
are used (indifferently by most speakers) to represent subjects which are things, events, situations,
•
He ordered a beverage he didn't drink.
etc.
•
She is talking about the trip we're going to take.
•
There's the man who stole my wallet!
•
I read a novel that entertained me a great deal.
•
He made a mistake which embarrassed him.
When the antecedent is vague or totally absent, one uses "what" or (less commonly) "that which" :
•
What interests me in this film is the music.
•
That which eludes us intrigues us the most.
•
I don't know what happened.
When the antecedent is vague or absent, on uses "what" or (less often) "that which" :
•
You can do what you want.
•
What they are doing seems useful.
Possession: "whose" / "of which"
Time
The pronoun "whose" expresses possession when the subject is a person; it will often be replaced by
The pronoun "when" is used with nouns indicating time. However, it is rarely necessary to include this
"of which" if it refers to an object, an event, etc.:
pronoun, and it is often omitted:
•
The tourist whose ticket had expired filed a complaint.
•
I remember the day when we met.
•
There is the man whose mother is our mayor.
•
I remember the day we met.
•
That was a good article, the point of which was to make us think.
•
He arrived at the moment when we were speaking of him.
•
He arrived at the moment we were speaking of him.
Prepositional objects Space The preposition generally precedes the appropriate pronoun: When more specific prepositions (such as "on," "under,", etc.) are not necessary, the general pronoun
•
Here's the pattern with which I made this shirt.
•
The woman for whom I work is quite strict.
•
Here's the tree next to which Newton was sitting.
•
Here's the house where my parents were born.
•
They went out for dinner, after which they went home.
•
She doesn't know where she's going.
In spoken English, one often places the preposition at the end of the clause. Moreover, with
"where" will suffice:
Related topics:
the pronoun "what" this structure is required, even in written English:
•
Subject pronouns
•
Here's the pattern which I made this shirt with.
•
Object pronouns
•
The woman whom I work for is quite strict.
•
Reflexive pronouns
•
Here's the tree which Newton was sitting next to.
•
Reciprocal pronouns
•
Tell me what you're thinking about.
•
Demonstrative pronouns
•
Possessive pronouns
There is / there are
Definite articles •
General principles
•
Omission of the article
There is is used before singular subjects.
•
Use in negatives and interrogatives
There is a man standing outside.
•
Related topics
We use there is and there are to talk about things that exist.
Can you see if there’s an apple in the bowl? General principles There are is used before plural subjects. There are twenty-four students in the class.
The definite article "the" (invariable in form) designates a person, place, or event which has been
Carl says there are lots of new shops in the town center.
specified or defined by the speaker:
•
Here's the book I bought.
•
The cat is on the roof.
•
He said he would bring the money.
Omission of the definite article
The definite article does not always precede nouns: sometimes indefinite articles or partitive articles will be used. Often, though, no article at all is necessary, as in the following cases:
1. As a general rule, the definite article is omitted before abstract nouns or nouns representing general categories. It is often omitted after verbs expressing opinions or preferences:
•
Truth is the highest good.
•
I don't like animals.
•
Cats are nicer than dogs.
•
Time flies.
•
She likes coffee, but she hates tea.
2. Generally, the article is omitted before days of the week and dates:
Indefinite articles
•
On Tuesdays the museums are closed.
The indefinite article has two forms: before singular nouns one uses "a" (or "an" before most vowels);
•
On Saturdays I sleep in.
before plural nouns one uses "some":
•
Friday night we are going dancing.
•
I was born on June 16, 1980.
3. Generally, the article is omitted before names of countries, states, cities, and regions:
•
France is seventeen times smaller than the United States.
•
California is larger than Brittany.
Exception: Some names actually include the definite article, such as The Hague.
•
a cat
•
an accident
•
some dogs
But: before vowels producing a "y" sound (as in "you"), "a" is used, rather than "an":
•
a unit
•
not a one
•
a unicorn
As a general rule, the indefinite article signals a person, thing or event that has not been clearly 4. Generally, the article is omitted before titles or nouns indicating professions:
defined by the speaker. It does not indicate a specific objection (which is the role of the definite article); rather, it indicates any one object out of many possible ones (in the singular), or any assortment or
•
President Mitterrand completed two terms.
•
We saw Professor Miller at the restaurant.
•
She met with Doctor Schmidt.
The use of the definite article does not change in interrogatives and negatives.
Related topics
•
Indefinite articles
•
Partitive articles
quantity from many possible assortments or quantities (in the plural). It is often used after verbs of possession or consumption:
•
Give me a coffee, please.
•
I have a book you might like.
•
She has some cherries for sale.
In the negative, the plural indefinite article changes: "some" is generally replaced by "any" (this change also occurs in negative questions) :
•
Don't you have any cookies ?
•
They don't have any books for sale.
•
I have never had an accident.
Related topics
•
Definite articles
•
Partitive articles
Partitive article:"some" When the article "some" appears before a plural noun it functions like an indefinite article:
•
He has some tickets for the game.
•
Some students decided not to attend the class.
However, when "some" appears before a singular noun, it is being used as a partitive. This is to say that a part of something is indicated, or a partial (or indeterminate) quantity is referred to. It is often used after verbs of possession or consumption:
•
Do you have some time?
•
We're going to buy some milk.
•
I heard some bad news.
•
She has some money to spend.
•
Would you like some help ?
Note: After expressions of quantity, the partitive article is not used:
•
Students buy a lot of pastries.
•
Today people have more activities than before.
In negative expressions, the partitive article "some" generally becomes "any" (this change will also occur in negative interrogatives):
•
She doesn't have any money.
•
They didn't have any milk.
•
Don't you have any money?
The word "any" is not strictly necessary in the negative,and it may often be omitted:
Quantifiers
•
I never have accidents.
Using Some, Any, and No
•
They didn't have milk.
We use both some and any with plural countable nouns and with uncountable nouns.
Related topics
They tasted some delicious wines in Italy. Do you have any Seville oranges?
•
Definite articles
I don’t have any tea, but I have some coffee.
•
Indefinite articles
Did you get any brown bread?
We use some in affirmative sentences and in questions when we think the answer will be “yes.” I bought some bread and some eggs today. Would you like some more wine?
We use any in most general questions and in negative sentences, . Are there any dragons on Lombok? There aren’t any snakes in Ireland.
Much, Many and a Lot of We use many and a lot of with countable nouns in the plural. They saw many stars in the sky. They grow a lot of bananas in Ecuador.
We use much and a lot of with uncountable nouns. They eat a lot of rice in Malaysia. My family doesn’t eat much red meat.
We prefer to use a lot of and lots of in affirmative sentences and much and many in negative sentences and questions.
A Little and a Few
In Sweden they eat a lot of fish.
A few means the same as “some, but not many.” A little means the same as “some, but not much.”
They don’t have much sunshine in winter.
I eat a few apples each week. There’s a little cheese left. If the noun is countable, we use many or a lot (for a big difference), and a few for a small difference, Much, many, a lot, a little, and a bit
except when using fewer.
Much or a lot can be used before the comparative form to show that there is a big difference between two people or things.
Many Saabs are driven in Sweden. There are a lot of university students in Boston.
A little or a bit can be used to show a small difference.
There are fewer hours of daylight in an Alaskan winter than in a Mexican winter.
We can use these words with adjectives, adverbs, and nouns.
You’ve gained a few pounds.
With adjectives:
Most/Some
Austrians are much more formal than Swedes, and they are much less direct. Austrian food is a lot
Look at these sentences. They all contain the words most and some. Not all the sentences contain of.
heavier than Swedish food.
When you are talking more generally, don’t use of.
Austria is a bit cheaper than Sweden.
Most people would rather be young than old.
Biology is a little easier than Chemistry. If we are referring to a specific time period or area, or if we are talking about part of a larger whole, we Remember that we cannot use a double comparative.
would use of (the).
(right) Austrian food is much heavier.
During the flood of 1994, most of the rain fell within a two-day period.
(wrong) Austrian food is much more heavier.
Some of my friends don’t eat pizza.
With adverbs: She speaks a little more quietly than I do. She speaks a bit more quietly than I do. He drives a lot more slowly than you do.
With nouns: If the noun is uncountable, we use much or a lot (for a big difference), and a little or a bit (for a small difference).
Adjectives A few and few
•
Forms
A little and little
•
Usage
•
Related topics
Little and few (without a) mean “not a lot.” They often have a negative meaning. Forms We have little time before our guests arrive for dinner. We must hurry to finish the cooking. There are few vegetables that he likes. He almost never eats them.
Adjectives are generally invariable in English and do not agree with nouns in number and gender; nor do they take case endings:
Note: Use little with non-countable nouns like bread, rice, fruit, patience. Use few with countable plural nouns like bananas, pieces, and meals.
You can use very with few as well as with little.
•
a blue car
•
the great outdoors
•
a group of young women
He has very little patience with people who drink too much alcohol.
However, a few adjectives have a connotation which is slightly masculine or feminine. Thus, one says
Very few bananas grow in Scotland.
that a woman is beautiful while a man would be called handsome.
A little and a few mean “some” or “a small amount.” They have a more positive meaning than little and
Adjectives indicating religion or nationality (or a region, state or province) generally begin with a capital
few.
letter, whether they refer to people or objects:
We have a little time for coffee before our flight. Let’s stop in at that cafe.
•
She is an American student.
He makes a few dishes that everyone likes. For example, everyone loves his spaghetti.
•
They go to a Catholic school.
•
They enjoy Breton music.
If you use only with a few or a little, the meaning can become more negative.
Usage: She ate almost all the chocolates her boyfriend gave her. There are only a few left. Only a few meals at the university cafeteria were strictly vegetarian. Most of the time, meat was
In a noun cluster an adjective will be placed, with very few exceptions, in front of the noun it modifies.
served.
When two adjectives precede a noun, they can be connected by a comma (,) or by the conjunction"and." In a series of three or more adjectives, one usually uses "and" before the last adjective in the list.
Examples:
Adjective Order
•
I like short novels.
When two or more adjectives are used to describe something they are put in a certain order. For
•
That fellow will be a competent worker.
example, opinions come before facts.
•
She writes long and flowery letters.
•
He works long, hard hours.
•
Beautiful long black hair
•
She had a mean, old and overbearing step-mother.
•
A handsome young man
•
A nice new shirt
An adjective may follow the noun when it is in a predicate (after the verb) or in a relative clause. (In relative clauses the relative pronoun may be implicit.)
Nice, beautiful and handsome are opinions. Young, new, long and black are facts. Opinions come first. Size comes before age. Age comes before color. The following chart show the basic order of
Examples:
•
He was a man (who was) always happy to help others.
•
She is a woman (who is) true to herself.
•
They were entirely satisfied.
Related topics
•
Possessive adjectives
•
Demonstrative adjectives
•
Comparisons
•
Superlatives
adjectives, but you should know that sometimes this order is not followed.
Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns Demonstrative adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives have two singular forms (this, that) and two plural forms (these, those). These adjectives are used to designate proximity to an object, or to distinguish between an object that is close (in time or space) and one that is more remote. Usually "this" and "these" signal proximity, while "that" and "those" suggest distance:
•
These books are too expensive.
•
This car is responsive.
•
That man irritates me!
•
This hotel is more expensive than that one.
Demonstrative pronouns: Demonstrative pronouns have the same form as the demonstrative adjectives, but are used without the nouns to which they refer. In the singular, when designating a specific object, the pronoun "one" is often added:
•
These tomatoes are fresher than those.
•
These are better than those.
•
Would you like a little of this?
•
That strikes me as really weird!
•
The book is more interesting than that one.
In front of a relative pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun becomes "the one" or "the
[NOTE IN THE ABOVE CHART “shape” (round, square) should be put between “age” and “color”, and
ones" (when speaking of things), or "he / she who", "they who" (when speaking of people):
the “noun” column should be separated from the other columns, with a + inserted.]
Example:
•
This film is the one that you hated so much.
We rented a nice little brown log cabin by a lake.
•
He who eats well works well.
•
This pen is the one with which the President signed the new law.
Note: We usually limit the number of adjectives preceding a noun to three.
Related topics
Possession
•
Relative pronouns
•
Possessive adjectives
•
Subject pronouns
•
Possessive pronouns
•
Reflexive pronouns
•
"To belong"
•
Object pronouns
•
The "s" of possession
•
Reciprocal pronouns
•
"Whose"
•
Possessive pronouns In English possession may be expressed in five different ways:
Possessive adjectives
Possessive adjectives agree with the person to whom they refer:
•
I --> my
•
you --> your
•
he, her, it --> his (masculine), her (feminine), its (impersonal)
•
we --> our
•
they --> their
So,
•
I have lost my keys.
