A Field Guide to the Solar System by jrtiffany

ASTRONOMY OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

A FIELD GUIDE TO THE SOLAR SYSTEM By Josie Tiffany

Table of Contents INTRODUCTION........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 CONSTELLATIONS.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 THE SUN...................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 THE MOON.................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 THE EARTH................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 MERCURY................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 VENUS........................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 MARS.......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 JUPITER....................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 SATURN....................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 URANUS...................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 NEPTUNE.................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 PLUTO......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

SWIFT-TUTTLE COMET AND PSYCHE ASTEROID.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Introduction Welcome to my Field Guide! As I set out to study the solar system I was overwhelmed and anxious, unsure of what lay ahead of me. Now I have spent the last few months learning all about our solar system and the wonders within it and I can confidently say that my anxiety was unfounded. This class, Astronomy of the Solar System, was the most fascinating and enjoyable class I have taken in a long time, and it was the absolute best way to restart my academic journey and reignite my love of learning and science. Thank you Professor Cullen for guiding me through the Solar System and reminding me why I love looking up at the night sky. In this field guide, you will take a tour of the Solar System, starting with some constellations visible from Earth and ending in the Kuiper Belt out beyond Neptune. Each chapter contains information about the planet as well as its mythology and any missions NASA has conducted that helped us learn more about it. I hope you find it useful and informative. (Note: the mythology for all of the Jovian planets is located at the end of the Neptune chapter becuase the mythology is interconnected and difficult to differentiate.)

Constellations A Constellation for Every Season For as long as human beings have been staring at the night sky, they have been trying to make sense of it. One of the best and oldest methods for organizing and understanding the stars is constellations. The International Astronomical Union defines a constellation as an area of the celestial sphere. They are typically grouped around asterisms or patterns formed in the night sky by bright stars that appear close to each other. We will be taking a closer look at four constellations, one from each of the four seasons—Perseus from winter, Carina from spring, Draco from summer, and Andromeda from the fall. I chose Perseus and Andromeda because I've always been partial to their story in Greek mythology. Draco I chose because I absolutely love dragons, and Carina I chose because the name sounded interesting, and I've never heard of the constellation

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/why-humans-chose-particular-groups-stars-constellations

before, so I wanted to learn more about it.

Winter - Perseus The Hero In Greek mythology, Perseus was the hero who slew Medusa the Gorgon. He was the son of Zeus and Danae. Because of a prophecy saying that any son of Danae would kill Danae's father, Acrisius, Arcrisius tried to kill both Perseus and Danae by throwing them into the sea in a chest. Zeus saved them, and they were taken in by King Polydectes. Polydectes sent Perseus on a mission to slay the Gorgon, thinking that he would surely die. Perseus, however slayed the Gorgon and returned triumphantly. On the way home, he met many obstacles, one of which resulted in him meeting his future wife, Andromeda. The constellation of Perseus was first cataloged by Ptolemy in the second century. Perseus is a very large constellation, making it hard to miss. It's located in the first quadrant of the northern hemisphere. Nearby constellations include Andromeda, Aries, Cassiopeia, and Taurus. Perseus is best known for its annual Perseid meteor shower that takes place July 23rd to August 20th. The meteors were named "Perseid," meaning "the sons of Perseus" because the meteors appear to originate from the direction of the Perseus constellation. Perseus is the home of Algol, a famous variable star also known as "the Demon Star". Perseus also contains several deep-sky objects including Messier 34, the Double Cluster, the California Nebula, and the Little Dumbbell Nebula.

CITATIONS: HTTPS://WWW.CONSTELLATION-GUIDE.COM/CONSTELLATION-LIST/PERSEUS-CONSTELLATION/ HTTPS://WWW.SPACE.COM/PERSEUS-CONSTELLATION.HTML HTTPS://WWW.SHUTTERSTOCK.COM/SEARCH/CONSTELLATION+PERSEUS

Carina is located in the second quadrant of the southern hemisphere and is located near Pictor, Puppis, Vela, and Volans. Carina contains the second brightest star in the sky: Canopus (or Alpha Carinae), a bright white supergiant. Canopus was named for Canopus, the navigator for Menelaus, king of Sparta. Other bright stars in Carina include Beta Carinae (a blue-white star traditionally called Miaplacidus), Epsilon Carinae (a giant star with an orange hue), and Theta Carinae (the most prominent member of cluster IC 2602). Carina is best known for NGC 3372, its namesake nebula, discovered in 1751 by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille. Carina is also the home of Eta Carinids, a meteor shower that peaks around January 21st every year.

Spring - Carina KEEL OF THE SHIP - ARGO'S KEEL Carina was once a part of Argo Navis, the great ship of Jason and the Argonauts who searched for the golden fleece. Ptolemy discovered the constellation of Argo in the second century. It was separated into three separate constellations in 1763 by French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille because of how massive it was. Those three constellations were Carina, Puppis, and Vela, and each represented a section of the ship; the keel, deck, and sails, respectively.

Citations: https://www.constellation-guide.com/constellation-list/carina-constellation/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carina_(constellation) https://www.space.com/20352-argo-navis-constellation-skywatching.html

Summer - Draco

The Dragon

Ptolemy discovered Draco in the second century. The name Draco comes from several myths in Greek mythology, The most commonly cited myth being the one about the 12 labors of Heracles. Draco is thought to represent the dragon named Ladon, who guarded the golden apples in the gardens of the Hesperides. The tree was a wedding present for Hera when she married Zeus, and Ladon was tasked with guarding it alongside Atlas' daughters, the Hesperides. Heracles defeated Ladon with poisoned apples on his quest to steal the golden apples, and Hera placed Ladon's image in the stars to honor him. Draco is usually depicted as coiled around the north pole, underneath the boot of Heracles. Draco is a circumpolar constellation, meaning it never sets, and it is located in the far northern sky. It belongs to the Ursa Major family of constellations and is neighbored by Hercules, Cepheus, Cygnus, Ursa Major, and Ursa Minor. It is the eighth largest constellation in the sky. Draco contains several deep-sky objects, including the Cat's Eye Nebula, the Spindle Galaxy, and the Tadpole Galaxy. Draco contains 17 formally named stars: Aldhibah, Alrakis, Alruba, Alsafi, Altais, Athebyne, Dziban, Edasich, Eltanin, Fafnir, Funi, Giausar, Grumium, Rastaban, Taiyi, Thuban, and Tianyi. The brightest stars in Draco are Gamma Draconis (otherwise known as The Zenith Star), Eta Draconis, and Beta Draconis. Citations: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draco_(constellation) https://www.constellation-guide.com/constellation-list/draco-constellation/

