Architectural Postgraduate Portfolio - John Harvey by John Michael Harvey

5 th

y e a r

broken windows

mental health

enviromental health

theory

community outreach centres

post industrial park

recreational facilites

social/cultural health

architectural thesis

along the Taff river, by healing the environmental wounds of the river itself. Physical health is a result of Mental Health, Mental Heath is a result of Cultural/Environmenstrategyforce for achieving In the Valleys, thetal Health. steepA true slopes low“Healthy Communities” is a top down approach, rather than addressing symptoms of social disorder (obesity, crime, suicide, drug abuse), we Inidentity, doing so, toit environment) will provide hundreds quality areas (ring should roads, industrial estates) address the symptoms (broken cultural poor relation into the heart of the towns. Whereas some of new jobs by implementing green of the highest quality natural areas in technologies, such as hydroponic farming, Britain lie high above the main population as well as become a centre of innovation centres, inaccessible to everyday life and once more, this time with a technology that works with, not against, nature. used primarily by tourists.

Physical health is a result of Mental Health, Mental Health is a result of Cultural/ Environmental Health. A true strategy for achieving “Healthy Communities” is to address the root causes (broken cultural identity, poor relation to environment), rather than addressing the symptoms of social disorder (obesity, crime, suicide, drug abuse).

estates) in low density areas.

The Valley region’s topography has resulted in a reversed “non-built environment” to population density ratio. Ideally the highest quality green spaces (manicured parks, recreational facilities) would be concentrated in high density areas, medium quality green spaces (micro parks, playgrounds, verges) in medium density areas, and low-quality green spaces (ring roads, industrial

The solution to this is to force high quality green space back into the centre of the towns, on the valley floor, in a new Taff river park. Incorporating the latest research surrounding links between mental health and the physical environment, the Taff Valley Renewal Park aims to heal the psychological wounds of the communities

The Taff Valley Renewal Park is a longterm grass-roots project, whose speed and direction is formed by the local communities, not a central governing body. In order to start this process, two Kickstarter projects will be funded by the Welsh Government. It is hoped that these projects will as a foundation on which the wider community can build.

a vision for the taff valley The Taff Valley Renewal Park is a special development zone, that stretches the entire length of the Taff valley, from Cardiff in the south to Merthyr in the north. The special development zone provides locals with an opportunity to set up green technology collectives, owned by the community. Its central focus is a cycle super highway, that aims to connect the communities along the Taff , and provide an alternative method of transport to the car. This cycle super highway takes advantage of the existing Taff Trail.

green technologies hydroponics farm In an aquaponic raft system all of the water is continually recirculated from the fish tanks through filters and large, waterfilled, shallow tanks. Plants sit on rafts in these tanks, with their roots dangling down into the water. The solid waste from the fish tanks is removed using a clarifier or other solids removal device. client: 18 to 40 year old, looking for an opportunity to work in a new biotech trade, centres for learning an research will be set up to train people in hydroponics, greatly improving the economics of the region.

cleansing bio-topes Cleansing bio-topes offer effective water treatment while maintaining a natural and beautiful environment. They consist of carefully selected plants in a filter medium which helps to cleanse the water by filtering pollutants and absorbing nutrients. client: Local experts also coming from Cardiff in order to improve the biodiversity and cleanliness of the area. It is also desired that locals will train in environmental policies and become experts in the field.

community gardens A media-filled bed system uses a tank or container that is filled with gravel, perlite or another media for the plant bed. This bed is periodically flooded with water from the fish tank. The water then drains back to the fish tank. All waste, including the solids, is broken down within the plant bed. Sometimes worms are added to the gravel-filled plant bed to enhance the break-down of the waste. client: 6 to 60, a community effort sponsored by local schools and charityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, bringing ownership to a large proportion of the new working parks. This should bring communities together.

allotments Allotments in the UK are popular and waiting lists long. Self-esteem, mood and general health were measured in 136 allotment gardeners pre- and postan allotment session, finding increased positivity after use. Allotment gardening can play a key role in promoting mental well-being and could be used as a preventive health measure. client: Mainly retirees, who have the time to invest in their own private lot. However there will be encouragement for others to try out the â&#x20AC;&#x153;step upâ&#x20AC;? from the community gardening schemes.

recreational grounds Evidence is moderate to strong that urban parks have a positive impact on physical activity and reduced obesity; local cooling, and biodiversity. There is also moderate evidence for indirect health benefits such as reducing stress; improving self-reported health and mental health; the effects of reduced noise and cooling; and increased longevity. client: All local and non-locals alike. people who are unable to make their way up the valleys to higher-better quality ground, are now able to enjoy quality environmental space in the valleys.

existing . 2019

taff valley renewal park

cycle superhighway . 2020

public parks . 2030

cross river connection . 2040

park development . 2050

taff valley renewal park . treforest north

defining the site boundaries

I have chosen Pontypridd as the location for my kickstarter project. It is central to the Taff Valley, and is also the location where the Rhonda meets the Taff River. Currently this connection is completely blocked from view, under a semi abandoned shopping bridge. Such heavy infrastructure is completely inappropriate for the area, and cuts off the river from the community.

existing condition . bridge blocking river

extending the park through the community . pontypridd

pontypridd regeneration options

existing

people blocked from nature

cycle superhighway options

legacy infrastructure removed

potential redevelopment areas

block massing comparing concepts

massing 1 allotment concept

massing 2 brick and cedar blend

massing 3 welsh stone and cedar panelling

new urban park masterplan

aquaponic urban farm water system

new skyline overview

public landscaping level college lobby . 1 sheltered entrance . 2 lecture hall . 3 hydro tower 1 . 4 college gardens drop off . 5 hydro tower 2 . 6 cafe/resturant kitchen . 7 cafe indoor outdoor space . 8 hydro tower 3 . 9 biotopes gardens . 10 hydro tower 4 . 11 bookable community hall . 12 hydro tower 5 . 13 community centre entrance . 14 hydro tower 6 . 15 fish and flood tanks . 16 pump room . 17

ponty post industrial park . ground floor

upper private floor level college practice lab . 1 void over lecture hall . 2 hydro tower 1 . 3 hydro tower 2 . 4 cafe staff rooms . 5 void over cafe . 6 hydro tower 3 . 7 hydro tower 4 . 8 void over community hall . 9 male and female bathrooms . 10 locker and coat room . 11 hydro tower 5 . 12 access walkway . 13 hydro tower 6 . 14 void over pumps . 15 hydro laboratory . 16 hydro break rooms . 17

ponty post industrial park . first floor

cafe spill out space and cycle path

hydroponic green-towers

bus stop and A-road

Separating the main site from the bank of the river, is a broad cycle and pedestrian pathway. This is supported by a long gabion wall, which gives way at points, to allow access to the river, bridge, and other functions. This route will serve as a prime commuting corridor, servicing the wider Taff Valley, therefore public facilities have been placed along this route, including a supermarket (to replace the demolished one on the old bridge), and a cafe. The cafe has outdoor seating on two levels, which can be accessed within the building via lift or stairs. Large bi-folding doors open this space up to the public passing by.

By far the most unique and eye-catching part of the project are the hydroponic greentowers, that are scattered along the site. These have been designed to be maximally viewable to the public, and due to their height, there is no part of the site at which you cannot see, and therefore be reminded of, the towers. This enforces the relationship of new green technologies being practiced, and the public passing by underneath, making people aware and engaged in what is occurring. The towers are topped with photovoltaics, which provide energy for the buildings and shading for the plants.

The site is bordered by an A-road on one side, and the Rhondda river on the other side. I wanted these diametrically opposed conditions (man made and natural) to have an impact on the design of the site. My plan is divided into equal terracing that naturally splits the project into zones. I have graded these zones from hard landscaping to soft. At the A-road border there is extensive paving, bus stops, and drop off zones. These then give way to the next zone, which has grass areas bordered with smaller paths. The grass areas are intended to be used as micro-parks, for general use by the public. The next zone is the bio-topes. These are specific planting beds, fed by the run off water from the

hydroponics units. these promote biodiversity, and clean the ammonia rich water ready to be fed back into the Taff. These units are administered by the hydroponics workers. The last zone is the bank leading down to the Rhondda. This zone will be left primarily to nature, being occasionally managed by external contractors. tectonic standardisation The proposed scheme is dispersed in a piecemeal fashion across the site. In order to tie all of the proposed architectural elements into a cohesive whole, a unified architectural strategy has been deployed. The various architectural forms have been

pontypridd post industrial park

sliced into standard widths: these sections can then have standardised details attached to them, which can be inserted at the appropriate points throughout the scheme. building cut-out details In the cut outs we can see a talk about hydroponics opportunities, being held in the community hall. In the cafe people are having lunch, and taking the opportunity to sit outside in the new park. In one of the hydroponics towers we can see a man inspecting the growth of the plants, judging when to harvest. Down by the river some people are resting on the terraced seating by the weir.

new pedestrian and cycle bridge . pontypridd

groundworks . stage 1

foundations and gabions . stage 2

structural framing . stage 3

waterproofing . stage 4

external finishes . stage 5

technical focus: college building

farming unit view the key detail of this project from which everything else has been derived is the timber framed wall to gabion flush connection. I wanted the gabion walls to finish flush to the FFL, and the external edges of the two to match. Since gabion walls are not a suitable material to build upon, the structure had to be tucked behind, and cantilevered off a hidden block and beam foundation

lecture hall view the lecture hall extends out over the edge of the gabion wall supports below towards the river. It has double height glazing at this end to maximise views. Above is the grow labs, which intersect into the lecture hall towards the back of the space. In this view you can see the hidden block and beam foundations behind the gabion wall facade

entrance lobby view In this view you can see the upstairs grow labs more clearly. These lead to an outside gantry which connects with the buildings growing tower. From here workers can access the internal scissor lift . On the ground floor you can see that the corner of the build peels away via bi-fold glazed doors, leaving only a single beam.

detachable, stackable, transportable grow boxes In order to simplify the hydroponics system, as well as maximising flexibility, standard grow boxes have been created, which can be plugged into the wider system. These boxes consist of a metal framing system, that supports the weight of boxes above it, a particulate filled box, in which the plants grow. In and out tubes for water. A small LED lighting display, for round the clock growing. These boxes can be moved by hand, eliminating the need for large machinery operating in the site, further reducing the negative impacts of the new green industry.

stack ventilation

accessibility in design

By placing openings at the bottom and at the top of the greenhouse, cool air will be drawn in at the bottom, this will then rise and be expelled as warm air through the roof vents. These openings are automatically adjusted by a central computer, standardising temperature. Excess heat can be recycled into the neighbouring buildings, via a thermal wheel.