•
They are coming in their car.
•
I met your grandparents.
•
This car has lost its power.
Note: In English the possessive adjective is used to refer to parts of the body:
•
She brushes her teeth twice a day.
•
He broke his arm playing soccer.
•
His stomach aches.
Possessive pronouns
•
The front door's lock is broken.
•
Many of the world's countries are poor.
Possessive pronouns, like the adjectives, agree with the person to whom they refer. Singular and plural share the same form:
Note: Do not confuse the "s" of possession with the contraction of the verb "is":
•
I --> mine
•
Fred's going to fetch it. (= Fred is going to fetch it.)
•
your --> yours
•
The train's late again. (=The train is late again.)
•
he, she, it --> his (masculine), hers (feminine), its (impersonal)
•
we --> ours
•
they --> theirs
"Whose" for indicating possession
"Whose" will be placed before the possession (the object possessed), and will refer ownership to the preceding noun:
So,
•
I have my likes, and she has hers.
•
If you give me one of yours, I'll give you one of mine.
•
I like our house, but frankly, I am jealous of theirs!
•
That's mine!
The verb "to belong to"
The verb "to belong to" indicates ownership or possession:
•
That poodle belongs to Louise.
•
The world belongs to you.
The "s" of possession
One may add "--'s" to any noun in order to indicate possession:
•
I just read Gustave's book.
•
The man whose dog bit me said he was sorry. (The dog belongs to the man.)
•
Here is the woman whose daughter I intend to marry.(The woman is the mother of the daughter.)
Comparatives
Adjectives
•
General principles
•
Adjectives
•
Adverbs
•
Jean is taller than Catherine.
•
Nouns
•
Philippe is less tall than Jean.
•
Verbs
•
Leïla is as tall as Jean.
•
Related topics
General principles
Adjectival comparisons follow these models:
Note: Monosyllabic adjectives, and several common two-syllable adjectives, take the ending "--er" and do not include the adverb "more":
Comparatives are used to compare two things and to highlight the superiority, inferiority, or equality
•
young --> younger
of one term compared to another. The comparative can apply to adjectives, adverbs, nouns, or even
•
tall --> taller
verbs. Whatever the part of speech concerned, the structure of the comparison remains the same:
•
old --> older
If the adjective ends in "--y" the "y" becomes "i" :
•
heavy --> heavier
•
early --> earlier
•
busy --> busier
•
healthy --> healthier
•
chilly --> chillier
If the adjective ends in "--e" only an "r" is needed: Examples for adjectives, adverbs, nouns, and verbs follow:
•
wise --> wiser
•
large --> larger
•
simple --> simpler
•
late --> later
If the adjective ends with "single vowel + consonant" the consonant is doubled and one
And some adverbs have irregular comparative forms :
adds "--er" :
•
well --> better
•
red --> redder
•
badly --> worse
•
big --> bigger
•
far --> farther
•
thin --> thinner
•
hot --> hotter
Some very common adjectives have irregular comparatives:
Nouns
Noun comparisons follow these patterns:
•
good --> better
•
I have more work than you.
•
bad --> worse
•
He has less homework than the rest of us.
•
far --> farther
•
If only I had as much talent as she!
The comparative can signal quantities of nouns:
Adverbs
Adverbial comparisons follow these models:
•
The students are working more diligently than the professor.
•
This fellow speaks less eloquently than a schoolboy.
•
They are all working as hard as possible!
•
I have less than five francs in my pocket.
•
She has more than five hours worth of work to do.
However, in comparisons of inferiority, and when the quantity represents a "countable" noun, one should use the term "fewer" rather than "less" :
Note: In comparisons indicating superiority, adverbs ending in "--ly" do not take the adverb "more,"
•
He works fewer than ten hours per week.
but only the ending "--er". (However, these adverbs will function normally in comparisons using "less"
•
Sam has fewer students than I do.
or "as.") Verbs
•
fast --> faster
•
hard --> harder
"More," "less," and "as" can be used as adverbs to modify verbs:
•
He eats more than he used to.
•
That boy reads less than his friends.
•
You ought to listen as much as you talk.
Related topics
•
Superlatives
Superlatives •
General principles
•
Irregular forms
•
o
Adjectives
o
Adverbs
Related topics
General principles
When comparing two things one uses the comparative; however, for comparisons in larger groups, it is the superlative which must be used. The superlative designates extremes: the best, the first, the worst, the last, etc.
The superlative operates like the comparative, with these exceptions:
A. While the word "more" or the ending "--er" signals the comparative, it is the word "most" or the ending "--est" that designates the superlative. (See irregular forms, below):
•
He is the most efficient worker we have.
•
That is the poorest family in the neighborhood.
B. The compared term (adjective or adverb) will be preceded by the definite article:
•
He works the fastest of any student I know.
•
She is the tallest woman in town.
B. Unlike the comparative, the superlative is not followed by "than": instead, one uses "of," followed by the context of the comparison (although this context is sometimes implicit):
•
It's the best day of my life!
•
She works the best of the whole class.
Irregular forms
•
thin --> thinnest
•
hot --> hottest
Adjectives Some very common superlatives have irregular forms: Monosyllabic adjectives (and several common two-syllable adjectives) take the ending "--est" in superlatives of superiority, and thus will not use the adverb "most." However, these same adjectives
•
good --> best
will use "less," like other adjectives, in superlatives of inferiority:
•
bad --> worst
•
far --> farthest
•
young --> youngest
•
tall --> tallest
•
old --> oldest
Some adjectives exist only in superlative form:
If the adjective ends in "--y" the "y" becomes "i":
•
heavy --> heaviest
•
early --> earliest
•
busy --> busiest
•
healthy --> healthiest
•
chilly --> chilliest
wise --> wisest
•
large --> largest
•
simple --> simplest
•
late --> latest
first
•
last
Adverbs
Adverbs not ending in "--ly" do not use the adverb "--most" in the formation of superlatives of superiority, but use instead the ending "--est." However, these same adverbs will use "less," like other adverbs, in superlatives of inferiority:
If the adjective ends in "--e" one adds only "--st" :
•
•
•
fast --> fastest
•
hard --> hardest
And some adverbs have irregular forms:
If the adjective ends in "single vowel + consonant," the consonant is doubled and
•
well --> best
•
badly --> worst
•
far --> farthest
one adds "--est": Related topics
•
red --> reddest
•
big --> biggest
•
Comparatives
Adverbs
D. In general, adverbs of time and space have no corresponding adjective; the same can be said of adverbs of quantity:
•
Formation
•
Position
•
yesterday
•
Related topics
•
today
•
tomorrow
•
early
•
soon
•
late
•
here
•
there
•
less
•
more
•
as
•
very
•
much
•
a lot of
•
little of
Formation
1. Most adverbs are formed from the adjective. One adds the ending "--ly" to the adjectival form:
•
intelligent --> intelligently
•
slow --> slowly
•
precise --> precisely
Some adverbs are irregular:
A. If the adjective ends with "--le," simply replace the "e" with "y":
•
simple --> simply
•
subtle --> subtly Position
B. The adverb corresponding to the adjective "good" is irregular: When an adverb modifies a verb, it generally comes at the end of the clause (but before any
•
good --> well
C. Some adverbs have the same form as the adjective:
•
high
•
low
•
hard
•
better
•
fast
prepositional phrases or subordinated clauses):
•
He writes poorly.
•
She pronounced that word well..
•
Joseph worked diligently.
•
They worked hard before coming home.
Exceptions: certain adverbs signaling the speaker's opinion, such as "probably,"
Prepositions
"undoubtedly," "surely," "certainly," etc., come at the beginning of the sentence, or else between the modal verb (or auxiliary) and the principal verb:
•
Space
•
Geography
o
We are probably going to spend the summer in Corsica.
•
Means of transportation
o
Certainly we would never do that!
•
Time
o
We will undoubtedly see a dirty political campaign this year.
•
"To" with indirect objects
•
Related topics
Adverbs of time and space generally come at the end of the sentence; however, they may be placed at the beginning of the sentence if the predicate clause is long and complicated:
Space
•
I saw her yesterday.
In their simplest form, prepositions are used to indicate position (in time or space) of one thing with
•
We're going to the beach today.
respect to another:
•
She went to bed very early.
•
Tomorrow we will try to get up early to prepare for our trip.
Adverbs modifying adjectives or an other adverb are placed before the adjective or adverb they
•
I put the book on the table.
•
She arrived before the others.
•
He came toward me.
modify: There are many prepositions. Here is a partial list, with examples:
•
She was really very happy to see you.
•
It was a brilliantly staged performance.
Related topics
•
to -- He gave the book to his friend.
•
at -- They arrived at his house at 5 o'clock.
•
of -- It was the third day of the month.
•
from -- That young women comes from Thailand.
•
Comparatives
•
on -- She put the plate on the table.
•
Superlatives
•
under -- The cat crawled under the bed.
•
over -- The boy threw the rock over the tree.
•
underneath -- The rabbit escaped underneath the fence.
•
before -- (time) She arrived before the movie started.
•
after -- He called his mother after he finished shopping.
•
in front of -- His mother parked her car in front of his apartment.
•
behind -- The dog ran behind the house.
•
for -- He went to the store for more milk.
•
toward -- The criminal walked toward him with a gun.
•
against -- Everyone was against that idea.
•
around -- The athletes ran around the track six times.
•
close to -- He placed the food close to the squirrel.
•
far from -- He placed the food far from the lion.
•
next to -- He was hot, so he sat down next to the air conditioning.
•
facing -- She sat down on the other side of the table, facing him.
•
in the midst of -- I don't know where to find any free time in the midst of these emergencies.
Transportation
As a general rule, the preposition "by" is used to describe how one has traveled. The prepositions "in" and "on" describe one's presence inside a vehicle. In the case of small vehicles (a car, a helicopter...), the preposition "in" is required:
•
I came by bike.
•
Traveling by plane is my favorite.
•
I was already on (in) the train when he arrived.
•
She is waiting for me in the car.
Time
Usage of prepositions The use of prepositions is one of the most complex aspects of English, and it is impossible to cover all cases. Some general guidelines, however, may be helpful.
Geography
Movement toward a town, country, state, or continent is generally expressed by the preposition "to"; presence in a city, state, etc. is expressed by "in"; movement away from a city, state, etc., is expressed by "from" (if the verb requires a pronoun):
To designate an hour the preposition "at" is used:
•
Let's meet at six o'clock.
•
They arrived at 4:45.
For dates and days of the week, one uses "on":
•
His birthday is on Monday.
•
It happened on March 3, 1997.
For months one uses "in":
•
When are you going to Canada.
•
My birthday is in September.
•
He went to Asia last year.
•
We will begin work in August.
•
I spent three years in London.
•
She was born in Normandy.
•
He comes from Mexico.
To express duration, the preposition "for" is used; "in" can be used to express the time it will take to
Related topics
complete a task:
•
I am going away for a few days.
•
He worked with them for three years.
•
I can read that book in a day.
•
Verbs with prepositions
•
Prepositional verbs
Verbs with prepositions
Certain verbs and verbal expressions are generally followed by a preposition before their object (and this preposition will generally be shown in the dictionary). Indirect objects However, the meaning of these verbs is not dramatically changed by the addition of the preposition. The preposition "to", which generally precedes an indirect object, will disappear before a noun (or
The same cannot be said of the prepositional verbs, dealt with in another section.
pronoun) when the indirect object precedes a direct object. ("To" will be retained when the indirect object follows a direct object.)
Examples :
Examples:
•
to wait for
•
to look for
•
She gave John the ticket.
•
to look at
•
Mais : She gave the ticket to John.
•
to listen to
•
to pay for
•
to ask for
•
to be happy with something
•
to be mad at (or: with) someone
•
to depend on
•
to be interested in
•
to thank fort
•
to be busy with
or:
•
He sent her a letter.
•
Mais : He sent a letter to her.
•
Ou : He sent it to her.
This can also be seen in certain phrases in which the direct object is implicit.
•
I already told it to him.
•
Mais : I already told him (the news).
Sample sentences:
Notice that in the second example the verb in the present simple has a future meaning.
•
She's the one who paid for our dinner!
Not … until means the same as not … before.
•
I'm not asking for anything!