Fall - Andromeda

The Chained Maiden, Persea, or Cepheis Andromeda, the daughter of Cepheus and Cassiopeia, offended the sea nymphs, so Poseidon sent the sea monster Cetus to punish her and her parents. Cepheus sought the oracle's advice, and the oracle told him that the only way to appease the sea monster would be to sacrifice Andromeda to Cetus. Cepheus and Cassiopeia chained Andromeda to a rock, and the sea monster would have killed her if Perseus hadn't come along and saved her. Later they were married and had six children, including Gorgophonte (the father of the great spartan king, Tyndareus) and Perses (the ancestor of the Persians). Andromeda is one of the 48 Greek constellations discovered by Ptolemy in the second century. Per the mythology, Andromeda can be found near Perseus and Cassiopeia, the constellations named for her husband and mother. Other nearby constellations include Pegasus, Pisces, and Triangulum. Andromeda can be found in the first quadrant of the northern hemisphere. Andromeda's brightest star is Alpha Andromeda, also known as Alpheratz. "Andromeda has a number of stars with confirmed exoplanets. Titawin, Upsilon Andromedae (spectral class F8V), has four planets in its orbit. The triple star Kappa Andromedae (B9IVn) has one confirmed exoplanet about 13 times the mass of Jupiter, first discovered in November 2012. The suspected variable star 14 Andromedae, also called Veritate (K0III), has a known extrasolar planet, discovered in 2008." - Constellation Guide, 2021

Citations: https://www.constellation-guide.com/constellationlist/andromeda-constellation/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_(constellation)

Arguably the Andromeda constellation is most famous for hosting the Andromeda Galaxy. The Andromeda Galaxy is a spiral galaxy that contains a trillion stars, and it is the Milky Way's closest neighbor (only 2.5 million light-years away). It is also the farthest object in the night sky that is visible with the naked eye. It's apparent magnitude of 3.4 makes it one of the brightest Messier objects.

THE SUN Sol The G2V, aka yellow dwarf, star at the center of our solar system.

Our Sun

SOURCES HTTPS://WWW.BRITANNICA. COM/PLACE/SUN HTTPS://WWW.SCIENCEFACT S.NET/LAYERS-OF-THESUN.HTML

The sun has a surface temperature of 5,800 kelvin. It is a medium sized star on the outer part of the Milky Way Galaxy. The radius of the sun is 109 times larger than the radius of the Earth. The surface temperature of the sun is so high that it is impossible for any solid or liquid to exist there. The mass of the sun (M) is 743 times the mass of all of the planets in the solar system combined. "The nuclei of atoms are completely stripped of their electrons, and at this high temperature they collide to produce the nuclear reactions that are responsible for generating the energy vital to life on Earth." - Encyclopedia Britannica The Sun's core is about 100 times more dense than water and is 15,000,000 kelvin. "The Sun is a very stable source of energy; its radiative output, called the solar constant, is 1.366 kilowatts per square metre at Earth and varies by no more than 0.1 percent. Superposed on this stable star, however, is an interesting 11-year cycle of magnetic activity manifested by regions of transient strong magnetic fields called sunspots." - Encyclopedia Britannica

How Raven Stole the Sun: A Yup'ik Myth In Yup'ik culture, the Raven is often regarded as the most powerful being in all of creation. He created all living beings, but everything existed in darkness, for Raven had not created the sun. Raven learned that a chief near the Naas River held the sun, moon, and stars in wooden boxes at his house. Raven turned himself into a pine needle and dropped himself into the chief's daughter's drinking cup. When she swallowed the pine needle, Raven transformed into a baby, and the woman bore a son whom the chief loved dearly. The chief's grandchild, who was really Raven in disguise, knew that his grandfather would give him anything he wanted. The grandchild wanted to play with the cedar boxes holding the stars and moon, and he cried until the chief gave them to him. As soon as he had them in his hands, Raven threw the boxes up through the smokehole and let the stars and moon scatter into the sky. The grandfather was unhappy but loved his grandson so much he did not punish him. Raven began to cry for the box that held the sun. After the grandchild cried so much, he made himself sick his grandfather finally gave him the box. Raven played with the box for a while before suddenly transforming back into a bird. He flew up through the smokehole and into the sky, holding the box full of sunlight. Raven flew far away until he heard people speaking, he offered them light, and they replied, "no one can give light". To prove that he was telling the truth, Raven opened the box and let out the sun. Now it is no longer dark all of the time.

Story from: http://ankn.uaf.edu/npe/culturalatlases/yupiaq/marshall/raven/RavenStealsSunStarsMoon.html Image from: https://www.suewookey.com/photo_14503114.html

MISSIONS TO OBSERVE THE SUN Ulysses 1990 - 2009 Ulysses was a joint mission between NASA and the ESA. It made nearly three complete orbits around the sun in the 18 years that it was operational. It operated more than four times it's expected lifespan. Important discoveries made by Ulysses include: A weakening in solar wind over time. The magnetic field at the poles is much weaker than previously assumed. The Sun's magnetic field reverses direction every 11 years. Ulysses's contact with comet Hyakutake showed that comet tails are longer than we expected.

Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph IRIS launched in 2013 . It's mission is to observe how solar material moves, gathers energy, and heats up as it travels through the sun's atmosphere. The solar atmosphere has an inverted temperature structure meaning that the atmosphere heats up as it approaches the top of the transition region. IRIS is the first probe with technology sophisticated enough to properly observe the complexities of this area.

Sources: https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/ulysses/in-depth/ https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/iris/overview/index.ht ml

THE MOON Luna Cynthia, or Selene, the goddess of the night sky.

Our Moon

SOURCES: HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/ WIKI/MOON#PHYSICAL_CHA RACTERISTICS HTTPS://SOLARSYSTEM.NAS A.GOV/MOONS/EARTHSMOON/OVERVIEW/

Our moon is the 5th largest moon in the solar system with a radius of 1,079.6 miles. The moon is composed of three layers, a crust, mantle, and core. It's core is composed mostly of iron. It is about 240,000 miles from Earth. The largest, oldest, and deepest topographical feature on the moon is the giant far-side South Pole–Aitken Basin. It is about 2.240km is diameter and is the second largest confirmed impact crater in the solar system. Like Mercury the moon has shrunk slightly over the last billion years. We know this becuase of the appearance of fault scarp cliffs. Maria are the dark lunar plains that you can see with the naked eye, they cover about 31% of the moon's near side and 2% of the far side. The lighter portions of the moon's surface are called terrae, or highlands. The concentration of maria on the near side and highlands on the far side is most likely due to a low velocity impact with another moon a few tens of millions of years after the moon was formed. The moon's surface is cratered and pitted due to impacts with asteroids and comets. There are estimated to be roughly 300,000 craters wider than 1 km on the Moon's near side.

