Jennifer A. Wheeler (Thích Nữ Pháp Chân)
The Vision of the Upāsaka-śīla Sūtra An examination of the development of Mahāyāna ethics from its pre-Mahāyāna foundations
MA, Buddhist Studies June 2011 University of Sunderland Page | 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My heartfelt gratitude to… Ven. Bhikkhu Bodhi for his teachings and friendship and support of my studies. May the Triple Gem protect him so that he may continue to benefit sentient beings for many more years! Ven. Thích Trí Hoằng for conferring on me the Bodhisattva precepts and novice ordination, giving me the Dharma name Pháp Chân, Dharma Truth. May the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas support and bless him in all his good work! Dr. Ellison Banks Findly for her support during my graduate studies and for commenting on a draft of the dissertation; Dr. Whalen Lai for correspondence during a critical time in the development of this dissertation and for reviewing a draft of this text; Ven. Thích Thiện Lợi, for answering many questions about the Chinese language and the Bodhisattva path; Allison Bush, who graciously helped proofread this dissertation, and Susan Moore, who tracked down an important and hard-to-find article; my parents for giving me a strong grounding in religion and ethics; Barry Chernoff for being a long-suffering Bodhisattva, friend and partner. May they all be free from suffering and the causes of suffering! Finally, I offer a deep bow of gratitude and respect to Dr. Peter Harvey. His breadth of knowledge and understanding, his compassion, his clarity and high standards have been inspirational and profoundly important to my own spiritual and intellectual development. I owe more to him than I can say. Mā te bhavatvantarāyo, sukhī dīghāyuko bhava!
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TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Aims and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 CHAPTER 1: MAHĀYĀNA: THE VEHICLE TO THE GREAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 What is a Bodhisattva? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Vehicle to the Great . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 CHAPTER XX: THE CONTEXT OF THE UPĀSAKA-ŚĪLA SŪTRA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Juqu Mengxun and the Northern Liang Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Dharmakṣema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 CHAPTER 3: THE HOUSEHOLDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 The Path of the Householder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Bodhisattva Precepts Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 CHAPTER 4: THE UPĀSAKA-ŚĪLA SŪTRA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 The Sūtra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Dāna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Appendix 1: Dynasties of Northern China in the Early Medieval Period . . . . . . . . . 37 Appendix 2: Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Appendix 3: Mogao Caves, Dunhuang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Appendix 4: Texts Translated By Dharmakṣema (417-422 CE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Appendix 5: The Precepts of the Lay Bodhisattva (Upāsaka. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Appendix 6: Word Count Analysis for the Upāsaka-śīla Sūtra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Appendix 7: Table of Sūtra Correspondences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Appendix 8: Texts of Related Sūtras from the Chinese Canon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Appendix 9: Biographical Sketch of Dharmakṣema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
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Illustrations MAPS Ill. 1. Map of the Silk Road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Ill. 2. Map of Asia, ca. 400 CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Ill. 3. Map of Gansu Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 PHOTOGRAPHS Ill. 4. Photo of site of Mogao Caves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Ill. 5. Photo of statue of Maitreya from the Mogao Caves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Ill. 6. Portrayal of Jﾄ》aka tales of King Sivi and King Candraprabha in Mogao Caves . . . . . . 41 Ill. 7 and 8. More images from Mogao cave 275 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
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ABSTRACT Buddhist ethics is broad and deep in both theory and application. Working at the intersection of Buddhist ethics and history is both challenging and fruitful. This dissertation aims to shed light on the history of Mahāyāna ethics by closely examining a specific text, the Upāsakaśīla Sūtra (Uss.), in the context of the time and place in which it was promulgated and with reference to earlier traditions. This dissertation provides an overview of Mahāyāna, including the Bodhisattva path; a discussion of the history of Buddhism in China, with special attention to the Northern Liang dynasty; a synopsis of the life of Dharmakṣema, the sūtra’s compiler/translator; a consideration of the lifestyle of the Buddhist householder; and an examination of the Uss., with a more detailed look at the practice of dāna, as described by the sūtra. Ethical systems do not arise separate from their environment. The Buddha‖s teachings reflected his own historical time and place. Contextualizing ethics enhances our appreciation, deepens our understanding, and facilitates our practice. As much as this dissertation offers context to Mahāyāna ethics, it also reveals the limitations of what is possible to know. It is hoped that this deepens respect for the limits of knowledge, encourages curiosity and continued inquiry to expand those limits, and offers support for the idea that Buddhist ethics is a worthy and useful field for exploration, entirely relevant both to a 5th c. resident of China and a 21st c. Westerner.
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ABBREVIATIONS
A or AN – Aṅguttara Nikāya Bdp. – Bodhisattvapiṭaka c. – century CBETA – CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripitaka Collection DA – Dirgha Āgama D or DN – Dīgha Nikāya M or MA – Madhyama Āgama MN – Majjhima Nikāya S or SN – Saṃyutta Nikāya T. – Taishō Ugra. – Ugraparipṛcchā sūtra Uss. – Upāsaka-śīla Sūtra
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INTRODUCTION Overview What constitutes a moral and ethically upright life for a Buddhist householder (upāsaka)? From its earliest days, Buddhism has offered different answers to this question. The early texts of the Pāli canon and the Āgamas recommend primarily practicing virtue (sīla), including right livelihood, and generosity (dāna), especially to the Saṅgha. Maintaining harmonious social relationships is also stressed. The guidance for householders is broad, not detailed as are the monastic rules (Vinaya). As Buddhism spread and developed as a soteriological and spiritual path, the householder path became more clearly defined and subject to greater regulation. This did not happen quickly nor in a manner that can be laid out in a clear, chronological way. The Mahāyāna evolved alongside the Śrāvakayāna. Nonetheless, it is in Mahāyāna that the most dramatic innovations in householder practice may be seen. These lead eventually to a near-parity between the renunciant and the householder and, ultimately, in some Japanese Pure Land traditions, to an elevation of lay status over renunciant. Precepts have been a feature of the Buddhist ethical vision from its earliest days, from the basic Five Precepts for laypeople to the 250 or more precepts of ordained monastics. By accepting the precepts and taking the Three Refuges, one self-identifies as a Buddhist. The precepts establish a framework for wholesome action and speech, support the development of mindfulness, and protect the practitioner (from creating negative or unwholesome karma) and the world (from the harm done intentionally or unintentionally by unwholesome speech and action). The Bodhisattva precepts are more prescriptive than the Five Precepts and more flexible than the monastic Vinaya in terms of their practice. They also are available to both lay and monastic practitioners. The Upāsaka-śīla Sūtra (Uss.) is unique in that the Bodhisattva precepts it expounds are specifically for laypeople. Mahāyāna is thought to diverge from previous Buddhist tradition in one important way: practitioners aspire to become Buddhas, not Arahats (practitioners who have attained the experience of Nibbāna). That does not imply, however, that the path of the Bodhisattva is unique to Mahāyāna; it is not. The Śrāvakayāna traditions also acknowledge a Bodhisattva path. Because eons of rebirths and arduous cultivation of the pāramīs (perfections) are required of the Bodhisattva, that path is deemed more rigorous than that of the Arahat and so is suitable to few practitioners. Often, those practitioners were (and are) householders, perhaps because the householder life nearly assumes future rebirth while many monastics retain the aspiration of liberation in this lifetime. In the Uss. there is evidence of the development of new ideas about Buddhist ethics and the role of laypeople. There is also continuity with the older traditions. Mahāyāna ethics represents more a change in emphasis than a change in kind from the ethics of earlier traditions. Page | 7
For example, compassion has always been a factor in Buddhist ethics, but it moves to center stage in Mahāyāna, from a wholesome state of mind worthy of development to a core practice. While difficult to achieve at a high level, the practice of compassion is accessible to all; deep meditative states may be accessible only to the renunciant. The Bodhisattva path, then, became the path par excellence for the Buddhist householder.