The planting units are accessed by a central platform, on top of a scissor lift. This enables the worker to inspect all growing units whilst remaining standing in the same place. This not only maximises growing room efficiency, but also ensures that the structures are accessible to the widest range of people, by removing the need for any steps.

typical growing stack . with scissor lift access

1.75 material and massing study model In order to evaluate the interaction between the terraced landscape and the cantilevered buildings, I constructed a physical model of a section of the masterplan. I chose the north end of the site as it contains the most diverse architectural conditions, including as modelled here: the cycle superhighway, hydroponic towers, biotope terracing, and the college

plan showing terracing

selected aerial views

aquaponic pools feeding laboratories Water is pumped from the hydroelectric weir, to the highest point of the masterplan, where it is stored in pools. These pools also house the fish, which add ammonia to the system. The building is open to the air on the ground floor, with the pools circulating inside and out. This allows the public to see some of the operation of the system.

pump house first floor

exterior pools and pump

terraced community park and farm in the centre of the masterplan is a wide section of terraced parkway. It is intended that this area will be a through route from the station to the high street, for those who want a more relaxing, meandering route in comparison to the usual roads. Public buildings, seating, cycle storage, grass land and flower beds are all arranged along this route.

from the cycle path up to the stations

local gardening group attending a biotope

biotopes meandering to the cafe In the centre of the masterplan is the cafe/ restaurant building. The cafe has indoor and outdoor seating on two levels over looking the river, and will draw customers from the increased footfall in the area. Inside the block the vernacular cedar gives way to plywood panelling, with semi-exposed black steel beams forming a visible structure.

first floor cafe interior

path from college building to cafe

college building and lecture hall The aesthetic quality of the lecture hall is emblematic of the scheme as a whole. Light plywood panelling is defined by protruding treated cedar beams, through which the black painted steel frame is visible. This ordered partitioning is easily adaptable to wall, door, and window sections. Some windows reveal the workings of the hydroponics beyond.

cantilever cross beam with hydroponics beyond

retracting entrance to lecture hall

4 th

y e a r

a fitting entrance for a cathedral ?

architectural thesis The principle issue that the Church faces today is the maintenance of a monolithic infrastructure that is no longer supported by parishioner numbers. One of the ways of addressing this shortfall has been to use the monolithic infrastructure itself as a draw. Churches have become venues and museums for those willing to witness the architectural and historical beauty that lies within. A surface level response to the brief therefore would be to echo these tactics. To address the ancillary issues, such as level access and toilet facilities, in a new music centre building, and hope that this will encourage more people to visit Llandaff Cathedral in the wider sense. It is clear however that the problems at Llandaff run deeper than issues with the facilities. The failed attempt at opening a CafĂŠ highlighted the serious issues the

Church has with footfall. Llandaff is a Cathedral without a city, and you feel it. The brief currently focuses on Prebendal House, with options for demolition or extension of the existing buildings. There is also a concept for a new build in the grounds of the neighbouring Bishops Place. JHA however does not believe these sites address the fundamental problems of approach as afore mentioned. The principle issue is with the connection between the Cathedral and the town. To provide a seamless visitor friendly connection between the two would increase footfall, and begin to solve some of the long-term problems the cathedral faces. Therefore we are proposing for the majority of works to be carried out at

the top of the hill, in the area of the Old Bell Tower, and the Cathedral Green. We also cannot see the justification for a demolition and replacement programme of work, rather any architectural insertions must be made to highlight and expose the rich history of Llandaff, not take away from it.

connecting llandaff to the wider community via song

community music llandaff

Cathedral Green We are proposing that the car park is relocated away from the main approach to the Cathedral, and rationalised to reduce its impact on the Green as a whole. The newly available area should be â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;regreenedâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, and landscaped to provide a setting stage for the final approach down the hill.

The Old Bell Tower To draw crowds to the area, and provide a stark visual reminder of the renewal of the Church, an ambitious structure will be erected within the old bell tower, dedicated to music and the history of Llandaff. Such a space should be used to raise footfall and revenue for the other areas of the site, and act as a gateway to the scheme as a whole.

Access Road The access road will be resurfaced, and the pedestrian wall partially demolished, this should open up the space and make it more inviting for visitors.

Cathedral Square The entrance to the Cathedral is unsuitable for disabled access and lacks any clear direction. A new contoured “square” will be created to provide level access to the nave. Planting and benches will make the area suitable for spill out café space.

removing the great wall of cars by spacing the cars more efficiently, and clustering them towards the back of the green, the old bell tower, and by extension llandaff, can become car free without reducing overall capacity.

existing condition

re-greening the green

focal architecture

by spacing the cars more efficiently, and clustering them towards the back of the green, the old bell tower, and by extension llandaff, can become car free without reducing overall capacity. by spacing the cars more efficiently, and clustering them towards the back of the green, the old bell tower, and by extension llandaff, can become car free without reducing overall capacity.

bell tower park

landscaped steps radiate from the old bell tower, directing people down the previously unnavigable hill, towards prebendal. From this position the cut in the historic wall and new steps can be seen.

cathedral steps

the original path diverted visitors to the left, away from the cathedral, by making a small cut in the existing wall, and reconfiguring the steps, the approach becomes more direct and welcoming

prebendal approach

prebendal house A cathedrals walls are not merely a waterproof skin for internal worship, they are a form of worship in themselves.

existing condition

The mission of a church is bound within the walls that create it: On a surface level this mission is expressed in carvings and sculpture. On a deeper level it is expressed in the ratios and proportions of space and light. And on a deeper level still its is bound to the physical mass and permanence of the stone, pulling our frame of reference from a single lifetime to a thousand years of continual worship. The binding of purpose to the structure of the building should be evident throughout Llandaff. The extensions made to Prebendal House should find their meaning and purpose in the structures themselves, not merely the spaces created within them.

circulation and services The building as two cores, a newer spiral staircase to the east, and a square stair to the west. The latter provides plenty of room to fit a new lift, whist the spiral staircase should be retained as an architectural feature.

activity areas Choir Activities are concentrated on the west side, Congregation and Clergy spaces on the left. In the middle new flexi spaces will act as rooms to book out for specific activities when needed.

proposed condition

texture

rhythm

abstraction

STAGE 3 - f irst floor structure

STAGE 1 - ground works

STAGE 2 - ground floor steel

The s i t e i s c l e a r e d o f ex i s t i n g a r c h i t e c t u r e . S t r i p f o u n d a t i o n s

Block and beam is topped with rigid insulation and screed,

S o u n d D e c k s o u n d p ro o f f l o o r i n g b u i l d u p . Ti m b e r I j o i s t s

are laid 600mm wide,

with a stone flag floors finish. Soldier Brick wall is built

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the proposed scheme is dispersed in a piecemeal fashion across the site. In order to tie all of the proposed architectural elements into a cohesive whole, a unified architectural strategy has been deployed. The various architectural forms have been

sliced into standard widths: these sections can then have standardised details attached to them, which can be inserted at the appropriate points throughout the scheme.

D dissertation

personal wellbeing and the (un)built environment can a causal link be made between mental health and exposure to natural environments, and if so, how can such knowledge be implemented within the construction industry? 9936 words John M Harvey C173993

introduction the blind spot of accessible design Whilst the topic of mental health and wellbeing can seem distant from architectural concerns, the notion of designing for disability is a core principle of modern architectural practice. Since Selwyn Goldsmith first dedicated his career to overcoming ‘architectural disability’ after contracting polio in 19561, accessible design has become an increasingly important consideration in good quality design. Architectural competitions now include accessibility as a key component for any award, and a myriad of guidelines and regulations must be followed in order prove accessibility at the planning stage. Yet whilst such initiatives have improved the accessibility of the built environment to those with physical disabilities, they have done little for mental disabilities. This is no small matter, according to the National Mental Health Development Unit, poor mental health represents the largest cause of disability in the UK2. In material terms the

Building

Street Community

Region Globe 1

green roofs, gardens, indoor plants, green courtyards, atria, edible, native landscaping Parkways, Vegetated Swales, Vegetated permeable surfaces neighbourhood gardens, neighbourhood parks, riparian buffers, botanical gardens, urban farms, Riparian systems, Metropolitan greenbelts, national parks/reserves. International ecological reserves

Adrian Cave, Selwyn Goldsmith obituary (2011) <https://www.theguardian.com/society/2011/may/31/selwyn-goldsmith-obituary> [accessed 17 January 2019]. 2 Rebecca Lovell, 'Links between natural environments and mental health: evidence briefing (EIN018)', Natural England, 1.1, (2016), 1 (p. 1), in Access to Evidence records <http://publications.naturalengland.org.uk/publication/5748047200387072> [accessed 2 January 2019]. 3 Diana E Bowler, Lisette M Buyung-Ali, Teri M Knight and Andrew S Pullin, 'A systematic review of evidence for the added benefits to health of exposure to natural environments', BMC Public Health, .456, (2010), , in Open Access

effect of mental illness is estimated at £41.8 billion to the individuals affected, and a further £77 billion per year to the wider economy; due to welfare costs and lost productivity, an astonishing 4.5 percent of GDP3. In more humane terms, this means a reduced quality of life for millions of people. Yet fifty-five years after the publication of ‘Designing for the Disabled’, little is still known or considered within the construction industry regarding the most common form of disability in the United Kingdom.

Expanding from the mere physical matter of extraarchitecture, the form of our built environments is increasingly being shown to have a huge impact on mental wellbeing. To quote Andres O. Kiapar, designer of Freshkills Park; the largest regeneration project in New York City, we should see landscape not as “as a passive object of social action but rather as the basic element of the natural and cultural heritage with contributes to the development of local cultures”6.

