UNIVERSIDAD AUTÓNOMA DE CHIRIQUÍ BRANCH BOQUETE
BY: JOSÉ A. CABALLERO S. I.D: 4-755-312
PORFOLIO
SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION – ING.370 TEACHER: DAYRA GONZÁLEZ
NOVEMBER 27TH, 2012.
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
LANGUAGE IS EXTREMELY COMPLEX.
Mechanisms of Language Acquisition Most of the early theories about language acquisition were influenced by behaviorism. Language was viewed as a verbal behavior and it was proposed that children learn language through imitation, reinforcement, analogy, and similar process. However, Noam Chomsky showed that is a complex cognitive system that could not be acquired by behaviorist principles.
Do Children Learn through Imitation
Do Children Learn through Reinforcement
Do Children Learn Language through Analogy
Do Children Learn through Structural Input
Imitation is involved in some extent; however, the first words that children produce show that they do not imitate adult speech. Child try to imitate what they hear but they do not produce sentences. Behaviorist Tradition: children learn to produce correct (grammatical) sentences because they reinforced constantly when they say something incorrectly. Reinforcement seldom occurs; when it does, the correction is on mispronunciation or incorrect reporting of facts. Children put words together to form phrases and sentences by analogy, by hearing a sentence and using it as example to form other sentences. A computer model of language representation and acquisition called connectionism; it relies in part of behaviorist learning principles such as analogy and reinforcement. Children are able to learn when they receive a special language from the adults called motherese. Motherese is not syntactically simpler. It contains a range of sentences types, including syntactically complex sentences such as questions. Infants prefer to listen motherese that to a normal adult speech. Analogy, imitation, reinforcement cannot account for language development because their assumption what the child acquires is a set of sentences or forms rather than grammatical rules.
CHILDREN CONSTRUCT GRAMMARS
Language acquisition is a creative process. The language acquisition of children occurs under different cultural and social circumstances. Children are equipped with an innate template or blueprint for language which is referred to as Universal Grammar. This blueprint aids the child in the task of constructing a grammar for her language which is referred to as the Innateness Hypothesis.
The Innateness Hypothesis
Stages in Language Acquisition
The Perception and Production of the Speech Sound
First Words
The innateness hypothesis receives support from the observation the grammar of a person ends up with a vastly undetermined by linguistic experience. This argument is called the poverty of the stimulus. Children come to know aspects of grammar about which they receive no information. According to the innateness hypothesis children come prewired with knowledge of universal grammar. The child also learns many aspects of grammar from her specific linguistic environment. The child extracts from the linguistic environment those rule of grammar that are language specific such word order and movement rules. The process of language acquisition is fast, but it is not instantaneous. They begin by babbling around six months, one word stage around one years old children use vocal noises to get the attention and other objectives, two words stage around 20 month of age when the child have a vocabulary of about 50 words, beyond two words around 2 years old the expression of the children become more complex, and by 3 years of age, utterances containing multiple clauses appear.
A newborn will respond to phonetic contrast found in human language even when these differences are not phonemic in the language spoken in the baby´s home. Infants can perceive voicing contrast, contrast in place of articulation. Infants appear to be born with the ability to perceive just those sounds that are phonemic in some language. During the first years of life, the infants ‘job is to uncover the sounds, after that they begin to lose the ability to discriminate between sound that are not phonemic in his language. Finally, they include the sounds that occur in the target language. Sometimes after the age of one, children begin to use repeatedly the same string of sounds to mean the same thing. At this stage children realize that sounds are related to meanings. Most children go through stage in which their utterances consist of only one word. This is called the holophrastic stage. One word utterances seem to have a more complex message. Children´s grammatical competences are ahead of their productive abilities.