I didn’t leave home until I got married.
•
I'm busy with my own stuff.
•
That depends on you.
After and before can be followed by a subject-verb clause or by a gerund. After I had eaten five ice cream cones, I felt a little sick. Before coming back to Britain, I travelled all over Eastern Europe.
While can be used to show two events happening at the same time.
See also
While you’re getting lunch ready, I’ll wash the car.
•
Prepositions
•
Prepositional verbs
I studied judo while I was in Japan.
While and During While and during are both used to show that two things happen at the same time. While is a conjunction and is used before a subject-verb clause. During is a preposition and is used before a noun phrase.
Time Clauses / Conjunctions Conjunctions of Time
What should you do during an earthquake? Don’t run downstairs while the building is shaking.
We can join two sentences using a conjunction. A conjunction of time gives us information about when He arrived while I was eating breakfast. two events happen, relative to each other. He arrived during breakfast. Common conjunctions of time are when, while, as soon as, until, after and before.
When can be used to show that one event is before, or at the same time as, another. When can be used to convey a past or a future meaning. I studied abroad for a year when I was at university. When she finishes this course, she’ll go abroad for a year. As soon as means that the second event happened, or will happen, immediately after the first. As soon as I finished lunch, I went out for a walk. I’ll go out for a walk as soon as I finish lunch.
Too, Very and Enough
transitions are listed in the chart below.
We use too and very to modify the meaning of adjectives and adverbs. Too and very come before the adjective and adverb. Enough usually comes after the adjective.
Too means “more than necessary” or “more than you want.” Very intensifies an adjective or adverb and means “to a large extent.” Enough means “what is adequate or necessary.” Mt. Everest is very high. It’s more than 8,000 meters high. Mt. Everest is too high to climb in one day. Magda is only two years old. She’s not old enough to climb Mt. Everest.
Transition
A transition is a word or phrase that allows for fluid movement between ideas, sentences, or paragraphs. A transition expression helps the speaker or writer to construct coherent sentences. In writing, a transition expression is typically set off with punctuation. Transitions include but are not limited to the following kinds: comparison, contrast, summary, and order of importance. Many common
Examples:
•
We’re too tired to go jogging tonight. Besides, it’s very cold outside.
•
Brittany doesn’t dance very well. On the other hand, she sings beautifully.
•
Sally just got a job in San Francisco. Therefore, she won’t be moving to London.
So and neither with be and do
Or Adverbial + be + subject
We use so and neither (or not…either) when we want to agree that something that is true for some person is true for us, too.
Examples:
We use so (or …too) with positive sentences and neither (or not…either) with negative sentences.
•
Never have I seen so many cats in one place!
•
Seldom do we feel sad while we are swimming in the ocean.
•
Rarely can one hear such beautiful music.
So + verb + subject (agreement with positive sentence)
•
At no time was I late for class.
Neither + verb + subject (agreement with negative sentence)
•
No sooner had I wished to see my lost dog than she appeared before me.
If the main verb is be, use be in the response. If the main verb is other than be, use do in the response.
Response form:
Examples, if the same is true for the respondent :
Note that, in this last example, the second part (than) of the two-part adverbial is positioned at the start of a new subject-verb clause.
•
I’m very sociable. So am I. (Or: I am, too.)
•
I’m not very tall. Neither am I. (Or: I’m not, either.)
•
We like parties. So do we. (Or: We do, too.)
•
She doesn’t like snakes. Neither does he. (Or: He doesn’t, either.)
Verbs Verb conjugations reflect three elements: the subject, the tense, and the mood. The subject may be singular or plural and may be in the first person ("I" or "we"), in the second person ("you"), or in the
We use the verb be or the auxiliary verb do without so or neither when we want to say that what is true
third person "he," she," "it," or "they"). Verb tenses include different forms of the past, present and
for some person is not true for us. Examples, if the same is not true for the respondent:
future. The term "mood" refers, generally, to the attitude of the speaker toward his subject. The different moods include the indicative, the subjunctive (rare in English), the conditional, and the
•
They’re tired. We’re not.
•
I’m not sleepy. I am.
•
He likes mushrooms. She doesn’t.
•
Auxiliaries ("to be", "to have")
•
We don’t like art. We do.
•
Past conditional ("I would have worked...")
•
Present conditional ("I would work...")
•
Future perfect ("We will have finished...")
•
Near future ("We are going to finish...")
•
Future progressive ("I will be calling you...")
Form:
•
Simple future ("We will leave....")
Adverbial + auxiliary or modal verb + subject + main verb
•
Imperative ("Let's go!")
Split adverbials
hardly... when, barely...when, no sooner...than, not only...but also, so...that, such...that
imperative.
•
Irregular participles
•
Past progressive ("I was working...")
•
Habitual past ("I used to work...")
•
Pluperfect ("I had worked...")
•
Present perfect ("I have finished...")
•
Present perfect progressive ("I have been finishing...")
•
Present progressive (: "I am finishing...")
•
Simple present (: "I finish...")
•
Preterit ("I worked...")
•
Subjunctive ("If I were you...")
•
Modal verbs ("would", "should", etc.)
•
Prepositional verbs ("to put down, to put up with..." etc.)
Gerunds and Infinitives Gerunds as Subjects The gerund is the –ing form of the verb when it is used as a noun. We can use a gerund as a subject or as an object. Walking is good for your health. Too much dieting can be dangerous. Terry quit smoking. We go dancing every Saturday night. He’s very good at listening to other people’s problems. I am tired of worrying about money.
Verbs followed by gerunds Here are some verbs that can be followed by a gerund but not an infinitve. stop keep postpone dislike recommend avoiddetest feel like give up put off practice finish
What would you recommend trying? I dislike watching violence on television.
Here are some verbs that can be followed directly by an infinitive but not a gerund.
continue
hope
can’t stand
expect intend
I like eating in fancy restaurants.
agree
Annie likes to eat fast food.
refuse appear manage
The imperative
promise afford
Imperatives are used to issue commands. They use the infinitive of verbs (dropping the word "to"); in
decide
the first person plural ("we"), the infinitive is preceded by "let's" (or: "let us"):
choose
•
Speak!
fail
•
Finish your homework!
wait
•
Let's eat!
volunteer
•
Close the door!
Susan refuses to try new food.
The negative imperative is formed by placing "don't" (or "do not") before the imperative form; in the
We intend to ask for a raise.
first person plural one uses "let's not" (or "let us not") :
Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive. Be careful! In some cases the meaning
•
Let's not forget who helped us.
changes.
•
Don't leave me!
try
•
Don't walk on the grass!
remember
•
Please don't eat the daisies!
like forget love prefer start begin
The imperative has no effect on the word order of the rest of the sentence.
The subjunctive
Present participles
The subjunctive is used only in select phrases or situations in English. One finds vestiges of it in
Formation
certain hypothetical expressions (using "if + to be") and in certain set phrases. (In many cases the subjunctive -- considered archaic or literary -- is replaced by the modal "would," used to express the
The present participle is formed by adding the ending"--ing" to the infinitive (dropping any silent "e"at
conditional.) Other meanings often communicated by the subjunctive in other languages will be
the end of the infinitive):
expressed by modal verbs in English.
•
to sing --> singing
In constructions using "if + to be" the subjunctive will amount to using the form "were" (instead of
•
to talk --> taking
"was") with the first and third persons singular ("I" and "he," "she," or "it"). (In spoken English, and in
•
to bake --> baking
much informal writing, "was" will still be used.)
•
to be --> being
•
to have --> having
•
If I were Muriel, I'd never go back there.
•
If she were alone, I'd stop by to see her.
•
He acts as if he were crazy.
Use
A. The present participle may often function as an adjective:
Set phrases and proverbs:
•
God help us!
•
Long live the king!
•
Would that I were free!
•
That's an interesting book.
•
That tree is a weeping willow.
B. The present participle can be used as a noun denoting an activity (this form is also called a gerund):
•
Swimming is good exercise.
•
Traveling is fun.
C. The present participle can indicate an action that is taking place, although it cannot stand by itself as a verb. In these cases it generally modifies a noun (or pronoun), an adverb, or a past participle:
•
Thinking myself lost, I gave up all hope.
•
Washing clothes is not my idea of a job.
•
Looking ahead is important.
D. The present participle is used in progressive verb tenses, which indicate continuing actions or
Irregular preterits and past participles
actions in progress (the present progressive, the future progressive, the present perfect progressive) : This alphabetical list shows the irregular forms of the most common verbs. Each entry includes the
•
I am eating my dinner.
infinitive, the preterit, and the past participle. In cases where variant forms exist, they will be shown at
•
He was walking across the park.
the end of the entry. Literary or archaic forms are flagged by a cross: Ý. The past participle is used in
•
We will be calling you tomorrow.
many conjugations, including the present perfect, the pluperfect,the past conditional, and the future perfect.
E. The present participle may be used with "while"or "by" to express an idea of simultaneity ("while") or causality ("by") :
can = could [pret.], been able [p.p.] may = might [pret.]
•
He finished dinner while watching television.
to abide = abode [pret., p.p.]
•
By using a dictionary he could find all the words.
to arise = arose [pret.], arisen [p.p.]
•
While speaking on the phone, she doodled.
to awake = awoke [pret.], awakened [p.p.]
•
By calling the police you saved my life!
to be = was, were [pret.], been [p.p.] to bear = bore [pret.], borne [p.p.]
F. The present participle of the auxiliary "have"may be used with the past participle to describe a past condition resulting in another action:
•
Having spent all his money, he returned home.
•
Having told herself that she would be too late, she accelerated.
to beat = beat [pret.], beaten [p.p.] to become = became [pret.], become [p.p.] to befall = befell [pret.], befallen [p.p.] to begin = began [pret.], begun [p.p.] to bend = bent [pret., p.p.]
Inversion
to beseech = besought [pret., p.p.] to bet = bet [pret., p.p.]
Inversion occurs when we change the order of the subject and the verb in a declarative sentence after
to bid = bid [pret., p.p.]; bade [pret.]Ý
an adverbial in initial position. It is used for emphasis, in more formal or poetic discourse, and in some
to bind = bound [pret., p.p.]
day-to-day fixed expressions. Inversion only occurs if the sentence contains an auxiliary verb, modal
to bite = bit [pret.], bitten [p.p.]
verb, or the verb be.
to bleed = bled [pret., p.p.] to blow = blew [pret.], blown [p.p.]
The following are some common adverbials that can be used with inversion.
to break = broke [pret.], broken [p.p.] to breed = bred [pret., p.p.]
at no time, little, never, not until, nowhere, only after, only then, only later, rarely, seldom, scarcely, to bring = brought [pret., p.p.] under no circumstances
to build = built [pret., p.p.]
to forget = forgot [pret.]; forgotten [p.p.]
to burn = burned [pret., p.p.]; burnt [pret., p.p.]Ý
to forsake = forsook [pret.]; forsaken [p.p.]
to burst = burst [pret., p.p.]
to freeze = froze [pret.]; frozen [p.p.]
to buy = bought [pret., p.p.]
to get = got [pret., p.p.]; gotten [p.p.]
to cast = cast [pret., p.p.]
to gild = gild [p.p.]
to catch = caught [pret., p.p.]
to give = gave [pret.], given [p.p.]
to choose = chose [pret.], chosen [p.p.]
to go = went [pret.], gone [p.p.]
to cleave = cleaved [pret., p.p.]; cleft [pret., p.p.]Ý
to grind = ground [pret., p.p.]
to cling = clung [pret., p.p.]
to grow = grew [pret.], grown [p.p.]
to come = came [pret.], come [p.p.]
to hang = hung [pret., p.p.]; hanged (•éxécution•) [pret., p.p.]
to cost = cost [pret., p.p.]
to have = had [pret., p.p.]
to creep = crept [pret., p.p.]; creeped [pret.]
to hear = heard [pret., p.p.]
to cut = cut [pret., p.p.]
to hew = hewn [p.p.]
to deal = dealt [pret., p.p.]
to hide = hid [pret.]; hidden [p.p.]
to dig = dug [pret., p.p.]
to hit = hit [pret., p.p.]
to do = did [pret.], done [p.p.]
to hold = held [pret., p.p.]
to draw = drew [pret.], drawn [p.p.]
to hurt = hurt [pret., p.p.]
to dream = dreamed [pret., p.p.]; dreamt [pret., p.p.]Ý
to keep = kept [pret., p.p.]
to drink = drank [pret.], drunk [p.p.]
