LittleBits
Content 1. LITTLEBITS BASIC A. Summary description B. History 1).Free sofrwaremovement and Open source software 2).Braun Lectron 3).LEGO 4).Object-Oriented Programming 5).Development of LittleBits C. Littlebits basic: Bits D. Control and Logic E. Making your own bits 2. LITTLEBITS AND ARCHITECTURE A. Nakagin Capsule Tower B. Habitat 67 C. Open Source-Units Diversification D. Reversibility. E. Design patterns F. Prefabrication G. Holistic assemblies H. Non-Holistic sets 3. SUMMARY
Alexander 1968 The designer becomes a designer of generating systems – each able of generating many objects – rather than the designer of individual objects.
LITTLEBITS Peng Xie 1.Littlebits Basic A.Summary description: LittleBits is The company “littleBits” was launched in September 2011 in New York. The company’s goal is to democratize hardware the way software and printing have been democratized. MArch Arch Un i t 2
B. History The emerging of Littlebits is not a process that developing from nothing. Back to the Mid-20th Century, from free software movement which give birth to the idea of open source design and to the pioneer invention of the LECTRON electronic blocks system
invented by German Georg Franz Greger, then LEGO bricks. There is no doubt
that Littlebits was influenced by those ideas.
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1).Free software movement and open source sofrware
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Drawing on traditions and philosophies among members of the 1970s hacker culture and academia, Richard Stallman formally founded the movement in 1983 by launching
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the GNU Project. The free software movement (FSM) or free / open source software movement (FOSSM) or free / libre open source software (FLOSS) is a social movement with the goal of obtaining and guaranteeing certain freedoms for software users, namely the freedom to run the software, to study and change the software, and to redistribute copies with or without changes. The point of this movement is that the freedom to run, study and change software gives us a new approach to develop software in so many different ways. Open-source software is one of most successful software which was developed from free software movement. Open-source software (OSS) is computer software with its source code made available with a license in which the copyright holder provides the rights to study, change, and distribute the software to anyone and for any purpose.Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. It is a prominent example of open collaboration.
MArch Arch Un i t 2 — page Figure P-1.LittleBits Library
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Figure P-2.LittleBits Circuits
The idea of
open-source software development, or collaborative development from
multiple independent sources, generates an increasingly more diverse scope of design perspective than any one company is capable of developing and sustaining long term. By inspired by this idea, Littlebits, in this case, has huge potential to diversify their bits library and combination.
2).Braun Lectron Braun Lectron kit which was introduced in 1966. Braun Lectron is a game circuit kit that will allow users to learn and experiment with electronics safely. Some units are different from each other, some units are the same. They can be combined in different ways to create different circuits. The Lectron electronic block systems and products were unique inventions by Georg MArch Arch Un i t 2 — pa g e 3
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Greger in the early 1960s. He applied for his Electronik-baukasten (electronic building block) patent on May 7, He was granted German Patent # 1228081 on May 18, 1967, and U.S. Patent Application of particular interest since it includes additional information not available in the German patent (Such as loudspeakers and luxury substrates) No. 3,447,249 of May 5, 1969. Lectron launched by the German train manufacturer Egger-Bahn in the German market. In 1967 the Egger Bahn was dissolved and the Lectron products were transferred to Deutsche Lectron GmbH until 1972 when Deutsche Lectron GmbH became the sole manufacturer. Deutsche Lectron GmbH licenses the system globally to Braun, except in North America. In the United States, Raytheon’s Macalaster Scientific subsidiary becomes a license.
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In 1967, Braun acquired the original Egger-Bahn line from Deutsche Lectron Gmb. While retaining the basic block design and styrofoam storage box, Dieter Rams and his team produced a new package and completely redesigned all manuals. They also oversee all the expansion of the Braun era. The iconic “round button” pocket calculator ET66 designer Dietrich Lubs has created several new symbols for the demo system components (classroom systems with oversized blocks), such as the logic gates of block 1300. In 1972, Braun divested the Lectron business and joined Deutsche Lectron to join Lectron GmbH. Manfred Walter, former head of Brown’s Lectron division, became the sole owner and continued to develop. In 2001, he donated to Reha Werkstatt Oberrad a business, all stock and all manufacturing tools, a non-profit enterprise that created ample workplaces for people with disabilities. RWO continues to develop Lectron until now.