THE DEVELOP OF THE GRAMMAR Children are biologically equipped to acquire all aspects of grammar. Acquisition of the Phonology
The Acquisition of the Word Meaning
The Acquisition of Morphology
The Acquisition of Syntax
Roman Jacobson said that children acquire the small set of sound common to all language in the world and stages later a child acquires the less common sounds of his own language. The order of acquisition the sound goes by manner of articulation: nasals- glides- stops- liquids- fricativesaffricates. Natural classes characterized by place of articulation features also appear in children in ordered series: labials- velarsalveolars- palatals. Children of one year can perceive or comprehend many phonological contrasts that they can produce. They sometimes produce a sound that is indiscernible to adult observers. Child´s first word show many substitutions of one feature or phoneme for another. Children´s early pronunciations are not haphazard. The phonological substitutions are rule governed. Child may extend the meaning of a word from a particular referent to encompass a larger class. To use words, the object has to be physically present, but it does not last very long. Children learn the meaning of the words connecting sound with the object. Children learn approximately 14 words a day for the first six years of their lives. The acquisition of morphology provides the clearest evidence of rule learning. Children´s errors in morphology reveal that the child acquires the regular rules of the grammar and overgeneralizes them. This overgeneralization occurs when children treat irregular verbs and nouns as if they were regular. Children generally go through three phases in the acquisition of the irregular form: 1(broke), 2(breaked), 3(broke). Children also show knowledge of the derivational rules of their language and use those rules to create novel words. This evidence affirms that language acquisition is a creative process and that children utterances reflect their internal grammars, which include both derivational and inflectional rules. Children syntactic competence is ahead of their productive abilities, which is also how their phonology develops. Around the time second birthday, children begin to put words together. Because children mature at different rates and the age at which children star to produce words and put words together varies, chronological age is not a good measure of a childs
The Acquisition of Pragmatics
Settings Parameters
The Acquisition of Signed Language
language development. Researches use the child´s mean length of utterances (MLU) to compare the progress of the children. MLU is usually measured in terms of morphemes rather than words. Children with the same MLU are likely to have similar grammars even though they are different ages. The correct use of words order, case marking, and agreement rules shows that even though children may often omit function, they are aware of constituent structure and syntactic rules. Sometimes between ages of 2.6 and 3.6 a virtual language explosion occurs. In addition to grammar acquisition, children should learn an appropriate use of the context. Context is needed to determine the references of pronouns. The speaker and the listener form a part of an utterance. Children also show a lack of pragmatics awareness by the way they sometimes use articles. Children do not always respect pragmatics rule for articles. It may take several months for children acquire aspects of pragmatics that involves the references for functions morphemes such as determiners and pronouns. Children acquire some aspects of syntax very quickly, even while they are still in the telegraphic stage. These early developments correspond to the parameters of Universal Grammar. Children produce the correct word order of their language in their earliest multiword utterances, and they understand word order even when they are in the one-word stage of production. Deaf children who are born to deaf signing parents are natural exposed to sign language just as hearing children are naturally exposed to spoken language. Deaf children babble, they then progress to single signs similar to the single words in the holographic stage, and finally they begin to combine signs. There is also a telegraphic stage where the functions signs may be omitted. The acquisition of signed language involves the interaction of universal and language-particular components. Hearing children of deaf parents acquire both sign language and spoken when they are exposed to both. Deaf children of hearing parents who are not exposed to sign language from birth suffer a great handicap in acquiring language.
Knowing more than one Language
People can acquire a second Language under many circumstances for example when they start the school, the high school, the university and when they move to other country. Second language acquisition refers to the acquisition of one second language for a child or person when they have already learned their native language or their first language. However, bilingual language acquisition refers when a child acquire two language at the same time at the beginning of his or her infancy or at the age of three years. There are some country in Asia and Africa that consider the bilingualism as norm; at the contrary, other western country they consider themselves as monolingual even though the speak more than one language at home. Other country as USA consider the bilingualism as a transitory phenomenon associated with the emigration; it mean that the say that one person become bilingual when they immigrate to other country that speak a different language. How a child can acquire to language at the same time? Is one of the questions asked for many people around the world? Some research said that bilingual children sometimes mix the two languages in just one considering it as a negative form because researches thought that it happened because the child was no clear or confused about the two language; however now, that problem seem to be good and that it just a part of the bilingual acquisition problem. There are some theories about the bilingual development. The first one is the unitary system hypothesis that says that children just contract one lexicon and one grammar. It is a wrong theory because children have different word for the both language for that reason they have to construct one lexicon and one grammar for each language. The second theory is the separate systems hypothesis. It says that the bilingual child builds a different lexicon and grammar for each language. It mean that if child have two lexicon and two grammar the mixed both languages because the have lexica gaps. Two monolingual in one head. It means that bilingual children develop their characteristic in grammar in the same ways as monolingual child do through the age. For that reason is that researchers said that bilingual child is like two monolingual in one head. The role of input has to do with the language input and proficiency. One input condition is “one person, one language� it means that each person speak only one language to the child, but the idea is talk to the child the two language separate in order make easier for him or her to keep both language separated.