Luna: The Roman Moon Goddess The Ancient Roman goddess of Luna was the embodiment of the moon. She was the female counterpart of Sol, the god of the sun. She is generally depicted as a beautiful young woman with dark hair, pale skin, riding a silver chariot. When she is not riding her chariot she is often shown riding a horse or bull. She wears robes and a half moon crown, and she carries a torch. The moon is often associated with the feminine because of the way the waxing and waning of the moon mimic pregnancy and birth. Luna is actually one of three moon goddesses in Roman mythology. Luna is the waxing moon, the fertile mother, the goddess in heaven. The new moon is represented by Diana, the maiden, the goddess of the Earth. The waning moon is the old crone Hekate, the goddess in the underworld. Luna is thought to be the goddess of femininity, motherhood, and solutions. She is thought to have the ability to mask reality, awaken intuition, and provide psychic visions.

Sources: https://journeyingtothegoddess.wordpress.com/2012/03/31/goddess-luna/

MISSIONS TO OBSERVE THE MOON Apollo 17

ARTEMIS

Apollo 17 was the most recent human mission to the moon. The sixth and final mission of the Apollo program. They launched on December 7th, 1972. This was the first mission to land a scientist on the Moon. They landed on December 11th and returned to Earth on December 19th. They gathered geological samples, including the oldest known unshocked rock retrieved from the Moon, Troctolite 76535. They also discovered orange soil near Shorty crater, showing evidence of volcanic activity. Overall they conducted 10 experiments, took more than 2,000 photographs, and collected 243 pounds of soil and rock samples from 22 different sites.

The two ARTEMIS lunar orbit missions were repurposed from the THEMIS mission. The two spacecraft orbit the moon at the Lagrange points on opposite sides of the moon. They orbit in opposite directions and collect 3D measurements of the Moon's magnetic field and the interactions between it and the solar winds. It was announced that THEMIS B and C would be repurposed for the ARTEMIS mission on May 19, and 2008 and they are still operational today.

Sources: https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/apollo-17/in-depth/ https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/in-depth/

THE EARTH Gaia Terra, Tellus, the world, or the globe.

Earth

SOURCES: HTTPS://SOLARSYSTEM.NASA.GOV/PLANETS/EARTH/IN-DEPTH/ HTTPS://WWW.WORLDATLAS.COM/ARTICLES/THE-LAYERS-OF-THE-EARTH.HTML HTTPS://WWW.SPACE.COM/17638-HOW-BIG-IS-EARTH.HTML

Earth is the third planet from the sun and the only planet known to be inhabited by living things. The Earth is one AU from the sun or 93 million miles It is the 5th largest planet in our solar system and the only planet to have liquid water on its surface. The Earth's surface is comprised of about 29.2% land and 70.8% water. The poles are mostly covered in ice. The outer layer of the Earth is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate very slowly across the planet's surface. The Earth is thought to be about 4.5 billion years old. The planet is an oblate spheroid with a radius of 3,959 miles (6,371 kilometers). The Earth is split into four distinct layers: the crust, mantle, outer core and inner core. It has a mass of 6.6 sextillion tons and a volume of about 260 billion cubic miles. It is mainly comprised of iron, oxygen, silicon, magnesium, sulfur, nickel, calcium, and aluminum. The highest point on Earth is Mt Everest, at 29,032 feet, but the point that is furthest from the Earth's core, and therefore the highest point on the planet, is Mt Chimaborazo. The atmosphere is composed of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and trace amounts of carbon dioxide and other gasses. Water content of the atmosphere averages about 1%.

The Greek Creation Myth In Greek mythology the goddess of the Earth was Gaia. She emerged from the nothingness of Chaos along with her siblings Eros, Erebus, and Abyss. Gaia gave birth to the sky, or Uranus, and he fertilized her. This led to the birth of the first Titans. There were 12 Titans: Coeus, Crius, Cronus, Hyperion, Iapetus, Oceanus, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Rhea, Theia, Themis, and Tethys. Cronus, the god of Time, was the last Titan to be brought into existence. Cronus named himself the ruler of the gods, claimed his sister Rhea as his wife, and made the other Titans his court. To claim his power Cronus castrated his father, Uranus, and created the goddess Aphrodite by throwing his severed genitals into the sea. Becuase of what he did to his own father, Cronus lived in fear of what his own children might do to him. Each time Rhea gave birth he would eat the child. Rhea hated this and eventually tricked Cronus by hiding one child, and giving Cronus a rock wrapped in a blanket instead. This child, Zeus, was able to successfully slay his father and name himself ruler of the Gods. Zeus remained the ruler despite many new challengers and created many new gods and demigods.

Sources: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/big-history-project/what-is-big-history/origin-stories/a/origin-story-greek

MISSIONS TO OBSERVE THE EARTH Gravity Probe B

CALIPSO

Gravity Probe B confirmed two key predictions based off of Einstein's general theory of relativity. It launched in 2004 and "used ultra-precise gyroscopes to measure the hypothesized geodetic effect...and frame dragging". GPB was able to prove these effects with astouding precision by orbiting the Earth while pointing at the star IM Pegasi.

CALIPSO or Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infared Pathfinder Observer, provides information about clouds and atmospheric aerosls and how they influence Earth's weather, climate, and air quality. It was launched on April 28th, 2006 along with CloudSat. It is still active today.