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Figure P-3.Lectron electronic Block Systems is designed visually
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Figure P-4.Mr. Greger receiving the First Prize in Munich on October 20, 1966
The Lectron electronic block systems consist of plastic boxes whcih contains one or more electronic components or an interconnecting part.There are different combination supplied to people contains a carefully-selected collection of components, all neatly done up in plastic boxes bearing a schematic symbol of the contents, a manual of experiments and two work boards. Even a 9-year-old child can match the marked dominoes with those on the schematics to build and demonstrate a light meter, electronic thermometer, tone generator or radio - to mention a few of the 90 experiments in the manual that accompanies the complete set. Instead of using clips, binding posts, or springs to hold parts together, each box is equipped with small magnets at the pointswhere it is ot contact another box or the board. The sides and the bottom of each box are made of clear plastic so you can see what’s inside. The top of each box - carrying the schematic symbol - is opaque white. MArch Arch Un i t 2 —
The work surface of each of the 13 x 15-1/2 inch work boards is covered with a plated ferrous metal sheet forming the ground or common connection for all the circuits.The work boards can be propped up on their built-in stands or hung on the wall so that a whole classroom can see the demonstration. Componenets in any circuit can be changed instantly to show their effect on circuit performance. Special experiments in the manual demonstrate the characteristics of components - resisi-
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tance, inductance and capacitance; how tuned circuits affect radio reception; ef-
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fects of base current on emitter-collector current flow and other electronic prin-
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ciples
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The system of Lectron is the ancestor of LittleBits. It adopt the topology data system that allows the user to explore and learn. The key concept behind the Braun Lectron system is the complexity of units, which makes the exploration of play. You do not need to be an electrical engineer to create the system because the system is designed visually.It is easy to identify correct the errors conncection which help you to avoid errors. You need to consider Graphics and Symbol Encoding Information to produce a specific result. And LittleBits design adopted and developed many of these ideas.
3).LEGO In 1947, Lego had managed to take concrete blocks, the world’s most important building units, and make it as an imaginative tool that everyone can visit. Using LEGO you do not have to be an expert to make a complex structure. You learn intuitively and can build more and more complex structures, one brick at a time. In just a few years, the LEGO Bricks took place in every family. It is estimated that more than 40 billion bricks have been produced, or 70 bricks for each man on the planet.
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Figure P-5.Lectron electronic block systems
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Figure P-6.Lectron electronic blocks
Figure P-7.LEGO Modular System
4).Object-oriented Programming The last inspiration is Object-Oriented Programming. The software used to be linear, fuzzy, and therefore reserved for experts. However the object-oriented programming introduces the concept of modular chunks, which allowing people to reuse code snippets that they and others write, and build increasingly complex code at once.It can be seen as the digital version LittleBits. And LittleBits adopted all these modular system ideas into its design.
5).Development of LittleBits During the developmemt of LittleBits, the biggest challenge for LittleBits is the hardware, hardware industry is a very top-down industry, it takes a long time for prototyping, and request for professional knowledge, and most of the areas still belong to the engineer. The first littleBits prototype was built by cardboard and copper band at home. MArch Arch Un i t 2 — pa g e 7
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In terms of electronic design, the circuit system can be truly modular: every bit must be in the system to work with any other bits, and the library should be infinitely extensible. It is also important to determine the appropriate level of abstraction for each module. LittleBits are not component-level modules, they are block-level modules. To ensure that it is understandable, how low the level it should be so that it can be multifunctional, ensuring the high level of the block diagram is crucial. The size of the circuit needs to be designed in multiple, so that larger circuits can work in any configuration, allowing 2 and 3D rotation, even though this means that the modules will sometimes be larger or smaller than they
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would otherwise be desirable. Feel human and gender-neutral circuits, so hand-written fonts are used to denote the names of the modules, and they need to be creative building blocks, not finished products, so the circuit is exposed. With regard to electronic rules, there are many rules to communicate, so LittleBits created a color code that abstracts power rules into manageable code: you always need a blue and a green, and pink and orange are optional in between. The module need to make sure that you can immediately understand what each module is and how it interacts with others, so the user interface puts any interaction point at the top, all other circuits at the bottom, even though it is not always the most robust way to design the circuit. In fact, every aspect of littleBits is for design, and nothing is taken for granted. In 3.5 years or more, there are hundreds, if not thousands, of experiments and decisions that lead to small bits as it is today.
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Figure P-8.The first littleBits prototype was built by cardboard and copper band at home.
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Figure P-9.The first littleBits prototype was built by cardboard and copper band at home.