The transformation of a child in native speaker depends of the time they listen each language. For example if they listen 8 hours of each language probably they can learn both equally; however, they sometimes develop one more than the other. Cognitive effects of bilingualism is based some research that says that bilingual children outperform monolinguals in certain solving problems; however, bilingual children have better metalinguistic awareness about language and the use of it. The positive effects in the children are when they are involved in a society where both languages are important in when their parents support their bilingual development. Second language acquisition is very different and more difficult that the first one. For adults is very difficult to acquire a second language because it need of memorization and some other aspect; however, there are some adults that can acquire the second language but not as native speaker. A clear difference between first and second language acquisition is that adult have already fully developed grammar of the first language; even though, second language grammar is influenced by the first language´s grammar. The most difficult to acquire is the pronunciation because learners are unfamiliar with some sound. It is very important to know that a second language cannot be acquired in a day; it need of practice a lot, be motivated and interested in learn it. The period for language acquisition is also very important because when a young person is exposed to learn a new language is easier for him or her to acquire native competence. It means that the age is very important to acquire a second language. In adults the aspect that is affected in acquiring a second language is the pronunciation; it happen because the pronunciation is the shortest sensitive period to acquire second language as native one. In order to acquire a pronunciation as native people need to be exposed to the language from childhood.
Second Language Teaching Methods
Many approaches have been developed to second language or foreign language teaching. All methods are different but all of them have something to offer to the teaching and they are more effectively when they are understood by the teachers. There are two categories of methods. The first category is the synthetic approach; it is related with the teaching of grammatical, lexical, phonological, and functional units of the language one in order that students can synthesize the discrete elements to make up the language. The second category is analytic approach, it is related with the collection of topics, texts and tasks that teacher thinks that are interested for the students. The most practiced analytic approach is content-
based instruction in which the objective is that the students can communicate in the target language or second language expressing their own opinions.
Can Chimps Learn Human Language?
Primates communicate with each other in their habitat using visual, auditory, olfactory, and tactile signals. All of these signals are meaningful for them; they can communicate aggressiveness and subordination. Also, female emit some sound when they are anestrus. Their basic vocabulary occurs as emotional responses in particular situations. Despite their limited natural systems of communication, these animals have provoked an interest in whether they have the capacity to acquire complex linguistic systems that are similar to human language.
FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Theories of First Language Acquisition There is no one who has not at some time witnessed the remarkable ability to communicate. Children can comprehend an incredible quantity of linguistic behavior. At the age of school children not only learn what to say but what not to say as they learn the social functions of their language. The first behaviorist position is set in contrast to the second nativist and third fuctional positions, which are more clearly on the generative/cognitive side of the continuum. Language is a fundamental part of total human behavior. The behavioristic approach focuses on the immediately perceptible aspects of linguistic behavior, the publicly observable responses and the relationship of those responses. A behaviorist might consider effective Behavioristic Apporaches language behavior to be the production of correct responses to stimuli. Some psychologists modified theoretical position: mediation theory in which meaning was accounted for the claim that the linguist stimulus elicits mediating responses that is self-stimulating.