We therefore find ourselves in a position where an industry, seemly concerning itself with accessibility, virtually ignores the largest barrier to accessibility for its users. The topic of wellbeing and mental health is particularly relevant in an industry which itself is suffering from a mental health crisis; with half of UK architecture students reporting that they have been treated, or are seeking treatment4, for mental health issues. defining the (un)built environment Since the post-industrial reactionary movements of the sixties, environmental considerations within the construction industry have largely been framed as; at best, charitable efforts for the benefit of flora and fauna, and at their most base, ways to save money on your heating bill. The deeper considerations of the aforementioned movements; that environmental and human health (mental, physical and spiritual) are inextricably linked, have been lost or marginalised. In his book, Green Infrastructure and Public Health, Christopher Coutts lays out the four scales of ‘green infrastructure’5. This list has been adapted from the works of three previous authors, and is by no means exhaustive. In short, green infrastructure is the man-made natural, things which are not wild, yet are not built. Whilst some of the components of Coutts list are America-centric, the concept of green infrastructure is globally applicable, and all human habitations have some form of it within their design.

<https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2458-10-456> [accessed 21 November 2018]. 4 Richard Waite, Ella Braidwood, Mental health problems exposed by AJ Student Survey 2016 (2016) <https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/news/mental-health-problemsexposed-by-aj-student-survey-2016/10009173.article> [accessed 14 November 2018]. 5 Christopher Coutts, Green Infrastructure and Public Health, illustrated edn (2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN: Routledge, 2016), p. 48.

Fig.1 freshkills park, new york7 It is the combination of the aforementioned extraarchitectural elements, and the associated physiological and cultural effects of such landscapes, that I have defined as the (un)built environment. The question which I wish to answer is how the presence of, and access to, such environments can collectively play a key role in improving public health, and by understanding this process, how (un)built infrastructure can be fine-tuned through intelligent design towards achieving this goal. the issue of specificity Whilst there are a myriad of guidelines and regulations surrounding the built environment, green infrastructure is neglected and overlooked. Gardens, parkland, verges, and planting are often dismissed as ‘window-dressing’ or a way of using leftover funds after ‘true’ architecture is built. However, a growing body of evidence, both scientific and anecdotal, suggests a positive relationship between exposure to natural environments and improvements in mental health and wellbeing. With a 6

Caroline Klein, Regenerative Infrastructures, Freshkills Park, NYC, Land Art Generator Initiative , ed. by Caroline Klein, Elizabeth Monoian, Robert Ferry, illustrated edn (900 Broadway, New York, NY 10003: Prestel, 2013), p. 48. 7 Freshkills Park Alliance , Victory Blvd., W. Shore Exwy (2017) <https://www.nycgovparks.org/parks/freshkills-park> [accessed 16 January 2019].

reported one in six adults experiencing mental health issues every week8, this is an avenue of research we cannot afford to ignore. Demand for good environments extends outside of scientific and mental health circles, in numerous national surveys the public have consistently identified local environmental factors as being one of the most important factors in their wellbeing9. As a reaction to such public demand, English local authorities spent in the region of £6 billion on local environmental initiatives in 201110. With such an obvious imperative and approval for improved natural environments, it would make sense to consider (un)built elements as integral to the construction industry. There is however an issue that prevents such a change in attitude. Current literature surrounding wellbeing in the (un)built environment, whilst extensive, is overly generalised and often anecdotal. General studies do however show correlations between increased access or exposure to green spaces, and improvement or outright remission of mental health issues. In a systematic review of the numerous smaller studies of this phenomenon, greater amounts of natural environments within the proximity of home was said to reduce the following: clinical anxiety, mood disorders, risk of stress, depression, psychiatric morbidity, depressive symptoms, and psychological distress11. The non-specific nature of the results reflects the nonspecific nature of the studies, with most research being conducted on large population scales. This generalist tone is extended to the terminology of the studies themselves; specifically, ‘natural environments’ are invoked as a uniform type, from which further obscure and undefinable benefits such as alleviating anger, sadness and fatigue are said to be derived12. This generality prevents architects and developers from making direct, quantifiable, and causal claims about the efficacy of the (un)built environment in improving mental health. The Department for Environment Food and Rural

Jenny Edwards, Isabella Goldie, Iris Elliott, 'Fundamental Facts about mental health 2016', Mental Health Foundation , , (2016), (p. 13), in<https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/publications/fundamental-facts-about-mentalhealth-2016> [accessed 6 December 2018]. 9 Roald Dickens, 'FRP - Final Report: Estimating the value of a range of local environmental impacts ', Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs , , (2011), (p. 16), in Project Documents <https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachm ent_data/file/226561/pb14015-valuing-local-environment.pdf> [accessed 3 January 2019].

Affairs makes note of this issue, summarising that; “at present it is not possible to value the link explicitly in monetary terms, making decisions on resource allocation for these areas challenging. This is further complicated by the range of factors that influence the local environment, making it particularly challenging to identify where to allocate limited resources”13. In order to provide such examples, micro-environmental impacts must be observed, and be tied back to a potential for an architectural response. Whilst some microenvironmental studies can be found, their applicability to a designed solution is limited. One such study found that when participants were asked to rank quality of life factors in order of importance, dog fouling was surprisingly ranked at equal importance to the quality of local schools14. Level of Local Crime Condition of Roads and Pavements Amount of Local Council Tax Level of Dog Fouling Quality of Local Schools The amount of Road Traffic in your area Access to Quiet areas Neighbourhood Air Quality Road Traffic Noise Experienced at Home

1.45 (1.38 – 1.52) 1.88 (1.80 – 1.96) 1.92 (1.84 – 2.00) 1.98 (1.90 – 2.06) 1.98 (1.87 – 2.09) 2.00 (1.92 – 2.08) 2.00 (1.92 – 2.08) 2.05 (1.97 – 2.13)

Whilst there is clearly a desire for improved environment, and anecdotal evidence of their impact on wellbeing, current understanding is severely limited and not obviously applicable to architectural consideration. Current studies cannot tell us whether mental wellbeing is improved by exposure to natural environments, or whether people with better mental wellbeing visit natural environments more, due to having disposable income and time to visit such areas, or by directly living in greener areas. I therefore intend to conduct two studies. The first will aim to prove a causal link between wellbeing and the (un)built environment, by controlling for income and area. The second will aim to dig deeper into the efficacy of different types of (un)built environment upon wellbeing. I will also conduct a literature review into the current understanding of the relationship of environment to health. I will aim to break this review down into architecturally specific examples, and more general studies. With this new understanding through both primary and secondary research, I will examine existing studies and architectural theories, and attempt to qualify their effectiveness, as well as suggest improvements. It is my intention that this research may be used as a starting point for a change in attitude towards the (un)built environment, and that eventually we will regard the (un)built with the same seriousness and rigour as we do the built.

2.26 (2.16 – 2.36)

This is a clear indicator of the importance of microenvironmental impacts to the public, unfortunately an obvious designed solution to dog fouling is not presently available. However, if such clear indicators can be found within the design of our (un)built environments, there is the potential for a radical priority shift in architectural thinking. what I aim to achieve

Dickens, (p. 17) Peter James, Rachel Banay, Jaime Elizabeth Hart and Francine Laden, 'A Review of the Health Benefits of Greenness', Research Gate , , (2015), (p. 1-12), in<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275242838_A_Review_of_the_Health_ Benefits_of_Greenness> [accessed 10 January 2019]. 12 Diana E Bowler, Lisette M Buyung-Ali, Teri M Knight and Andrew S Pullin, 'A systematic review of evidence for the added benefits to health of exposure to natural environments', BMC Public Health, .456, (2010), , in Open Access <https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2458-10-456> [accessed 21 November 2018]. 11

Roald Dickens, 'FRP - Final Report: Estimating the value of a range of local environmental impacts ', Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs , , (2011), (p. 23), in Project Documents <https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachm ent_data/file/226561/pb14015-valuing-local-environment.pdf> [accessed 3 January 2019]. 14 Dickens, (p. 23)

1 current academic literature general exposure to nature The current literature surrounding mental health is extensive, and often makes bold claims about various factors and symptoms which are seemingly extra-scientific in nature. The new field of research into (un)built environments on the human psyche also has elements of this generalising tone in its findings. Relatively obscure and undefinable terms such as positive effect, physiological stress, and positive thoughts are regularly banded about. Viewing such studies through a critical lens, such obscure language can be viewed as a smoke screen for biased reporting. Some studies stray almost into the romantic, with

Susanna Curtin, 'Wildlife tourism: The intangible, psychological benefits of human-wildlife encounters', Research Gate, , (2009), 451-474, in<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249024073_Wildlife_tourism_The_intan gible_psychological_benefits_of_human-wildlife_encounters> [accessed 13 January 2019]. 16 Ethan Mcmahan, David Estes, 'The effect of contact with natural environments on positive and negative affect: A meta-analysis', The Journal of Positive Psychology , 10.6, (2015), 507. 17 Daniela Haluza, Regina Schönbauer, and Renate Cervinka, 'Green Perspectives for Public Health: A Narrative Review on the Physiological Effects of Experiencing Outdoor Nature', International Journal of environmental Research & Public Health, 11.5, (2014), , in<https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4053896/> [accessed 3 January 2019]. 18 Richard Mitchell, 'Is physical activity in natural environments better for mental health than physical activity in other environments?', Social Science & Medicine, 91, (2012), (p. 130), in<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227169697_Is_physical_activity_in_natu ral_environments_better_for_mental_health_than_physical_activity_in_other_environments > [accessed 6 January 2019]. 19 Rachel Bragg, 'A review of nature based interventions for mental health care', Natural England Commissioned Reports, .204, (2016), (p. 11),

one author claiming that “first hand experiences of wildlife are meaningful and important, contribute to quality of life, and result in feelings that are ‘beyond words”15. Whilst such passion is commendable, for such research to make ground in the strict, regulated, business minded world of the construction industry, it must carry an undeniable scientific weight, with a proven cause and effect.

England surveyed. Participants were asked to rank their mental health; the results of which showed people who reported lower mental stress and higher wellbeing lived in urban areas with more greenspaces22. This study however did not control for income, which may have contributed to the wellbeing of those living in green suburbs as opposed to dense inner cities.

Where such research may lack in hard scientific rigour however, it makes up for in scope. A wide range of studies from amongst others, the Journal of Positive Psychology, the International Journal of Environmental Research & Public Health, the Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, and Natural England, have all found that spending time in, and use thereof, natural environments is associated with improved mood16, lower levels of stress17, reduced risk of mental health issues18, and can even decreased dementia related symptoms19. The Scandinavian study goes further to specify that longer programmes result in better outcomes20, arguing that exposure to green spaces should be integrated within our daily routines, and not be segregated to out of town reserves.