Figure P-10.LittleBits MAKEY MAKEY
C. Littlebits basic: Bits While there are over 60 different modules (or Bits) in the littleBits library to choose from, every module falls into one of four different categories. Each category has a particular color to make the modules easy to find and identify: Power (blue) Output (green) Input (pink) Wire (orange) Each bit works with every other bit in the library, and it continues to grow to infinity. You can even create your own bit. Bits are magnetically connected to each other through their bitSnap connectors. Bits this unique feature can help you easily achieve physical and electrical connections, so that you can focus on creating MArch Arch Un i t 2 — pa g e 9
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projects. This means there is no need to worry about soldering or make sure you connect the correct wires. Power (Blue) Everything you build with littleBits will start with a blue power module. The most common is that you will encounter power supply modules. It takes 9 to 12 volts from the battery or power supply and converts it to a 5-bit voltage for the littleBits circuit. It has a built-in switch that you can use to turn your project on and off. There is also an on-board LED that indicates when the project is powered.
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Output (Green) The green output are how your project will make the circuit happen. It could be making light, motion, or sound. They let you see, feel, and hear your project. Input (Pink) The pink module is used as input to the project. They allow you to interact with it and let your project interpret its surroundings. For example, a user may press a button to initiate a series of events, or the item may monitor the ambient light level in the room and react when it is dimmed. Wire (Orange) The orange module extends the way in which bits can be connected together. They provide flexibility for how you arrange bits and how they interact with each other. Some line bits enable you to add digital logic, Internet connectivity, and programmability to your project.
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Figure P-11.LittleBits circuit diagram
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Figure P-12.LittleBits Power (blue)
Figure P-13.LittleBits Output (green)
Figure P-14.LittleBits Input (pink)
Figure P-15.LittleBits Wire (orange)
D. Control and Logic There’s a lot of power in the ability to easily chain inputs and outputs together with littleBits. You can fine-tune that power with a few Bits that give you control over how the signals flow through your project. These Bits are handy because they control how the signal is passed between the modules. The inverter The inverter is one of the simplest wire modules, but it’s very handy. There are cases when you want the output of a Bit to be the opposite. The pulse This Bit toggles the signal ON and OFF repeatedly. You can adjust its speed by turning the small dial with a screwdriver. If you want to make something blink, the pulse Bit is what you should reach for. MArch Arch Un i t 2 — pa g e 11
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The latch This module acts like a toggle switch, a switch that holds an ON or an OFF signal. Essentially, it converts a momentary input into a toggling input. The threshold This bit compares the signal coming into the module’s input connector to a voltage set by the knob. If the input voltage is greater than the selected voltage, the output is set to max voltage (5V). Use it to make any sensor module into a trigger
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module. Logic Bits The littleBits logic module helps you create rules for your circuit that opens up possibilities for more complex circuits. In electronics, these components are called logic gates. Double AND Bit With a double AND Bit (w4), both input signals must be ON in order for it to output an ON signal. Double OR Bit With a double OR, when either input is ON, it will output ON. It’s also important to note with the double OR that when both inputs are ON, it outputs an ON signal. NAND When both inputs are ON, it outputs OFF. In any other case, it outputs ON.
Figure P-16.Pulse Bit
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Figure P-17.Connecting a button and LED to the inverter Bit.
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Figure P-18.PThe pulsing ON signal from the pulse module will turn on the first LED and the inverter will turn off the second LED. When the pulse Bit turns the LED off, the inverter turns the second LED on.
Figure P-19.The only case when the NAND Bit outputs an OFF signal is when it receives two ON signals.
E. Making your own bits Although there is a huge library available to the user to choose from, littleBits wants to make the library infinite. There are several tools that help the user establish the circuit to create new bits. Between the two magnetic pads, there are three electrical connections between each bit. Each bit has a connection to 5 volts and is grounded through two external terminals on the BitSnap connector. This is the power supply for each bit. The intermediate terminal carries a signal, which can be anywhere between 0 and 5 volts. For digital signals, 0 volts means OFF and 5 volts means ON. For analog signals, the signal can be 0 volts, 5 volts, or anywhere in between.
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Figure P-20. Constitute of ARDUINO Bit
Figure P-21.Constitute of Bit Joint
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Figure P-22.BARGRAPH
Figure P-23.Connecting a bright LED Bit (o14) to power (p1).
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Figure P-24.Adding a button module (i3) between the power and bright LED Bits.
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Figure P-26.The first LED always stays on
Figure P-27.LittleBits Motor Control Circuit
Figure P-29.Connecting a button and LED to the inverter Bit.
