Mycorrhizial Rejuvenation:
What Can Design learn from Fungi?
John Hutton March 15th, 2011 Arch 507: Urban Ecologies Exercise 5: Manifesto
Abstract It is daunting to see the myriad of ecological problems mankind has created for itself within the last centaury. The history of man’s lifecycle has followed the same path as that of a malignant viruthus far: First attaching to a host (the earth), Then establishing itself (colonization) , and then consuming nutrients and growing at an exponentially increasing rate (globalization.) This lifecycle for viruses inevitably ends in depleting itself of all available of nutrients, and then dying unless it can attach itseld to another. Considering that the prospects for colonizing another planet with natural resources is “unlikely” we must strive to change our lifecycle so that it may follow a different path, one which achieves an equilibrium between man’s thirst for resources and nature’s ability to regenerate them. Mycelium could not only offer a symbolic alternative way to think about designing nutrient flows but may also hold some key solutions through its chemical and physical properties. The technology has been tested and the results are profound but the use of mycelium as a means of restoring equilibrium in an urban setting has yet to be attempted on a large scale. This paper seeks to answer the following questions: What are the potential design philosophies we can learn from mycelium? How effective are the technologies? And What could this technology look like if applied at an urban scale? Mycelium Mycelium is the largest and most resilient organism discovered on earth. The largest continuous specimen covers 2,400 acres, as a species it has survived multiple extinction events, and virtually all land based natural habitats are dependent on it in order to survive. So what exactly is mycelium and why is it important? Mycelium is a root system, in one phase of its life it fruits mushrooms. It acts as nature’s neurological network by gathering and distributing nutrients across great distances and between species thus creating a symbiotic relationship between plants and fungi in which food is shared. Mycelium plays a fundamental role in any ecosystem by recycling soil and breaking down organic compounds into simpler, more digestible forms, thereby creating nutrient rich soil to feed plants. Mycelium creates a platform from which ecosystems can achieve the closed loop cycle of nutrients that they need to sustainably survive. (1) If urban environments could adapt their systems in a way which mimicked that of mycelium, cities could act as regenerative centers for diverse ecologies rather than assimilating all of its natural surroundings into a homogenous artificial entity. Is it possible for design to achieve such high goals?
Figure 1: Shows a microscopic photograph of mycelium (2) Mycorrhiza The analogy of the mycorrhizal fungi (a specific type of mycelium) provides a particularly elegant metaphor with regards to how we should design our built environments. These types of fungi colonize in a host plant’s root structure; they do not harm the plant but rather establish a mutualistic relationship with them from which both species benefit. This relationship provides the fungi with access to carbohydrates such as glucose from the plant’s process of photosynthesis. In return for food the fungi literally transforms the plants roots and they grow more rapidly allowing them to soak up more soil nutrients. The plant benefits from the mycelium’s capacity to absorb more water and digest more mineral nutrients and of a wider variety. Additionally mycorrhizal plants are more resilient to drought, toxic soils, and disease and can even survive in nutrient poor and toxic soils with the presence of mycorrhzial fungi. (3) This plant fungi relationship is not an anomaly but is found in the vast majority of plant species. It is theorized to be an integral part of the emergence of sustainable plant (and therefore human) life on earth. An origin of Glomus-‐like fungi at the same time as the origin of the land plants (dated at 415 million year BP) is in agreement with the fossil records and provides some support for the throries that colonization of the land by plants such as Aglaophyton (Rhynia), with restricted absorbing axes, may have been dependent on their association with mycorrhizal fungi which increased their capacity for nutrient absorption from poor soils. (4)
There are two main types of mycorrhiza: endomycorrhiza and ectomycorrhiza. “They are differentiated by the fact that the hyphae of the ectomychorrhizal fungi do not penetrate individual cells within the plant root, while the hyphae of the endomycorrhial fungi penetrate the cell wall and invaginate the cell membrane.” (5)
Endomycorrhiza enter into the plant cells and form balloon like structures. This greatly increases the contact surface area between the hypha and the cell cytoplasm which increases the transfer of nutrients between them. DNA sequence analysis suggests that this species appeared 400-‐460 million years ago and are found in 85% of all plant families. These types of mycorrhizas are a-‐sexual and even contain many genetically different nuclei, suggesting that there are multiple genetic sequences within a single organism. Ectomycorrhiza are formed between the roots around 10% of plant families, mostly woody plants. The mycelia of this type of fungi form extensive networks within the soil around the plants and nutrients have been shown to move between different species of plants through this fungal network. “Carbon has been shown to move from paper birch trees into Douglas-‐fir trees thereby promoting succession in ecosystems.” (6) As a species mankind’s existence is a great deal more fragile than mycelium’s. We are dependant on clean water, clean air, clean food, and sunlight in order to survive. However many of our modern day comforts pollute the very nutrients that give way to our life. The vast majority of our man made environment is shaped to function in a linear manner in which waste and pollution are the final products. This common practice is upsetting the balanced flow of nutrients between natural and artificial environments. Our very survival depends on discovering ways to remediate the ecological damage we have done and creating the framework for a closed loop resource cycle. If the design of our natural environments functioned in the same fashion as mycorrhizal fungi then we would not only be living sustainably but man made systems would actually benefit the surrounding natural systems and vies-‐ versa. The question is how can we adapt our design of cities so that it may function more like mycorrhzea? Myco Technologies Mycelium is not just a plant species or a symbolic representation of how an ecosystem should function, it is also a force of nature. If the power of mycelium can be harnessed it could offer a multitude of low impact, naturally occurring solutions to some of the greatest ecological challenges facing man today. On land, all life springs from soil. Soil is ecological currency. If we overspend it or deplete it, the environment goes bankrupt… The early introduction of primary saprophytes, which are among the first organisms to rejuvenate the food chain after a catastrophe, can determine the course of biological communities through thoughtfully matching mycelia with compatible plants, insects, and other. The future widespread practice of customizing mycological landscapes might one day affect microclimates by increasing moisture and precipitation. We might be able to use myceliel footprints to create oasis environments that continue to expand as the mycelium creates soils, steering the course of ecological development. (7)