to kneel = kneeled [pret., p.p.]
to drive = drove [pret.], driven [p.p.]
to kneel = knelt [pret., p.p.]
to dwell = dwelled [pret., p.p.]; dwelt [pret., p.p.]Ý
to know = knew [pret.], known [p.p.]
to eat = ate [pret.]; eaten [p.p.]
to lay = laid [pret., p.p.]
to fall = fell [pret.], fallen [p.p.]
to lead = led [pret., p.p.]
to feed = fed [pret., p.p.]
to lean = leaned [pret., p.p.]
to fight = fought [pret., p.p.]
to lean = leant [pret., p.p.]
to find = found [pret., p.p.]
to leap = leaped [pret., p.p.]
to flee = fled [pret., p.p.]
to leap = leapt [pret., p.p.]
to fling = flung [pret., p.p.]
to learn = learned [pret., p.p.]
to fly = flew [pret.]; flown [p.p.]
to learn = learnt [pret., p.p.]
to forbid = forbad [pret.]; forbidden [p.p.]
to leave = left [pret., p.p.]
to lend = lent [pret., p.p.]
to rid = rid [pret., p.p.]
to let = let [pret., p.p.]
to ride = rode [pret.], ridden [p.p.]
to lie = lay [pret.], lain [p.p.]
to ring = rang [pret.], rung [p.p.]
to light = lit [pret., p.p.]
to rise = rose [pret.], risen [p.p.]
to lose = lost [pret., p.p.]
to run = ran [pret.], run [p.p.]
to make = made [pret., p.p.]
to saw = sawed [pret., p.p.]; sawn [p.p.]Ă?
to mean = meant [pret., p.p.]
to say = said [pret., p.p.]
to meet = met [pret., p.p.]
to see = saw [pret.], seen [p.p.]
to mow = mowed [pret.], mown [p.p.]
to seek = sought [pret., p.p.]
to pay = paid [pret., p.p.]
to sell = sold [pret., p.p.]
to put = put [pret., p.p.]
to send = sent [pret., p.p.]
to quit = quit [pret., p.p.]
to set = set [pret., p.p.]
to read = read [pret., p.p.]
to sew = sewed [pret., p.p.]; sewn [p.p.]
to rebuild = rebuilt [pret., p.p.]
to shake = shook [pret.], shaken [p.p.]
to recut = recut [pret., p.p.]
to shave = shaved [pret., p.p.]; shaven [p.p.]
to redeal = redealt [pret., p.p.]
to shear = sheared [pret., p.p.]; shorn [p.p.]
to redo = redid [pret.], redone [p.p.]
to shed = shed [pret., p.p.]
to relay = relaid [pret., p.p.]
to shine = shone [pret., p.p.]; shined [pret.]
to remake = remade [pret., p.p.]
to shoe = shod [pret., p.p.]
to rend = rent [pret., p.p.]
to shoot = shot [pret., p.p.]
to repay = repaid [pret., p.p.]
to show = showed [pret., p.p.]; shown [p.p.]
to reread = reread [pret., p.p.]
to shrink = shrank [pret.], shrunk [p.p.]
to rerun = reran [pret.], rerun [p.p.]
to shut = shut [pret., p.p.]
to resend = resent [pret., p.p.]
to sing = sang [pret.], sung [p.p.]
to reset = reset [pret., p.p.]
to sink = sank [pret.], sunk [p.p.]
to retake = retook [pret.], retaken [p.p.]
to sit = sat [pret., p.p.]
to reteach = retaught [pret., p.p.]
to slay = slew [pret.], slain [p.p.]
to retell = retold [pret., p.p.]
to sleep = slept [pret., p.p.]
to rethink = rethought [pret., p.p.]
to slide = slid [pret., p.p.]
to rewrite = rewrote [pret.], rewritten [p.p.]
to sling = slung [pret., p.p.]
to slink = slunk [pret., p.p.]
to swell = swelled [pret.], swollen [p.p.]
to slit = slit [pret., p.p.]
to swim = swam [pret.], swum [p.p.]
to smell = smelled [pret., p.p.]
to swing = swung [pret., p.p.]
to smell = smelt [pret., p.p.]
to take = took [pret.], taken [p.p.]
to smite = smote [pret.], smitten [p.p.]
to teach = taught [pret., p.p.]
to sow = sowed [pret., p.p.]; sown [p.p.]
to tear = tore [pret.], torn [p.p.]
to speak = spoke [pret.], spoken [p.p.]
to tell = told [pret., p.p.]
to speed = sped [pret., p.p.]
to think = thought [pret., p.p.]
to spell = spelled [pret., p.p.]
to thrive = thrived [pret., p.p.]
to spell = spelt [pret., p.p.]
to throw = threw [pret.], thrown [p.p.]
to spend = spent [pret., p.p.]
to thrust = thrust [pret., p.p.]
to spill = spilled [pret., p.p.]
to tread = trod [pret.], trodden [p.p.]
to spill = spilt [pret., p.p.]
to undo = undid [pret.], undone [p.p.]
to spin = spun [pret., p.p.]
to unlearn = unlearned [pret., p.p.]; unlearnt [pret., p.p.]Ă?
to spit = spat [pret., p.p.]
to unwind = unwound [pret., p.p.]
to split = split [pret., p.p.] to spoil = spoiled [pret., p.p.]; spoilt [pret., p.p.] to spread = spread [pret., p.p.]
to wake = woke [pret.], woken [p.p.]
to spring = sprang [pret.]; sprung [p.p.]
to wear = wore [pret.], worn [p.p.]
to stand = stood [pret., p.p.]
to weave = wove [pret.], woven [p.p.]; weaved [pret.]
to steal = stole [pret.], stolen [p.p.]
to weep = wept [pret., p.p.]
to stick = stuck [pret., p.p.]
to win = won [pret., p.p.]
to sting = stung [pret., p.p.]
to wind = wound [pret., p.p.]
to stink = stank [pret.], stunk [p.p.]
to withdraw = withdrew [pret.], withdrawn [p.p.]
to stride = strode [pret.], stridden [p.p.]
to wring = wrung [pret., p.p.]
to strike = struck [pret., p.p.]; stricken [p.p.]
to write = wrote [pret.], written [p.p.]
to string = strung [pret., p.p.] to strive = strove [pret.], striven [p.p.] to swear = swore [pret.], sworn [p.p.] to sweep = swept [pret., p.p.]
Auxiliary verbs
•
We'll have a monument erected on this site.
•
I had my hair cut.
An auxiliary verb ("helping" verb) is combined with the principal verb to form certain tenses or moods. (See also the modal verbs, which nuance the meaning of the verbs they accompany.) The only true
When one wishes to designate the agent of the action (the person who has carried out the described
auxiliary verbs in English are "to be," "to have," and "to do."
action), there are two possibilities:
"To be" is an auxiliary verb for the progressive teneses (See the present progressive, the past
1. -- "to have" (conjugated) + direct object (noun or pronoun) + principal verb (in its past participle
progressive, the future progressive):
form) + "by" + agent (usually not as a pronoun):
•
I am going home.
•
The professor had the work done by his lab assistants.
•
She was fishing with her father.
•
I had it done by my employees.
•
We will be calling on you later. 2. -- "to have" (conjugated) + agent (as a direct object noun or pronoun) + principal verb (in its
"To have" is an auxiliary verb for the perfect tenses, including the present perfect, the present perfect
infinitive form) + the object (also in the form of a direct object noun or pronoun)
progressive, the pluperfect, the future perfect, the past conditional:
•
We have finished.
•
They hadn't waited for us.
•
The professor had his students write an essay.
•
I had him do it.
Note: Especially in spoken English, the verb "to get" often replaces "to have," in which case "to" is "To do" is an auxiliary verb for making questions and negations in both the present simple and the
added to the infinitive (but not before past participles). This construction also suggests that it may be
preterit :
(or have been) difficult to produce a certain reaction on the part of the agent:
•
Do you have any money?
•
We'll get a monument erected on this site.
•
Did you hear me?
•
The professor got his students to write an essay.
•
He doesn't want to help us. When one wishes to express a change in temperament or in general conditions, it is the construction
Causative constructions
"to make + adjective" which is used:
When one does not carry out an action oneself but rather has the action done by someone else, this is
•
That letter made her sad.
expressed by a causative construction. In English it is the verb "to have" that introduces the causative.
•
He makes me furious!
The model will generally be: "to have" (conjugated) + direct object (noun or pronoun) + principal
•
That new problem made negotiations really hard!
verb (in its past participle form):
Do and Make
Present progressive
We often use do followed by words for work or indefinite activities.
•
General principles
Do your homework.
•
Near future
Can you do the dishes tonight?
•
In negative constructions
Stan did the grocery shopping every Saturday morning.
•
Related topics
You must do something about the mice in the basement! General principles: The present progressive is a version of the present which emphasizes the fact We often use make with the meaning of .
that an action is still unfolding (or is continuing) at the time one speaks. It is formed by using the
Let’s make some travel plans.
auxilary "to be" with the present participle:
Mom made a cake for Zachary’s birthday. Do you want me to make breakfast for you?
There are also many idiomatic expressions that use the verbs do or make.
•
I am working.
•
He is eating his dinner.
•
The cat is meowing.
To do one’s best, to make progress, to do one’s duty, to make a fortune Usually, the present progressive indicates that one is "in the process of" or "in the midst of" doing something. If this is the idea one wishes to communicate, the present progressive will be preferable to the simple present. If you cannot replace the verb by a form of "to be in the process of," the present progressive should probably not be used. Indications of emotion, belief, and possession are rarely conjugated in the present progressive:
•
I think that is right. ["I am in the process of thinking" would be awkward.]
•
Cheryl owns her own house. ["Cheryl is in the process of owning" would be awkward.]
In certain situations the present progressive can indicate an action which will take place in the immediate future:
•
I am going to the movies this evening.
•
They are leaving tomorrow.
Near future: To emphasize the idea of future action while using the present tense, one may use the
The appropriate form of the verb "to do" will also be used for the negative:
verb "to go"; it indicates what one is going to do. In this case the principle verb remains in the infinitive:
•
I know he is going to yell at me!
•
They are going to regret that decision.
•
I do not (don't) work at home.
•
No, he does not (doesn't) like to cook.
After the conjunctions "when," "as soon as," etc., the present is used, even though actions expressed Note: The near future can also be used in past constructions, in which case the verb "to go"
may refer to the future:
is conjugated in the past progressive:
o
She was going to leave, but the telephone rang.
Present progressive in the negative
•
She'll come when she can.
•
He'll pay us as soon as we finish.
Forming the simple present: The present is extremely regular in its conjugation. As a general rule, one uses the base form of the infinitive (minus the preposition "to"). For the third person singular ("he,"
The word "not" comes after the auxiliary "to be":
•
He is not working very hard.
•
You are not driving fast enough.
"she," "it"), an "-s" is added if the verb ends in a consonant, or "-es" if the verb ends with a vowel:
To work
Simple present (indicative) The simple present is used to express actions which take place in the present or which occur regularly. It also serves to express general or absolute statements not anchored in a particular time frame.
•
I work
•
you work
•
he / she / it works
•
we work
•
they work
•
I work at home.
•
Politics are a dirty business.
•
Jill speaks four languages fluently.
•
I go
•
On Sundays, we like to fish.
•
you go
•
he / she / it goes
•
we go
•
they go
In the interrogative, the present is generally introduced by a form of the verb "to do" ("do / does"):
•
Does your father like to cook?
•
Do you have time to stop by my place?
To go
However: verbs ending with "consonant + y" (for example, "to try," "to cry," "to bury," etc.) will end in
Related topics
"-ies" in the third person singular:
To bury
•
I bury
•
you bury
•
he / she buries
•
we bury
•
they bury
"To have", "to be"
The only irregular verbs in the present are "to have," "to be," and the modal verbs.
To have
•
I have
•
you have
•
he / she has
•
we have
•
they have
•
I am
•
you are
•
he / she is
•
we are
•
they are
To be
•
•
Negatives
•
Questions
•
Near future
•
Prepositional verbs
The simple future
One can also conjugate these forms in the past progressive in order to express a "future within the past":
The simple future uses the modal "will" followed by the infinitive (dropping the presposition "to"). It serves to express actions which will take place at a specified time, or to signal the beginning of an
•
He said he was going to do it.
action. (If, on the other hand, one wishes to describe an action which is in the process of occurring, it is
•
She was going to buy a new car, but she never did.
the future progressive which will be used to express it.)