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Figure P-28.The wire Bit (w1) allows you to physically separate your Bits.
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Figure P-31.The Night Airplane project circuit.
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Figure P-30.The buzzer in this circuit will continue to buzz for a minute after the motion is first sensed. The LED indicates when the motion trigger is passing the ON signal to the timeout Bit.
Figure P-32.The only case when the NAND Bit outputs an OFF signal is when it receives two ON signals.
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Figure P-33.Only when both of the switches are on is the bargraph module turned on.
Figure P-34.Using the XOR bit to make an inverter that can be turned on and off.
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Figure P-35.BARGRAPH
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Figure P-36.INVERTER
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Figure P-37.PRESSURE CENSOR
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Figure P-39.DC MOTOR
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Figure P-40.LANCH
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Figure P-41.BRIGHT LED
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Figure P-43.BUZZER
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Figure P-44.POWER
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Figure P-45.WIRE
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Figure P-47.BRANCH
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Figure P-48.BUZZER
2. LITTLEBITS AND ARCHITECTURE The designer becomes a designer of generating systems – each able of generating many objects – rather than the designer of individual objects. (Alexander 1968) In recent decades, through the application of new design software and techniques in architectures such as MAYA, RHINO, and 3D printing, etc, there is a specific trends in the architecture point to the dissolution of the parts, which can be understood as continuous systems such as structural deformations in the case of Frei Otto Or parametric definitions like the fluid architecture of Zaha Hadid. The assumption here is parallel to the architectural form of the continuum, we also need to enhance the importance of the part’s ability. The ideas of LittleBits reflect some new opportunities of parts in architecture. It gives us a new buildMArch Arch Un i t 2 — pa g e 25
ing and design attitude “Combinatorics” that exacerbates the importance of parts as crowdsourcing and participatory media, allowing the Internet to propagate patterns (low entropy components) and allowing the field to innovate more quickly. In fact, since Mid-20th century, there has been some architect tested the idea of “Combinatorics” in architecture design. The most famous two are the Nakagin Capsule Tower, a mixed-use residential and office tower designed by architect Kisho Kurosawa and Habitat 67 a model community and housing complex in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, designed by Israeli/Canadian architect Moshe Safdie.
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A.Nakagin Capsule Tower Nakagin Capsule Tower was completed in 1972, the building is a rare remaining example of Japanese Metabolism. It was the world’s first example of capsule architecture built for permanent and practical use. The building is composed of two interconnected concrete towers, respectively eleven and thirteen floors, which house 140 self-contained prefabricated capsules. Each capsule measures 2.3 m (7.5 ft) by 3.8 m (12 ft) by 2.1 m (6.9 ft) and functions as a small living or office space. Capsules can be connected and combined to create larger spaces. Each capsule is connected to one of the two main shafts only by four high-tension bolts and is designed to be replaceable. No units have been replaced since the original construction. The capsules were fitted with utilities and interior fittings before being shipped to the building site, where they were attached to the concrete towers. Each capsule is attached independently and cantilevered from the shaft, so that any capsule may be removed easily without affecting the others. The capsules are all-welded lightweight steel-truss boxes clad in galvanized, rib-reinforced steel panels. After
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Figure P-49.Frei Otto Gridshell Catalog
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Figure P-50.Nakagin Capsule Tower
processing, the panels were coated with rust-preventative paint and finished with a coat of Kenitex glossy spray. The capsules can be individually removed or replaced.In 2007, there was a proposal to take advantage of the flexible design to “unplug” the existing boxes and replac them with updated units.