Mycofiltration Mycofiltration offers a solution to cleaning water without the use of aggressive artificial methods. It would be incorrect to call this an alternative
strategy because it is naturally occurring and took place before the use of chlorine and ozne and other chemical water filtration processes. Mycofiltration is the conscious use of mycelium as a membrane for filtering out microorganisms, pollutants, and silt in water. Mycelium is incredibly adept at breaking down organic compounds and toxins into simpler and less harmful forms. It can be used to clean effluents before they enter a river, help clean runoff storm water, and remediate polluted water bodies. “Mushroom Mycelium has an unquenchable appetite for organic debris. Taking advantage of this appetite, the mycological landscaper can select mushrooms that target and consume the bacteria and protozoa in a habitat.” (8) Over a hundred species of mycelium have been found that have specific antimicrobial effects on a wide variety of pathogenic microbes. A wide range of experiments have been conducted with results ranging from a 100 fold decreases in coliform effluent levels in an informal outdoor experiment (a byproduct of fecal matter and farming), to a 100% effectiveness in vitro in inhibiting the malarial parasite Plasmodium Falciparum. (9) As this is an evolving science new and exciting results are waiting to show themselves. With the vast range of harmful chemicals, pathogens, and organic compounds that mycofiltation can clean, this system could see a variety of uses. It could be incorporated into the landscape design of urban river front sites where effluent sources are present, perhaps even creating a new branch of landscape architecture that would match mycelium types to effluents. These practices could create a mosaic pattern of mushroom landscapes that follow the river front, each designed to target some malevolent effect of a specific pathogen or chemical. Collectively it could act as an intermediary zone where polluted water to be cleaned before it enter the main body of water and could even remediate existing polluted bodies of water.
Figure 2: Shows a potential generic application of a mycofiltration bed inserted into an industrial site. This section corresponds to the urban plan legend presented in Figure 6. (10) Mycoremediation In 2001 Bill Moyers reported in Trade Secrets, a Public Broadcasting Service program, that analysis of his blood by Mt. Sinai Medical Hospital revealed 84 of 150 known industrial toxins, many of them carcinogenic (13 dioxins, 31 PCBs, several pesticides, and numerous heavy metals). All but one of these toxins was a legacy of the chemical revolution in the 1930’s… most citizens of this planet, are likely to have similar blood profiles (11). Again the use of mycelium via Mycoremediation could provide a naturally occurring solution to the ecological disaster we have created within our environment and ourselves. Mycoremediation is the use of fungi to breakdown or remove toxins from the environment. Mycelium has evolved with the plants in ecosystems to break down cellulose bonds in order to digest them. Somewhat surprisingly this capability can be extended to break down many man made chemicals and pollutants and mycelia can even hyper accumulate heavy metals and radioactive substances from soil. In the 1990’s Paul Stamets conducted a mid scale test to see the effectiveness of a strain of oyster mushrooms in breaking down the hydrocarbons in diesel saturated straw. After only 8 weeks 97 percent of the of the oil’s polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons were degraded. The test also showed an even more surprising result. The mycelium was much more effective at breaking down the hydrocarbons when it was introduced into a microbially competitive atmosphere and rather than competing with organisms they fortified each other. A similar experiment was conducted in 1998 in which the Washington State Department of Transportation allowed mycelium to be used as a remediative strategy to clean up a site contaminated with diesel saturated soil around a maintenance yard for trucks that had operated for 30 years. In only 8 weeks the total petroleum hydrocarbon content of tested soils decreased from 20,000 ppm to 200ppm, which is an acceptable level to use for freeway landscaping. Additional experiments have shown that mycelium can hyper accumulate or break down a large variety of other toxins some of which include: dioxin, Chlorine, TNT, PENTAs, PCBs, Benzopyrenes, and many other chemicals present in urban environments due to recent human interventions. In order to implement this technology into an urban area specific types of mycelia should be inserted into each site depending on climate and toxin levels. The mycelium can be inserted via inoculated straw, sawdust, debris, or mats or even mixed in with the soil. Over time more mycelium should be inserted into the site and the toxin levels will be reduced. Once these toxin levels have become tolerable other plant species can be grown in conjunction with mycorrhizal fungi. This will result in more resilient plants that can survive and accumulate more toxins from more severely polluted sites. Perhaps one of the biggest incentives a designer could give to a potential investor is that the application of this technology to clean soil polluted with petroleum hydrocarbons costs $50/ton of soil as opposed to $1400/ton to incinerate it which is common practice. (13) Mycoremediation could be
implemented into sites which are along major types transit lines such as highways and rail lines, it could also see applications in post industrial neighborhoods and sites which have contaminated soils beyond tolerable levels for plants and animals.