Sources: https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/gpb/index.html https://www-calipso.larc.nasa.gov/

MERCURY Stilbōn Hermes

These are MASCS spectrum scans collected by MESSENGER

SOURCES: HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/MERCURY_(PLANET)#SURFACE_CONDITIONS_AND_EXOSPHERE HTTPS://SOLARSYSTEM.NASA.GOV/PLANETS/MERCURY/OVERVIEW/ HTTPS://SOLARSYSTEM.NASA.GOV/PLANETS/MERCURY/IN-DEPTH/

Mercury Mercury is the planet closest to the sun and the smallest planet in the solar system (now that Pluto is classified as a dwarf planet). Its mass is equal to 0.055 Earths. Mercury has the shortest year of all the planets; it orbits around the sun once every 88 days. Being the planet closest to the sun, it is only 0.4 AU from the sun. The planet is so small in fact, that it is smaller, but still more massive, than the largest natural satellites in the Solar System (Ganymede and Titan). Mercury is approximately 70% metallic and 30% silicate material. It has a solid silicate crust and mantle with a liquid core encased inside an iron sulfide shell. It has the second-highest density in the entire solar system. It is estimated that Mercury's core makes up about 55% of its volume, and it has a higher iron content than that of any other major planet in the solar system. The surface of Mercury is similar in geology to the Moon, suggesting that it has been inactive for billions of years. Its surface is chemically heterogeneous but is covered in dorsa ("wrinkle ridges"), highlands, mountains, plains, escarpments, and valleys. The wrinkle ridges that are fairly common on Mercury's surface were created when the interior cooled, and the surface contracted, causing the surface to warp and wrinkle. Mercury does not have an atmosphere. Instead, it has a thin exosphere comprised of atoms hurled from the surface by solar winds or meteoroids. This exosphere is mostly oxygen, sodium, helium, and potassium.

Mercury in Mythology Mercury is often associated with messengers and travelers because of how quickly it moves through the sky. In Roman mythology Mercury is the god of financial gain, communication, commerce, luck, trickery, and thieves. His equivalent in Greek mythology is Hermes. Mercury is also associated with Turms in Etruscan mythology and Thoth in Ancient Egyptian mythology, Hermes is considered the herald of the gods and the protector of human heralds, thieves, travellers, merchants, and orators. He was born to Zues and Maia, and before noon on his first day of life he invented the lyre and stole the cattle of Apollo. Apollo was furious when he discovered who had stolen his cattle, but Hermes calmed him by playing a song on the lyre. After his song was finished Apollo forgave Hermes, vowed to be his closest friend until the end of time, and gifted him his famous caduceus (a short winged staff depicting two entwined serpents). Hermes was beloved by all of the gods, and was able to travel freely to and from Olympus, the mortal world, and the underworld. Because of this he is present in many myths, often acting as messenger, guide, or trickster. He is even a prominent character in the 2020 video game "Immortals: Fenyx Rising".

Sources: https://www.greekmythology.com/Olympians/Hermes/hermes.html https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermes#Mythology https://twitter.com/greekgodspeed/status/1006430558711353344

MISSIONS TO OBSERVE MERCURY Mariner 10

Messenger

The first spacecraft to study Mercury was Mariner 10 which launched on November 3rd, 1973. It was the first mission to explore two planets during a single mission, and the first to use a gravity assist to change it's flight path. It was also the first spacecraft to return to it's target after an initial encounter and the first probe to use solar wind as a major means of spacecraft orientation during flight. It conducted it's first flyby of Venus on Febuary 5th, 1974 and it's first flyby of Mercury on March 29th, 1974. It conducted two more flybys of Mercury in March 1975 before crashing and going offline on March 24th, 1975. It studied the surface and physical characteristics of Mercury. It helped us to learn about Mercury's atmosphere, magnetosphere, and surface temperature. Overall it collected 4,165 photos of Venus and over 2,700 pictures of Mercury.

The Messenger (Mercury Surface, Space Environment, Geochemistry, and Ranging) spacecraft orbited Mercury for more than four years. It helped to determine Mercury's surface composition, geological history, internal magnetic field, and the composition of it's polat deposits. It launched on August 3rd, 2004, entered Mercury's orbit on March 11, 2011, and crashed on Mercury's surface on April 30th, 2015. Messenger was the first spacecraft to orbit Mercury and the first mission to Mercury since Mariner 10. One of Messenger's most incredible findings was an image it took of our solar system on February 18th, 2011. In this image all the planets are visible except for Uranus and Neptune.

Sources: https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/messenger/in-depth/ https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/mariner-10/in-depth/

Family Portraits These images show the entire solar system. The first set of images were taken by Voyager 1 in the late 1970s as it left the solar system, the second set were taken in February of 2011 by Messenger as it traveled to the Sun.

VENUS Lucifer Phosphorus, Hesperus, "The Morning Star"

Venus

Venus is the second planet from the sun and Earth's closest neighbor. It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty. It is the brightest natural object in the night sky apart from the moon, and it is occasionally visible with the naked eye even in daylight. One Venusian year is 224.7 Earth days, but its synodic day is 117 Earth days. Its sidereal day (how long it takes it to rotate around its axis) is 243 days. This means that it takes longer to revolve around its axis than any other planet in the solar system. Venus is the hottest planet in the solar system, despite Mercury being closer to the sun. This is because of its uniquely dense atmosphere, which is 96% carbon dioxide. The average temperature on the surface is 867* Fahrenheit. Because of its brightness, Venus was the first planet to have its motions across the sky recorded. It is a terrestrial planet and is often referred to as Earth's sister planet because of its proximity and similarity in size, mass, and proximity to the sun. Not only is Venus's atmosphere primarily carbon dioxide, but it also is extremely rich in primordial noble gases, which indicates an unusually large comet impact or something similarly disruptive early on in the planet's life. The Venusian surface is difficult to observe due to the thick clouds in its atmosphere. Still, landers have discovered a rocky surface and SOURCES: HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/VENUS HTTPS://SOLARSYSTEM.NASA.GOV/PLANETS/VENUS/OVERVIEW/ HTTPS://STARWALK.SPACE/EN/NEWS/DISCOVER-THE-AMAZING-PLANET-VENUS

evidence of extensive volcanism and wrinkle ridges, and giant plains.