Another study attempted to control for this by surveying people who had recently moved to greener urban areas, this was found to improve mental health over a longitudinal period23, giving weight to the notion that the improvements were due to the change in the built environment. Interestingly however the reverse was not found to be true, that is people moving from greenspaces to less greenspaces did not experience a reduction in wellbeing. Whilst I could not find another study that observed this reversed phenomenon, I did find many more which backed up the former claim.

This is naturally where an architectural solution would appear to be the best course, however current literature focus’ heavily on wild landscapes, such as coastal regions, mountains and woodlands.21 It is critical therefore that we find studies within the urban (un)built environment, if we are to create designed solutions to this issue. specific instances of urban analysis Thankfully such studies do exist, the largest of its kind that I have been able to find being a 2013 study published in Psychological Science, with over 10,000 people across in<http://publications.naturalengland.org.uk/publication/4513819616346112> [accessed 11 December 2018]. 20 Matilda Annerstedt, Peter Währborg, 'Nature-assisted therapy: Systematic review of controlled and observational studies',Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, .39, (2011), 371-388, in<https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1403494810396400> [accessed 6 January 2019]. 21 Rebecca Lovell, Benedict W Wheeler, Sahran Higgins, Katherine N. Irvine, 'A Systematic Review of the Health and Well-Being Benefits of Biodiverse Environments', Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B , .17, (2014), 1-20, in<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260561574_A_Systematic_Review_of_th e_Health_and_Well-Being_Benefits_of_Biodiverse_Environments> [accessed 16 December 2018]. 22 Mathew P White, Ian Alcock, Benedict W Wheeler and Michael H Depledge, 'Would You Be Happier Living in a Greener Urban Area? A Fixed-Effects Analysis of Panel Data', Psychological Science , .24, (2013), 920-928, in<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236277145_Would_You_Be_Happier_ Living_in_a_Greener_Urban_Area_A_Fixed-Effects_Analysis_of_Panel_Data> [accessed 7 January 2019]. 23 Ian Alcock, Mathew P White, Benedict W Wheeler and Lora E Fleming, 'Longitudinal Effects on Mental Health of Moving to Greener and Less Green Urban Areas', Environmental Science & Technology , .48, (2013), 920-928,

Notably, a 2013 study in Scotland controlled for errors in self-reporting by directly measuring cortisol concentrations in the participants, and again found increased access to greenspace increased resilience to physiological stress24. What makes this more significant is that the participants were all from deprived populations, therefore controlling for income-based improvements in wellbeing. Another analysis, whilst not specifying income, controlled its sample size to ‘rural to rural relocations’, and again found improvements in wellbeing with increased exposure to ‘natural elements’25. It can be reasonably assumed that, as these were ‘rural to rural relocations’, the material condition of the participants remained relatively stable.

in<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259249806_Longitudinal_Effects_on_M ental_Health_of_Moving_to_Greener_and_Less_Green_Urban_Areas> [accessed 6 January 2019]. 24 Jennifer Roe, Catharine Ward Thompson, Peter Alan Aspinall, Mark J Brewer, Elizabeth I Duff, David Miller, Richard Mitchell, Angela Clow, 'Green space and stress: evidence from cortisol measures in deprived urban communities', International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10.9, (2013), 4086-4103, in <https://researchportal.hw.ac.uk/en/publications/green-space-and-stress-evidencefrom-cortisol-measures-in-deprive> [accessed 5 January 2019]. 25 Rebecca Lovell, Sahran Higgins, 'What accounts for ‘England's green and pleasant land’? A panel data analysis of mental health and land cover types in rural England', Landscape and Urban Planning , .142, (2015), 38-46, in<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278333385_What_accounts_for_'Engla nd's_green_and_pleasant_land'_A_panel_data_analysis_of_mental_health_and_land_c over_types_in_rural_England> [accessed 8 January 2019].

Such studies point towards an at least partial role of the built and (un)built environment in wellbeing and mental health. Whilst current efforts are focused on wild environments, in the face of such evidence, more emphasis must be placed on the role of our urban environments. Tellingly this summary of patients’ experiences in a forestbased rehabilitation programme, was not to focus on the forest, but on urban areas, summarising that; “planners and developers should be aware that the greening of urban areas could be considered to be a population health intervention”26. variations in effectiveness A key factor when determining the effectiveness of such ‘urban health interventions’, is to discover how strategies affect different people in different ways. By finding hyperspecific examples, for example in the elderly or vulnerable children, we can develop architectural strategies specifically targeted at these groups. Taking children as an example, an increase in the proximity of natural spaces around homes and schools has been linked to a significant improvement in cognitive performance27. It has also been shown to reduce the incidence of anti-social behaviours28. Such an effect also extends to vulnerable children. In a 2011 study, children with Attention Deficit Disorder were found to have improved concentration skills when in a woodland setting, rather than an urban classroom environment29. Such knowledge has the potential to be integrated into the way we design our schools, to provide a building that not only delivers the functions of a school, but also cultivates a high state of wellbeing.

Kirsten M M Beyer, Andrea Kaltenbach, Aniko Szabo and Sandra Bogar, 'Exposure to Neighborhood Green Space and Mental Health: Evidence from the Survey of the Health of Wisconsin', International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 3.11, (2014), 3453-3472, in <> [accessed 8 January 2019]. 27 Agnes van den berg, C G van den Berg, 'A comparison of children with ADHD in a natural and built setting', Child Care Health and Development, 3.37, (2019), 430-439, in<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/49669301_A_comparison_of_children_ with_ADHD_in_a_natural_and_built_setting> [accessed 3 January 2019]. 28 Payam Dadvand, Green Spaces Influence the Cognitive Development in Children (2015) <https://www.isglobal.org/en/-/los-espacios-verdes-influyen-en-eldesarrollo-cognitivo-de-los-ninos> [accessed 4 December 2018]. 29 Iana Markevych, Carla M.T. Tiesler, Elaine Fuertes, Marcel Romanos, 'Access to urban green spaces and behavioural problems in children: Results from the GINIplus and LISAplus studies', Environment International , .71, (2014), 29-35, in<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263322936_Access_to_urban_green_sp aces_and_behavioural_problems_in_children_Results_from_the_GINIplus_and_LISAplus _studies> [accessed 11 December 2018]. 30 Alex Matthews-King, Social care crisis: Over-85s needing 24 hour care set to double by 2035, major study shows (2018) <https://www.independent.co.uk/news/health/elderly-care-double-retirement-pension-

The UK is currently experiencing a crisis in aging, with the amount of over 85s needing 24-hour care set to double by 203530, it is essential that we discard out dated ways of dealing with those at the end of their life and find design solutions for this new class of people. A new architectural language is developing in care and nursing homes, one centred around maximising the use of courtyard gardens, sheltered and protected spaces that enable patients to venture outside of the home, and experience nature. In Japan, a practice known as ‘forest bathing’ has been shown to benefit patients not only in a psychological, but also physiological way. Tests have shown being exposed to the atmosphere of woodlands leads to improvements in the “immune system function including the production of anti-cancer proteins and the reduction of blood glucose levels in diabetic patients”31.

Fig.2 forest bathing outside of Tokyo32 The Cognitive Function and Aging Study, a cross sectional analysis of care practices, concluded that these natural spaces have led to reduced incidences of depression and anxiety33. Use of sensory gardens, in dementia care homes, have been found to improve sleeping patterns and

age-full-time-care-24-hour-lancet-newcastle-a8514881.html> [accessed 14 January 2019]. 31 Christopher Coutts, Green Infrastructure and Public Health, illustrated edn (2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN: Routledge, 2016), p. 52. 32 Jessica Korteman, SHINRIN-YOKU: ‘FOREST BATHING’ IS THE LATEST JAPANESE HEALTH TREND (2017) <https://notesofnomads.com/shinrin-yoku-forest-bathingjapan/> [accessed 16 January 2019]. 33 Coutts, p.53. 34 Rebecca Whear, Jo Thompson-Coon, Alison Bethel, Rebecca Abbott, 'What Is the Impact of Using Outdoor Spaces Such as Gardens on the Physical and Mental WellBeing of Those With Dementia? A Systematic Review of Quantitative and Qualitative Evidence', Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 15.10, (2014), 697705, in<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263968465_What_Is_the_Impact_of_Us ing_Outdoor_Spaces_Such_as_Gardens_on_the_Physical_and_Mental_WellBeing_of_Those_With_Dementia_A_Systematic_Review_of_Quantitative_and_Qualitativ e_Evidence> [accessed 11 December 2018] 35 Coutts, p.53. 36 Jenny Roe, Peter Aspinall, 'The Restorative Benefits of Walking in Urban and Rural Settings in Adults with Good and Poor Mental Health', Health & Place , 1.17, (2010),

decrease disruptive behaviours34. This concept of a hospital in a garden, or a garden in a hospital, is part of a wider effort to “enhance healing in patients and also the larger environment, acknowledging that the two are inseparable”35. Interestingly, the benefits of walking in natural (un)built environments has been found to be the most beneficial for those with poor health, in comparison to those in good health36. In Tokyo specifically, “older persons with walkable greenspace in their neighbourhood experienced increased longevity”37. This shows the strategy of ‘urban health interventions’ is not only to be recommended in the care and medical sector, but is of unique importance to these groups, and the architectural infrastructure that supports them. The theme of improvements maximising among the most vulnerable is also prevalent in economic studies. In a study for the American Journal of Preventive Medicine, residents of 34 European countries were involved in the largest survey of environmental and socio-economic inequalities of its kind. It found, rather predictably, that there was a mental health gap between those with the greatest and least financial strain. However, the gap was reduced by 40% in areas with the highest access to green spaces and natural environments38. Another study for the Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, monitored the mental health of pregnant women. Again, higher access to greenspaces lowered depressive symptoms, with the greatest improvements coming from the most socioeconomically deprived groups39. Such findings should fundamentally change the way (un)built environments are viewed, rather than being window dressing for those projects able to afford it, high

103-113, in<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/49625294_The_Restorative_Benefits_of_ Walking_in_Urban_and_Rural_Settings_in_Adults_with_Good_and_Poor_Mental_Healt h> [accessed 4 January 2019]. 37 Coutts, p.53. 38 Richard J. Mitchell, Elizabeth A. Richardson,, 'Neighbourhood Environments and Socioeconomic Inequalities in Mental Well-Being.', American journal of preventive medicine, .49, (2015), 80-84, in <https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Neighborhood-Environments-andSocioeconomic-in-MitchellRichardson/12cf3fe29cd1086ce0dc206c6e35c203ee3973b9> [accessed 2 January 2019]. 39 Rosemary R C Mceachan, Stephanie Prady, Graham Smith, Lesley Fairley, 'The association between green space and depressive symptoms in pregnant women: Moderating roles of socioeconomic status and physical activity', Journal of epidemiology and community health, 3.70, (2015), 70-88 , in<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283729832_The_association_between_ green_space_and_depressive_symptoms_in_pregnant_women_Moderating_roles_of_so cioeconomic_status_and_physical_activity> [accessed 7 January 2019].

quality green space should be prioritised in developments targeted at the most vulnerable in our society. economic Impact of Initiatives The specific economic advantages of such strategies are more difficult to quantify, and the majority of monetary savings are not felt by the developer directly, instead they filter through the economy via reduced benefits claimants and increased tax contributions. There is however an opportunity to sell such savings to governmental bodies and encourage urban health interventions within public sector development. This would also make sense from an efficacy view point, typical public sector construction projects; schools, hospitals, care facilities, and social housing, are precisely the developments which service the vulnerable, who have shown an increased sensitivity to environmental improvements.