Aims and Methods Although not well known, the Uss. provides an interesting vantage point from which to consider the development of Buddhist ethics. The Bodhisattva path has been immensely influential in the dissemination of Buddhism in the West, where the ethics of engagement on the social and political levels has been important to converts. Asians and Asian immigrants to Western countries also feel strong association with the Bodhisattva path. Understanding how this vision of Buddhist ethics—because the Bodhisattva path is largely defined by its ethics— developed may help deepen understanding of how this tradition fits in the picture of the larger contemporary Buddhist world. Such understanding may also help clarify how the worldview ascribed to by those on the Bodhisattva path does and does not differ from those whose path is better described by the earlier traditions. To facilitate reference to the Uss. and related texts, searchable electronic versions were prepared. The Chinese versions were downloaded (from CBETA) and, in the case of the Uss., a bilingual version of the text was created. (The English translations of related texts are included as Appendix 8 because they are not easily accessible in translation.) The literature was surveyed and areas of interest narrowed (e.g., to a focus on China and to an emphasis on the role of dāna in the Uss.). Research into the history of China, the practice of Buddhism in the area of China where the Uss. first appeared, and the background of the translator/compiler contributed to a fuller understanding of the sūtra. Placing the text in its geographical, cultural, religio-spiritual, and temporal spaces proved daunting and fascinating and is worthy of greater nuance than can be offered in a relatively short dissertation.
Definitions The term “Śrāvakayāna” is used when discussing forms of Buddhism that are not “Mahāyāna.” While “pre-Mahāyāna” may be a convenient term, it implies that there is a continuum of development. In fact, it is clear that Mahāyāna developed not as a single branch on the tree trunk of Buddhism but as a cluster of branches emerging at different places from the trunk. In this usage, a Śrāvaka is a follower of the earlier Buddhist traditions, a “hearer” or “disciple.” On occasion, “Śrāvaka” is used in a deprecating way in Mahāyāna texts. That is not Page | 8
the sense in which it is used in this dissertation. Following the traditional “three yāna” formulation, Śrāvakayāna excludes the Pratyekayāna, but Pratyekabuddhas (solitary Buddhas who do not teach) are so rare (and rarefied) as to be too small a category to merit continual reference in this dissertation. The reader is invited to include Pratyekabuddhas within the sense of “Śrāvakayāna” if this omission is troublesome. An upāsaka is a male lay follower of the Buddha. As used in the Uss., an upāsaka is one who has taken the Three Refuges. (p. 78)1 The Uss. is specifically addressed to the male householder (upāsaka), not to the female (upāsikā). In the Uss., the term “upāsaka precepts” (優婆塞戒; youposai jie) is used for what are commonly referred to as the “Bodhisattva precepts.” “Lay(person)” refers to any individual who is not ordained, regardless of her/his religious or social status. “Householder” refers to a layperson living a family/home life, as opposed to, for example, an emperor. Often, though perhaps not always, a householder is someone of comfortable material means, for example a merchant. When referring to the older traditions or the Pāli canon, terms are in Pāli. Sanskrit forms of names and terms are used when referring to later sources. In cases where English commonly uses one form or another (e.g., the Sanskrit Bodhisattva rather than the Pāli Bodhisatta and the Sanskrit karma rather than Pāli kamma), the more familiar form is used. For Chinese, the traditional Chinese and Pinyin, as well as variations in Wade-Giles or other transliteration systems, are given, as appropriate. The many ways in which Chinese is transliterated can make for mind-boggling literature searches, so these variations may be helpful to anyone wishing to pursue additional research. For the purposes of this dissertation, comparisons are made only with texts that are concurrent with or antedate the Uss. in order not to color understanding of the text with later ideas about the Bodhisattva path. Certainly it is possible and legitimate to view the Uss. from different time periods, up to the current era, but that is not within the scope of this dissertation.
1
Page numbers refer to Shih‖s translation of the Uss. Page | 9
Chapter 1: MAHĀYĀNA: THE VEHICLE TO THE GREAT What is a Bodhisattva? …as far as bodhisattvas are concerned the initial message of the Mahāyāna is clear: people should not worship bodhisattvas, they should become bodhisattvas themselves. (Harrison, 1987: p. 80)
A Bodhisattva is a person who sets as his or her ultimate goal that of becoming a fully enlightened Buddha (samyaksambuddha), following in the footsteps of Śākyamuni and other samyaksambuddhas. With the greater wisdom of the samyaksambuddha, a practitioner can benefit and teach beings in the most effective ways. The Bodhisattva’s intention is a manifestation of compassion (karuṇā). The difference between an Arahat and a Buddha is one of degree. Following Bhikkhu Bodhi‖s analysis of the epithets applied to Arahats and Buddhas, what is emphasized in a Buddha is not only his perfect enlightenment (samyaksambuddha), but also “his authority and reliability as a spiritual teacher.”2 The difference also is one of time scale. The follower of the Śrāvakayāna aspires to liberation as quickly as possible. The Bodhisattva recognizes that the cultivation of the pāramitās to the level required for Buddhahood is a long endeavor. In the Uss., three asaṁkhya kalpas are said to be the amount of time required. (p. 30) “Bodhisattva” is both a spiritual status and a soteriological goal. A practitioner may aspire to be a Bodhisattva (a soteriological goal) and having taken the initial steps (e.g., given rise to bodhicitta, made a vow, taken Bodhisattva precepts), may assume the spiritual status of “Bodhisattva.” In time, it also became a social category. (Cohen, 2000: p. 3) These three conditions— spiritual status, soteriological goal, and social category—may be used to trace the development of the concept and practice of the Bodhisattva path. This dissertation is primarily concerned with the ethical aspects of the Bodhisattva path (or Bodhisattva vehicle), although of course ethics impinges on all three aspects. While it does not seem that the Jātaka tales were compiled for the purpose of constructing a Bodhisattva career, they were reference points for the development of specific attributes (pāramīs/pāramitās; perfections) that, when cultivated to a very high level, create the conditions for Buddhahood. The perfections come to be an intrinsic part of the Bodhisattva path. Through the heroic level of cultivation of the perfections, the Bodhisattva acquires the thirtytwo physical marks (lakṣaṇa) of the great man (mahāpuruṣa) that distinguish a Buddha or a world-turning ruler (cakravartin). The Bodhisattva career appears to have been recognized as a legitimate path by the older traditions, but it was not taught by the Buddha, whose emphasis was on achieving an end to suffering at the earliest possible opportunity. Those who undertook the Bodhisattva path were probably few in number and exceptional in their level of commitment. There was no laying out 2
“Arahants, Buddhas, and Bodhisattvas,” http://www.buddhanet.net/budsas/ebud/ebdha335.htm Page | 10
