John Robbs AH345: Birth of Modern Art Dr. Brett Knappe 4 December 2014 Exploiting the Orient in Art Despite pursuing a career in academic art later in his career Jean-Léon Gérôme’s true success relied upon the incorporation of exoticism in his artwork. 1 During the nineteenth century, the fascination with foreign culture, the expansion of available transportation, and the orientalist painting style all contributed to the success of exoticism in painting in Europe. Gérôme’s painting, The First Kiss of the Sun, 1886 (Figure 1) demonstrates the use of exoticism in art to create a successful artwork. The key to understanding how this painting fits in with the body of artwork from the nineteenth century that integrates exoticism begins with understanding exoticism and its role in society. Exoticism can be defined as showing what is alien, odd, or exotic; but its roots extend back into the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries when Western Europe and China established trade. The demand for foreign goods such as silk and porcelain increased dramatically within the wealthy and middle classes over the years following their introduction to Europeans.2 Writings of far off lands intrigued people with elements of “Barbaric Splendour,” as English writer and explorer Sir Richard F. Burton
1 Stephen Bann, “Reassessing Repetition in Nineteenth-Century Academic Painting: Delaroche, Gérôme, Ingres,” in The Repeating Image: Multiples in French Painting from David to Matisse, ed. Eik Kahng (Baltimore: the Walters Art Museum, 2007), 42. 2 Richard W. Bulliet, Pamela Kyle Crossley, Daniel R. Headrick, Steven W. Hirsh, Lyman L. Johnson, and David Northrup, The Earth and its Peoples, Volume II (Boston: Wadsworth, 2011), 563.
2 described it.3 When Japan reopened trade with Europe in 1854, a similar increase in demand for Japanese products such as hand-decorated fans, room dividers, and porcelain was observed. Europeans who went on the Grand Tour acquired exotic tastes from their travels. In the mid-nineteenth century, home decoration began to exemplify the eastern style, largely as a result of England’s imperial control in India, China, and parts of Africa at the time. This control made it easier to produce replicas of eastern goods in the west.4 Furthermore, the Industrial Revolution began remolding England’s processes of creating goods during the second half of the eighteenth century and subsequently spread through Western Europe.5 These changes moved production away from hand building and towards mass production with machines because they could create many identical products much faster.6 Consumers desired easterninspired products because they had not yet been affected by the industrial revolution and seemingly maintained their artistic individualism. 7 Mass production, while excelling in efficiency, resulted in a loss of quality as factories pushed to lower costs. 8 While society thirsted for foreign goods, they were not the only elements that contributed to the craze over exoticism. In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte went on an expedition to Egypt and discovered an abundance of ancient culture. This expedition initiated the obsession with Egyptian culture that is now referred to as Egyptomania. 9 Shortly after this expedition, in 1806, 3 Sir Richard Francis Burton, The Memorial Edition of the works of Captain Sir Richard F. Burton, Volume 3, ed. Isabel Burton (London: Tylston and Edwards, 1914), 124. 4 Sara J. Oshinsky, "Exoticism in the Decorative Arts" The Metropolitan Museum of Art, published October 2004, accessed September 2014. 5 Bulliet, 607. 6 Ibid., 612. 7 Oshinsky, “Exoticism in the Decorative Arts.” 8 Bulliet, 614. 9 Bob Brier, Egyptomania (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 43.