I looked at two real world case studies which attempt to quantify mental health improvements in economic terms. The first is Ecominds, a programme sponsored by the charity MIND, that encouraged a “green agenda for mental health highlighting the growing evidence in support of an accessible, cost-effective and natural addition to existing treatment options, using ecotherapy interventions”41. This scheme funded 130 ecotherapy projects across the country and involved an estimated 12,000 people. It was estimated that the scheme resulted in savings of £7,082 per participant to the NHS, and £1.46 million for the 246 people who were able to return to employment after the ecotherapy42. This evaluation was carried out by an independent team from the University of Essex, and so should be a reasonably reliable finding. The second case study is a programme in Scotland aptly named Branching Out, this programme takes patients with mental health issues on various woodland activities. On the cost per Quality Adjusted Life Year gained (QALY) index, each patient, based on 335 patients who used the service in 2010, was found to have a QALY of £860043. This result was determined to be a cost-effective programme by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. limitations of Studies

Fig.3 Ecominds promotional poster40

Olivier Vardakoulias, The Economic Benefits of Ecominds (2017) <https://www.mind.org.uk/media/338566/The-Economic-Benefits-of-Ecomindsreport.pdf> [accessed 16 January 2019]. 41 Rachel Bragg, Carly Wood & Jo Barton, Ecominds effects on mental wellbeing (2016) <https://www.mind.org.uk/media/354166/Ecominds-effects-on-mental-wellbeingevaluation-report.pdf> [accessed 2 January 2019]. 42 Rachel Bragg, Carly Wood & Jo Barton, Ecominds effects on mental wellbeing (2016) <https://www.mind.org.uk/media/354166/Ecominds-effects-on-mental-wellbeingevaluation-report.pdf> [accessed 2 January 2019]. 43 Neil William Wilson, Susan Fleming, Russell Jones, 'Green shoots of recovery: The impact of a mental health ecotherapy programme', Mental Health Review Journal, 2.15, (2010), 4-14, in<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/244953118_Green_shoots_of_recovery _The_impact_of_a_mental_health_ecotherapy_programme> [accessed 4 January 2019].

Through my study of the current literature surrounding mental health and the (un)built environment, I have found an extensive array of studies, surveys, and case studies. These have virtually without exception, pointed towards a link between the quality of the natural environment we enjoy, and the quality of our mental health. Most interesting has been that this correlation seems to maximise in the most vulnerable of our society, the young, the old, the poor, and those with pre-existing conditions. This reaffirms my hypothesis that such thinking should have a far greater prevalence in architectural circles, and that 44

United Nations, Urban and Rural Areas 2009 (2009) <http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/urbanization/urb an-rural.shtml> [accessed 3 January 2019]. 45

United Nations, World’s population increasingly urban with more than half living in

urban areas (2009) <http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/urbanization/urb an-rural.shtml> [accessed 3 January 2019]. 46

Mireia Gascon, Gonzalo Sánchez-Benavides, Payam Dadvand, 'Long-term exposure to residential green and blue spaces and anxiety and depression in adults: A cross-sectional

good design should necessarily include good (un)built environments. As if to confirm the need of this ethos within the construction industry, I have been unable to find many studies that directly relate to design considerations. With the expectation of palliative care of the elderly, most studies seem to recommend less urban, not better urban environments. With the amount of people globally living in urban areas surpassing rural areas in 200944, and expected to rise to 66% by 205045, this is clearly not an adequate solution. As ever, my issue with the generalising tone, and hasty conclusions of many of the studies I have referred to remains, and it is clear this complaint is also prevalent within the industry. In A Systematic Review; International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, it was concluded that whilst environmental interventions appear to be effective in tackling mental health, “many of the existing studies are small scale and do not follow people for long enough for us to understand how effective the activities are”46. The previously referenced Scandinavian study self criticises, stating that further work should be done to “specify effectiveness in relation to health condition, population, intervention and outcome”47. As such interventions are part of a multivaried programme of activity, it is unclear if we will ever gain a clear insight to the efficacy, or efficiency of such a link. However, despite such reservations, I believe the weight of evidence points towards a positive link between wellbeing and the (un)built environment, and that such a link, particularly in targeted case studies, is worth considering on the architectural level.

study', Environmental Research, 1.1249, (2018), 118-136, in<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322683209_Longterm_exposure_to_residential_green_and_blue_spaces_and_anxiety_and_depression_in _adults_A_cross-sectional_study> [accessed 4 January 2019]. 47 Matilda Annerstedt, Peter Währborg, 'Nature-assisted therapy: Systematic review of controlled and observational studies',Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, .39, (2011), 371-388,

2 proving causal relationship primary research aims It is clear that further research is required to prove the link between good mental health and good environments. I can currently identify two key flaws in the exiting literature, the first is that case studies are often too medically based. There is a plethora of research surrounding dementia care units, ADHD sufferers, or pregnant women, however the research into general wellbeing, what we might phrase as happiness, is lacking. There is also a lack of controlling for variables within the existing studies, most notably that of income. It is obvious that those who are financially secure, will have less stresses on their mental health. It is also apparent that those who are financially secure tend to live in greener areas, with a higher (un)built environmental quality. There is a great potential here for bias in the reporting of wellbeing.

environments, and income. I must also define the scope of my study, and the level of fidelity to which I will evaluate the data. At too high a fidelity (individual people), the anticipated overall trend will get lost in the multivariate experiences of the participants. At too low a fidelity (national), instances of low and high mental health/(un)built environments will overlap and cancel each other out. I have chosen to set my data collection at the Local Authority level, this is due to the similarities in type; local government, defined community, and defined area, which allow me to confidently compare like for like. Whilst still offering differences in form; rich, poor, old market town, new suburb, which will give me a varied enough data set to draw patterns from. The previous studies that I have come across have been lacking in hard data, and often rely on small sample sizes in order to make wide conclusions. In order to counteract such issues, I must collect data at the largest possible scale, and from the most trustworthy resources. It is not adequate, for example, to survey a couple of hundred people and define a nationwide policy from the result. In short, a study which aims to influence policy making on a national level, must be backed up with data on the national level. quantifying income Income is clearly the easiest out of the three categories to quantify, the challenge is to find the largest and most reliable source of data, whilst still maintaining fidelity at the Local Authority level.

The best metric for income I have found is â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Gross Disposable Household Income per Headâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; by Local Authority. This is defined as the amount of income that the sum of household sector (non-dependant) individuals, retain post income distribution (taxes, social contributions and benefit payments). It is the most relevant as it calculates the true spending power of individuals, rather than raw income, or Gross Domestic Product. The most reliable source of this data available is the Office of National Statistics publication; Regional gross disposable household income, UK: 1997 to 201648. The data is broken down by region, sub-region and local area, across the entirety of the United Kingdom. This data set represents the largest and most trustworthy source of economic data regarding GDHI. In part this is due to the unique resources for data collection afforded to the Office of National Statistics. It is also due to the scope and detail of the data presented; at the Local Authority level, information is available from the year 1997 to 2016, allowing a longitudinal overview of changes in specific region of the UK. It is therefore the most appropriate data set to use in order to guarantee the accuracy of this study. For the purposes of this study, I have categorised all 391 Local authorities in order of income per captia. I have then taken the UK average Gross Disposable Household Income per head of ÂŁ19,779.13; this data is for the year49 2016 and is currently the most up to date data available. Using this average as a marker, I have chosen to focus on the 20 closest local authorities to the national average income. Limiting my study this way means that my results should not be biased by extremes of poverty or

In order to counter these issues, I will attempt to plot the relationship between high general wellbeing with access to good (un)built environments, whilst controlling for income in the UK. In order to do this, I must define a quantifiable measure for; mental health, (un)built local authority and income data 48

Trevor Fenton, Regional gross disposable household income by local authority (2018) <https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/regionalaccounts/grossdisposablehouseholdincom e/datasets/regionalgrossdisposablehouseholdincomegdhibylocalauthorityintheuk> [accessed 15 January 2019].

wealth, and should instead represent the average impact expected from the mental health (un)built environment correlation, and therefore be applicable to the largest scope of developments. quantifying mental health and wellbeing Quantifying something as abstract as wellbeing is incredibly difficult. There is an inherent bias in self reporting, as the definitions to terms such as ‘satisfaction’, ‘worthwhile’, and ‘happiness’ are amorphous and vary from person to person. Due to the non-medical nature of what we are aiming to measure, there is very little that we

can do to overcome this bias. The best way to mitigate it is to survey as many people as possible, whilst using concise and precise language. Thankfully the Office for National Statistics Annual Population Survey has four different questions to measure wellbeing50, these are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

How satisfied are you with your life nowadays? To what extent do you feel the things you do in your life are worthwhile? How happy did you feel yesterday? How anxious did you feel yesterday?