of stages of development of the Bodhisattva in the nature of the bhūmis of Mahāyāna, but the pāramīs appear as early as the Mahāvastu (probably 2nd c. BCE), so the idea of a program of development was latent in those traditions. Archeological evidence for the Bodhisattva concept may be dated to 100 BCE at the latest.3 The ideal developed in different places under different conditions and at different rates. Through the lens of different sūtras, it is possible to see that in some places and times, the Bodhisattva concept was under greater pressure than in others. As Schopen notes: If the Aṣṭa [Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā] was composed in an area where the understanding of the bodhisattva path was evolving quite rapidly, while the Ugra. [Ugraparipṛcchā sūtra] came from an area where it was proceeding far more slowly, it would be entirely possible for the Aṣṭa to be more conceptually “advanced” and yet older in chronological terms. (2000: p. 42)
By the time the Uss. was introduced in China (early 5th c. CE), the Bodhisattva ideal was widespread, even to Sri Lanka, where a late 4th century king, Buddhadāsa, “―lived openly before the people the life that Bodhisattvas lead and had pity for (all) beings as a father (has pity for) his children‖ (Cūḷavaṃsa XXXVII.108-09).” (Harvey, 2007: p. 86) The path of the Bodhisattva is strongly ethical. Its ethics has three dimensions (as presented in texts such as the 5th c. Mahāyāna-saṃgraha): restraint or temperance (saṃvara-śīla), expressed through precepts; the development of wholesomeness or pursuit of the good (kuśala-dharma-saṃgrāhaka-śīla), expressed through developing the pāramitās; and serving other beings or altruism (sattva-artha-kriyā-śīla). Mark Tatz describes the functions of these three dimensions as supporting mental stability, training, and maturing (1986: p. 16). One may also see correlation with the Threefold Training of the Śrāvakayāna (sīla, samādhi, pañña). Practice of the precepts, pāramitās, and compassion are strong features of the Uss. The familiar framework of the ten stages (bhūmi) of the Bodhisattva path may be documented as early as 188 CE (Nattier, 2003: p. 87), but is hardly universal. As Paul Williams notes, “These are doctrinal–indeed scholastic–constructs: ―prescriptive systematizations of scriptural material‖, ―scholastic compendiums, compiled by monks of formidable learning who were attempting to systematize and schematize the confused and often conflicting descriptions of practices and stages found scattered throughout the canon.‖” (2009: p. 356-7, footnote 27) In the Uss., there are mentions of various types of stages (see, for example, p. 11), but there is no clear exposition of stages, which perhaps befits the sūtra’s more pragmatic approach. An important aspect of the Bodhisattva path as it relates to the Uss. is that it is open to all practitioners, lay and renunciant. It is the Uss.‖s position that the path is more arduous for the layperson because, as the refrain reads for nearly each chapter, “the lay bodhisattva is bound by more unfavorable conditions.” In Mahāyāna, any person who has accepted the Bodhisattva śīla is called a Bodhisattva. The lifestyle of a Bodhisattva was the topic of any number of sūtras. In the Ugra., (a text first 3
According to Chen (2004: pp. 23-4), the word “Bodhisattva” is exclusively Buddhist. Page | 11
translated into Chinese in the late 2nd c. CE), for example, the role model is the asceticizing laity. The Upāliparipṛcchā sūtra, which Nakamura believes was translated in the 1st c. CE4, recommends a lifestyle that includes the sense pleasures. Here, the role model would be a secular laity. The Akṣayamati sūtra, which Nakamura says was in existence at the time of Nāgārjuna (ca. 150-250 CE)5, allows flexibility in the morality of the Bodhisattva but also advocates the total renunciation of material wealth. As has already been noted, the Upāyakauśalya Sūtra, which may be a 1st c. BCE text6 maintains significant freedom of action for the Bodhisattva. Ulrich Pagel notes that of the twenty-four Bodhisattva works in the Mahāratnakūṭa, “eight uphold the training of the lay bodhisattva and nine endorse the mendicant bodhisattva as the higher ideal.” (1995: p. 112) The Uss., as will be seen, advocates an intermediate position, between renouncing householder life in order to retire to the forest and indulging in sensuality. In reality, there are many variations within these categories. Richard Robinson suggests four categories that are more descriptive of practice: secularizing monachism, asceticizing laity, secular laity, and ascetic monachism. For example, a monk who takes up an interest in horticulture is secularizing. A householder who lives with her husband but gives up sexual intercourse is monachizing. A monk who marries is laicizing. A householder who moves away from secular entertainment toward a more abstemious lifestyle is asceticizing. (Robinson, 1966: p. 26) Another familiar term along the Bodhisattva path is “skillful means” (upāya). Exactly how upāya is envisioned varies from text to text. The Upāyakauśalya Sūtra, an early Mahāyāna sūtra, defines upāya as “practice of the six perfections with a mental focus upon the attainment of Buddhahood.” (Tatz, 1994: p. 1) This text relates a story from one of the Buddha‖s past lives in which he killed someone from compassionate motives as an example of skillful means. The Uss. never approaches this radical understanding of upāya. In the Ugraparipṛcchā sūtra (Ugra.), upāya is “seen as an interpersonal act, employed above all in the context of teaching.” (Nattier, 2003: p. 154) This is much closer to the Uss.‖s idea of skillful means. Skillful means are the actions that propel a Bodhisattva toward Buddhahood: “There are two kinds of skillful means: (1) hearing and (2) thinking. Again there are three kinds: (1) giving, (2) keeping precepts, and (3) hearing much [of the Dharma].” (Uss., p. 19) Skillful means also are ways to alleviate the suffering of others (“skillful means to destroy the afflictions”) (Uss., p. 39) and offer them teachings (“skillful means to subdue sentient beings”) (Uss., p. 40). Within the concept of the Bodhisattva are many points of contact between Śrāvakayāna and Mahāyāna. In his book, The Genesis of the Bodhisattva Ideal, Ven. Anālayo singles out the Acchariyabbhutadhamma-sutta of the Madhyama Āgama as an important turning point. Unlike its counterpart in the Pāli canon, this sutta generalizes the path of the Bodhisattva, extending it from the past lives of Gautama Buddha to the past lives of all previous Buddhas, thus implying that all Buddhas-to-be enjoy the same marvelous qualities. As Anālayo writes, “This prepares 4
Nakamura, 1980: p. 56, footnote 24
5
Nakamura, 1980: p. 210
6
Tatz, 1994: p. 1 Page | 12
the ground for the bodhisattva notion to become a generic term, thereby laying the foundation for the bodhisattva concept eventually evolving into an ideal to be emulated.” (2010: p. 53) Before moving on to consider Mahāyāna, it is worth noting that one feature of Mahāyāna—celestial Bodhisattvas—is almost entirely absent from the Uss. Maitreya is mentioned once and very much in passing: “To fast for one hundred years during Maitreya's time is not as good as fasting for one day and night when I am in the world.” (p. 146) Indeed, this sentence would seem to imply that the practitioner should not wait for the future Buddha‖s appearance for better conditions for practice to arise. Other than Maitreya, no other Bodhisattva is mentioned by name, nor is the idea of devotion to celestial Bodhisattvas ever raised. From the perspective of the Uss.—as Harrison says in the quotation at the beginning of this chapter—“Bodhisattva” is a path of practice, not a being to worship.