Figure 3: Shows a potential generic application of mycoremediation to clean toxic soils. Mycelium is grown in a microbially competitive environment then added to soils that are contaminated with various toxins. Set up as a series of stages with different mycelium types associated with different toxic piles, the mycelium can eventually restore the soil to nutrient rich landscaping soil. This section corresponds to the urban plan legend presented in Figure 6. (14) Mycoforestry: “Habitats, like people, have immune systems, which become weakened due to stress, disease, or exhaustion… As generations of mycelia cycle through a habitat, soil depth and moisture increase, enhancing the carrying capacity of the environment and the diversity of its members.” (15) Mycelium controls the flow of nutrients in most ecosystems and as a result they are the primary governors of ecological equilibrium. It is the foundation of most land based ecosystems and as a result if it can be reintroduced into a compromised site then other forms of life will follow. Mycoforestry is the use of fungi to sustain and regenerate forest communities. As stated before Mycorrhizal fungi work in a symbiotic relationship with plants by extending their root systems to strengthen them and increase their nutrient intake. In this sense the mycelium can act as a method of habitat restoration. Without mycelium there would be no forest and it is a necessary ingredient to create one. It can be used to preserve or strengthen existing ecosystems, aid with recovery and recycling of woodland debris, to enhance replanted trees, or to increase eco-‐ diversity. The use of mycelium to strengthen and restore natural habitat within urban environments could become a widespread practice. It could (and does) serve as a natural way to increase the resilience of an existing ecosystem that may be in danger of contamination, it could be used to restore dilapidated ecosystems, or could even be used to create new areas of habitat and connect greenways to larger patches of habitat. Again the choice of mycelium must be the primary consideration.
Some of the issues to consider during this practice are: Native species, Types known to help specific plant and insect communities, species that compete with bacteria and disease rot in the area, Species with medical or culinary benefits, and species that promote recycling of wood debris and soil retention. With this in mind not only could mycoforestry practice make a unique urban mushrooms garden experience within a city but it could also provide a lengthy list of other benefits and could significantly decrease the amount of time it takes for a compromised habitat to be restored.
Figure 4: Shows a generic application of mycoforestry to restore a compromised site into thriving ecosystem. This application could take a matter of years but it is possible to achieve and will occur more rapidly in the presence of mycelium. This section corresponds to the urban plan legend presented in Figure 6. (16) Although they may not have direct urban form implications there are many other benefits mycelium can provide for humanity. Penicillin (and many other life saving medications) was in fact derived from a fungi. Some more recent developments are in this branch of technology are detailed: Mycopesticides Paul Stamet’s has patented a fungus pesticide, which is not harmful to the environment or pollinating insects because it is not an artificial chemical that is sprayed. In addition to its environmental benefits this pesticide works more effectively because the insects identify the pesticide as food and feed it directly to their queen. The end result is an ant with a mushroom sprouting out of its head and a replacement to an eco-‐deadly chemical. (17) Mycoplastics An estimated 30% by volume of our landfills are composed of packaging. This packaging typically is used for about two weeks but is designed to have a life of over a million years. It is negligent to be treating material resources in this manner. Again mycelium offers a potential solution. Eben Bayer and the members of ecovative design have fabricated materials which perform to the same standards as many forms of packaging materials but decompose and could even lead to habitat restoration once disposed of. Furthermore this material is self-‐assembling (5 day process) and converts 100% of the input material into useable substance. It is an example of a closed loop material that could act as a replacement for 30% of our
waste volume and it is readily available on the market. It just needs investment. (18) Perhaps some urban environments will eventually embrace a symbiotic relationship with mycelium and build institutions in which these types of technologies and research can be tested. These types of facilities could act as regenerative nodes in a city and become living laboratories of ecological rejuvenation within urban environments. They could showcase the restorative power of mycelium and help to prove its effectiveness as a technology, while acting to restore a site back to equilibrium. Furthermore these centers could also act to respond to global issues such as our waste and food problems. If a city were to implement this amazing technology what could be the effect on urban form? What could it look like? MycoApplication In order to answer this tough question I located