These questions cover our criteria for concise language, and are all measured on a 1-10 scale, further standardising the result. The current data set is averaged from April 2012 to March 2015, this should remove any yearly deviations in regional wellbeing. By averaging the data of all four questions we can define a singular number, which will serve as our wellbeing index.

local authority and wellbeing index

Office for National Statistics, Happiness Visualisations (2018) <https://www.ons.gov.uk/visualisations/nesscontent/dvc238/index.html> [accessed 14 January 2019].

relative wellbeing and average income When observing the wellbeing index in relation to income, there is no obvious correlation, which supports the notion that we have controlled for the effect of income on self-reported wellbeing. When converting this data into a scatter chart we again find no correlation. This is due to our restricting the sampled towns within a very narrow income corridor, centred around the average annual income for the UK, and should provide us with reliable replicable results.

quantifying the (un)built environment The Access to healthy Assets and Hazards (AHAH) report is a measure of the accessibility of so called ‘health promoting assets’, from the postcodes of all UK addresses in England and Wales. This huge source of information was carried out by the School of Environmental Sciences at Liverpool University. It covers three main sections; Retail Environment, Health Services, and Physical Environment, for our purposes we are only interested in the later section. The quality of the physical environment is qualified as the amount of green spaces within a 900-meter accessibility buffer, as well as the total number of air pollutants of; Nitrogen Dioxide, Particulate Matter, and Sulphur Dioxide. This is a great way of quantifying the quality of the surrounding (un)built landscape, and as the information is restricted to within 900 metres of a central post code, it cancels out potential overlap from different neighbourhoods. The Consumer Data Research Centre has selected a number of these data sets and made them available as detailed colour coded maps. In order to produce information at this scale, the data has been banded into ten equal 10% sections. In doing so some of the accuracy of the data is lost, however this is still the best resource available. In order to compare the twenty Local Authorities, it was essential that as much of the process was standardised as possible. I therefore made the decision to

always study a five-kilometre-wide square, focused on the centre of the principle town in the Local Authority. For example, the Local Authority of Daventry’s principle town is Daventry. Here is the raw data of the Physical Environment in a 10-kilomentre square around the town centre:

population, and poor access to these assets, the red is most vibrant. Where there is low population, and poor access, the red is faded, as this is less of a proportional issue. All areas, whether high or low in population, that have good access to healthy assets appear white or a pale shade of red.

As you can see, the best performing areas for access to green space are unsurprisingly at the edge of the town, whilst the urban centre is comparatively poor. However, this does not take into account population density in those areas. Not adjusting for population would give us a false result, as the edges of towns with a comparatively low population, but high access to green space, would skew the average Access to healthy Assets and Hazards score, disproportionately away from the centre where the majority of people live. Therefore, we must overlay the population density by region, in the same data format, and combine the two results to form a weighted result. Here is the raw population data of 10-kilometres squared of Daventry:

resulting data and critical analysis

Here we can start to see how much of an effect not accounting for population would have, as the best performing areas for healthy assets are actually in areas where no one lives. By aligning the tonal scales and removing greenspace data in those areas with no population, we can overlay the two data sets graphically, creating a hotspot map. This map accurately highlights the area’s most in need of improvements in their healthy assets, by highlighting them red. Where there is high

Access to healthy assets map for Daventry

This provides us with an easy to understand hotspot map, which accurately highlights the area’s most in need of improvements in their healthy assets. Repeating this process for the other 19 Local Authorities enables us to compare the volume of problematic hotspots between different towns, and ultimately grade them on their performance. By analysing the resulting maps using an image editor, we can find various statistics for the tonal quality of each area. By further studying this data, we can rank the various towns in order of red and white distribution, consequentially discovering which towns have the best assessable healthy assets relative to population. The key figures that we are interested in are the area white percentile, and the red shift percentile, as these two figures tell us the intensity of whites and reds in the maps. By finding the percentage of red to white within the image, we have calculated the amount and intensity of problem areas within each town. It is this adjusted percentage that we will plot on a scatter graph in order to determine whether there is a pattern.

Population and adjusted greenspace maps for Daventry

relative wellbeing and access to healthy assets As you can clearly see from the resulting graph, there is a positive relationship between percentage with good access to healthy assets, and our wellbeing index. This would seem to confirm our theory that there is a strong link between the (un) built environment and mental health. The ratio is inversely exponential, indicating that as access to healthy assets increases, its effectiveness at improving wellbeing decreases. We can speculate that access to healthy assets stops having a positive effect on wellbeing at around 70%, and stops having a negative effect on wellbeing at around 20%.

critical analysis of results There are however three outlier towns which do not align with the overall trend; Rochford, Bonnyrigg and Pershore. These three towns are spread across the x axis of our wellbeing index; however, all are at the very bottom of the y axis, percentage with good access to healthy assets. Looking in more detail at these towns, they are the areas with the highest density of the whole study, with the largest surrounding areas of no population. All other towns studied were far larger in size, with very few areas of no population, and in some cases filled the 10 square kilometres studied completely. It seems that this variance, in these three towns, has biased the result against them, leading to an artificially low healthy assets score. Another interesting feature of the resulting data is that the mean line tapers off towards the top of the graph. This would indicate that as access to healthy assets increases, its impact on the wellbeing of the people living near it lessens. If we extrapolate from the collected data, we find that the positive impact of a good (un)built environment plateaus at around 70%, whilst the increase of healthy assets has the most impact on those areas with a lower wellbeing index. This finding actually reinforces the

Ray Pawson, Nicholas Tilley, 'Realistic Evaluation', Sociological Research Methods, , (1997), , in <https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/eur/realistic-evaluation/book205276> [accessed 15 January 2019].

information gathered in the literature review, that the benefits of an improved natural environment affects the most vulnerable, and those with pre-existing conditions, to the greatest extent. conclusion I conducted this study as I was unsatisfied with the rigor and scope of the research available, often studies were anecdotal, or used broad undefinable language. The two key issues that were identified not only by myself, but by academics familiar with this theory, are that current studies were too small scale, and did not specify effectiveness. I believe that I have answered these two criticisms to the best of my ability, within the timeframe and resources available. Firstly, I made sure to draw data from the largest and most multi-variant sources possible. This ruled out surveying, as the number of people available to survey would have been too small to draw any reliable conclusions from. Instead I used pre-existing nationwide data sets, gathered by governmental and university sources. This maximised the reliability and volume of data I was able to analyse. When dealing with unspecific terms such as wellbeing, I made sure to use multiple factors, in this case; life

satisfaction, worthwhile feeling, happiness, and anxiety, in order to fully reach a broad and comprehensive definition of the terms. Secondly, I wanted to quantify my findings, so that I would be able to specify the efficacy of various policy decisions, rather than simply describe an overall trend. To do this, I created a quantifiable definition for healthy assets and wellbeing, that I would be able to directly compare to a more obvious numerical figure, such as income. This focus on specificity has enabled me to discover a direct correlation between the two key factors, as well as an effectiveness ratio between the two. In a 1999 paper detailing the proper methods and objectives involved in good studies, a call was made for good quality evaluations, in order to determine “what works, when and for whom”51. Whilst I am happy with my overall study and its findings, I do not feel I have adequately answered this brief. As previously detailed, I am unable to make reliable findings in the ‘whom’ section, however I do believe I can go into greater detail on the ‘what’ and the ‘when’. I now wish to explore some of the direct actions that have been taken within architectural design to improve the (un)built environment.

local authority and adjusted percentile

3 current architectural literature introduction So far in this essay, I have talked almost exclusively about the psychological concerns surrounding the (un)built. However, such concepts are not merely theoretical, even in the absence of hard scientific evidence architects, designers, and planners have been increasingly using green infrastructures to improve the quality of local (un)built environments. Whilst large scale architectural experiments such as BedZED in London, and Our Future Foyle in Derry, capture the public’s attention, much of the design work being done around the issue of health, is far subtler in nature. Architects are using soft tactics to manipulate users into positive behaviours. Even in the aforementioned BedZED, its successes are admitted to being “due largely to the tight-knit community that has formed there”52, not the flashy architecture that accompanies it.

Douglas Farr, Sustainable Urbanism: Urban Design With Nature([n.p.]: John Wiley & Sons, 2008), p. 217. 53 Richard Register , EcoCities: Rebuilding Cities in Balance with Nature, illustrated edn (Canada, V0R 1X0 : New Society Publishers, 2006), p. 6. 54 Theresa Marteau, David Ogilvie, Martin Roland, 'Judging Nudging: Can Nudging Improve Population Health?', BMJ (online), .342, (2011), 228, in<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/49784905_Judging_Nudging_Can_Nu dging_Improve_Population_Health> [accessed 7 January 2019].

nudge architecture The process of designing for increased wellbeing is not as direct as, for example, detailing a foundation. Instead the design of our (un)built environment, whether intentional or not, pushes us subconsciously towards different patterns of behaviour. As Reichard Register lays out in Ecocities, Rebuilding Cities in Balance with Nature, “We are indirectly self-designing in a very specific way, turning ourselves into a species that reinforces its own design by building its environment in particular ways”53. Whether or not these reinforcements are healthy is an individual matter, however the fact that this process will happen even if it has not been explicitly designed for, shows that we must as an industry take choice architecture seriously. The concept of choice architecture, colloquially known as nudging, first emerged in the Health Care industry. In micro-environments, such as food halls, it was observed that behavioural patterns could be altered by subtly changing the surroundings. If the size of plates and bowls were reduced, and unhealthy foods placed further away, people would eat less and healthier54. If the time for an elevator door to close was extended, people would increasingly use the stairs55. These are controlled environments, separate from the wider landscape of the (un)built, however their example shows the level of subconscious decision making that is for the most part out of our direct control. As the food hall enforces eating patterns, “The city, town, or village…organises our resources and technologies and shapes our forms of expression”56. the necessity of immediacy

relationship found between the gross amount of greenspace (in a country)”57. This highlights the current problem of a segregated architectural and planning policy in relation to greenspace and housing, simply put it is too far away to be useful. This segregated effect was so extreme, that distance to the nearest greenspace was defined as a “significant determinant of premature mortality”58. In a 2010 Danish Study, the extreme limitations of distance on positive effect are starkly laid out. It reports that “people living further than 1 kilometre away from the nearest greenspace had poorer reported health and health related quality of life than respondents living closer than 1 kilometre from greenspaces”59. This goes further than to imply access and exposure are important, according to these findings you could be within viewing distance of a national park, and still have poorer health than an individual living on the boarder of one. Whilst these two studies are medical in nature, and not technically based in wellbeing, they speak of a broader trend that shows distance to high quality (un)built environments may be deadly. However, this is not a simple fix of replacing the built with the (un)built, as one author points out, “the sprawling nature of US cities may make them greener, but the behaviours that are associated with this style of environment (e.g. auto dependence) may supersede the health benefits”60. Greenspace therefore cannot be created by simply thinning out architecture, it must be baked into the architecture itself. This hyper-locality of effectiveness should define the way we think about installing green infrastructure within new developments. Instead of concentrating resources on a high-quality central park, it would appear to be more effective to spread smaller green infrastructures throughout a masterplan, even if doing so effects the individual quality of said parks.