Vehicle to the Great ―In effect…one is able to think that…anterior to the Great Vehicle of Amitābha and of Tāra, a Great Vehicle has prospered that was distinguished form the Small Vehicle in this only, or in this above all, that it invited pious men to make the resolution to become Buddhas; for the rest, mythology, Buddhology, devotion, philosophy diverged only in nuances.‖ (Louis de La Vallée Poussin, quote in Schopen, 2005: p. 108)
The word “Mahāyāna” is commonly translated as “Greater Vehicle.” In some contexts, it is contrasted with “Hīnayāna,” which is then translated as “Lesser Vehicle.”7 These translations have caused all kinds of difficulties, both among scholars and practitioners. Williams suggests that “Mahāyāna” may be rendered more correctly etymologically as “Vehicle [which leads] to the Great.” (Williams, 2005: p. 996) There are three benefits to this translation. First, it emphasizes the role of the Bodhisattva ideal, with its eye on “the great” (Buddhahood), in Mahāyāna thought and practice. Secondly, it softens the opposition to Hīnayāna, for which Williams offers the alternative translation, “Vehicle to the Inferior.” (Williams, 2000: p. 29) Thirdly, it connects more directly with the term “Bodhisattvayāna,” which was an early term used to refer to those who aspired to the Bodhisattva ideal. Few Buddhists would argue that Buddha is not superior to Arahat in terms of spiritual attainment; this is not a point of contention. Williams‖ translation has the benefit of placing the emphasis on the “vehicle,” the path, rather than on the assessment of its value. Both vehicles are worthy. Both destinations are worthy. One happens to be loftier. Joseph Walser, in his book Nāgārjuna in Context, helpfully summarizes the diversity of contemporary opinion about the origins of Mahāyāna. He analogizes “Mahāyāna” to a brand name: “A brand name does not necessarily denote a single product, manufacturing plant, or location, and yet the name suggests the idea of unity.” (2005: p. 17) Another word that may be
7
In the Uss., the word “Hīnayāna” does not appear at all. The word “Mahāyāna” appears only twice, once in a definition of “Bodhisattva.” (p. 9) Page | 13
used to describe Mahāyāna is “mindset.”8 Whether one calls it a vocation (as Jan Nattier does in A Few Good Men, p. 84), a vision (as Williams does in Buddhist Thought, p. 101), a brand name, or a mindset, it is not something that can be charted simply as a function of chronology. There was no sudden emergence of Mahāyāna. Rather, it seems that the impulses that characterized the Mahāyāna mindset emerged in different ways in different communities at different times. This happened relatively soon after the death of the Buddha. By the 1st c. BCE at the latest—a mere ten generations after the Buddha‖s death—Mahāyāna ideas were beginning to take shape. What were these ideas and what was their genesis? The centuries after the Buddha‖s death were ones of rapid transformation. The Buddhadharma spread north and west and south and east, often following the routes of traders. Different nikāyās formed and fell apart. Around the 1st c. BCE, we can identify a tradition of Eighteen Schools, a number that is surely not exact but points to the diversity of practices and ideas that were available. According to Newton‖s third law, action and reaction are equal and opposite. It may be possible to see something similar at work in the origins of Mahāyāna. Tatz suggests: “Buddhism emphasizes salvation to such a high degree that its efforts to combine engagement and withdrawal resemble the swings of a pendulum.” (1986: p. 6) Different scholars posit various ideas about the impetus behind this new mindset. Tatz, for example, suggests that Mahāyāna was a reaction to a tendency in the monastic community to uphold “purity of lifestyle as a good in itself,” as well as part of a movement in India to “involve the masses more centrally in spiritual life.” (1986: p. 13) Etienne Lamotte and Akira Hirakawa see the origins of Mahāyāna among the laity. Were Mahāyāna sympathizers a beleaguered minority? A largely ignored countermovement? A group of reformers intent on returning to the wilderness for solitary cultivation? Highly motivated laypeople? The answer may well be “yes” to all of the above, depending upon the time and place to which one addresses the question, “What was Mahāyāna?” Our Western inclination to think in linear terms does not serve us well in understanding the emergence of Mahāyāna. Focusing on the development of Mahāyāna in a particular place and time is one way to limit the necessity to speculate too much or to paint with too broad a brush. The things that are considered typical of Mahāyāna are an emphasis on compassion, a broad understanding of skillful means, a tendency to devotionalism, altruism, and a strong role for the laity, including that of teacher. None of these was absent from earlier Buddhist traditions. Compassion exists in the Śrāvakayāna as one of the four Brahmavihara practices. One way to understand muditā is “altruistic” joy. Skillful means characterized the Buddha‖s methods of teaching. Devotion to the Buddha was practiced even during his lifetime (although not always with his approval). The laity, female and male, had access to all the attainments available to renunciant practitioners, and scriptural records exist of their success.
8
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, “An established set of attitudes, esp. regarded as typical of a particular group's social or cultural values; the outlook, philosophy, or values of a person; (now also more generally) frame of mind, attitude, disposition.” (http://www.oed.com.ezproxy.wesleyan.edu:7790/viewdictionaryentry/Entry/252842) Page | 14
In Mahāyāna, these supporting players, however, take on leading roles. Compassion moves to the fore as an attribute to be developed more fully as a wellspring of motivation and action, the spiritual and ethical centerpiece of Mahāyāna. Skillful means takes on greater significance and wider meaning, as was seen in the previous chapter. Lay practice becomes a greater focus of attention, as exemplified by texts such as the Uss. Some of the attributes popularly associated with Mahāyāna are not always found in the early Mahāyāna texts. Mahāyāna texts often do not consider the Four Noble Truths to be a central teaching, for example. In the Uss., the Four Noble Truths are seen still to be important and worthy of respect: “To refute…the Noble Truths…is the root of ignorance.” (p. 167) Another popular feature of Mahāyāna—its universal inclusiveness—is not always present in the early texts. In fact, the status of women declines in many of the early Mahāyāna scriptures; women, rather than being seen as equals, are often seen as obstacles to the spiritual attainment of men and incapable of attainment themselves. (see Harrison, 1982: p. 77) One needs look no further than the title of the Uss. to see an emphasis on the male.9 Finally, the Bodhisattva is often seen as the ultimate figure of social engagement, moving through the world with expansive compassion, unsullied by its impurities. Early Mahāyāna texts, however, sometimes celebrate seclusion as the proper environment for the Bodhisattva. The Uss. often suggests that the less engaged life of the renunciant is still a worthy aspiration. One of the distinguishing features of Mahāyāna is the profusion of texts that propound its ideas. Daniel Overmyer lists several themes that distinguish the genre of Mahāyāna scripture: the saving efficacy of scriptures[,] the observance of lay precepts, the merit gained from giving, and from sponsoring the construction of images and monasteries, praise of the power of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, exposition of such doctrines as karma and emptiness, and advocacy of religious practices like reciting the names of Buddhas and bodhisattvas and visualizing them in meditation. (1990: p. 201)
It is not unusual to find some, but not all, of these elements in any given Mahāyāna text. This is true for the Uss., as shall be shown later in this dissertation.