Venus in Mythology While Mars is associated with the masculine, its symbol represents the male sex. Venus is the feminine equivalent. Venus was the Roman god of love, sex, beauty, and fertility. Her Greek counterpart was Aphrodite. Another common name for Venus is "the Morning Star," which often appears in the East before sunrise. Many figures in mythology also adopt the name Morning Star, including Barnumbirr in Yolngu culture, Jesus in Christian mythology, Phosphorus in Greek mythology, and Lucifer, who is present in many mythologies. Many figures in folklore both represent Venus and are recognized as Lucifer. Originally Lucifer was the son of the dawn goddess Aurora. In Christian mythology, the devil is sometimes referred to as Lucifer, morning star, or light-bringer. Lucifer in Roman folklore was often depicted as a male figure bearing a torch. He was thought to be the son of Aurora and Cephalus and was often presented in poetry as heralding the dawn. Lucifer was not typically regarded as a deity and had few myths. Christian folklore has many more myths and stories about Lucifer, even though the name (and in many translations, only the phrase "morning star") is only mentioned once. Many people believe that Lucifer was the devils name before he fell from Heaven and became Satan. Lucifer is depicted as Satan in many myths and stories including Dante's Inferno, Paradise Lost, and the Revolt of the Angels. Whether or not Lucifer and Satan are the same person is debated. Because of the diversity within the sects of Christianity the modern understanding of Lucifer and Satan vary widely depending on what sect you ask. Many Pagan and Wiccan traditions also mention Lucifer. In Abrahamic religions Lucifer, Satan, or the devil, is associated with evil and everything bad in the world. Like the Church of Satan and The Satanic Temple, some other modern religions consider Lucifer the bringer of knowledge, enlightenment, and justice.

Sources: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucifer https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lucifer-classical-mythology

MISSIONS TO OBSERVE VENUS Mariner 2

Magellan

Mariner 2 was the first fully successful interplanetary mission performed by any nation. It launched on August 27th, 1962 and conducted it's flyby of Venus on December 14th, 1962. On January 3rd, 196 we lost contact with it and it's mission ended. It was launched 36 days after the failure of Mariner 1. It's scan of Venus lasted 42 minutes and gathered significant data on the Venusian atmosphere and surface. Five scans were conducted on the night side of the planet, eight across the terminator, and five on the daylight side. After it completed it's flyby it set a new distance record for a deep space probe by flying 53.9 million miles from Earth. Overall Mariner helped us to learn about the temperatures on Venus, the depth and density of the atmosphere, and it's magnetic field.

The Magellan mission to Venus was one of the most successful deep space missions to date. It was able to image the entire surface of Venus successfully and lasted 10 hours in the atmosphere before burning up. It launched on May 4th, 1989, was deployed from the cargo bay of Space Shuttle Atlantis on May 5th, 1989, and arrived in Venus's orbit on August 10, 1990. On October 13th, 1994 it was commanded to dive into the atmosphere and burned up shortly after. It was the first space probe launched via shuttle, and was the United State's first space probe launched in 11 years after the Challenger disaster. Magellan used a Synthetic Aperture Radar to map 98% of the Venusian surface. Because of this we learned about the planet's history, tectonic movement, lava channels, and volcanic activity.

Sources: https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/magellan/in-depth/ https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/mariner-02/in-depth/

MARS The Red Planet, Ares Al-Qahira, Auqakuh, Bahram, Harmakhis, Huo Hsing, Kasei, Labou, Ma'adim, Maja, Mamers, Mangala, Marte, Mawrth, Nirgal, Shalbatana, Simud, Tiu

Mars

SOURCES: HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/MARS#ORBIT_AND_ROTATION HTTPS://SOLARSYSTEM.NASA.GOV/PLANETS/MARS/OVERVIEW/

Mars is the fourth planet from the sun and the second-smallest planet in the solar system. Mars is often referred to as "The Red Planet" because of the iron oxide on its surface that gives it its reddish color. Mars is home to the highest known mountain in the solar system, Olympus Mons. The planet's two moons are Phobos and Deimos. Mars has an orbital period of 686.98 days, a mass equal to 0.107 Earths, and is about 230 million km. The red planet lost its magnetosphere about 4 billion years ago, and the solar wind interacting with the ionosphere makes the atmosphere very thin. The atmosphere is about 98% Carbon Dioxide with traces of Argon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, and water. The surface gravity of mars is equal to approximately 38% of Earth's. Mars is a terrestrial planet whose surface is covered in rocks comprised chiefly of silicon, oxygen, and metals. Much of the surface is coated in a thick layer of finely-grained iron oxide dust. Like Earth, Mars is thought to have a dense metallic core overlaid by gradually less dense materials. The core is surrounded by a silicate mantle that formed many of the volcanic and tectonic features on the surface but is no longer active. Measurements of marsquakes detected by the InSight lander suggest that the martian core is liquid, and its radius is equal to more than half the radius of the entire planet.

Nergal - The Babylonian God of War Nergal, or Nirgal, was a god in the religion of ancient Mesopotamia. He was closely related to war, disease, and the underworld. Some texts also associate him with agriculture and protection. His fearsome reputation made him the protector of homes and the defender of the realm. One legend about Nergal goes as follows: There was a great banquet with all of the gods. Ereshkigal, the goddess of the underworld could not attend so she sent her son Namtar in her place to bring her her share of the feast. When Namtar arrived all the gods rose in respect, except for Nergal the god of war. Namtar was insulted and the god Enki advised that he report back to his mother about what had happened. Ereshkigal was livid when she learned of what had happened and demanded that Nergal be sent to the underworld so that she could kill him. The gods agreed that this was necessary so they sent Nergal to the underworld. Once he is there Ereshkigal tells her servants to send Nergal through the seven gates, barring each one behind him as he passes, until he gets to the throne room where she will kill him. Nergal makes it through each of the gates and is able to persuade two of his demon escorts to keep the last gate open for him. Once he enter the throne room he overpowers Namtar and pins Ereshkigal to the floor. He raises his axe to cut off her head but she persuades him to let her live by offering to be his bride. Nergal agrees to marry her and share her power. Many stories also talk about how Nergal only remained in the underworld for six months out of the year because war is part of the human experience. His guards at the gates and the fact the he was the queen's guest and consort allowed him to come and go as he pleased despite the fact that most people, or gods, cannot leave the underworld once they enter. Sources: https://www.worldhistory.org/Ereshkigal/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nergal https://the-demonic-paradise.fandom.com/wiki/Nergal

MISSIONS TO OBSERVE MARS Curiosity

Perseverance 2020

The Curiosity Rover was the largest and most capable rover ever sent to Mars. It launched November 26th, 2011 and landed on August 5th, 2012. It can climb over knee high obstacles and travel about 100ft per hour. It gets its power from a radioisotope power system that generates electricity from plutonium's radioactive decay. Curiosity's main mission was to learn whether or not microbes could survive on the surface of Mars. It collects rock, soil, and air samples that it analyzes itself. Curiosity is well equipped with 17 cameras, a small laser that can vaporize rocks, and a drill to collect rock samples. The rover uses these instruments to analyze the geology of Mars and translate that into information about the planet's history. The car-sized rover outlived it's life expectancy of one martian year, and is still operational after 9 martian years, or 3,268 sols (as of October 16, 2021).

The Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover is part of the Mars Exploration program that seeks to answer key questions about possible past or future life on Mars. It collects core samples and adds them to a cache on the surface of Mars. A future manned mission could collect these samples and return them to Earth to be studied. The probe was launched July 30th, 2020 and landed on February 18th, 2021.

Sources: lhttps://mars.nasa.gov/mars-exploration/missions/mars-sciencelaboratory/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curiosity_(rover) https://mars.nasa.gov/mars-exploration/missions/mars2020/ https://www.nasa.gov/perseverance/overview

JUPITER The Gas Giant

Jupiter

Jupiter is the 5th planet from the sun and the largest planet in the solar system. The gas giant is more than two and a half times more massive than all other planets in our solar system combined. Its mass is equal to 317.8 Earths. It takes Jupiter 11.862 Earth years to orbit the sun, but its day is only 9 hours and 55 minutes (Earth time). Jupiter's upper atmosphere is about 90% hydrogen and 10% helium. As you get nearer to the core, that changes to about 75% hydrogen and 24% helium, with 1% other elements. The outermost layer of the atmosphere contains frozen, crystalline ammonia. Jupiter's core is not solid. It is diffuse and mixes with the planet's mantle. This may be due to an impact early on in the planet's history that disrupted a previously solid core. The gas giant is perpetually covered in clouds composed of ammonia crystals. These clouds are separated into dark belts and light zones. The interactions of these different clouds are what cause the weather and storms on Jupiter. The presence of lightning within Jupiter's clouds suggests a thin layer of water vapor under the ammonia clouds. Jupiter has 80 known moons. The largest are Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto (otherwise known as the Galilean moons). Ganymede is the largest and most massive moon in the solar system and the ninth-largest object in the Solar System (including the sun). It is 26% larger than Mercury. SOURCES: HTTPS://ASTRONOMY.COM/NEWS/2019/08/JUPITER-MAY-HAVE-BEEN-HIT-BY-A-MASSIVEPROTO-PLANET-LONG-AGO HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/GANYMEDE_(MOON)

Jupiter also has a faint ring made of dust that likely originated from some of its moons.

MISSIONS TO OBSERVE JUPITER Galileo

Juno

Galileo was the first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter. It entered orbit on December 7th, 1995 and continued it's orbit for seven years. During it's time in orbit it was also able to conduct multiple flyby's of many of Jupiter's moons, including all of the Galilean moons and Amalthea. It was also able to observe the impact of "Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9" as it approached Jupiter in 1994. At the beginning of Galileo's orbit it released a atmospheric probe into Jupiter's atmosphere. This probe was able to collect data for almost an hour before the pressure and heat melted, and maybe even vaporized it. The orbiter itself suffered the same fate on September 21st, 2003 when it fell into the planet's atmosphere.

Juno is an ongoing mission to observe Jupiter. It launched on August 5th, 2011 and arrived in Jupiter's orbit in July of 2016. The mission was expected to last 20 months and focus on studying the planet from a polar orbit. The mission plan was extended until 2025 and was expanded to include fllyby's of Ganymede, Europa, and Io. When Juno reaches the end of it's mission it will perform a controlled deorbit and will disintegrate in Jupiter's atmosphere. There is a small risk that radiation from Jupiter's magnetosphere will interfere with Juno's instruments and cause a collision with one of Jupiter's moons. Juno's purpose is to learn more about Jupiter's origin, evolution, interior, atmosphere, and magnetosphere.

Sources: lhttps://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/juno/overview/index.html https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter#Galileo_mission

SATURN Cronos

Saturn Saturn is the sixth planet from the sun. It is the second-largest planet in the solar system. The average radius of Saturn is 9.5 times larger than the Earth's. A day on Saturn is about 10.7 hours, but it's year is equal to about 29 Earth years. Saturn has at least 82 moons. 53 of those moons have official names. This list of moons does not include any of the moonlets that make up Saturn's rings. Saturn, like it's neighbor Jupiter, is a gas giant. However, unlike Jupiter, Saturn is thought to have a solid core. Saturn is unique in it's shape, it is an oblate spheroid which is not unusual, but out of all the planets Saturn is the most oblate. The bulge at Saturn's equator is so significant that the gravity at the equator is 74% of what it is at the poles. Saturn is also the only planet that is less dense than water, meaning it would float if you could find a swimming pool large enough. The planet is mostly comprised of hydrogen and helium, but because of the way temperature and pressure increase toward the core the hydrogen in the deeper layers is actually metal. Saturn's interior is so hot that it actually releases more energy than it receives from the sun, 2.5 times more to be exact. The outer atmosphere is over 93% hydrogen and a little less than 4% helium. Like Jupiter the upper clouds are composed of ammonia crystals. The lower clouds are thought to be either ammonium hydrosulfide or water. Saturn's rings extend about 6,630 to 120,700 km outward from Saturn's equator. They are about 20 meters thick on average. They are mostly water ice with small amounts of tholin and amorphous carbon. The particles themselves range from specks of dust to 10m wide moonlets. The two moons Pandora nd Prometheus act as shepherd moons, keeping the rings in their signature disk shape. Titan is Saturn's largest moon and it is the second largest moon in the Solar system. It is larger than Mercury and is the only moon in the Solar System that has a substantial atmosphere. SOURCES: HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/SATURN HTTPS://SOLARSYSTEM.NASA.GOV/PLANETS/SATURN/OVERVIEW/

MISSIONS TO OBSERVE Pioneer 11

Cassini

Pioneer 11 launched on April 6, 1973 and was the first human made object to fly past Saturn. It also returned the first pictures of the Polar regions of Jupiter. Pioneer 11 was the sister craft of Pioneer 10 and was the first spacecraft to study Saturn up-close. It was one of the five spacecraft with a trajectory leading out of the solar system, and it will pass by the star Lambda Aquila in about 4 million years. It conducted a fly-by of Jupiter on December 3rd, 1974, a fly-by of Saturn on September 1st 1979, and it crossed the orbit of Neptune on February 2rd, 1990. The last time we received any data from Pioneer 11 was on November 24th, 1995.

Cassini launched on October 15th, 1997 and was the first craft to study Saturn from orbit. Cassini also carried the Huygens probe, which was the first human made object to land on a world in the outer solar system, Together these crafts made several important discoveries including the fact that Titan, Saturn's largest moon, is the most Earth-like world that we have encountered thus far. Cassini completed it's "Grand Finale" in September of 2017. where approached the planet is a complex spiral, allowing the craft to be destroyed without interfering with any of the moons orbiting Saturn which are thought to have the potential to harbor life.