One consistent theme that repeats itself through various articles, theories, and studies, is the critical nature of distance to healthy assets. A study in Florida on cardiovascular mortality stumbled upon this reality when testing to see if presence of green space increased health. It found that “while an association was found between having greater amounts of green infrastructure with defined distances from home…there was not a significant

The health and wellbeing survey, which interviewed 1802 participants in 2002, aimed to measure the local social

Jennifer Blumenthal-Barby, Hadley Burroughs, 'Seeking Better Health Care Outcomes: The Ethics of Using the "Nudge"', The American Journal of Bioethics, 2.12, (2012), 1-10, in<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221805129_Seeking_Better_Health_Ca re_Outcomes_The_Ethics_of_Using_the_Nudge> [accessed 12 January 2019]. 56 Richard Register , EcoCities: Rebuilding Cities in Balance with Nature, illustrated edn (Canada, V0R 1X0 : New Society Publishers, 2006), p. 5. 57 Christopher Coutts, Green Infrastructure and Public Health, illustrated edn (2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN: Routledge, 2016), p. 72.

connectivity and cul-de-sacs

Christopher Coutts, Green Infrastructure and Public Health, illustrated edn (2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN: Routledge, 2016), p. 73. 59 Coutts, p. 74. 60 Coutts, p. 78.

and physical environments across Glasgow city, one measure of this was an analysis of street connectivity. This parameter counted “the number of streets, defined as a unique link between two intersections, divided by the area of the data zone”61. This definition also defined Cul-desac’s as inversely related to overall street connectivity, as they restrict choice of direction and extend walking times between connection points. Interestingly “higher street connectivity was associated with better general physical wellbeing”62, this phenomenon was particularly prevalent amongst women. The finding rules against fashionable suburban development, which favour Cul-deSac and winding road layouts. Such masterplans are designed to increase security, and reduce through traffic, however in the process of doing so it may also reduce human connectivity, amplifying negative patterns of isolationist behaviour through the ‘nudge’ principle. The relevance of connectivity in wellbeing is relevant not only in horizontal living, but also in vertical typologies. Multiple studies have shown that residents of “multi-storey buildings are more likely to develop emotional illnesses that those living on lower floors”63, particularly women and children. Whilst a reason for this is not speculated on, it can be assumed that individuals who spend increased time in these environments are more affected by it. different types of density Density might be defined as the cumulation of connections, however its effect on mental health appears to be the inverse of the former. Research in 2004 showed that “those living in high density, inner city areas, versus those living in lower-density areas, experienced lower quality of life”64, however such a conclusion cannot account for variance in life experience other than density between the two groups. One conclusion to such findings, would be to point to the car industry as responsible for draining dense city centres of much of the middle and upper classes, a trend that has only recently begun to reverse. However, research conducted before suburbia had fully formed as a concept also correlates with current findings. One paper published in 1939, found inhabitants

Cary L. Cooper, Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide: Wellbeing and the Environment, ed. by Rachel Cooper , Illustrated edn ([n.p.]: Wiley-Blackwell, 2014), p. 54. 62 Cary L. Cooper, Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide: Wellbeing and the Environment, ed. by Rachel Cooper , Illustrated edn ([n.p.]: Wiley-Blackwell, 2014), p. 61. 63 Cooper, p. 79.

of dense city centres have a higher admission rate for schizophrenia65. More recent studies have separated density into more definable terms; community density (shops, gathering places, recreation facilities), and residential density (homes). This has enabled a more detailed look at the specific make-up of a built environment that may cause stress. Mixed-use developments appear to negatively impact wellbeing, with “people living on streets with shops reporting elevated levels of somatic distress, depression and anxiety”66 compared with those living on streets without shops. When both community and residential density are high, the strongest negative effect is felt, with community density affecting psychological stress in particular67. Furthermore, high density environments make social interaction more negative in behaviour, with patterns of neighbour avoidance common68. These findings confirm many anecdotal experiences of lonely cites, however the particular aversion to mixed-use developments is in stark contrast to current architectural thinking. Such an anti-density approach to design is virtually impossible to achieve in an ever-urbanising world, however there may be possibilities to work around this by looking at the specific experiential quality of dense environments. Namely the importance of dynamic density, that the impact of density on behaviour comes not from the physical presence of buildings, but the people and interactions that move throughout those buildings. Pairing the contradictory findings of connectivity and density, we can find a median point, whereby positive social interactions are not overwhelmed by extreme community density. We can also acknowledge that density is not a result of physical mass, but dynamic mass. And design places for healthy connectivity to occur, whilst avoiding particularly harmful typologies such as shops on residential streets, and living on the upper floors of tower blocks.

Cary L. Cooper, Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide: Wellbeing and the Environment, ed. by Rachel Cooper , Illustrated edn ([n.p.]: Wiley-Blackwell, 2014), p. 80. 65 Cooper, p. 79. 66 Cooper, p. 80. 67 Cooper, p. 80.

conclusion Conspicuously lacking from this architectural study of wellbeing, is much in the way of true architecture. Whilst there are many examples of high-profile alternative-living architectural case studies, most do not have any concept of which particular elements within their design build and sustain good health. Conclusions are vague, and often based more on personal taste or even the fashion of the time. Some of the findings previously discussed directly counter current design fashions, most notably in mixed use developments, which are actually found to cause stress levels to peak, and create patterns of neighbour avoidance. This is at complete odds with the common practice of blending typologies and functions within a scheme. Perhaps something could be learned from the Glenwood Park development in Atlanta, which deliberately used deep front porches to shield owners from direct engagement with the street, whilst still allowing a venue for social interaction when desired69. I have found that the improvements to our built and (un)built environments are often not obvious. Instead we should look to the psychological literature, to find nonobvious, intellectually minded and cautious solutions, before drawing our own grandiose conclusions about what we would want to see in a development. The most effective policies can be found in the philosophy of choice architecture, or nudging, whereby the interventions have little conscious engagement in order to realise their intended effect. This could also be the reason immediacy of greenspace is so vital. In order for the mental health benefits associated with time in natural environments to take place, we must be constantly reminded of its presence, through microenvironmental triggers and situations. It is the accumulation of these experiences that builds up over time, and ‘nudges’ us towards a healthier mindset, and increased wellbeing.

Cooper, p. 80. Douglas Farr, Sustainable Urbanism: Urban Design With Nature([n.p.]: John Wiley & Sons, 2008), p. 218. 69

4 quantifying efficacy introduction Finding the psychological literature surrounding (un)built environment’s wanting, I set about trying to prove a causal link between greenspace and wellbeing. Having now looked at the architectural literature on the topic, I again am left wanting more solidity in the findings. Instead of simply acknowledging that greenspace, and good (un)built environments, are nice things to have, can we quantify specific amounts? Can we define the efficacy of various types of environment? I will aim in this section to answer some of these questions, acknowledging that whilst no answer will ever be complete, or truly applicable

to all circumstances, it can at least begin to direct the architectural conversion on such matters. It is my hope that the information discovered in this research will enable architects and planners to make more informed decisions about design in the future. methods and sources In order for this data to align with my previous findings, I will be restricting my analysis to the same twenty Local Authorities, and principle towns. This way I can build a more detailed layer of information on top of my preestablished foundation. However, the previous study highlighted Pershore, Bonnyrigg, and Rochford as being unsuitable for comparison, due to their relatively small total area. Further analysis reveals Coleford as also being substantially smaller than the sixteen other towns; this information was previously hidden due to Coleford’s low score on the wellbeing index. I have therefore taken the decision to remove all four towns from the data set, and to focus on the remaining towns, which have a more unified character. So far, my analysis has established a correlation between the overall wellbeing of inhabitants of a town, and their relative accessibility to healthy assets, namely greenspace. The term greenspace is father broad however, and so I want to subdivide these assets into three main categories: woodland, grassland, and public paved areas.

I have decided to use the Digimap data delivery service, operated by the University of Edinburgh. This online resource collects information from the Ordinance Survey, marine maps, and LIDAR data among others. It is the most comprehensive and trustworthy mapping data available in the UK. Using Ordinance Survey information, we can extract detailed maps highlighting various types of ground cover, and from this calculate their relative areas. This data is then input into a chart, which can then be used to plot scatter graphs of the various relationships between the different categories. From this a line of best fit, or mean line, can be calculated. This should give us some indication as to the relationship of wellbeing to grassland, woodland, and paved areas respectively. The trend line for this graph shows a positive ratio of woodland area per person to wellbeing. The ratio is exponential in nature, indicating that as woodland area increases, its effectiveness at improving wellbeing decreases. We can speculate that woodland area stops having a negative effect on wellbeing at around 0.3m² per person, and stops having a positive effect on wellbeing at around 3.0 m² per person. The one outlier to this graph is Penrith. Situated within the Eden Valley, and less than 3 miles from the Lake District National Park, it is clear that Penrith has an unusually wild setting, which has caused this relative imbalance.