9
Note in the chart of sūtra correspondences (Appendix 7) that the number of duties owed by wives to husbands has increased to fourteen in the Uss. Page | 15
Chapter 2: THE CONTEXT OF THE UPĀSAKA-ŚĪLA SŪTRA China China was not Indianized; it was converted to the truth of the Dharma. Nor should we see Chinese Buddhism as just a tailoring of the Dharma to local taste; rather, it represents the dynamic unfolding of the Dharma, which could embody itself as well in Chinese as in Indian culture, and to which neither could claim the monopoly. (Lai, 1993: p. 275)
After its introduction to China (by the 1st c. CE at the latest), Buddhism took root and flowered. The Chinese had no pre-conceptions about Buddhism, and Śrāvakayāna teachings were introduced alongside Mahāyāna. New, apocryphal texts were composed in China, which often addressed specific interests of the Chinese, such as filial piety.10 This amalgam of texts and traditions offered opportunities for different teachers to emphasize different practices and philosophies. Only in the 4th c. CE did the Chinese come to recognize Mahāyāna as a separate movement within Buddhism. (Harvey, 1990: p. 94) The first translations of texts from Sanskrit into Chinese were made by An-Shigao (安 世高; An Shih-kao) about 150 CE. Translating texts into Chinese was no easy task. The Chinese language is uninflected and monosyllabic and has no systematized grammar. Sanskrit is highly inflected, poly-syllabic and has a complex grammar. Indian literature is metaphorical and abstract. Chinese tends to be direct, a palette of earth tones next to India‖s gemlike hues. Translators relied on terminology from Confucianism and Daoism to render Buddhist terms. The word dao, for example, was used for Dharma (“teaching”). China‖s two predominant spiritual traditions expressed two aspects of the Chinese ethical ideal: ethics as engagement and ethics as withdrawal. (Tatz, 1986: p. 6) Buddhist ethics, with its emphasis on internal conduct and karma, offered new ideas. For Han Confucians, relationships had defined the universe. Humans, their institutions, events, and nature interacted in ways that could be understood, predicted, and controlled. (Wright, 1959: p. 11) When the Han dynasty fell in 220 CE, Confucianism fell from grace. New religious ideas from Buddhism provided a source of interest for the educated classes. The protective powers associated with Buddhism also appealed to the Chinese, in particular to the “barbarian” rulers of northern China. It is helpful to remember that China has never been one undifferentiated cultural, political, or geographical unit. When speaking of “Chinese Buddhism,” especially after the fall of the Han dynasty in 200 CE, care must be taken to indicate what area of China is under consideration. From 220 until 589 CE, there were numerous rulers and dynasties in Northern China. (See Appendix 1 for a list of dynasties of this era.) The Period of Disunity (311-589 CE), in particular, was a period of expansion for Buddhism. 10
“In the Hsiao-ching, or the Classic on filial piety, we read, ―Filial piety is the basis of virtue and the source of the teachings. ... For filial piety starts with serving our parents, continues with serving the ruling prince and ends with establishing ourselves.‖” (Ch‖en, 1973: p. 14) Page | 16
Wolfram Eberhard, in his History of China, provides a succinct overview of the spread of Buddhism in China. (1969: pp. 133-136) During the Han dynasty, the missionary monks who came to China were not respected by the Chinese, especially by the literate and moneyed gentry. In the lower classes, however, people readily accepted the egalitarian ideas of Buddhism. Peasants settled on the land of temples and monasteries, institutions that proved to be congenial landlords. The non-Chinese rulers were more ready than had been their Chinese predecessors to accept non-Chinese Buddhist missionary monks. They found the monks‖ skills, attitudes, and knowledge useful. They supported the translation of Buddhist texts, and some translator-monks used the opportunity to “massage” texts to fit the political and doctrinal exigencies of the era. Alongside Buddhism, local peasant religions, which relied on shamans and sorcerers, continued to flourish. The rulers continued to keep Confucians at court, and Daoist ideas remained alive. Other possible reasons for Buddhism‖s success in this era may have been that its ideas about rebirth offered the promise of a better life to the struggling commoner. Confucianism offered no such opportunity. The idea of karmic fruitfulness may also have been of some comfort to these people, as they contemplated the fate of cruel, selfish rulers in their next lifetimes. This description largely fits Northern China up to the 4th century. That century, in particular, was a turning point for China as non-Chinese tribes invaded from the north. Following the “barbarian” incursion, the Chinese court fled south. Northern China had been the cultural heartland of China. In many respects, it had defined China, was its “Central Kingdom.” It is said that down to the present, the Chinese hold that this period in Northern China was an intellectual vacuum because it was devoid of prominent Confucians or Daoists. In this freshly tilled cultural field, however, new ideas took root that significantly influenced Chinese culture, and especially the culture and practice of Buddhism. Juqu Mengxun and the Northern Liang Dynasty [The barbarian rulers] installed Buddhism as a state religion and monks as “Imperial gurus”. … Emperor Wen of Song among the Southern Dynasties had let the cat out of the bag when he said, “If throughout the length and breadth of my domain people believe in Buddhism, I shall have no worries but can relax and enjoy a peaceful reign.” It was much for the same reason that the rulers of the north patronized Buddhism. (Duan and Tan, 1994: p. 94)
Northern China‖s new rulers adopted Buddhism, likely for a variety of reasons. Like them, it was not of Chinese origin. It offered a universal approach to salvation; no one was excluded. It also provided a balance for the Confucians, who remained in some positions of influence. (Daoism was less of a factor in the area during this period.) For some rulers, however, it was the appeal of the thaumaturgic powers11 of certain Buddhist monks that securely planted
11
Thaumaturgy may be seen as a subcategory of iddhi, the supernatural powers associated with some types of Buddhist practice. Page | 17
Buddhism in the court12. One of those rulers was Juqu Mengxun (沮渠蒙遜; Chü-ch‖ü Mengsun/Chu-ch‖u Meng-sun/Chu-ch‖u Meng-hsun) and one of his “court monks” was Dharmakṣema (曇無懺, 曇無讖, 曇摩讖, 曇無羅讖; Tan Wuchen/T'an-mo-ch'an/Tanmochen; var. Damochen 達摩讖; “Dharmakṣema” is a back-translation to Sanskrit). Juqu Mengxun13 (386-433 CE) was the ruler of the Northern Liang state (北涼; Bei Liang). (See Appendix 2 for a map.) He was probably Xiongnu, a nomadic people of uncertain origin who exercised control over significant portions of areas that are now Mongolia, Siberia, and Northern China. Liangzhou (Guzang 姑臧, now Wuwei 武威), the capital, was no backwater region. In the 4th century, it was a center of culture. Although his dynasty was relatively short and somewhat turbulent and he was nonChinese, Mengxun appears to have understood the Chinese ideal of kingship and its role in protecting and developing culture. (Soper, 1958: p. 133) He appointed a team of scholars to put together three thousand scrolls of the Confucian Classics and the Masters and sent his son to acquire the Classic of Changes. (Chang, 2008: p. 225) The Mahāyāna library at his court was well known. According to Alexander Soper, it was included in a list of collections “meritorious to honor by worship.” (1958: p. 141) The Gansu (甘肅; Kansu) area, occupied by the Northern Liang, had not suffered from the terrible violence that afflicted other parts of Northern China in the 4th century. Its rulers maintained contact with the Nanking court in the South. (Soper, 1959: p. 91, footnote 29) The Hexi corridor, part of the Northern Silk Road, runs across part of Gansu. Under Mengxun, the area enjoyed decades of prosperity. Its economy relied heavily upon trading from Silk Road merchants. There was easy contact with areas to the west and south, where Buddhism was thriving. Mengxun devoted some of his energy and material wealth to the construction of Buddhist cave temples at Dunhuang.14 (See Appendix 3 for illustrations.) A distinctive form of
12
These powers were very practical from the point of view of the people of the area, who believed in spirits and ghosts. “When the famous monk-pilgrim Faxian reached Dunhuang and faced the Taklamakan desert in 400, he reported: ―in this desert there are evil spirits….‖ [T]ravelers and local residents alike recognized that ―the desert was animate, the Silk Road alive with phantoms, and protective spiritual power was no idle, abstruse notion.‖” (Abe, 1990: p. 5) 13
A Wikipedia page on Mengxun may be found at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juqu_Mengxun.