a toxic site in a City that has historically been known to make bold moves with regards to finding solutions to ecological (and other) problems. The Union Stockyard, located along the South Branch of the Chicago River, are a marvel to both the innovation of man and the ecological disasters we are willing to create to achieve these innovations. At its peak the stockyards covered 640 acres of land, employed 40,000 people, and produced 82% of the United States’ domestic meat. The stockyards were said to be the birthplace of some of America’s first truly global companies led by entrepreneurs such as Gustavus Swift and Phillip Armour whom capitalized on the byproducts of the stockyards creating glue and leather industries. However, due to the intensity of the activity in the area the stockyards created somewhat of an ecological disaster. It would consume 500,000 gallons of water a day and all of this runoff would return to the river. Thus the infamous bubbly creek was born which still bubbles to this day as a result of the decomposing animal matter and various other forms of waste that went into it. The Chicago river became so polluted that the city even chose to reverse the direction of the river so that the polluted water would flow away from Lake Michigan (its main drinking water source.) (19) The stockyards followed the path of the virus and in 1971 they were transformed into an industrial park which today acts as an post-‐industrial wasteland in what once was a thriving urban and ecological area. If one of the relics of the industrial past was reused and transformed into a mycelium growth, research, and testing center then it could act as a source of regeneration for this entire surrounding area. These relics could be turned from dead viruses into mycorrhizal rejuvenation hot spots. What could this look like?
Figure 5: Shows a site plan of an adaptive reuse proposal in the Union Stockyard area of a grain silo transformed into a mycorrhizal revujenation center. The top left graphics show the existing barren landscape with the pollution from the bubbly creek flowing into the site. In this proposal the silos are transformed into growth chambers and testing failities while the landscape is transformed to intergrate myco technologies into the form. An alternative channel for water is created where mycofiltration units can be placed and tested. A bridge, mimicking the form of mycelium is created to allow pedestrians to explore the technology in depth, with central nodes of testing occurring at the intersections of these pathways. Soil remediation projects can take place Northeast of the building and different types of mycelium can be used to absorb different types of soil toxins. To the Southeast and following the river front myco forestry projects can take place to restore the dilapidated ecosystems and increase the eco diversity in the area. (20)
The proposal in figure 5 could act as the origin of the mycorrziha which could then spread throughout a large urban district , helping the rejuvenate entire regions of landscape.
Figure 6: The grain silo site is shown in the center in red. Bubbly creek is the fork in the river that branches to the South. The different colored mushrooms represent different mycorestoration projects and their adjacency to potential sources of industrial pollution. Because of the effectiveness and versatility that mycotechnologies offer these projects are suitable for many sites and can collectively act to restore large areas of landscape. In this sense a single building can establish entire networks that help to
restore natural ecologies in large urban areas. In this sense the landscape will be designed with the power of mycelium in mind and therefore create a rich ecostystems and habitats, even in toxic urban area.(21) The greatest obstacle that myco technology needs to overcome in order to be incorporated into landscape and urban design is lack of investments and incentives to invest. This technology is only just being discovered so it is viewed as risky because it has not proven itself in market on a large scale. However one could argue that mycelium has been proving itself for over 400 million years, by cultivating and creating natural habitats across the entire globe. As it already has done in natural habitat this technology could provide the systems we need in order to establish closed loop solutions to our resource management strategies. References and Citations Bayer, Eben. “Are Mushrooms the New Plastic?” www.ted.com. Web. 04 Oct 2010. Citations: (18). MGA van der Heijden, and IR Sanders. Mycorrhizal Ecology. Berlin; New York: Springer, 2002. SE Smith, DJ Read, and JL Harley. Mycorrhizal Symbiosis. 2nd ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1997. Citations: (4) page 21. Stamets, Paul. Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Can Help Save the World. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 2005. Citations: (1) Page 1-‐3, (7) page 55, (8) page 61,(9) page 65, (11) page 91, (12) page 95, (13) page 103, (15) page 63, (17) page 82. Wikipedia contributors. "Mycorrhiza." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 14 Mar. 2011. Web. 15 Mar. 2011. Citations: (2),(3),(5),(6). "Chicago City of the Centuary." An American Experience. PBS. 2003. Television. Citations: (19) Hutton, John F. Citations: (10),(14),(16),(20),(21).