But because of the concerns over the building’s earth-
quake resistance and its inefficient use of valuable property, this proposal was taken down. In this case, on one hand, Nakagin Capsule Tower embodies the fundamental feature for a combinatorial system “Reversibility” ,which means the ability of the system to be assembled and disassembled, allowing for trial and error, design search, and also the possibility of multiple outcomes from the same tile set. On the other hand it also reveals the existing problems. The process of replacement is very difficult and expensive.It was estimated the replacement will cost around 6.2 million yen per capsule. Those MArch Arch Un i t 2 — pa g e 27
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monotonous units unable to meet the multiple needs
of users. B.Habitat 67 The second example is Habitat 67, a model community and housing complex in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, designed by Israeli/Canadian architect Moshe Safdie. Habitat 67 comprises 354 identical, prefabricated concrete forms arranged in various combinations, reaching up to 12 stories in height. Together these units create 146 residences of varying sizes and configurations, each formed from one to eight linked concrete units.The complex originally contained 158 apartments,but several apartments have since been joined to create larger units, reducing the total num-
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ber. Each unit is connected to at least one private terrace, which can range from approximately 20 to 90 square metres (225 to 1,000 sqft) in size. The development was designed to integrate the benefits of suburban homes—namely gardens, fresh air, privacy, and multilevelled environments—with the economics and density of a modern urban apartment building.It was believed to illustrate the new lifestyle people would live in increasingly crowded cities around the world. Safdie’s goal for the project to be affordable housing largely failed: demand for the building’s units has made them more expensive than originally envisioned.[1] In addition, the existing structure was originally meant to only be the first phase of a much larger complex, but the high per-unit cost of approximately C$140,000 prevented that possibility. Habitat 67 reveal the possibility of prefabrication unit in architecture.Compare to the Nakagin Capsule Tower, it also has feature of unit diversity which gives users different choices for their own houses. However, habitat 67 is unable to replace the unit. Although the combination of the building create many private graders and open spaces for the users, it make itself very expensive to build.
Figure P-51.Habitat 67
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Figure P-53.Habitat 67 section
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Figure P-52.Habitat 67 prefabrication and installation
According to our previous analysis of LittleBits and application of “Combinatoric”, there are some features of LittleBits that we can apply to architecture design and construction, namely, Open Source-Units Diversification, Reversibility, , Design Pattern, Prefabrication, Holistic assemblies, Non-Holistic sets. C. Open Source-Units Diversification The systems described are still in their infancy and will face similar software design challenges; they may be developed and commercialized as proprietary products, and may not be compatible with other systems, but I think their real potential depends on the description of portfolio projects Of the open-source communication protocol. The basic idea is to allow the geometry to encapsulate the data and become the building blocks of the “geometry calculation system”. Such an idea will depend not MArch Arch Un i t 2 —
only on a vision or project, but on a community that can support, implement, and extend the definition of a geometric set. This symbiotic relationship may have a greater impact on the market than today’s architects, allowing the user to freely form and design without the need for an architect. In this way, we can begin to consider multi-designer assemblies designed by crowdsourcing communities. D. Reversibility
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Perhaps the basic characteristic of the combinatorial system presented in this pa-
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per is its reversibility. Through this, I mean the ability of the system to assem-
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ble and disassemble, allowing trial and error, to design the search, but it could
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also come from multiple results of the same tile set. The definition in this context may be important, and this study does not consider littlebits to be an interactive entity, but rather an adaptive contingency deployment of many alternative configurations of temporary structures of units. The idea of self-organization suggests a certain autonomy of the system, whereas the description of the contingent combination indicates a common dependence within the social system. This common dependency is the gameplay I describe. Reversibility describes a different economic relationship with the substance, allowing the unit to encapsulate more agents, allowing greater knowledge and constructive logic to be passed to non-expert users. The ability to learn systems is not defined by learning algorithms that control the behavior of the system, but rather in the design of social design, community design, and accidental deployment of social-material relations.
E. Design patterns Reconsidering the effects of serial mass-production of units operating in combination is not only formal but also socio-economic. On the one hand, products described as non-monolithic design systems rely on new content generated by the user. The population potential of the design population insists that the final product is open-ended and is designed as a collection of speculative buildings. Littlebits system inevitably get “design patterns”. The main idea behind design patterns is to obtain reusable solutions for common problems. This is done with a limited set of bits, which focuses on the different function like the Pulse, the latch, threshold,etc. These combinations can be conbined again into a larger system. Design patterns are applied to the software in a similar manner, and formal design patterns, the Polyomino project. In this project, the search pattern becomes the basic design strategy for generating a larger configuration. The unit is considered to be the basic alphabet of the alphabet, but soon the user’s community can describe the entire alphabet of words, sentences, and paragraphs. F.Prefabrication Prefabrication is not a new idea for architects. This is the main content of postwar modernist ideals, a great dream that accurate modern buildings will be built in a clean factory and then shipped to the site. However, pre-war reality is far from century, prefabrication is only a footnote in the catalog of construction methods. In the 21st century, new “making” techniques such as additive manufacturing and 3D printing, more robotics both on and off the job sites, CNC-controlled technologies, and even laser scanning for field verification are major influencers. Collaborative project-delivery models such as integrated project delivery—which put information sharing at a premium—are moving toward more integration, too. Early signs suggest that robots might be as important to construction, eventually,it is time re-consider the prefabrication. G.Holistic assemblies In Holistic assemblies all parts work together to describe a whole. It is like a model of the puzzle, where each unit has a place, by knowing how to put these pieces together, we can reach the final output. This is the model for today’s architectural design, digital manufacturing, post-rationalization, non-standard design, creating thousands of parts, assembled in a unique way. The blueprint is single and describes the ultimate goal.