DIGI map data of Daventry

woodland and grassland per person

paved area and total greenspace per person

relative wellbeing and woodland area per person (m²) The trend line for this graph shows a positive ratio of woodland area per person to wellbeing. The ratio is exponential in nature, indicating that as woodland area increases, its effectiveness at improving wellbeing decreases. We can speculate that woodland area stops having a negative effect on wellbeing at around 0.3m² per person, and stops having a positive effect on wellbeing at around 3.0 m² per person. The one outlier to this graph is Penrith. Situated within the Eden Valley, and less than 3 miles from the Lake District National Park, it is clear that Penrith has an unusually wild setting, which has caused this relative imbalance.

relative wellbeing and grassland area per person (mÂ˛) The trend line for this graph also shows a positive ratio of grassland area per person to wellbeing, and again is exponential in nature. The boundary of positive effect is situated around 3.5 mÂ˛ to 4.0 mÂ˛ per captia. This graph again has one outlier, the Scottish city of Perth. This is due almost entirely to Moncreiffe island which, despite being in the centre of the city, is undeveloped and currently used as a golf course. The data for this graph has a far greater variance than that for woodland, and so it can be inferred that the quality of grassland, and its effect on wellbeing, varies greatly between towns.

relative wellbeing and public paved area per person (mÂ˛) This graph is distinct from the previous two, however not for good reasons. Public paved area per person appears to have no observable impact on wellbeing, with the only fluctuation towards the end of the trend line being due to three extreme outliers. Daventry, Penrith, and Perth all have large industrial estates and business parks relative to their size, whose public areas are counted within this study. Penrith and Perth are both regional hubs, which may explain the overabundance of industry in these towns.

relative wellbeing and total green area per person (mÂ˛) Taking the two categories that have proved to have a positive impact on wellbeing, we can combine the totals to produce an overall chart showing the relation between total green area per person and wellbeing. This shows the strongest relationship yet between the two, with the previous outliers combining to show a more balanced gradient of effectiveness. As greenspace per person increases, the effect on wellbeing decreases, and also diverges, as is apparent by biasing the trend lines above and below the average. This indicates a limit of efficacy, after which relative wellbeing becomes more dependent on other factors.

relative wellbeing and gross green area (mÂ˛) So far, all graphs have been controlled for population size, this graph however charts gross green area to wellbeing. The familiar positive exponential relationship seen in previous graphs is entirely missing here, with even a small inverse ratio observable, once outliers have been accounted for. The ratio has such a small effect however that it can be dismissed as negligible. We can conclude therefore that wellbeing is not affected by the overall area of greenspace, but by its quantity relative to population.

average income and total green area per person (mÂ˛) In order to make sure we are not simply observing a false result brought about by differences in wealth of the areas (the largest predictor for wellbeing), I have run a control study comparing income and green area per person. As is observable, there is no correlation between the two categories, to the extent that a trend line cannot even be drawn. This result should indicate that relative wealth is not unduly affecting our results.

critical analysis of results Of the three main categories of healthy asset tested, grassland had the greatest impact on wellbeing, with woodlands a close second. Both indicated a positive exponential relationship, with upper and lower limits on effectiveness. When these two categories were combined, severe outliers became more in sync with the overall trend. On the extreme positive end of the data, a divergence in efficacy was observed, this showed the presence of other contributing factors at this scale, which have not been accounted for. It can therefore be concluded that once total green area per person reaches 3.0 m² to 4.0 m² and above, effect on wellbeing is negligible. Public paved areas showed no correlation to wellbeing, it is notable however that all three outliers in this category are the highest scoring on our wellbeing index. Whilst it is doubtful that industrial parks are significantly improving wellbeing, it may be that industry is attracted to the region due to a higher quality of life. As this relationship is not observed in any of the other thirteen towns, this can for now be dismissed as coincidence. The gross amount of greenspace, and relative average incomes of the areas studied were also found to have no correlation with wellbeing. Unfortunately, three towns had to be excluded from the data set, due to previous anomalies in results produced by their usually compact size. If this study were to be re-run, I would like to find a way to control for this variable, by perhaps varying the data collection size from its current standard of five square kilometres. Taking this action would however produce unforeseen consequences which would have to be mitigated. There were three towns which were consistently outliers in this data set, Daventry, Penrith, and Perth. These towns displayed atypical levels of woodland, grassland, and public paved areas, compromising the quality and reliability of the resulting mean lines. Whilst I am satisfied that sufficient correlation has been proved in the more standard towns, this has reduced the reliable sample size of non-outlier towns to a mere thirteen. Buy expanding the sample size back to the original twenty, but with tighter

Christopher Coutts, Green Infrastructure and Public Health, illustrated edn (2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN: Routledge, 2016), p. 73.

controls on which towns are selected, a more reliable correlation could be proved. However, this could be construed as too selective to be an un-biased sample, and with every additional town we move further away from the average income control, increasing the risk of wealth biasing the result. conclusion This study into the varying effects of types of healthy assets, has reaffirmed the link between wellbeing and a good (un)built environment. It has gone further in breaking down not only the best types of healthy asset, but also the boundaries of positive and negative effects of such assets. This enables architects and planners to make informed decisions when designing with the (un)built environment in mind. Whereas the information provided previously only gave an instruction of ‘more greenspace is probably better’, now we can say with certainty that grassland is the most effective wellbeing improver, and that a ratio of 3.5 m² to 4.0 m² per person is the ideal amount to provide. Woodlands also provide a positive effect, but not at the same level. Therefore, design must be focused on truly green, but not completely wild accessible spaces within the heart of the community. A new nature reserve to the side of a town is simply not equivalent to a good park in the middle of a town. Paved areas have no positive impact, and therefore cannot be used as an easy way to improve (un)built environments. True efforts must be made to incorporate green infrastructure within design, not simply provide paved areas in between the mass of buildings. We have also proved that simply increasing the gross amount of greenspace will not have an effect either way on a population, and instead the key figure is a per person amount. We can also show that this effect is not a result of the wealthy simply having more access to quality (un)built environments than the poor, and that the positive mental benefits of good quality healthy assets is felt across varied income levels.

conclusion introduction It has been my consistent aim throughout this essay to clarify and quantify findings. The intellectual worlds of psychology and environmentalism are naturally vague and ideological in their conclusions. It is my feeling that this has been to the detriment of establishing good practice in design. Whilst other areas of concern, such as physical disabilities, have argued through observable and repeatable findings for regulations protecting their interests, wellbeing and the (un)built remaining theoretical have allowed themselves to be ignored by the construction industry. With the rapid global rise of mental illness, and the everincreasing numbers of people living in urban areas, this cannot be ignored any longer. After researching both the psychological and architectural literature on the topic, as well as conducting two independent studies into the matter, I believe we must establish five new rules of good practice: Rule 1: the (un)built should be treated as seriously as the built The overwhelming quantity of evidence points to a direct link between time spent in quality environments and improvements to mental and physical health. The hardarchitectural nature of buildings can make the more fluctuating nature of landscapes seem trivial. However, these landscapes, these healthy assets, are so important to our wellbeing, that the change in the distance taken to reach one has been described as a “significant determinant of premature mortality”70.

I have proven a direct relationship between the access to healthy assets that a community has, and the relative wellbeing of that community, even when omitting income as a factor. This shows that this link is not just a theoretical, and actually applies to real world situations. Rule 2: the (un)built is not a luxury for the wealthy, but a necessity for the vulnerable

increase the quantity of good environments, not necessarily the gross size of individual environments76.

planning system alongside other regulations and mandatory minimums.

My personal research has shown that there is no connection between gross size of greenspaces and wellbeing, rather the relationship is tied to amount per user. Architects cannot rely on nearby expanses of greenspace if it is not integrated and tailored specifically to the needs of the development.

The (un)built is not simply an area that architects can use to test their imagination, rather it is an area whose deepest impact on us is subconscious, and subtle80. It should be treated with the caution that such profound effects deserve.

Rule 4:

Studies have consistently shown that improvements maximise among the most vulnerable in society. Access to good (un)built environments are particularly important for those with pre-existing conditions, such as dementia71 or ADD72. Often, this form of treatment not only improves mental health, but also produces physical improvements, such as the increased production of anti-cancer cells73. The mental wellbeing gap between the rich and the poor can be reduced by up to 40%74 merely with the presence of greenspaces.

Architects and designers cannot rely on old notions of forcing people to mix within prescribed environments. A good (un)built environment affords the user privacy when needed and socialisation when desired. Forcing interaction through mixing typologies and cutting out privacy barriers decreases wellbeing77 and increases isolation78.

In my research I have also found that the relationship between good (un)built environments and wellbeing is exponential. That is healthy assets have the most impact on those with the poorest mental health. We therefore cannot continue to think of good (un)built environments as a luxury, when doing so deprives their benefits from those who need it the most.

When laying out developments, care must be taken to maximise directional choice through road connectivity79, vertical dead ends such as the top of tower blocks are also harmful, and should be mitigated where possible. The density of public spaces should be thought of as dynamic density; how much is going on in this environment, rather than how much stuff is in this environment.

Rule 3:

Rule 5:

the (un)built should be built into architecture, not placed alongside it

the (un)built should be regulated and mature

Benefits are not found from intermittent interaction with good (un)built environments. Instead, sustained and consistent exposure is key to achieving results. This hyperlocality has been shown to have an observable effect when moving greenspace just one kilometre away75. Good (un)built environments should not be defined as large parks, but rather a series of micro environments, that people pass through every day. Efforts should be made to 71

Rebecca Whear, Jo Thompson-Coon, Alison Bethel, Rebecca Abbott, 'What Is the Impact of Using Outdoor Spaces Such as Gardens on the Physical and Mental WellBeing of Those With Dementia? A Systematic Review of Quantitative and Qualitative Evidence', Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 15.10, (2014), 697705, in<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263968465_What_Is_the_Impact_of_Us ing_Outdoor_Spaces_Such_as_Gardens_on_the_Physical_and_Mental_WellBeing_of_Those_With_Dementia_A_Systematic_Review_of_Quantitative_and_Qualitativ e_Evidence> [accessed 11 December 2018] 72 Iana Markevych, Carla M.T. Tiesler, Elaine Fuertes, Marcel Romanos, 'Access to urban green spaces and behavioural problems in children: Results from the GINIplus and

the (un)built should be as private as it is public

The (un)built is not undefinable, or unquantifiable. Through study and research, we can find numerical values of efficiency for improving wellbeing. It is entirely possible that, just as a bedroom is regulated in size, the amount of woodland per person can be regulated. My research has found boundaries of both positive and negative effects for various types of healthy assets. This information, and information like it, should be incorporated into the

LISAplus studies', Environment International , .71, (2014), 29-35, in<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263322936_Access_to_urban_green_sp aces_and_behavioural_problems_in_children_Results_from_the_GINIplus_and_LISAplus _studies> [accessed 11 December 2018]. 73 Christopher Coutts, Green Infrastructure and Public Health, illustrated edn (2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN: Routledge, 2016), p. 52. 74 Richard J. Mitchell, Elizabeth A. Richardson,, 'Neighbourhood Environments and Socioeconomic Inequalities in Mental Well-Being.', American journal of preventive medicine, .49, (2015), 80-84, in <https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Neighborhood-Environments-andSocioeconomic-in-Mitchell-

These rules are a start, to what I hope will be a gradual change in attitude within the construction industry. Our (un)built environment has been proven to be influential, wide-ranging in its potential benefits, and occasionally deadly. It is time we started treating it with the seriousness it deserves.

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