3 a complete scientific description of Egypt was published: Description de l’Égypte. This publication helped the rest of the world understand the land of Egypt by including the first map of Egypt along with many illustrations of Egyptian architecture and art. 10 Western interest in Egypt flourished during the Industrial Revolution. Products with the name “Egypt” on them sold simply because they were affiliated with the exotic. Cigarettes, tobacco, and Reade Brother’s Egyptian Salve, none of which had any direct connections with Egypt, all sold well due to the Egyptian name on the package. 11 While mass production and exploitation of the Egyptian name contributed to the spread of Middle Eastern culture in Europe, another factor that sped up the process was the construction of railroads across Europe.12 The construction of railroads spread industrialization across the rest of Europe at the start of the nineteenth century. 13 They provided transportation not only to the upper classes, but also to the middle class as well. This meant that now people could travel to the exotic lands about which they had been fanaticizing and reading. Participants of the Grand Tour were able to go farther off of the typical route and experience a greater variety of cultures than before. 14 As a result of availability, naturally people craved more. With the appearance of leisure time after the French Revolution, an increasing number of people were able to travel. Artists too were able to travel to these exotic lands and experience the culture themselves. Exoticism essentially encouraged artists to travel. In order to offer the 10 Brier, 60. 11 Ibid., 102. 12 Builliet, 714. 13 Ibid., 618. 14 Oshinsky, “Exoticism in Decorative Arts.”
4 odd and alien aesthetic of foreign lands in their paintings, artists needed to experience it.15 Paintings that incorporated a Middle Eastern subject or setting and then implied European cultures were supreme to the primitive appearance of the Middle East were referred to as orientalist paintings.16 Gérôme took many trips to the Middle East to observe the culture. Not all of Gérôme’s paintings of the Middle East were painted while he was traveling. It was common for orientalist painters dress models to look Middle Eastern while painting in their studio.17 This approach exaggerated the notion that the orient was inferior to European society by assuming its likeness can be produced anywhere by using costumes. Unfortunately, the availability of transportation to the masses had a negative effect on the integrity of exoticism. Exoticism relied upon the mystery of an unknown foreign land to intrigue society. According to Dr. Roger Benjamin, once the entire world has been explored, exoticism could be lost forever. 18 In reality, despite the availability of transportation, it is unrealistic to assume that everyone will travel everywhere, therefore, eliminating the presence of mysterious, alien lands. Orientalism, conversely, thrived because not only were spectators able to place themselves in the foreign land by viewing the paintings, they could travel to the destinations in the paintings and live out their fantasies. Gérôme portrays an exotic image of Egypt in his painting The First Kiss of the Sun, however, in this painting he idealizes the primitive setting. This mélange of 15 Roger Benjamin, Orientalist Aesthetics: Art, Colonialism, and French North Africa, 1880-1930 (Berkley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2003), 61. 16 Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Random House, Inc., 1979), 34. 17 The Nelson Atkins Museum of Art, gallery label, Jean-Léon Gérôme, The First Kiss of the Sun (September 6, 2014). 18 Benjamin, 61.
5 neoclassical idealism and orientalist subject matter is the quintessential example of idealized exoticism. In the painting, G茅r么me depicts five pyramids deep in the background. He creates depth through his masterful use of atmospheric perspective and shows that the sun has just broken the surface of the horizon by showing its powerful rays of light only on the tops of the pyramids. In the foreground, he places camels resting near a cluster of crude tents. He uses an open composition, however the size of the two pyramids on the right offset the dark cluster of tents and trees on the left. His inclusion of easily recognizable Egyptian architecture makes it clear where the image is set. He utilizes his experience in Neoclassical history painting studying under Paul Delaroche in his early career to create a beautiful image of the ostensibly ancient setting.19 The First Kiss of the Sun fulfills all of the criteria of an orientalist painting. It is set in the Middle East, specifically Egypt, and it incorporates the undeveloped aspects of Egyptian culture to show it as inferior to European culture. 20 In order to depict it as inferior, G茅r么me places the cluster of tents and camels in the foreground so that they cannot be missed. By 1886, when this painting was completed, the industrial revolution had spread through most of Western Europe. By emphasizing the makeshift housing and ancient mode of transportation, it appears more primitive to viewers in relation to the recent technological progression they experienced. Furthermore, by omitting any human subjects from the painting, he leaves the painting open for fantasizing and interpretation by the viewer. This allowed viewers to imagine