•
When I saw them, they were about to make a decision.
•
I will meet you at five o'clock.
•
She will go to the library this evening.
•
We will dance all night long.
Questions •
Simple questions
o
"Do"
One sometimes find the modal "shall" in place of "will." This usage, generally reserved for the first
o
Inversion
person, is considered archaic: What shall I do ?
o
Modal verbs ("will", "would", etc.)
•
Interrogative adverbs ("how?", "when", "why?", etc.)
Note: this usage of "shall" to indicate the future is different from the commonplace usage of "shall" to
•
Interrogative pronouns ("who", "whom", "what", etc.)
indicate desire or wishes. See modal verbs.
•
"Which", "which one"
Near future
Simple questions
Especially in spoken English one finds the near future used as a way of describing imminent events.
Simple questions (that is, questions to which one can respond by a simple "yes" or "no") may be
Strictly speaking, the near future is not a future tense, for it is formed by combining the present tense
formed in three different ways:
of the verb "to go," conjugated in the present progressive, with the infinitive of the principal verb. 1. "Do": one precedes an assertion with "do" or "does" (or "don't" or "doesn't" for a negative
•
We are going to leave soon.
•
I'm going to give her a call.
expression, or "did", "didn't" for the past):
•
Do you want to go to the movies?
Also used to express imminent actions is the construction "to be about to do something," also
•
Does she work at IBM?
conjugated in the present.
•
Don't you travel quite a bit?
•
Do they answer questions quickly?
•
Didn't they want to eat?
•
I am about to lose my temper!
•
The detective is about to stop the criminal.
In the case of a negative question, the modal phrase would be in the affirmative:
But: One never places "do" or "does" before the verb "to be" or before modal verbs in questions; in this case it is preferable to invert the subject and verb:
o
Are you coming to the reception?
o
Was the meeting boring?
o
Weren't you hungry?
•
You wouldn't want to try it, would you?
•
She won't be back, will she?
(See also: negations)
Interrogative adverbs
2. Inversion: with certain verbs (especially the verbs "to be", "to do", "to have", and modal verbs)
Simple questions solicit a "yes" or "no" answer. More precise questions may be formed by using the
questions are formed by inverting the subject and object. (In the case of the verb "to have," which is
interrogative adverbs: when, why, how, how much, where. Generally, the interrogative adverb
usually combined with "do" in interrogatives, inversion signals a literary style.)
precedes the rest of the question; then the order of the sentence follows the rules indicated for inversion or for questions formed with "do / does".
•
Is Jack home?
•
Have you nothing to declare?
•
Where are you going?
•
Would you like to go to the movies?
•
Why do you want to take this class?
•
Will they ever come to visit?
•
How much do you earn a month?
•
Can the employees talk to the boss?
•
How do these machines work? (Où vont ces étudiants ?)
•
Won't you sit down?
•
When do you expect to get home? (A quelle heure penses-tu rentrer ?)
3. Modal phrases: If a modal verb is used in a sentence, or if it is strongly implied, a modal phrase can be used to make an interrogative form. The modal phrase is typically an inversion of the subject and verb, in the negative, repeated at the end of the sentence:
•
It's time to go, isn't it?
•
He'd like to come with us, wouldn't he?
•
You would like to go with us, wouldn't you?
•
You can understand that, can't you?
See also: Questions, Interrogative pronouns.
Interrogative pronouns
direct objet (thing) : what + question
Interrogative pronouns are used to ask who has done what, to whom, why, with what, etc. Normally
•
What do you want to do this evening?
these pronouns are placed at the beginning of the sentence; hen the order of the sentence follows the
•
What are you preparing?
rules indicated for inversion or for questions formed with "do / does". object of a preposition (person) : preposition + whom + question One chooses the pronoun based on its function, according to the following table:
•
About whom are you thinking?
•
With whom did you go out?
Note: In spoken English, one often places the preposition at the end of the sentence, in which case one uses "who" instead of "whom"
o
Who are you thinking about?
o
Who did you go out with?
object of a preposition (thing) : preposition + what + question
subject (person) : who + question
•
Who did this painting?
•
Who wants to get an ice cream?
•
With what did you open it?
•
In what way does that concern you?
Note: In spoken English, the preposition is often put at the end of the sentence:
subject (thing) : what + question
•
What interests you?
•
What is good in this restaurant?
•
What did you open it with?
•
What did did they base their opinion on?
Which, which one, which ones.
The adjective "which" and its pronominal forms ("which", "which one", "which ones") ask that a direct object (person) : whom + question person make a choice. Usually these pronouns will be placed at the beginning of the sentence;
•
Whom did you see in France?
•
Whom are you going to meet at this reception?
Normalement, ces pronoms se trouveront au début de la phrase ; then the order of the sentence follows the rules indicated for inversion or for questions formed with "do / does".
•
Which film do you want to see?
A falling intonation on a tag question means you feel certain about what you are saying. A rising
•
Which date did you choose?
intonation means you are not sure and need confirmation.
•
Here are two pizzas. Which one do you prefer?
•
There are many different Burgundy wines. Which ones do you like?
If the first part of the sentence is affirmative, the tag question is generally negative. If the first part of the sentence is negative, the tag question is generally affirmative.
You are French, aren’t you? You aren’t French, are you? Carly can swim, can’t she? Carly can’t swim,
Question tag phrases ("isn't it," "wasn't it," etc.)
can she?
Modals can be used in a negative interrogative form after an affirmative expression. The function of
Tag questions with do
such an expression is to prompt the listener to reassert or reaffirm what has been stated: When there is no verb be or modal verb other than do in the statement, we use do in the tag question.
•
You would like to go with us, wouldn't you?
•
You can understand that, can't you?
You like your work, don’t you? He did his homework, didn’t he?
The modal verb used in the interrogative tag is generally the same as the modal found in the main
We did lock the door, didn’t we?
clause; the subject pronoun is also repeated.
You don’t eat much, do you?
After a negative sentence, the modal tag phrase is in the affirmative:
•
You wouldn't want to try it, would you? (Je suppose que tu ne voudrais pas l'essayer.)
•
She won't be back, will she?
Tag questions We often use tag questions in spoken English to check information and to ask for confirmation. We form tag questions with auxiliary or modal verbs or the main verb be, followed by a pronoun.
You’re Tom Cruise, aren’t you? She speaks Russian, doesn’t she? That’s not Julia Roberts, is it? This doesn’t cost much, does it?
Negation •
"Not"
•
Negative questions
•
Negative constructions ("never", "no one", "nothing", etc.)
o
has not --> hasn't
o
will not --> won't
Questions
The same structure (placing "not" after the verb) will hold for questions:
"Not"
•
Isn't it time to leave?
•
Wouldn't you care for a drink?
The most common way to put a phrase in the negative is by using "not." Generally, "not" must follow an auxiliary verb ("to be", "to do") or a modal ("shall", "must", "might", "will", etc.), even if this verb adds no meaning to the sentence. When no other modal is present or appropriate, the verb "to do" is used.
Here are some sample phrases in both affirmative and negative form: Note: If one chooses not contract "not" to "--n't", the adverb "not" will be placed after the
•
subject in the question. This style is considered literary:
I want to play the piano. --> I do not want to play the piano.
•
o
Is it not time to leave.
o
Would you not care for a drink?
He will arrive on time. --> He will not arrive on time.
•
They should go out together.
Using "not" instead of the contraction can produce certain stylistic effects:
--> They should not go out together. To stress the negative meaning of the sentence: Note: Most often, the adverb "not" will be contracted to "--n't" after an auxiliary or modal verb:
o
is not --> isn't
o
should not --> shouldn't
o
does not --> doesn't
o
must not --> mustn't
•
"He will not come to your house" is stronger than "He won't come to your house"
To affect a literary style, especially in the formation of a questions:
•
Will you not come by and see us?
Negative constructions
Not a single / not... a single
Other negative constructions are possible. Because English does not allow double or triple negatives,
•
Not a single letter arrived today.
it is important to avoid using "not" with other negative constructions. When "not" is included, use the
•
He doesn't have a single idea what we're doing.
affirmative forms of other adverbs: Neither... nor... No more / not... any more
•
I want no more of your money
•
I don't want any more of your money.
•
We neither ate nor drank during the ceremony.
•
I like neither tomatoes nor zucchini.
Only (always placed before the element one whichs to limit): No one / not... anyone
•
She only has seven dollars.
•
No one called tonight.
•
We were only playing.
•
I don't want to see anyone tonight.
•
They were the only ones to come.
Never / not... ever
•
She never wants to see him again.
•
She doesn't ever want to see him again.
Nothing / not... anything
•
He does nothing at all.
•
Can't you do anything right?
Nowhere / not... anywhere
•
Where are you going? -- Nowhere.
•
I don't want to go anywhere.
The preterit
Usage
As a general rule, the preterit is formed by adding the ending "--ed" to the infinitive (dropping any
The preterit expresses actions which were completed in the past. Unlike those described by the
unpronounced "e" in final position, and changing any final "y" to "i"):
present perfect, these actions do not continue in the present. Unlike the past progressive, the preterit does not describe the process or duration of actions: it states them only as completed actions:
•
to walk --> walked
•
to answer --> answered
•
She went to the store this afternoon.
•
to want --> wanted
•
They called the police.
•
to smile --> smiled
•
He came, he saw, he conquered.
•
to cry --> cried The duration of the action is of no importance: the preterit may describe an action lasting an instant or
The preterit forms of many common verbs are irregular:
many years. Thus verbs indicating belief, emotion, possession, location, etc. will often be expressed in the preterit:
•
to be --> was (singular), were (plural)
•
to have --> had
•
I lived in London for three years.
•
to do --> did
•
She owned three dogs throughout her childhood.
•
to make --> made
•
I never trusted what they told me.
•
to eat --> ate
•
to go --> went
•
to drink --> drank
•
to think --> thought
•
to bring --> brought
•
to drive --> drove
•
to write --> wrote
•
to sing --> sang
•
to build --> built
(For a complete list of this irregular forms, see Irregular preterits and past participles).
In the negative and interrogative, the auxiliary verb "to do" -- conjugated in the preterit -- will be used with the infinitive to express the past:
•
Did you arrive in time?
•
Didn't you eat yet?
•
We didn't go to the movies after all.
Related topics
•
The past progressive
•
Habitual actions in the past
Habitual actions in the past
Past progressive
To describe habitual, repeated actions in the past, one generally uses the construction "used to +
The past progressive is a past tense which emphasizes the ongoing nature of the action described. It
verb." Thus:
is formed by using the auxiliary "to be" with the present participle:
•
When I was little, we used to go camping a lot.
•
I was working.
•
When my father was in school, they used to slap children who didn't behave.
•
He was eating his dinner when the phone rang.
•
I used to work days, but now I work the night shift.
•
The cat was meowing last night while we tried to sleep.
In spoken English, one often uses the common construction with the modal "would," followed by the
Normally, if an idea could be expressed with the expression "was in the process of doing" or with "was
main verb:
in the midst of doing," the past progressive will be more appropriate than the simple past. Consequently, verbs indicating belief, emotion, possession, etc., are rarely conjugated in the past
•
When we were kids, we would haze each other quite a bit.
•
When I was little, we would go camping a lot.
•
When my father was in school, they would slap children who didn't behave.
progressive:
•
I thought that was right. ["I was in the process of thinking..." would be awkward.]
•
Cheryl owned her own house. ["Cheryl was in the midst of owning..." would be awkward.]
See also: Note: Do not use the past progressive in order to describe habitual actions in the past.
•
The preterit
•
The past progressive
Present perfect
•
The film has just come out [or: The film just came out].
•
General principles
Note: do not confuse this use of "just" (which indicates the recent past) with "just about," which
•
Recent past
indicates, to the contrary, something which will happen in the near future:
General principles
•
I have just about finished. (= I have almost finished; I will finish soon.)
The present perfect describes an action or emotion which began in the past and which continues in the present. It is formed by using the auxilary "to have" with the past participle:
Pluperfect •
I have always wanted to visit Israel.
•
Money has always been the problem and not the solution.
•
I have discovered the answer.
The pluperfect is formed with the preterit of the auxiliary "to have," followed by the past participle of the principle verb:
After such expressions as "since," "for," "how long," etc., one generally uses the present perfect or
•
He had always wanted to travel in Africa.
even the present perfect progressive:
•
She had already left when Philippe arrived.