14
In the Continuation of the Biographies of Eminent Monks (續高僧傳; Xu gaoseng zhuan), Daoxuan (道宣) (596–667 CE) writes of “the moulded auspicious images in the Liang-chou cliffs.” “―A hundred Ii to the south of [Mengxun‖s] city there is a line of cliffs that runs a great distance east and west. There he excavated caves and installed the holy likenesses; some being of stone and others moulded in clay, in so infinite a variety of forms, that those who worship are amazed and dazzled in mind and eye. Among these there are certain saintly monks made of clay that seem just like men who must continually walk about because they have as yet no place of repose. … Sometimes dirt has been spread on the ground so as to keep watch on their movements; for when no one is nigh they actually do set foot on the earth, and they make the moist footprints of men going and coming without a halt.‖” (Soper, 1959: p. 92) Page | 18
Buddhism developed in the Northern Liang during this era, “Liangzhou Buddhism.” At its center was the translator/compiler of the Uss., the Buddhist monk Dharmakṣema.15 The doctrine of the decline of the Dharma took root in northern China in part as a result of the translation of the Nirvāṇa Sūtra. The popularity of this idea is attested to in inscriptions from the era in that area of China. (Kieschnick, 2009: p. 583) Juqu Mengxun‖s construction of cave temples was attributed to his belief in this doctrine: Devoting himself to meritorious deeds, he recognized that monasteries and stupas of the cities of the state were not permanent…so he turned to the mountain dwellings which could last out the heavens. (Tang dynasty monk Daoxuan, quoted in Kieschnick, 2009: p. 584)
The two wheels of the Dharma, the secular wheel of power (idealized in the cakravartin) and the monastic wheel of righteousness, are both fully functional in Liangzhou during this era. Whalen Lai has called the years 316 to 439 in Northern China the “century of the holy man.” (Lai, 2003) In this time, hierocratic monks with official titles such as “Great Reverend,” “National Treasure,” and “Nation‖s Preceptor,” aided rulers, providing an interface between the people‖s spiritual inclinations and the governing powers. In particular, monks with thaumaturgic skills were in demand. Such a monk was Dharmakṣema.
Dharmakṣema Dharmaksema‖s achievements were extraordinarily great as a proselytizer among the simple peoples of North China, to whom he brought not the theoretical, philosophical Buddhism of the Wei-Tsin era with its Prajñāpāramitā doctrine of insubstantiality, but a practical, concrete religion with an emphasis on the mystical powers of the Buddha, the gods, and the mantras. His translations furthered the development of the ritual of penance, exerted an influence on Buddhist art, and spread the knowledge of Buddhist tales among the people. (Tsukamoto Zenryū, quoted in Abe, 1990: p. 2)
Ordinarily, biographical information about a text‖s translator might be relegated to a footnote. In the case of the Uss., however, the translator provides important context for appreciating the sūtra. Dharmakṣema16 (385–433 CE) was born in India (probably central India). (See Appendix 9 for a biography of Dharmakṣema based on the 6th c. Chinese Biographies of Eminent Monks.) Af15
Dharmakṣema, was the central figure in Liangzhou Buddhism, but there were others, too. Juqu Jingxing, Juqu Mengxun‖s cousin, translated two visualization texts associated with Maitreya and Avalokiteśvara. (Wong, 2004: p. 50). 16
Dharmakṣema is often confused with Dharmarakṣa (竺法護, Zhu Fahu), even in scholarly sources. Shih HengChing mistakenly attributes the Upāsaka-Śīla Sūtra to Dharmarakṣa in her introduction. The same error is made in the English translation of Ven. Hsuan Hua‖s Records of High Sanghans, Vol. I (1983, Dharma Realm Buddhist University, pp. 59ff) Dharmarakṣa, also a respected translator, was born in 230 CE so cannot be mistaken for Dharmakṣema, who was born over 150 years later!