19 Bann, 39. 20 Said, 34.
6 themselves in a foreign land with nothing but a tent and a camel to survive in a nomadic society. Allowing the audience to use artwork as an outlet for fantasizing was one way to draw them into the work. In order to catch the eye of the viewers, it was necessary for Gérôme to choose a topic of interest. The pyramids, despite being located in the background, are large enough to dominate the composition. These iconic structures of the Orient are the equivalent to stamping the word “Egypt” on a cigarette tin during the industrial revolution in the eyes of the consumer. Just as Egyptologist Bob Brier states in his book, Egyptomania, “Egypt Sells.”21 Exoticism provided Gérôme with the eye-catching element that his earlier works were missing. Another painting by Gérôme that exploited the popularity of exoticism was On the Desert, 1867 (Figure 2). In this painting, there is a man dressed in simple garments with two Egyptian greyhounds walking through the desolate sand. 22 This image, while more simple in composition than The First Kiss, upholds similar values. It is clearly set in the Middle Eastern desert and it does not reference any technological advances, but rather emphasizes simplicity. Again, the purpose of this painting is to depict a likeness of Egypt so that Western Europeans could gaze at the spectacular exotic landscape and superimpose themselves into a fantasy. It is important to remember, however, that though these paintings look realistic, they were not all painted en plein air. Many of these paintings were composed from sketches made while traveling and then rearranged and changed for
21 Brier, 3. 22 Thomas B. Cole, “On the Desert,” The Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol 311, no. 13 (2014): 1276.
7 the final composition.23 A prime example is exemplified by Gérôme’s oil painting, Arab Encampment, 1877 (Figure 3). Upon first glance, it follows the pattern of his other orientalist paintings. It is a landscape painting set in Egypt at sunrise. It is easily recognizable that it is in Egypt due to the skyline, which consists of five distant pyramids. Again, he provides us with crude tents and camels to show the primitive Egyptian culture, while not providing any identifiable people to allow spectators to imagine themselves in the setting. Among the similarities, however, there is one similarity that stands out more than the others. The entire background is nearly identical to that of The First Kiss, made nine years later only the foreground changes. In Arab Encampment the foreground primarily focuses on a large body of water with tents around it. There is also a cluster of palm trees that are located in a position similar to that of the trees in The First Kiss suggesting that Gérôme may have reused the sketches of the horizon that he made while he was in Egypt to create more paintings later. This was acceptable within orientalism because it was not concerned with creating an exact replication because the target audience likely would not know what it actually looked like. One of the most famous French orientalist artists during the nineteenth century was Eugene Delacroix. Many of his paintings depicted partially naked women in a Middle Eastern setting. One of his paintings that did not incorporate nudity was The Women of Algiers, 1834 (Figure 4). In 1832, Delacroix travelled to Morocco and Algeria. While on his trip he supposedly visited a harem to fully absorb the exotic culture. The Women of Algiers depicts three women and a servant inside an Algerian 23 The Nelson Atkins Museum of Art.
8 harem. Delacroix portrays the women in a Middle Eastern setting, just as orientalism requires, however, unlike Gérôme, he gives them individual characteristics. This is considered acceptable because it is a painting about the luxury items in the orient, women included. The individual characteristics make them seem more real, just as Gérôme makes his landscapes seem real by incorporating iconic elements of the culture, such as the Egyptian pyramids. This type of painting allowed European men to imagine they were living in the orient with a room full of women waiting to fulfill their every desire. The Middle Eastern decoration and clothing makes it clear that it is foreign. The primary difference between the orientalist works of Gérôme and Delacroix was the objectification of women. Gérôme decided to focus on landscape, while Delacroix focused on the personal life of this exotic culture. While Gérôme is less well known today, he was considered one of the most talented painters of his time.24 Throughout his career he created many different styles of artwork, including historical painting, portraiture, and orientalism. Later in his career, he married the daughter of his teacher’s dealer, Adolphe Goupil. 25 He also was successful at reproducing prints and photographs in the late nineteenth century as a result of the increasing market for academic art. 26 Despite these other avenues of success his works based on exoticism such as The First Kiss of the Sun are now considered some of his best works. The European fascination with foreign culture, the expansion of international transportation, and the orientalist aesthetic all
24 Bann, 42. 25 Ibid. 26 Ibid., 41.
9 contributed to Jean-Léon Gérôme’s success through using exoticism within his paintings.