•
I bought the book that Corinne had recommended to me.
•
I have been in Paris for three weeks
•
He has been telling that story for years!
•
How long have you lived in Quebec?
Usage
The pluperfect expresses the precedence of one action compared to another. The earlier action will be
In the negative, the present perfect expresses and action which has not yet occurred:
described by the pluperfect; the later will generally be described by the preterit. When one action precedes another, the pluperfect is not absolutely necessary. Witness this sentence, which provides a
•
I haven't finished yet.
•
She said she would call, but she hasn't called.
list of actions in chronological order (all expressed by the preterit):
•
The alarm rang, I got up, and I ate breakfast.
Recent past It is usually only when one seeks to emphasize the precedence of one action that the pluperfect will be In conjunction with the word "just", the present perfect or the preterit can be used to express the
used. Often one finds such adverbs as "already," which reinforces the impression of precedence.
recent past:
•
I (have) just arrived.
•
She learned to love the dog that had bitten her the week before.
•
When I got home, I had already heard the bad news.
•
The children ate all the cookies that their father had bought.
In certain phrases one action may be left implicit:
Future perfect Relatively rare in English, the future perfect serves to express one future action which precedes a future moment or another future action. Moreover, it asserts that these actions will be completed
•
She had already thought of that.
before the principal action. It is formed by adding the modal "will" to the auxiliary "have," preceding the past participle:
The pluperfect is often used in in hypothetical expressions with "if," in conjunction with the past conditional:
•
I would not have come if I had known he was ill.
Withe the adverb "just" the pluperfect indicates the immediate past in a past context:
•
He had just eaten lunch when I arrived.
•
She will have finished before eight o'clock.
•
Tomorrow morning they will all have left.
•
They will already have finished eating by the time we get there.
One can often use the simple future instead of the future perfect, but a nuance is lost: the simple future does not emphasize the completion of the first action:
•
Tomorrow morning they will all leave. (The future perfect would emphasize that they will already have departed before tomorrow morning.)
Present perfect progressive
•
They will finish eating by the time we get there. (They may finish just as we arrive; the future perfect would emphasize that they will have finished before we arrive.)
A close relative of the present perfect, the present perfect progressive, emphasizes the continuation of a single action: it indicates that the action is ongoing or continuing at the moment one is speaking. The
Future progressive
form -- relatively complicated -- consists of the past auxiliary "to have" + "been" (the past participle of "to be") + the present participle of the principal verb. For example:
The future progressive serves to express an action which will be in the process of occurring. It is formed by putting the present progressive into the future: will be + present participle.
•
I have been trying to reach you all afternoon.
•
They have been working hard to finish their project.
•
I will be waiting for you at six o'clock.
•
He will be eating by the time you arrive.
Hint for usage: How to choose between the future progressive and the simple future? If it is possible to use the expression "will be in the process of," it is the future progressive that best expresses the action. The future progressive indicates that an action will be continuing at a given moment; the simple
future suggests that the action will be complete. Thus the verb tense can nuance meaning. Consider
Modal verbs
these sentences, both of which are grammatically correct:
• •
•
General principles
I will be finishing my homework at 10:00. (This suggests that I may finish my homework at
•
Contractions
10:05 or 10:15; I will be nearing completion, in the process of completion.)
•
Question tag phrases: "isn't it," "wasn't it," etc.
I will finish my homework at 10:00. (This suggests that I will finish at 10:00 sharp.)
•
Related topics
Passive voice Events may be related in the active or the passive voice. In the passive, the person or thing receiving
General principles
the action becomes the grammatical subject. The auxiliary modals "would," may," "might," "should," "must," "ought to," "can," "could," "will," For example (the entity receiving the action is in boldface):
"shall" are invariable. They exist only in the present, and unlike most verbs in the simple present, their form does not change in the third person singular.
•
active voice: Eric Rohmer made this film.
•
passive voice: This film was made by Eric Rohmer.
Modal verbs are auxiliaries, or "helping" verbs: they are used in conjunction with another verb (in infinitive form) as a way to modify its meaning. Modals can nuance the meaning of the principal verb in
One forms the passive by conjugating the verb "to be" before the past participle of the principal verb.
a number of ways:
the tense of the verb "to be" will determine the tense of action. When an agent of the action (that is, the person or entity performing the action) must be described, one does so by using the preposition
-- Possibility or ability, by "can" or "could"
"by":
•
This industry will soon be developed in the third world.
•
Sorry, but this car has been purchased by another customer.
•
I can do this job.
•
Could you please do the dishes?
-- Possibility or permission by "may" or "might" (often translated in other languages by a different English uses the passive voice frequently, although it is best to avoid it when possible. An option is to
mood, such as the subjonctif).
use an impersonal subject, such as "one" or "someone"
•
I may finish my paper tonight.
•
(passive voice): This job needs to be done.
•
You may come with us, if you wish.
•
(active voice): Someone needs to do this job.
•
It might be helpful to have a map.
-- Obligation, or moral obligation, by "must," "ought to," or "should":
•
Students must hand in their work on time.
•
They'll (they will) never believe it!
•
You ought to see a doctor.
•
She won't (will not) bother you anymore.
•
You should never play with fire.
Conditional Note that "must" can also indicate probability: The conditional is formed using the modal "would" in front of an infinitive (dropping the word "to"). The
•
You must be exhausted!
•
He must play tennis pretty well.
conditional is used especially in three contexts:
1) Politeness The modal verb "would" is used to express the conditional:
•
If he had time, he would pick up some groceries.
The modal verb "will" expresses the future:
•
The train will arrive in an hour.
•
I would like the menu, please.
•
Would you have a couple of minutes for me?
2) To indicate the "future within the past":
•
She said she would come to the party.
•
I thought he would arrive before me.
Contractions 3) In hypothetical constructions with "if." When "if" is followed by the preterit or the subjunctive, the After a pronoun subject, "would" is often contracted into "--'d" ("I'd", "we'd", "she'd", etc.), while "will"
conditional is expected in the second clause:
is contracted into "--'ll" ("I'll", "you'll", "they'll", etc.). After all modal verbs, the word"not" of the negative can be contracted into "--n't" ("wouldn't", "shouldn't", etc.).
•
If I had the time, I would do my homework.
•
If you told me the truth, I would believe you.
Exceptions : "will not" becomes "won't". "Can not" can also be written "cannot"; in its contracted form, the "n" is not doubled: "can't".
Note: The contraction of the modal verbs "shall," "ought," and "may," is considered slightly archaic or
The "if" of hypothetical expressions can be implicit:
•
In your position (= if I were you), I wouldn't have stayed.
literary. See related topics: examples of contractions:
•
I wouldn't (would not) do that, if I were you!
•
Past conditional
•
Modal verbs
Past conditional
Conditionals
The past conditional is expressed using the modal "would" before a past infinitive (= "have" + past
There are four common conditional forms. The zero and first conditionals are also called ‘real’
participle). This construction serves to express missed opportunities and past hypotheses:
conditionals. The second and third conditionals are also called ‘unreal’ conditionals.
•
She told me that she would have liked to come and see us.
Zero Conditional
•
In your position, I would have done the same thing.
The zero conditional is an if/then statement that is used to express a scientific fact or something that is generally true.
One finds it often in hypothetical constructions with "if." When "if" is followed by the pluperfect, the conditional past is expected in the second clause:
Form: If + subject +present simple verb, subject + present simple verb. Or
•
If I had had the time, I would have done my homework.
•
If you had told me the truth, I would have believed you.
•
If he had worked harder, he'd have received a better grade.
Subject + present simple verb + if + subject + present simple verb.
Examples: If you put sugar in your tea, it becomes sweet.
Note: In certain regions (principally in the United States) one hears the conditional past in both
The trip takes 35 minutes if you take the express train.
clauses of hypothetical expressions: First Conditional
•
If you would have told me he was going to win, I wouldn't have believed you.
The first conditional is an if/then statement that expresses the consequence of a probable or possible situation in the future.
See related topics: Form: If + subject + present simple verb, subject + will + verb
•
Conditional
•
Modal verbs
Or Subject + will + verb + if + subject + present simple verb
Examples: If you call before 11 p.m., I will pick you up from the station. I’ll burst if I eat any more food!
Second Conditional
Objects
The second conditional is an if/then statement that expresses the consequence of a hypothetical, imaginary, impossible, or improbable situation in the future.
Direct Object: A direct object will most often be a noun (thing or idea) that receives the action of the transitive (action) verb. I threw the ball.
Form: If + subject + simple past verb, subject + would + verb Or
Indirect Object: An indirect object will most often be the person or persons expressed as the recipient
Subject + would+ verb + if + subject + simple past verb
of the direct object and will be found immediately after the transitive verb and before the direct object. I threw him the ball.
Examples: If I had a million dollars, I would buy a mansion in Florida.
Phrase: A phrase adds to the meaning of a sentence but does not contain a subject or a verb.
I would wear a coat if I were you. (It’s really cold outside.)
The yellow house is at the bottom of the driveway.
Third Conditional
Clause: A clause will contain a subject and a verb and function as either a dependent or an
The third conditional is an if/then statement that expresses what would have happened if events in the
independent clause.
past were different. It is often used to express regret about actions in the past the speaker would like
See Dependent Clause
to change. Adjective Clause: An adjective clause will begin with a relative pronoun and give us more information Form: If + subject + past perfect, subject + would + have + past participle
about a noun or pronoun within a sentence. See Dependent Clause.
Or Subject + would + have + past participle + if + subject +past perfect
Adverb Clause: An adverb clause will begin with a subordinating conjunction and offer readers more information about the verb (usually giving us information about time, place, or why something
Examples:
happened). See Dependent Clause.
If I had known about the divorce, I wouldn’t have asked him about his wife. (I didn’t know about the divorce and I asked him about this wife. I regret that I asked him and would change the past if possible.) Sally would have bought a new car if she had received a raise at her job. (Sally didn’t buy the new car but would have under different circumstances in the past.)
Noun Clause: A noun clause also begins with a relative pronoun but functions differently from an adjective clause. The noun clause operates in the subject position of a sentence, in the object position of a sentence, or in the subject complement position of a sentence. That I studied the assignment was evident to the teacher. (Noun Clause as Subject) I forgot that I needed my passport. (Noun Clause as Direct Object) Pedro was looking for whatever he needed for the baseball game. (Noun Clause as Object of the Preposition)
Prepositional Phrase: A prepositional phrase always begins with a preposition and ends with a noun
Single preposition verbs
(the object of the preposition). In some cases, the object of the preposition will be a noun clause. The prepositional phrase functions either as an adjective, telling us more about a noun or pronoun, or an
A great number of verbs in English can be modified by the addition of a preposition. Often the
adverb, providing us more information about the verb. (May be as short as two words or as many as
preposition will nuance, or even dramatically change, the meaning of the base verb. The meanings are
several words)
often idiomatic, and the meaning expressed by any given preposition may be very different from one verb to another.
The student in the purple dress walked down the hallway. (Adjective and Adverb Prepositional Phrases, respectively)
It would be impossible to list all such verbs here (but you will find them in the dictionary itself). These examples will suffice to provide an illustration of the principle:
Participial Phrase: A participial phrase joins together a participle and its corresponding words, functioning, always, as an adjective. The participle may be present (ending in -ing) or past (ending in
•
to speak -- to say words
-ed or its irregular form).
•
to speak up -- to speak loudly
The school, aged and bent from years of harsh weather, fell from its state of grace. (Past Participial
•
to speak down (to someone) -- to be condescending toward someone
Phrase)
•
to speak for (someone) -- to speak in someone's place
•
to put -- to set down
•
to put up -- to place up high
•
to put up -- to put in jars or cans
•
to put away -- to put something back where it belongs
•
to put down -- to release one's grasp of something
•
to put out -- to place outside, or to take outside
•
to put on -- to wear
•
to turn -- to twist
•
to turn on -- to make something function (a light, a motor)
•
to turn off -- to remove the power to (a light, a motor)
•
to turn around -- to turn to face the opposite direction
Swimming in a sea of grammar, the students splashed each other with verbs and nouns. (Present Participial Phrase) The singing bird trilled high notes in the early morning. (Participle)
Prepositional Verbs
•
Single preposition verbs
o •
Mulitple preposition verbs
o •
Sentence structure
Sentence structure
Related topics
•
to turn up -- to augment the sound, the light
•
to turn down -- to diminish the sound, the light
•
to turn out -- to become
•
Prepositions
•
to turn red, white, etc. -- to change colors
•
Verbs with prepositions
Related topics
Sentence structure
Sentence Types
When the sentence includes a noun object, the object will follow the preposition; if the object is
Simple Sentence: A sentence that contains one and only one independent clauses and no dependent
replaced by a pronoun, the pronoun precedes the preposition:
clauses. The young boy smiled at the big dog.