The Nativist Approaches
The term nativist is derived from the fundamental assertion that language acquisition is innately determined, that we born with a built-in device to the acquisition of the language. Nativist carried out a rash of studies on the systematic nature of child language acquisition. Nativist frameworks have made contributions to our understanding of the first language acquisition process.
there are two major pacesetters to language development, involved with the poles of functions and of form: on the functional level, development is paced by the growth of conceptual and communicative capacities, operating in conjunction with innate schemas of cognition; and on the Functional Approaches formal level, development is paced by the growth of perceptual capacities operating in conjunction with innate schemas of grammar. Competence and Performance It is difficult get al linguistic competence in a second language as it in the first. For children judgments of grammaticality may elicit a second language effect. Adults can choose between two alternative forms and sometimes they manifest an awareness of
grammaticality in second language. Adults are not generally able to verbalize rules and paradigms consciously even in their native language. Comprehension and Production Learning a second language usually means learning to speak it and to comprehend it. Leaning involves both modes. Teaching involves attending to both comprehension and production and the full consideration of the gaps and differences between the two, Adult second language learners will, like children, often hear a distinction and not able to produce it. The inability to comprehend and item, therefore, should not be taken to mean that the leaner cannot comprehend the item. Nature or Nurture Adults and children alike appear the capacity to acquire a second language at any age. If a person does not acquire a second language successfully, it is probably because of intervening cognitive or affective variables and not the absence of innate capacities. Universals Second language learning is the merely the learning of a new surface structure. One practical way to adhere to the spirit of linguistic universals may be: simply to look for commonalities between the first and second language in question, to consider a few possible universally applicable cognitive process of acquisition. Learner may all use similar strategies at similar stages in their acquisition process. Systematicity and Variability Second language acquisition in child and adult is characterized by both systematicity and variability. Second language acquisition developments appear in many instances to mirror the first language acquisition process. The variability of second language acquisition is exacerbated by a host of cognitive, affective, cultural, and contextual variables that are sometimes not applicable to the first language learning situation. Language and Thought Language helps to shape thinking and that thinking helps to shape language. Second language leaner is clearly presented with a tremendous task in sorting out new meanings from old, distinguishing thoughts and concepts in one language that are similar but not quite parallel to the second language, perhaps really acquiring a whole new system of conceptualization. Imitation While children are good deep-structure imitation, adults can fare much better in imitating surface if they are explicitly directed either internally or externally to do so. Sometimes their ability to center on surface distinctions is a distracting factor; in other times it is helpful. Practice Many languages classes are filled with rote practice that centers on surface forms. Contextualized, appropriate, meaningful communication in the second language seems to be the best possible practice the second language leaner could engage in. Input Adult second language learning, parental input is replaced by teacher input. Teacher might do well to be as deliberate, but meaningful, in their communications with the students as the partner is to the child since input is as important to the second language leaner as it to the first language leaner.
Discourse Teaching communicative competence to second language learner’s research on the acquisition of discourse becomes more and more important. Perhaps a study of children’s amazing dexterity in acquiring rules of conversation and in perceiving intended meaning will help us to find ways of teaching such capacities to second language learners.
COMPARING AND CONTRASTING FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
The increased pace of research on first language acquisition in the 60s and 70s attracted the attention not only of linguistic of all kinds but also of educators in various language-related fields. First language acquisition is viewed as consisting of rote practice, habit formation, shaping, overlearning, reinforcement, conditioning, stimulus, and responses.