10 Figure 1 First Kiss of the Sun – Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1886
Figure 2
11 On the Desert – Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1867
12 Figure 3
Arab Encampment – Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1877
13 Figure 4 The Women of Algiers – Delacroix, 1834
14 Bibliography Ackerman, Gerald M. Jean-Léon Gérôme: Monographie Révisée, Catalogue Raisonné Mis À Jour. Courbevoie: ACR, 2000. Ackerman, Gerald M. "Gérôme’s Oriental Paintings and the Western Genre Tradition." Arts Magazine (00044059) 60, no. 7 (March 1986): 75-80. Art & Architecture Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed September 15, 2014). Ackerman, Gerald M., and Christian Diebold. Les Orientalistes De L'ecole Américaine. Paris: ACR Édition, 1994. Allan, Scott Christopher. Reconsidering Gérôme. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2010. Bann, Stephen. “Reassessing Repetition in Nineteenth-Century Academic Painting: Delaroche, Gérôme, Ingres.” In The Repeating Image: Multiples in French Painting from David to Matisse, edited by Eik Kahng, 27-52. Baltimore: the Walters Art Museum, 2007. Benjamin, Roger. Orientalist Aesthetics: Art, Colonialism, and French North Africa, 1880-1930. Berkley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2003. Brier, Bob. Egyptomania. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013. Bulliet, Richard W., Pamela Kyle Crossley, Daniel R. Headrick, Steven W.Hirsh, Lyman L. Johnson, and David Northrup. The Earth and its Peoples, Volume II. Boston: Wadsworth, 2011. Burton, Sir Richard Francis. The Memorial Edition of the works of Captain Sir Richard F. Burton, Volume 3. Edited by Isabel Burton. London: Tylston and Edwards, 1914.
15 Bibliography (continued) Cole, Thomas B. “On the Desert.” The Journal of the American Medical Association 311, no. 13 (2014): 1276-1277. "Gérôme in Egypt." Apollo: The International Magazine Of Art & Antiques 97, (March 1973): 311-312. Art & Architecture Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed September 15, 2014). Grigsby, Darcy Grimaldo. 2002. Extremities: painting empire in post-revolutionary France. New Haven: Yale University Press. "Jean-Leon Gerome (French, 1824-1904) | The First Kiss of the Sun | Christie's." JeanLeon Gerome (French, 1824-1904) | The First Kiss of the Sun | Christie's. Accessed September 18, 2014. http://www.christies.com/lotfinder/lot_details.aspx? intObjectID=4110103#top. Katrina Garnett, Title plate in the Nelson Atkins Museum of Art. Kahng, Eik, and Stephen Bann. 2007. The repeating image: multiples in French painting from David to Matisse. Baltimore: Walters Art Museum. McCabe, Ina Baghdiantz. 2008. Orientalism in early modern France Eurasian trade, exoticism, and the Ancien Régime. Oxford: Berg. Oshinsky, Sara J. "Exoticism in the Decorative Arts." In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. Published October 2004. Accessed September 2014. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/exot/hd_exot.htm. Said, Edward W. Orientalism. New York: Random House Inc., 1979.
16 Bibliography (continued) "The American Pupils of Jean-Léon Gérôme." American Artist 49, no. 519 (October 1985): 84-86. Art & Architecture Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed September 15, 2014). "Jean-Léon Gérôme - The Complete Works." Jean-Léon Gérôme - The Complete Works. Accessed September 18, 2014. http://www.jeanleongerome.org/. "The Spectacular Art of Jean-Leon Gerome (Getty Center Exhibitions)." The Spectacular Art of Jean-Leon Gerome (Getty Center Exhibitions). Accessed September 18, 2014. http://www.getty.edu/art/exhibitions/gerome/. Tinterow, Gary, Henri Loyrette, and France Paris. Origins of Impressionism. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art :, 1994.