Sources: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens#Grand_Finale_a nd_destruction https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/cassini/overview/ https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pioneer-11/in-depth/

URANUS Georgium Sidas Sky King Star, Dao Yurenat, Dao Maritayu, King of the Sky.

Uranus

SOURCES: HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/URANUS#MOONS HTTPS://SOLARSYSTEM.NASA.GOV/PLANETS/URANUS/OVERVIEW/

Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun. It is the 3rd largest planet and is classified as an ice giant. It is about 2.8 billion kilometers from the sun. Like Jupiter and Saturn Uranus is primarily composed of hydrogen and helium, but it also contains various forms of ice including water, ammonia, and methane ice and even traces of hydrocarbons. Uranus was the first planet found with the aid of a telescope, and was originally discovered in 1781 by William Herschel, who originally thought it was either a comet or a star. It took two years before it was universally accepted as a a new planet. A day on Uranus is equal to 17 hours on Earth, and it's year is equal to 84 Earth years. Uranus has a solid rocky core, 27 known moons, and 13 known rings. Uranus is unique in the fact that it rotates both east to west and on it's side. The standard model of Uranus' structure shows three distinct layers, a rocky core, an icy mantle (sometimes referred to as a water-ammonia ocean), and an outer gaseous hydrogen/helium envelope. The bulk of Uranus' mass comes from it's mantle. The gaseous envelope that makes up the third layer of the planet is called it's atmosphere even though the planet does not have a discernable surface. The moons of Uranus are named after literary characters from the works of Shakespeare and Alexander Pope. The five main moons are Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon. The combined mass of these would be equal to less than half the mass of Neptune's largest moon (Titan). Titania is the largest of Uranus's moons, it's less than half the size of our moon, but it still manages to be the eighth largest moon in the solar system. It gets it's name from the queen of the fairies in Shakespeare's "A Midsummer Night's Dream".

NEPTUNE Neptunus Posiedon

Neptune

Neptune is the eighth planet from the sun and the farthest from the Sun. It is the fourth largest planet and the third most massive planet. It is also the densest of the giant planets. Neptune and Uranus are nearly twins, but Neptune is denser, smaller, and more massive. It takes Neptune 164.8 years to orbit the sun as it is 30.1 AU (or 4.5 billion km from the sun). Neptune is not visible to the naked eye, and was the first planet found through mathematical prediction rather than direct observation. Changes in the orbit of Uranus led to predictions that it was being affected by another planet. Neptune was first observed via telescope on Septmeber 23rd, 1846. Triton, Neptune's largest moon, was discovered shortly after that. Like the other Jovian planets Neptune is composed mostly of hydrogen, helium, and hydrocarbons, along with "ices" made of water, ammonia, and methane. Neptune, like Uranus is considered an "ice giant". Neptune, unlike Uranus, has an active and visible atmosphere with distinct weather patterns. Neptune's weather patterns are comprised of the strongest sustained winds in the entire solar system with winds as strong as 2,100 km/h. Becuase of its immense distance from the sun Neptune's atmosphere is insanely cold, with temperatures in the upper atmosphere as low as 55* K (-361* F) Like the other Jovian planets Neptune has rings, but they are unstable and fractured. Neptune has 14 known moons, the largest of these is Triton which is unique because of it's retrograde orbit that indicates it may have once been a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt. Triton is also close enough to Neptune that it is not only locked in synchronous rotation, but also is orbiting in a spiral that will eventually bring it so close to the planet that it will get torn apart. SOURCES: HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/NEPTUNE#MOONS HTTPS://SOLARSYSTEM.NASA.GOV/PLANETS/NEPTUNE/OVERVIEW/

MISSIONS TO OBSERVE URANUS AND NEPTUNE Voyager 2 The only spacecraft to conduct a flyby of Uranus or Neptune was Voyaer 2 on January 24th, 1986. It was able to discover 10 moons, study the planets atmosphere, examine it's ring system, discover two new rings, and gather images of Uranus's five largest moons. It also discovered Uranus's magnetic field. It did all this in the span of only six hours. On it's flyby of Neptune, on August 25th, 1989, Voyager 2 flew 2,980 miles over the atmosphere of the planet. This was the closest of its flybys. It discovered 6 new moons and 4 new rings. it also showed us that the planet was more active than previously believed, and it discovered that hydrogen is the most common element and the blue color comes from an abundance of methane. It also revealed details about the three major features of the planet's clouds, the Lesser Dark Spot, the Great Dark Spot, and Scooter.

The Huble Space Telescope There have been no missions to study Uranus exclusively, so almost all of the information we've been able to gather about it has been from observations via the Hubble Space Telescope.

Sources: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploration_of_Uranus https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/uranus/exploration/? page=0&per_page=10&order=launch_date+desc%2Ctitle+asc&search=&ta gs=Uranus&category=33 https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/voyager-2/in-depth/

The Jovian Planets in Mythology Jupiter, in Roman mythology, is the king of the gods. Like his Greek counterpart, Jupiter was the god of the sky and thunder. Saturn, or Cronos, was often depicted as the previous king of the gods and the father of Jupiter/Zeus. Jupiter and Zeus have almost identical origin stories in their respective mythologies, as do Saturn and Cronos. Neptune's Greek counterpart is Poseidon and Pluto's Hades. One of the missions to study Jupiter is named Juno. This name was inspired by the Greek and Roman story of Jupiter hiding behind a veil of clouds to conceal his mischief. The only one who was able to part these clouds was Jupiter's wife, the goddess Juno— making Juno the perfect name for the mission intended to uncover the secrets of Jupiter's cloudy "surface." Saturn was a prominent god in the ancient Roman religion. He was the god of generation, dissolution, plenty, wealth, agriculture, renewal, and liberation. His mythological reign was thought to be one of peace and plenty, a Golden Age. He was celebrated during the festival of Saturnalia in December, a time of free speech, giftgiving, and revelry. The day of the week, Saturday, also gets its name from this god. Uranus was named after the Greek god of the sky, the father of Cronus (Saturn), and the grandfather of Zeus (Jupiter). In essence, Uranus was the personification of Heaven. Neptune gets its name from the Roman god of the sea. Uranus and Neptune were named after figures in mythology but were not a part of the myths themselves as they are the most recently discovered planets. Because they are nearly impossible to see with the naked eye, they were not discovered until well after the myths associated with the other planets had moved out of common belief and into history books. So the names were pulled from mythology and given to the planets rather than being "active" participants in mythology like the other, more easily visible planets. Sources: https://telescopeobserver.com/jovian-planets/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_(mythology) https://www.britannica.com/topic/Uranus-mythology https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)