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ter falling out of favor with an Indian ruler, he traveled to Kucha (perhaps best known as the home of the great translator-monk Kumārajīva [344-413 CE]), carrying with him the first 12 juan (roll, scroll, fascicle) of the Mahāparinirvāṇa sūtra (Nirvāṇa Sūtra; 大般涅槃經; Daban niepan jing), the Bodhisattva-śīla sūtra (菩薩戒經; Pusajie jing), and the Bodhisattvaprātimokṣa or Book of Bodhisattva Commandments (spoken by Maitreya) (菩薩戒本; Pusajie ben). For several years, he also lived in Dunhuang, later moving to Liangzhou, where he came to the attention of Juqu Mengxun. A preface to the Nirvāṇa Sūtra composed by Daolang (道朗; Tao-lang), who collaborated with Dharmakṣema on the sūtra’s translation, offers some biographical details as well as this personal assessment: His natural gifts were outstanding and his understanding bright and penetrating. Possessed of excellent eloquence, he was versed in both inner (Buddhist) and outer (non-Buddhist) learning. For the purpose of spreading Buddhist teachings as opportunities allowed, he first arrived in Dunhuang, where he stayed for several years. (Chen, 2004: p. 218)
Another preface, perhaps also written by a collaborating translator, mentions that Dharmakṣema lived in a palace chapel of Juqu Mengxun, within the confines of his imperial park. (Chen, 2004: p. 220) “We therefore may understand his position as that of palace chaplain.” (p. 221) A biography of Dharmakṣema appears in the Collection of records concerning the translation of the Three Storehouses (T. 2145; 出三藏記集; Chu sanzang jiji). According to this, Dharmakṣema became a Śrāvakayāna monk when he was 6 years old. He subsequently converted to Mahāyāna. The biography also notes that he was “particularly skillful in casting spells, and was allegedly capable of drawing water out of rock” and known as a “Great Divine Spell Master.” (Chen, 2004: p. 222). At some point around the time of his conversion to Mahāyāna, Dharmakṣema received a copy of the Nirvāṇa Sūtra. His place in history was more firmly assured by his translation of this text. The project, however, seems to have been both his making and his undoing. As noted earlier, he arrived in Liangzhou carrying 12 juan of the sūtra. He knew or guessed or hoped that there were additional juan to be had. According to one account, he made a trip in search of other juan (perhaps to Khotan), returning with 24 more; in another account, someone else brought these additional juan to Juqu Mengxun, who gave them to Dharmakṣema. The import of this centers on the fact that in these additional juan17 figures the icchantika, a cryptic term for someone excluded from the otherwise universal Buddha-nature. The additional juan included a different assessment of the icchantika, that in fact the seed of enlightenment was present in him. Hoping to find even more juan, Dharmakṣema made one more trip, his last. 17
Whether these additional juan of the Nirvāṇa Sūtra are “authentic” or not is a topic of some scholarly debate. No versions or fragments of them in Sanskrit have been found. Was Dharmakṣema inspired to create additions to the text, and, if so, why? Were there perhaps political reasons? Page | 20
Dharmakṣema‖s thaumaturgic abilities appealed to Emperor Dao Wu (道武帝; birth name 拓拔珪, Tuoba Gui) of the Northern Wei dynasty. Several times, Dao Wu tried to get Juqu Mengxun to hand over the monk but was rebuffed. Threats were exchanged. “He said, ―If you do not send Dharmakṣema, I will wage war against you.‖ Juqu Mengxun was firm about his ―house guru‖ and was ready ―to die along with him if the emperor decided to press his demand.‖” (Duan and Tan, 1994: p. 94, quoting from the Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms [十六国春秋, Shiliuguo Chunqiu], an early 6th c. text). On his last trip in search of more sections of the Nirvāṇa Sūtra, Dharmakṣema was assassinated. The exact circumstances are unclear18, but history seems most inclined toward the explanation that he was assassinated by Mengxun, who suffered greatly as a result. There were reports of people at court who saw him attacked by “demon deities with swords” after the killing. (Soper, 1959: p. 91) Many of the texts Dharmakṣema translated, often at the behest of Juqu Mengxun, focus on Bodhisattva precepts and on the role of the ruler in a Buddhist society. 1920 (See Appendix 4 for a list of texts translated by Dharmakṣema.) Four of the approximately 20 texts he translated—the Bodhisattvabhūmi, the Bodhisattvaprātimokṣa, the Bodhisattva-śīla sūtra, and the Uss.—are Bodhisattva precepts texts. Knowing that Dharmakṣema‖s early training was in the Śrāvakayāna, perhaps one may see a spilling over of early emphasis on Vinaya. It may also have been his response to the idea of the “decline of the law,” a doctrine propagated by the Nirvāṇa Sūtra. (The Karuṇāpuṇḍarīka sūtra [悲華經; Beihua jing], translated by Dharmakṣema, also features this doctrine.) In stories from Dharmakṣema‖s life may be seen an emphasis on “voices and visions as guarantors of continuity and correct transmission/reception.” (Adamek, 2007: p. 74) In one story, he hears voices in the night chastising him for sleeping with a copy of the Nirvāṇa Sūtra under his head (to protect it from thieves). In another, rather more complicated, episode: Then, when Daojin [a monk to whom Dharmaksema refused to administer the bodhisattva precepts pending sufficient repentance] was in samādhi, he saw Śākyamuni Buddha and all the great worthies conferring the precepts upon him. That night he was staying with more than ten people, and all miraculously dreamed just what Daojin had seen. Daojin wanted to go to 18
A secular history, the Official History of the [Northern and Eastern] Wei, 386-550 (魏書, Wei shu), relates a more colorful story about Dharmakṣema: that he seduced a royal sister in Shanshan and was forced to flee when the incident came to light. He then was recruited by Juqu Mengxun. In that household, he also engaged in illicit sexual activity. When Tuoba Tao asked Juqu Mengxun to send Dharmakṣema to his court, he was refused. In retribution, he told Juqu Mengxun of Dharmakṣema‖s infelicities and Juqu Mengxun had the monk killed. Dharmakṣema would not have been the first of the great translators to be caught in such intrigues. Kumārajīva, too, was reputed to have maintained sexual relationships. 19
Translation sessions sometimes took place on “fasting days” for laypeople (six each month) and were attended by Juqu Mengxun. This was the case for the Uss. (Hureau, 2009: p. 755) 20
“Besides ordering the translation of chosen texts of the [Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra} to promote the idea of cakravartin, Mong-xun also followed the footsteps of Indian and Central Asian kings in commissioning the sculpting and painting of images of cakravartins and reincarnated Buddhas in many caves in the area.” (Ku, 2001: p. 164) Page | 21
Dharmaksema and tell him. He was still several tens of paces away when Dharmaksema started to his feet and called out, “Good, good! You have already miraculously [received] the precepts! I will act as witness for you.” Then, in front of the image of the Buddha, [Dharmaksema] explained the characteristics of the precepts for him. (Gaoseng zhuan, quoted in Adamek, 2007: p. 74)
These stories about Dharmakṣema exhibit some of the practices that came to be synonymous with Liangzhou Buddhism21: observing precepts, performing repentance and confession, practicing visualization and placing importance on dreams and visions, reciting dhāraṇī, reciting the name of the Buddha, and donating and circumambulating images. (Adamek, 2007: pp. 72-3) Other features include an emphasis on proselytization and on householder practice. Meditation, too, was prominent in Liangzhou Buddhism. The Kashmiri monk Dharmamitra (曇摩蜜多, 曇無蜜多, Tanmomiduo) (355–442 CE) was a renowned meditator, and another meditating monk named Huiquan was said to have had five hundred students at this time in Liangzhou. (Abe, 1990: p. 5). In particular, meditations focusing on Maitreya were popular. These were often based on visualization and relied on images of the Bodhisattva. These also are recognized attributes of Liangzhou Buddhism. (p. 6) Archaeological evidence dated to the 420s and 430s supports the popularity of devotion to Maitreya, including vows to “meet” him. Lai‖s assessment of the Liangzhou Buddhist community summarizes some of its distinctive traits, traits that are well borne in mind as one journeys into the vision of the Uss. No other community had at its disposal so formidable a range of scriptures. Dharmakṣema reinforced this comprehensiveness by creating the first Mahāyāna preceptory community in China, including generals as well as common people under a code as liberal in its rules as it was demanding in its principle (T 50.326c-327a). [Liang-chou monks] mingled with the laity, who housed them on their rounds; in guiding the people, they felt few inhibitions in compiling teachings or sūtras or in diluting the Dharma as expediencies. They were diligent propagators of the precepts; the confessional and the liturgical tradition originated among them. They were the popularizers of Buddhism. They were also known as those who kept the ascetic tradition alive. They maintained the old forest-dwelling ideal, but substituted grottoes for the forests. (Lai, 1993: p. 296)