Types of Comparison and Contrast It is in one sense to illogical to compare the first language acquisition of a child with the second language acquisition of an adult. This involves trying to draw analogies not only between first and second language learning situations but also between children and adults. Child first language acquisition and adult second language acquisition are common and important categories of acquisition to compare. There are four categories to compare adults and children defined by age and type of acquisition. The first type of comparison holding age constant, one is manipulating the language variable. The second type is manipulating the differences between children and adults. In the third type both variables are being manipulated. The Critical Period Hypothesis. Critical period is a determined period of the life when language can be acquired more easily and after that period language become more difficult to acquire. The critical period hypothesis claims that there is such a biological timetable. The critical point for second language acquisition occurs around the poverty, after people seem to be relatively incapable of acquiring a nativelike accent of the second language. To examine these issues is very important to take in account neurological and psychomotor considerations followed by an examination of cognitive, affective, and linguistic considerations. The study of the brain in the process of acquisition has been the most interesting area of inquiry in second language acquisition. Human brain mater certain functions lateralized to the left hemisphere of the brain and certain other functions to the right hemisphere. Intellectual, logical, and analytic functions appear to be located in the left hemisphere while the right hemisphere controls functions related to emotional and social needs. Neurological Considerations Lateralization is a slow process that begins around the age of 2 and is completed around poverty. During this time child is neurologically assigning functions little by little to one side of the brain and other. Psychomotor is related with the speech muscle in second language acquisition, or more commonly, accent. At birth the speech muscle are developed only to the extent that the larynx can control sustained cries. These muscles gradually develop and control some complex sound in certain language. Children who acquire a second language after the age of 5 may have a physical advantage in that phonemic control of a second language. Psychomotor Considerations Muscular coordination may be of a minimal significance in establishing criteria for overall successful acquisition of a second language.
Cognitive Considerations
Affective Consideration
Linguistic Consideration
Human cognitions develop rapidly throughout the first 16 years of life and lees rapidly after adulthood. As the child matures into adulthood, the left hemisphere becomes more dominant than the right hemisphere. The dominance of the left hemisphere contributes to a tendency to overanalyze and to be too intellectually. Another cognitive domain is the equilibration: it is defined as progressive interior organization of knowledge in a stepwise fashion. Disequilibrium may provide the key motivation for language acquisition: language interacts with cognition to achieve equilibrium. When the final state of equilibrium is reached, the child is ready to acquire the language necessary for achieving the cognitive equilibrium of adulthood Children are good rote learners, they use repetition and mimicking. Adults have developed concentration and the ability to rote learning. Human being is emotional creatures. Human thought and action are influenced by the emotions. The affective domain includes many factors: empathy, self-esteem, extroversion, inhibition, imitation, anxiety, attitudes. Egocentricity is important in human development. Very young children are totally egocentric. Adolescents must acquire a totally new physical, cognitive, and emotional identity. The simultaneous physical, emotional, and cognitive changes of puberty give to a defensive mechanism in which language ego becomes protective and defensive. It is clear that children learn two languages simultaneously acquire them by the use of similar strategies. There are, in essence, learning two first languages, and the key to success in distinguishing separate context for the two languages. People who learn languages in separate contexts are referred to as coordinate bilinguals (have two meaning systems) as opposed to the compound bilinguals who have one meaning system where both languages operate. One could refer to children who are acquiring a second language soon after they have begun to learn their first language (age of 3-4), or as late as age 10. Linguistic and cognitive processes of second language learning in children are in general similar to the first language process. Adults learning a second language manifest some of the same types of errors found in children learning their first language. Adults, more cognitively, appear to operate from the solid foundations of the first language and thus manifest more interference. The first language may be more readily used to bridge gaps that the adult leaner cannot fill by generalization within the second language.
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Paragraph 1 From this chapter I learned that children have different mechanism to acquire the language for example (imitation, reinforcement, analogy, and input). Language acquisition is a creative process where children can acquire the language under different and cultural circumstances. Also I learned that when children acquire a language, they acquire the grammar of that language including phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic rules. The stages of language were very interesting also because they said that in the first years of life of the child he develop sound of the language. He starts babbling up to they can combine the sound to form words and after sentences. The telegraphic stages is important also because is the age where child produce sentences ungrammatically. It is important to know that children can acquire to language at the same time. Moreover, I could learn about the differences between first and second language leaner and about interlanguage. Learner takes as base the first language in order to acquire the second language. Finally one important part was about if chimps can learn or acquire language as the same forma humans do.
Paragraph 2
The knowledge gotten from this chapter is very useful for me because if I become teacher I need to know about some methods I should use in order to be a good teacher. Also I need to know how a child acquires the language, which is the mechanism, the stages. Moreover it is important because if I face a problem with a child that have problem to talk I can help him to fix that problem because I ready know which problem could be affecting him. I need to be well prepared with information like this in order to be a good teacher.
FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Paragraph 1
This chapter I understand that is more related to child and adults in acquisition of the language. The teacher plays an important role in this chapter because he needs to manage the group of children or adult in order they can develop competence and performance, comprehension and production, also if they have they have the capacity to learn a second language without problems. The imitation is also mentioned here, which said that children are good imitators; however, adults have other option to choose instead of the imitation. Practice is also important. The input, in the case of the adults the input is replaced by the teacher which need to have good communication with the students. Paragraph 2
All this information is very useful for me more in my personal life that in the professional because now I now that in order to demonstrate that I am learning something I need to develop competence and performance in the class or in my job. Also this information shows me that if I do not understand something I cannot produce. Besides this information, it is very important for me to practice and practice in order to improve every day.
COMPARING AND CONTRASTING FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Paragraph 1
In this chapter I learned many thing as for example: that in language teaching I need practice and practice as children learn his mother tongue, that for acquiring a language exist a natural order that is related with first listening, then I can produce words and sentences. Moreover, a child just learn language, he do not learn formal grammar. Another important topic that I learned was about the three types of comparison that exist between first and second language acquisition in children and adults. In addition of that I learned about the critical period that is related with the time is more easier to acquire a second language, the neurological considerations which is related with our brain, its functions and divisions, psychomotor considerations related with the accent in order to talk as a native speaker, and finally the affective considerations which said that the human is influenced by emotion. Paragraph 2
This chapter is useful for me because as a teacher I know that adults and children learn a second language very different. This information helps to me to apply or use the adequate techniques or methods to children and adults. Also this information helps to me to teach the language in a responsible ways because child or adults do not learn a language for learn, I have to take in account many consideration in order they can learn the language in a easier way.
STYLES AND STRATEGIES
Styles and strategies are topics that are related with the intellectual functions (style) and with the approach to problem or task (strategy). The facts that called my attention were: the function of the both parts of the brain which operate as a team; although, they operate as a team, they have different functions as for example: the left part of the brain is associated with logical, analytical functions and the right part is associated with the emotional and social needs. Other fact that called my attention was: the reflectivity and impulsivity which are related with our personality, how we act in our environment. As my personal evaluation, well I think that is was very organized, the summary was understandable for me and his context was very interesting
PERSONALITY FACTORS.
This topic is related with the study done by researches in order to resolve problems in the personality of the humans.
In this summary I found some facts the called my attention. One of them was the affective domain which refers to the emotion or feelings. It means that we do things according our state of emotion that we have in the moment. In this part says that it is very important to control our emotions. The other fact that called my attention was the risk taking and anxiety. The first one for me I think that all our life is based in take risk in order to get what we want and in anxiety it was interesting because we sometimes are frustrated when we do not understand something or for any other problem we do not want that nobody talk to us . it also occur when we are worried for something that happened in our house or with our family. As evaluation I think that the content was a little bit extent and they wrote to much name of author. They should concentrate just in the content instead of the author and dates.
SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS
How the culture influence in the acquisition of a language.
Some of the facts that called my attention: Learners and teachers need to understand cultural differences to recognize that everybody is different and have different traditions. In class should be interaction among students with different cultures. The cognitive and linguistic development goes hand to hand interacting with the shape of other.
As evaluation I think that the content have too much opinion from different author; they should synthesize more the content.
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
The topic is related with the communicative competence that we develop in order to convey other people.
Some outstanding facts found in the summary: In order to have good competence we should have good functions of acquisition such as good grammar, vocabulary, discourse and rules. In styles and register we use different styles of language while we are communicating with other people. The eyes contact techniques as a visual modality. A wrong use of male and female gender can affect the language acquisition. As evaluation of the chapter, it was very interesting and clear. They use a good grammar also.
GLOSSARY 1. Automatic Knowledge (286): is the knowledge that can be retrieved easily and quickly.
2. Automatic Processing (283): refers to processing in a more accomplished skill where the hard drive of the brain can managed hundred of information simultaneously.
3. Babble (324): consist mainly of repeated consonant-vowel sequences.
4. Babbling (324): is the linguistic ability related to the kind of language input the child receives.
5. Bilingual language Acquisition (342): refers to the more or less simultaneous acquisition of two languages in the infancy.