PLUTO Tombaugh Regio 44

Pluto

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Pluto is a dwarf planet that resides on the solar system's edge, past Neptune in the Kuiper Belt. Pluto is the largest dwarf planet in the solar system, but it's still smaller than the Earth's moon. The dwarf planet's distance from the Sun varies widely and ranges from 30 to 49 AU from the Sun throughout its orbit, which takes about 248 years. A day is 153 hours. Pluto is so far from the Sun that it takes light 5.5 hours on average to get from the Sun to the dwarf planet's surface. On the surface of Pluto, there is a heart-shaped glacier that is about the same size as Texas and Oklahoma combined. Pluto was initially declared the 9th planet when it was discovered in 1930. However, in 2006 the IAU changed the definition of "planet," and Pluto was downgraded to a dwarf planet. There are five known moons of Pluto, Charon, Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra. Charon is the largest of these moons, and Pluto and Charon are often referred to as a "binary system" because the barycenter (the point about which bodies orbit) is not found within either body, so they appear to orbit each other. The presence of Pluto was first hypothesized in 1906 by Percival Lowell but wasn't officially discovered until March 13th, 1930, fourteen years after his death. Pluto's surface is composed of more than 98% nitrogen ice, and the mountains are made of water ice. It's also about -396* F. Pluto has one of the most contrastive surfaces in the entire solar system, which is evident when looking at the most recent photographs. The colors found on its surface include black, orange, and white. It is thought that Pluto has a differentiated internal structure, meaning the dense rocky material is found in the core, and the mantle is comprised of mostly water ice. This means Pluto has no magnetic field, but it may have subsurface oceans. Pluto does have an atmosphere that gives it a blue tint, with an atmospheric pressure that is about one million times less than Earth's and is thinning rather rapidly (20% in 3 years).

Pluto in Mythology Pluto was named after the Roman god of the underworld, who was a prominent figure in Roman mythology. He was seen as a mysterious and foreboding presence who was feared and respected. Pluto controlled luck, fate, ores, metals, and precious stones. Becuase of his power over metals and gems he was considered the bringer of wealth. His Greek counterpart, Hades, shared many of these same traits. The Pluto that we know and think of today was an amalgamation of Hades and the Roman god "Pluton". the lord of wealth. In some sources the names Dis Pater and Pluto are used interchangeably. The name Pluto means "the wealthy one" and the other versions of his name have meanings that include father, god, wealth, or riches. Pluto became the god of both the dead and wealth becuase he was thought to inhabit and control the subterranean underworld where metals, precious stones, and departed souls can be found. Like Hades, his underground home kept him separate from the other gods and he is often depicted as aloof or withdrawn. He is often depicted as riding a chariot, carrying a staff, and accompanied by the three-headed dog Cerberus who guards the underworld. Ops (goddess of the Earth) and Saturn were Pluto's parents, while Jupiter was his brother. Jupiter and Pluto's siblings included Neptune, Juno, Vesta, and Ceres, so Venetia Burney Phair chose well when she chose to name the dwarf planet Pluto as it fits extremely well with the names and mythology associated with the planets in our solar system. One of the most famous myths featuring Pluto was the story of Pluto and the Rape of Proserpina where Pluto was poisoned with one of Cupid's love arrows and was unable to stop himself from abducting Proserpina and unleashing the fury of her mother Ceres. Pluto took Proserpina as his bride until Jupiter forced him to send her home, but was able to keep her in the underworld for some months each year as payment for the pomegranate seeds she ate while she was with him. If this story sounds familiar it's becuase it closely resembles the story of Hades and Persephone from Greek mythology.

Source: https://mythopedia.com/roman-mythology/gods/pluto/

THE MISSION TO OBSERVE PLUTO New Horizons The only spacecraft to study Pluto up close has been New Horizons. It launched on January 19th, 2006. In February of 2007 it used a gravity boost and began a 6 month long reconnaissance flyby study of Pluto and it's moons. It's closest approach occurred on July 14, 2015 and now it is headed through the Kuiper Belt. New Horizons helped us learn a lot about Pluto and it's moons. The New Horizons team discovered 4 of Pluto's moons: Nix, Hydra, Styx, and Kerboros. They also learned that Pluto does not fit into the two categories we use to describe the eight planets in our solar system, instead they are classified as "ice dwarfs" becuase they are solid like the terrestrial planets but they are composed of ice and not rock. The amount of data that New Horizons gathered during it's flyby was so huge that it took 15 months for NASA to download it all. The spacecraft also discovered evidence of a past subsurface ocean on Charon, strange water-ice hills floating in frozen nitrogen on Pluto, and possible evidence that Pluto's surface could have the ingredients for life.

Sources: https://www.space.com/18377-new-horizons.html https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/newhorizons/overview/index.html

109P/Swift-Tuttle The comet Swift-Tuttle was discovered in 1862 by Lewis Swift and Horace Tuttle. This comet orbits the Sun every 133 years and last reached its perihelion (when it is closest to the Sun) in 1992 and will return in 2125. It is comprised of ice, rock, and dark organic material. The space debris that creates the Perseids meteor shower every August originates from this comet. Its nucleus is about 16 miles wide, and it is the largest solar system object to repeatedly pass close to Earth. Sources: https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/asteroids-comets-and-meteors/comets/109p-swift-tuttle/in-depth/ https://www.space.com/33671-perseids-get-a-boost-from-jupiter.html

Psyche 16 Annibale de Gasparis discovered Psyche 16 on March 17th, 1852. The asteroid gets its name from Psyche the Greek goddess of the soul, the wife of Eros the god of love. Psyche is a giant metal asteroid that is comprised of metallic iron and nickel and is about 3 AU from the Sun. It is about 140 miles across. It is thought that Psyche might have once been the core of a planet that fell apart due to violent collisions. All observations of Psyche indicate it is "potato-shaped". It orbits the Sun between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, and it orbits the Sun once every 5 years, and it rotates every four hours. There is a mission that is targeted to launch in August of 2022 to study Psyche, named NASA's Psyche mission, which intends to determine the origin and composition of Psyche 16. Sources: https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/asteroids-comets-and-meteors/asteroids/16-psyche/in-depth/