•
He turned on the television.
•
He turned it on.
Compound Sentence: A sentence that contains at least two independent clauses and no dependent clauses. Essential to the compound sentence is its punctuation, as it must contain either a comma and
•
She put away her books.
a coordinating conjunction (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So) or a semi-colon that conjoins the two
•
She put them away.
independent clauses. Joseph taught the students about delivering speeches, and Sarah taught them composition skills.
Multiple preposition verbs Complex Sentence: A sentence that contains one and only one independent clause and at least one There are many prepositional verbs that take two prepositions:
dependent clause. Because the weather forecaster announced the threat of an impending hurricane, the students
•
to put up with (something, someone) -- to tolerate someone
•
to go out with -- to accompany someone
•
to go off on (a digression, an adventure) -- to begin, to start
Compound-Complex Sentence: A sentence that contains at least two independent clauses and at
•
to run away from -- to flee
least one dependent clause. Because the weather forecaster announced the threat of an impending
canceled their luxurious boat cruise to the Azores.
hurricane, the students canceled their luxurious boat cruise to the Azores, but the cruise line would not Sentence structure
When the verb is followed by two prepositions, the object follows the two prepositions, whether the object is a noun or a pronoun:
•
How can you put up with him?
•
Bill should not go out with Monica.
refund the students’ money.
Independent/dependent clauses Independent Clause: Typically thought of as a sentence, offering its readers a complete thought and containing a subject, verb, and its complement (Prepositional Phrase, Direct Object, Adjectival, or Adverbial). The grammar book was thick.
Dependent Clause: A clause that cannot stand alone and does not offer its reader a complete thought.
Both of these sentences have the same subject (Troy).
A dependent clause will typically be an Adjective, Adverb, or Noun clause.
Starring Brad Pitt and Orlando Bloom, Troy is a very exciting film.
When the frost is on the pumpkin, farmers often know that the harvest season is almost over. (Adverb Clause and Noun Clause, respectively)
Another example:
The book that was on the table was thick. (Adjective Clause)
Johnny Depp appeared in Pirates of the Caribbean, Chocolat, and many other films. He's one of the most talented actors of his generation.
Defining and Non-Defining Relative Clauses
Appearing in Pirates of the Caribbean, Chocolat, and many other films, Johnny Depp is one of the most talented actors of his generation.
A relative clause gives us information about the noun it modifies. A defining relative clause gives essential information about the noun it modifies. The sentence would not make sense if the clause
Participle clauses use a past participle if the main verb is passive.
were removed. Defining relative clauses often come right after the nouns that they modify, without a
Troy was filmed in North Africa.
comma.
It stars Brad Pitt and Orlando Bloom. Filmed in North Africa, Troy stars Brad Pitt and Orlando Bloom.
People who eat healthy foods live longer. What’s the name of the hotel that you stayed at?
A non-defining relative clause gives us additional but non-essential information about the noun it
Relative Clauses
modifies. The sentence would still make sense if the non-defining clause were removed. In writing, non-defining relative clauses are usually separated from the rest of the sentence by commas before
Relative clauses give you information about something or someone. We start relative clauses with
and after the clause.
which if we are referring to a thing or an idea, and with who if we are referring to a person.
Isabel Allende, who wrote Daughter of Fortune, lives in the San Francisco Bay Area.
A diary is a book which you write in every day.
Watership Down, which is my favorite novel, is a story about rabbits.
He’s the person who lives next door.
Participle Clauses
In these examples, both which and who can be replaced by that.
Participle clauses use a present participle (-ing) to join together sentences, whether in the present or
We can also form relative clauses with where and when. We start clauses with when if we are referring
the past, that have the same subject.
to a time, and with where if we are referring to a place. July is a month when many people go on vacation.
Troy stars Brad Pitt and Orlando Bloom. It is a very exciting film.
A registry office is a place where a couple can get married.
We use whose in place of his, her or their in relative clauses.
Say/tell
The best man is the person whose job it is to help the groom. They are the people whose car was stolen.
The verbs say and tell are used in both direct and indirect speech. We use say to refer to any kind of speech. It can be used interchangeably with tell in indirect speech, but not in direct speech. We use
If who, which, or that is the subject of the relative clause, it must remain in the sentence. If it is the
tell to refer to situations where instructions or information are given.
object, it can be omitted. Whose is always followed by a noun and cannot be omitted from its clause. She’s the friend who likes to go to the theater with me.
Mary said that the restaurant was closed.
She’s the friend (who) I like to go to the theater with.
Mary told us that the restaurant was closed. Caleb said “Good morning.”
Phrasal Verbs
It is incorrect to use tell in this sentence.
Phrasal verbs are made up of two parts, a verb plus a particle. A particle is a preposition that has become linked to a verb. Together the verb and particle have a fixed meaning. Phrasal verbs can take objects or not. Phrasal verbs that take objects can be inseparable or separable. Don't forget: phrasal verbs have tenses too! Inseparable phrasal verbs always remain together. Examples: The brothers set off to seek their fortunes. The girls get up early every morning. The burglar almost got away. Alice is looking after her baby sister.
In separable phrasal verbs, the object can often go between the verb and its particle: He took off his jacket
or
He took his jacket off
But if the object has been replaced by a pronoun, the pronoun must go between the verb and particle: He took it off
If the object is particularly long, don't use it to separate the verb and particle: He took off the jacket he'd bought last week at Harrods.
Direct and indirect discourse
D. When a quotation is put in indirect discourse, care must be taken to verify that verb tenses reflect the change in temporal context:
When one reports what others have said word for word, this is called "direct discourse." It is generally signaled by the presence of quoation marks:
direct discourse: She said, "I will be on time." indirect discourse: She said she would be on time.
•
Philippe said, "I'll come if I have the time."
•
My roommate said, "Clean the place up, or get out of here!"
direct discourse: When he called he said, "I am at the airport" indirect discourse: When he called he said he was at the airport.
When one paraphrases the words of others, writing them so as to avoid direct quotation, this is called "indirect discourse." Indirect discourse entails certain changes:
A. Quotation marks are not used:
Indirect Speech
direct discourse: He told me, "You're stupid"
Direct and Indirect Speech
indirect discourse: He told me that I was stupid. Direct speech can also be called "quoted" speech. We use direct speech when we want to reproduce B. When the verb in the reported discourse is conjugated, is it generally preceded by "that"; however,
someone's words exactly. We always use quotation marks.
the inclusion of "that" is optional Elizabeth said, "I'm tired.” Jessie said, "I want a new job."
•
She said that she would be late.
•
OR: She said she would be late.
•
They informed us that the plane was delayed.
•
OR: They informed us the plane was delayed.
Indirect speech can also be called "reported" speech. We use indirect speech when we want to reproduce the idea of someone's words without using their exact words. The verb forms and pronouns may change, and quotation marks are not used.
C. Imperative forms, when recounted in indirect discourse, generally become infinitive constructions:
Elizabeth said that she was tired. Jessie said that she wanted a new job.
direct discourse: He told me, "Write to me."
Notice that the verbs in the examples changed to the past in the indirect speech statements to
indirect discourse: He told me to write him.
coordinate with the past tense verb "said". Look at these verb changes:
direct discourse: I told them, "Get out of here!"
Sam says, "I drive to work."
indirect discourse: I told them to get out of here.
Sam says that he drives to work. Sam said, <I drive to work.>
Sam said (that) he drove to work. Sam said, <I am driving to work.> Sam said (that) he was driving to work. Sam said, <I have driven to work.> Sam said (that) he had driven to work.
Reporting questions without question words We use if or whether to report a yes-no question that doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t use a question word. <Do you want an ATM card?> arrow She asked me if I wanted an ATM card. <Is life expensive in Brazil?> arrow He asked me whether life was expensive in Brazil. <Can I open an account?> arrow She asked whether she could open an account.
Sam said, <I drove to work.> Sam said (that) he had driven to work. Sam said, <I will drive to work.> Sam said (that) he would drive to work. Sam said, <I can drive to work.> Sam said (that) he could drive to work. Sam said, <I may drive to work.> Sam said (that) he might drive to work.
Reporting questions in indirect speech Reporting questions using the question words what, where, when, why, how, etc. When we want to report a question that starts with a question word, we include the question word in the reported speech.
<Whatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s the time?> arrow He asked me what the time was. <Where do you live?> arrow He asked me where I lived.
When we report a question, we do not put the verb in the interrogative form. They asked me where I lived. Not They asked me where did I live.
Remember! You need to coordinate the tense of the verb in the reported question with the verb that introduces the reported question.
ANNEX El Verbo 'To Be'
I am a student. Laura is a lawyer. We are friends.
En esta lección aprenderemos cuándo utilizar el verbo to be. Cuando queremos expresar condiciones y características físicas, como por ejemplo edad, peso, talla,
sujeto + to be + preposición
color, y ocupación, entre otras, utilizamos el verbo to be. Es uno de los verbos más comunes en el idioma inglés, así que lo verás utilizado muchas veces, de varias formas.
I am at the table. It is on the sofa.
Utilizamos diferentes formas de to be con diferentes sujetos de oración.
They are in the bedroom.
Cuando el sujeto es I usa am:
Contracciones son formas cortas de sujeto y verbo combinadas en una sola palabra.
I am a teacher. I am a student. = I'm a student. Cuando el sujeto es he, she, it, usa is: My hair is brown.
He is married. = He's married.
She is tall. They are hungry. = They're hungry. Cuando el sujeto es you, we, o they, usa are: We are parents. They are beautiful. Cuando el verbo to be es el principal en una oración, puede ser seguido por un adjetivo, un nombre, o una preposición. sujeto + to be + adjetivo I am hungry. You are beautiful. Sarah and Collin are sad.
sujeto + to be + nombre
My name is Sarah. = My name's Sarah.
Presente Simple Forma Completa del Verbo 'To Be'
Contracción En esta lección aprenderemos cuándo utilizar el tiempo presente simple.
I am
I'm
you are
you're
he is, she is, it is
he's, she's, it's
El tiempo presente simple se usa en las siguientes situaciones:
1. Long-lasting situations (Situaciones de larga duración)
Meghan lives in Seattle.
Ella vivió allí en el pasado y seguirá viviendo allí en el futuro. Esta situación es de larga duración y we are
we're
you are
you're
posiblemente permanente, por eso utilizamos el presente simple.
Más ejemplos:
She often plays tennis on Mondays. they are
they're
She cooks dinner once a week.
2. Facts (Hechos)
Megan speaks three languages.
Hechos generales y verdades sin tiempo también se expresan en presente simple. Es un hecho que Meghan habla tres idiomas, y esto no cambiará prontamente.
Más ejemplos:
She is an American. She has two sisters.
3. Habits (Hábitos)
5. Feelings (Sentimientos)
She usually goes shopping on the weekend.
Meghan loves strawberries.
Ir de compras durante los fines de semana es un hábito regular para Meghan. Usamos el presente
Sentimientos como el amor y el odio también son expresados en el tiempo presente simple.
simple para hablar acerca de hábitos y lo que hacemos en la vida diaria. Más ejemplos: Utilizamos palabras como usually, often, sometimes, in the evening, in the morning para mostrar que la acción es habitual.
She hates onions. She feels sad when it rains.
Más ejemplos: 6. Schedules (planes) She is an American. She has two sisters.
Her yoga class begins at 6 p.m.
4. Opinions (Opiniones)
Detalles acerca de agendas y calendarios también son expresados en el tiempo presente simple. En este caso, la clase de Meghan está planeada para comenzar a las 6 p.m.
She thinks riding a bike is fun. Más ejemplos: Frecuentemente expresamos opiniones y estados de ánimo en presente simple. En vista de que el ciclismo es su deporte favorito, la opinión de Meghan es que montar en bicicleta es divertido.
Classes at Seattle University begin on September 1. The flight to Madrid leaves at 5 p.m.
Más ejemplos:
She considers it good exercise. I agree with Meghan.
Grados de Comparación Situación
Ejemplo
En esta lección aprenderemos cuándo usar las formas comparativa y superlativa de los adjetivos. Long-lasting situations
My address is 123 Main St. Cuando queremos evaluar o hacer un paralelo entre las cualidades o características de dos cosas
Facts
The sky is blue.