6. Chaining (83): what is acquired is a chain of two or more stimulus-response connections.
7. Competence (31): it refers to the one´s underlying knowledge of a system, event, or fact.
8. Concept learning (84): the learner acquires the ability to make a common response to a class of stimuli even though the individual members of that class may differ widely from each other.
9. Continuum (288): terms utilized to describe the variable nature of truth as it often hangs precariously between two polar opposite.
10. Controlled Processing (283): typical of anyone learning a brand new skill in which only a very few elements of the skill can be retained.
11. Critical Period (52): biologically determined period of life when language can be acquired easier, after that time language is difficult to acquire.
12. Deductive reasoning (88): is a movement from a generalization to specific instances: specific subsumed facts are inferred or deduced from a general principle.
13. Equilibration (59): is defined as progressive interior organization of knowledge in a stepwise fashion.
14. Focal Attention (284): refers to one centrally attention.
15. Grammar Translation (351): method in which students learned lists of vocabulary. Verb paradigms and grammatical rules.
16. Grammatical Morphemes (333): inconsistency in the use of function words.
17. Hermeneutic Tradition (290): tradition that provides us with a means for interpretation and understanding in which we do not look for absolute laws.
18. High Input Generator (282): people who are good at initiating and sustaining interaction or generating input from teachers or learners.
19. Holophrastic Stage (325): stage in child children utterances consist of only one word.
20. Iconic (341): is when something looks like as it mean.
21. Inductive reasoning (88): one store of specific instances and induces a general law or rule or conclusion that governs or subsumes the specific instances.
22. Innateness Hypothesis (321): refers to that all children come prewired with knowledge of universal grammar.
23. Input (296): information gotten from teachers, others learners, materials, textbooks. All the information from the environment.
24. Intelligence (89): is defined and measured in terms of linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities.
25. Interlanguage Grammar (347): the intermediate grammar that second learners create in the way to the target.
26. Intuition (292): the search for relevance.
27. Lateralization (54): is a slow process that begins around the age of 2 years and is completed around the age of 5.
28. Low Input Generator (282): are more passive learners who do little to stick their necks out to get input directed toward them.
29. Metalinguistic Awareness (346): refers to a speaker´s conscious awareness about language and the use of language.
30. Motherese (318): special or simplified way that adults talk to their child.
31. Multiple Discrimination (84): the individual learns to make a number of different identifying responses to many different stimuli.
32. Nomothetic Tradition (290): tradition of empiricism, scientific methodology, and prediction.
33. Non-automatic knowledge (286): is the knowledge that takes time and effort to retrieve.
34. Operant Conditioning (23): it refers to the conditioning in which the organism emits a response without a necessary stimulus.
35. Operants (73): they are classes of responses.
36. Overgeneralization (330): is when children treat irregular verbs and nouns as they were regular.
37. Performance (31): is the overtly observable and concrete manifestation or realization of competence.
38. Peripheral Attention (284): refers to one incidental attention.
39. Pivot Grammar (27): it refers to the early grammar of a child.
40. Principle learning (84): is a chain of two or more concepts.
41. Problem solving (84): kind of learning that requires the internal events usually referred to as thinking.
42. Reinforcement (316): is the correction of the bad grammar and reward for good grammar.
43. Second Language Acquisition (342): refers to the acquisition of a second language by an adult or child.
44. Signal learning (83): the individual learns to make a general diffuse response to a signal.
45. Stimulus – response learning (83): the learner acquires a precise response to a discriminated stimulus.
46. Systematic (26): in that the children is constantly forming hypothesis on the basis of the input and then testing those hypothesis in speech.
47. Telegraphic Stage (334): using of only required words for basic understanding.
48. Unanalyzed Knowledge (285): is the general form in which we know most things without being aware of the structure of that knowledge.
49. Universal Grammar (319): refers to the template or blueprint that all children bring when they born in order the grammar of the language.
50. Verbal association (83): is the learning of chains that are verbal.
GLOSSARY
SUMMARIES