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ideal; buildings are often poorly designed or poorly constructed; by the end of the
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patterns can be handled as material components. There is another example of design
It seems like the Holistic assemblies is on the opposite side of
open ending de-
sign. However, to reach the unit diversification Holistic assemblies is necessary to design and produce our units. Holistic assemblies is not a design process we need to void, but a design method we need to use. H. Non-Holistic sets LEGO and LittleBits, which can be described
a finite set of tiles can be explored
by the user. In this case, the child plays to discover the topology of the units. In many cases, such a system or units has an instruction set that directs the user from chaos to order. Soon, such instructions are discarded and the tiles are explored in an open manner. Although LittleBits product will contain a specific fragment that is to be assembled MArch Arch Un i t 2 —
into a final structure (a puzzle model). It does not describe a whole, but only a part of the discrete relationship. Only some of those components arranged in a particular combination may be specific results, but they may not. This is a differentiation that Christopher Alexander makes between ‘Systems’, and ‘Generating Systems’ or ‘Generative Systems’. For Alexander, Systems need to have a recognizable holistic behaviour. He explains:
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“In order to speak of something as a System, we must be able to state clearly: (1) The Holistic behaviour we are focusing on. (2) The parts within the thing, and the
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interaction among these parts, which cause the holistic behaviour we have defined; (3) The way in which this interaction among these parts, cause the holistic behaviour defined.” (Christopher Alexander, 1968) On the other hand, a Generative System as described by Alexander, is the building blocks of a Holistic System. He describes: “We may generalize the notion of a generative system. Such a system will usually consist of a kit of parts (or elements) together with rules of combining them to form ‘allowable’ things. The formal systems of mathematics are systems in this sense. The parts are numbers, variables, and signs like + or -. The rules specify ways of combining these parts to form expressions, ways of forming expressions from other expressions, and ways of forming true sentences, hence theorems of mathematics. Any combination of parts which is not formed according to the rules is either meaningless or false.” (Christopher Alexander, 1968)
I believe such a collection of designs needs to be conceived as open-ended speculative material that can be driven by user-driven differentiation and exploration, allowing population sources as a mechanism to extend the results of the purpose and taking serialized mass production units into user-driven content age .
3.Summary The current conversation within this article is about the ideas and design details of LittleBits, which is an open source library of modular electronics (open-source electronics). It is important to point out that many ideas of this product give some new opportunity to architecture development . In recent decades,with the application of new design software and technology such as Maya, Rhino, 3D-Printing, Digital Fabrication, etc, a particular trend in architecture points out towards the dissolution of parts, which can be understand as
The assumption here is that parallel to the architectural continuous system, we also need to rethink and enhance the importance of the part’s ability in architecture design, which gives us connection between architecture and LittleBits(Modular system). LittleBits reflect some characteristics of current world, a dynamic fast changing society. At the same time, since the development of Network, individual get more freedom then ever time, we are not satisfied with accepting existing world but these features of contemporary society, I believe open source, combinatoric, reversibility, system diversification are the keys to the future architecture development.
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changing it , which makes users transfer from object to subject, In order to meet
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continuous system.
Reference: 1. Bdeir, Ayah; Richardson, Matt (2015-04-20). Getting Started with littleBits: Prototyping and Inventing with Modular Electronics 2. Lectron - Elektronisches Lern- und Experimentiersystem - Das Lectron Prinzip. (n.d.). Retrieved April 13, 2014, from http://www.lectron.de/index. php?option=com_content&task=blogcategory &id=69&Itemid=116 3. Christopher Alexander. (1968). Systems Generating Systems. Architectural 4. Lagorio-Chafkin, Christine (24 June 2014). “LittleBits: On a Mission to Make Electrical Engineering Fun”. Inc.com. Retrieved 20 February 2015.
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5. Richard Stallman on the nature of the Free software movement in 2008 on emacs-devel mailing list. 6. “Stallman interviewed by Sean Daly”. Groklaw. 2006-06-23. 7.Bruce Perens (17 February 1999). “It’s Time to Talk About Free Software Again”. Archived from the original on 16 July 2014. Retrieved 2 April 2015.
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8.Glass, Robert L. (2003). Facts and Fallacies of Software Engineering. Ad-
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