Habits
I rarely eat breakfast.
Opinions
He thinks it's beautiful.
entre sí en inglés, usamos la forma comparativa.
Los gatos son pequeños pero los leones son muy grandes: Cats are smaller than lions.
Los osos son muy peligrosos, pero los perros no: Bears are more dangerous than dogs.
Feelings
I love dogs. Los delfines son muy inteligentes pero los sapos no: Dolphins are smarter than frogs.
Schedules
My plane leaves at 2:30 p.m. Fíjate en que la palabra more o la terminación -er son usadas frecuentemente para formar el adjetivo.
Para comparar tres o más personas o cosas, usamos la forma superlativa del adjetivo, no la comparativa.
Comparativo: Dr. Louis is taller than Dr. Lam. Superlativo: Dr. Louis is the tallest doctor.
Comparativo: Dr. Lam is more skillful than Dr. Hall.
Superlativo: Dr. Lam is the most skillful doctor. Formando el Pasado Simple Nota que para formar el superlativo normalmente se usa la palabra most o la terminación –est. En esta lección aprenderemos reglas para formar el tiempo Pasado Simple.
Formamos el tiempo pasado simple usando el tiempo pasado del verbo.
El tiempo pasado se forma de otra manera, dependiendo de si el verbo es regular o Uso
Forma
Ejemplo
comparación de dos
usar "more" o terminar en
Cheetahs are faster than
Los verbos regulares siempre siguen los mismos patrones de conjugación. En el tiempo
personas o cosas
"er"
snails.
pasado adoptan la terminación 'ed'.
comparación de tres o
usar "most" o terminar en
Dr. Louis is the tallest
más personas o cosas
"est"
doctor.
irregular.
Los verbos irregulares no siguen patrón alguno y pueden tener varias terminaciones diferentes. Por ejemplo, teach - taught, swim - swam.
Primero demos una mirada a los verbos regulares.
1. Si el verbo termina en 'e'...
por ejemplo dance, smile, like, practice
...entonces agregamos 'd' para formar el tiempo pasado.
Por ejemplo, danced, smiled, liked, smoked, practiced
2. Si el verbo termina en una consonante + 'y'... Ten cuidado cuando la palabra termina en 'y': si la 'y' es precedida por una vocal (por por ejemplo, cry, marry, study, rely
ejemplo, play, stay, annoy, delay) entonces no reemplazamos la 'y' con 'i'. (Por ejemplo, play - played, stay - stayed, annoy - annoyed, delay - delayed).
...entonces quitamos la 'y' y agregamos 'ied' para formar el tiempo pasado. Los verbos irregulares no siguen patrón alguno, y desafortunadamente la única forma Por ejemplo, cried, married, studied
de aprenderlos es memorizarlos.
3. Si el verbo termina en una vocal + una consonante...
por ejemplo stop, rub, hop, hug, drag
...entonces doblamos la consonante y agregamos 'ed' para formar el tiempo pasado.
Verbos Regulares
Regla
Ejemplo
terminados en 'e'
agregar 'd'
store - stored
terminados en
retirar 'y' y agregar 'ied'
try - tried
terminados en 1 vocal +
doblar la consonante y
stop - stopped
1 consonante
agregar 'ed'
con otras terminaciones
agregar 'ed'
Por ejemplo stopped, rubbed, banned consonante + 'y' Ten en cuenta que no doblamos la consonante si el verbo termina en 'x'.
Por ejemplo fix -> fixed, mix -> mixed
4. En todos los otros casos agregamos 'ed' al verbo para formar el tiempo pasado.
Por ejemplo, want –wanted laugh – laughed train – trained stay – stayed
walk - walked
Artículos Definidos e Indefinidos
'A', 'an' y 'the' son artículos: palabras pequeñas que preceden y modifican a los nombres. Son muy comunes en inglés, y es importante saber utilizarlas correctamente.
En esta lección, aprenderemos acerca de los artículos definidos e indefinidos, y cómo usarlos.
Hemos aprendido cómo decidir si debemos usar 'a' o 'an', pero ¿cómo saber si debes usar un artículo definido (the) o un artículo indefinido (a/an)?
Los artículos indefinidos se usan en los siguientes casos:
para identificar cargo o función, por ejemplo, It's an ashtray. He is a manager.
'A' y 'an' son llamados artículos indefinidos. Se usan antes de los nombres
para dar un ejemplo general, por ejemplo, A cat has a long tail.
singulares contables.
para referirse a una persona/cosa en particular por primera vez, por ejemplo, I saw a man in the street. He was buying a newspaper.
Por ejemplo, He is a teacher. She is a sales manager
describiendo algo, por ejemplo, He has a beard and a loud voice.
'A' se usa antes de palabras que empiecen con consonantes como b, c, d, f. Por También utilizamos artículos indefinidos con: ejemplo, banana, camera, woman 'An' se usa antes de palabras iniciadas con vocales como a, e, o. Por ejemplo, apple, egg, olive
exclamaciones usando 'what' (por ejemplo what a pity, what a nice man)
expresiones usando 'quite, rather, such' (por ejemplo, quite a few people)
Ten en cuenta que esta regla aplica más al sonido de la palabra que a su escritura en sí: NO utilizamos artículos indefinidos con:
Cuando una vocal suena más como una consonante (como cuando 'u' suena como 'y', u
la forma posesiva
'o' suena como 'w'), usamos 'a', no 'an'.
nombres no contables
Por ejemplo, a union, a European, a one-sided argument
por ejemplo, a my friend (incorrecto) - my friend (correcto)
Cuando la consonante suena como una vocal, por ejemplo cuando se deletrea F, L, M,
a water (incorrecto) - water / some water
N, S, X ( ef, el, em, en, es, ex, etc.), o con la 'h' silenciosa, entonces usamos 'an', no 'a'.
Por ejemplo, an FBI agent, an X-ray, an honor
Los artículos definidos se usan con:
items específicos, por ejemplo, Yes, he's the one.
cosas que ya han sido mencionadas o insinuadas, por ejemplo, Please open the window. (tú sabes de cuál estoy hablando)
cosas que son únicas, por ejemplo, the world,the sky, the sun, the US president
en algunas generalizaciones, por ejemplo, I can't playthe piano. (No estoy hablando de un piano en particular, quiero decir que no soy capaz de sacar melodías de ningún piano.)
Uso de los Artículos Indefinidos
Uso de Artículos Definidos
para identificar empleo o función
objetos específicos
para dar un ejemplo general
cosas que ya han sido mencionadas o insinuadas
para referirse a una persona o cosa en
cosas que son únicas
particular por primera vez
describiendo algo
algunas generalizaciones
Prepositions of Place (A)
'On' is also used to show that something is attached to or in contact with something else:
Prepositions of place are small words that tell us about position and location. They
e.g. The writing is on the wall.
describe where an object is in relation to something else.
There is a stain on his shirt. The coat is hanging on the door.
In this lesson, we're going to learn how to use the prepositions 'in', 'at' and 'on' to describe
There's a fly on the ceiling.
location.
Put the mat on the floor.
In
At
The preposition 'in' is used to describe an object that is inside an enclosed space or container,
The preposition 'at' is used to describe an object that is nearby something else, or located at a
for example:
specific place.
Mother is in the kitchen.
e.g. at the bus stop
The flowers are in the vase.
at the cinema
They are swimming in the water.
at the door
The tea is in the cup.
at the station
On
It is used when we talk about buildings and places, especially when we are mainly interested in the function of a place and not the inside of the building.
The preposition 'on' is used to describe a position on top of a surface or above something. e.g. She's at the cinema. (She watching a film) e.g. on the table
on a bike on a horse on the mountain on the carpet
BUT It's too cold in the cinema. (The room is too cold)
1. The Verb 'To Be'
If there is one verb and the verb is a form of 'be', simply move the verb to the beginning of the sentence. In other words, the subject and the verb change position. In
At
On They are in the office. -> Are they in the office?
He's in the kitchen.
I'm sitting on the chair.
I saw him at the station.
She lives in Japan.
There's a rug on the floor.
He's at work.
The pen is in my pocket.
What's that mark on your
I'll meet you at the corner
shirt?
of the street.
She is sick. -> Is she sick?
We are on holiday. -> Are we on holiday?
2. Auxiliary Verbs
Yes/No Questions In English, some verbs have two or more parts and require an auxiliary verb.
In this grammar lesson we will learn how to form different types of yes/no questions. e.g. I can speak German. The basic structure of yes/no questions depends on the verb in the sentence.
He was living in Turkey last year. You have been working here since April.
As you can see, there are three different types of yes/no questions: To form a yes/no question from these statements, we change the position of the first 1.
questions with 'be'
2.
questions with auxiliary verbs
3.
questions with 'do'
auxiliary verb and the subject of the sentence.
You have been to America. -> Have you been to America? They are going to leave the office soon. -> Are they going to leave the office soon?
The easiest way to form yes/no questions is to look at the statement first.
3. Other Verbs
The last group of sentences has a one-part verb which is not a form of 'be'.
e.g. He works harder than her. They live in Paris.
To change these sentences to yes/no questions, simply add the correct form of the auxiliary verb 'do' (do, does, did) to the beginning of the sentence. Finally, remember to change the verb to the infinitive form (eg. drives = drive).
Jane drives a car. -> Does Jane drive a car? You travel often. -> Do you travel often?
Verb Type
Rule
Example
be
change the position of the
You are from China.
subject and the verb
Are you from China?
auxiliaries and modals
change the position of the
We can come tomorrow.
(e.g. can, have, be)
subject and the auxiliary
Can we come tomorrow?
other verbs (e.g. play,
add do/does/did to the
He works from home.
Talking about Grammar Parts of Speech In this lesson we will learn how to talk about grammar in English, and find out why it is important to learn grammar when studying a language.
It is very important to know how to classify words in English, and what name to give different groups of words.
Why Study Grammar? In English, we divide words into parts of speech. This shows how the words are used, not what Although grammar is not the MOST important part of learning a language, it should not be ignored. It can help you in many ways, such as:
by showing you the rules and patterns of English, you can learn more quickly
it helps you think about and talk about English
it can show you where to find information and how to ask for help
it shows you that although English has exceptions, most of it follows regular patterns
it helps you organize your learning effectively
correct grammar makes it easier for others to understand you
they are. It is important to know that the same word can belong to different parts of speech depending on the sentence.
e.g. I walk to work every day. (walk = verb) I take my dog for a walk every evening. (walk = noun)
There are eight main parts of speech in English: noun, verb, adjective, adverb , pronoun, preposition, conjunction and interjection.
We can also go further and divide each part of speech into smaller groups. How to Study Grammar For example: Learning grammar should be done in stages: Nouns can be countable (cup) or uncountable (water), singular (child) or plural (children). 1. Read examples 2. Identify patterns Verbs can have different tense (present, past, future), voice (active or passive) and aspect 3. Make rules (perfect or progressive). 4. Do practice activities Adjectives can be ordinary (good), comparative (better) or superlative (best). All these steps are important, for example don't just try to learn rules without doing practice activities. Pronouns can be personal (I, me), possessive (yours, mine), relative (which, who), demonstrative (that, those), etc.
Parts of a Sentence
If you want to talk about grammar, we need to look at more than words: we have to put words together to form phrases, clauses and sentences.
A complete sentence always has a subject and a predicate. The subject tells us who or what
Part of Speech
Function
Example
noun
name of a person, animal, place, thing,
Who is that woman?
the sentence is about. The predicate is everything in the sentence apart from the subject.
abstract idea
e.g. My sister (subject) is a doctor. (predicate)
verb
describes actions, events, or states of
She works for Microsoft.
An object may follow the verb to complete its meaning. It can be direct or indirect. being
e.g. He gave the pen (direct object) to me . (indirect object).
A complement follows verbs like be, seem, feel and become.
pronoun
replaces nouns or other pronouns
He doesn't believe her.
adjective
used to describe, identify, or quantify
I'll have a large, cold Coke.
e.g. She is a teacher. I feel tired.
nouns and pronouns
adverb
shows manner, time, place, cause, or
He works quickly and carefully.
degree
preposition
links nouns, pronouns and phrases to
The pen fell off the desk.
other words in a sentence
conjunction
links words, phrases and clauses together
He is clever but modest.
interjection
used to show emotion or get attention
Wow! Did you see that?