21
The area is also associated with the popularization of Guanyin. Juqu Mengxun was advised to recite Chapter 25 of the Lotus Sūtra one time when he was ill. He was cured and subsequently became a devotee of Guanyin. (Howard, 2006: p. 251) Page | 22
Chapter 3: THE HOUSEHOLDER The Path of the Householder The topic of the householder life begins to focus the discussion more clearly in the direction of the Uss. Before moving to the text itself, it may be helpful to look briefly at how the ideal life of the Buddhist householder evolved up to the time of the Uss. In the Pāli canon, suttas addressed to laypeople have different purposes. At times, the Buddha addresses laypeople with an eye to guiding them toward the benefits of the Dhamma, to converting them to the Dhamma. At other times, he addresses lay Dhamma followers, showing the benefits of good conduct and the path to liberation. A three-level hierarchy may be used to illustrate the benefits ascribed to following the Buddha‖s teachings: 1. proper moral conduct and upholding social responsibilities leads to welfare and happiness directly visible in this present life; 2. meritorious deeds lead to welfare and happiness in the next life; 3. developing the Noble Eightfold Path leads to the supreme goal of Nibbāna. (Bodhi, 2005: p. 100) Broadly speaking, the Buddha encourages laypeople to cultivate faith, moral discipline, generosity, and wisdom. (Bodhi, 2005: p. 111) These virtues are seen as well in the Uss., iterated through the sūtra: “Again, there are five dharmas that can benefit oneself and others: (1) faith, (2) keeping the precepts, (3) frequent listening [to Dharma], (4) giving, and (5) wisdom.” (pp. 50, 63, et al.) Listening to Dhamma is also recommended to laypeople in the Pāli canon, along with seeing bhikkhus. Of the suttas addressed to laypeople, the vast majority are addressed to householders. (Kelly, 2009: p. 17) Of these, most concern the second level; fewer concern the third; and fewer still concern the first. (p. 25) Of the many topics of the Buddha‖s Dhamma instruction to laypeople, discourses concerning sīla and dāna are the most common, followed closely by those discussing attachment/lust/craving and stream-entry. (Kelly, 2009: p. 31) Among those texts that fall within the first of the three levels mentioned above is the Sigālovāda Sutta (Sigālaka/Siṅgālovāda Sutta; DN 31; DN.iii.180-193) and related texts from the Chinese canon. These teachings primarily concern proper social relationships, proper acquisition and use of wealth, and proper moral conduct. Generally, relationships are mutual and reciprocal: each party has her/his duty to perform. Wealth should be acquired in ways that promote non-harming and used wisely to provide security to oneself and one‖s dependents and to support renunciants. It is this sutta (and related texts from the Chinese canon) that is the springboard for the Uss. The monastic ideal of Buddhism was destined to come into conflict with Chinese notions of family. The child must show filial piety to the parents, observe the cult of the ancestors, and marry and produce male offspring. The Chinese were bound to view the monastic inPage | 23
stitution with skepticism: Buddhist monastics leave their families and do not marry or have children. Add to this that monks traditionally do not work, survive by accepting offerings of food and other material requisites from laypeople, and are not beholden to any ruler or government, and there was probably little to recommend the lifestyle to the Chinese. (Zürcher, 1987: p. 142)
Bodhisattva Precepts Texts Mahāyāna ethics was most explicitly set forth in Discipline Sūtras. (Nakamura, 1986: p. 219)
The inclusion of laity in the audience for Bodhisattva precepts was certainly a kind of Mahāyāna revolution. In the Śrāvakayāna, lay practitioners were enjoined to accept only five precepts, although eight- or ten-precepts laypeople were not unknown. Their ethical practice, of course, may have been more expansive, including, for example, following the Ten Courses of Wholesome Action (dāsa kusala kamma). Sheng-Yen suggests that Bodhisattva precepts “emphasize real substantive power to transform the world, develop the mind of supreme enlightenment, and remove mental defilements.” (1994: p. 54) The earlier texts, however, including the Uss., seem to be more oriented to the latter two rather than the first. The earliest Bodhisattva śīla texts presaged a profusion of new texts, including the Uss., in the 5th and 6th centuries in China. One theory is that this was driven by the need to adapt Buddhist teachings to the sensibilities of the Chinese. In particular, the alien features of monasticism needed to be adapted in some way to make them more acceptable. It is probably not coincidental that many of the Bodhisattva precepts texts appear close on the heels of the translation of Vinaya texts.22 The Uss. was among these. Another was the still-popular Brahmajāla Sūtra (T. 1484) (梵網經, Fan wang jing; Brahma’s Net Sūtra), produced by Kumārajīva in the early 5th century, perhaps 406.23 The Japanese scholar Hōdō Ōno surveyed the Chinese canon in order to compile a list of works related to Mahāyāna precepts, which was published in 1954 as Daijō kaikyō no kenkyū (Researches into the Mahāyāna Precept Sūtras) (Tokyo, Risōsha).24 He found eighty-six Bodhisattva precepts texts, of which only thirty-two exist in surviving canonical collections. (Chappell, 1996: p. 48) Elsewhere, there is reference to Ōno finding two hundred Mahāyāna precepts 22
According to Nakamura, there have been preserved only two Vinaya texts in Chinese that were translated prior to 383 CE. (1980: p. 55, footnote 24). 23
The Brahmajāla Sūtra is now widely accepted to be an apocryphal text composed in China, not a translation of an existing Sanskrit text. 24
Regrettably for non-Japanese readers, this work is not available in translation, but its contents as they relate to Bodhisasttva śīla have been summarized by David Chappell (1996) and Ven. Sheng-Yen (1994). Page | 24
texts, of which three-quarters are from the Period of Disunity, probably most from the 5th century. (Adamek, 2007: p. 78) Dharmakṣema, as noted earlier, seems to have had a special interest in Bodhisattva precepts. One of the distinguishing features of Liangzhou Buddhism, of which Dharmakṣema was a founding father, is the self-administration of the Bodhisattva precepts. In the Śrāvakayāna, selfadministering precepts is never permitted, but in Liangzhou Buddhism, monastics (but not laypeople) could receive the Bodhisattva precepts in this manner. The petitioner monastic confessed, repented, meditated and made vows before holy images. If a good sign was forthcoming, this validated that the precepts had been properly conferred. (See the related story in the section about Dharmakṣema above.) Wendy Adamek refers to Akira Hirakawa‖s idea that the inclusiveness of the Bodhisattva precepts texts relates back to “the earliest strata of the precepts, the all-inclusive precepts of the Āgamas,” (i.e., the Ten Courses of Wholesome Action). 25 (2007: p. 68) This is in keeping with Hirakawa‖s idea of the lay origins of Mahāyāna. Although that is a theory that has been largely discredited by scholars, it is a useful way to look at the Bodhisattva texts and emphasizes the connection to the Śrāvakayāna. Another formulation from the earlier tradition that may be seen to contribute to the structuring of the Bodhisattva precepts is based on verse 183 from the Dhammapada, which stresses cultivating the good, avoiding the evil, and purifying the mind. These three practices appear as an organizing principle in the Avataṃsaka sūtra, also a largely ethical text, in the three levels of practice of the second bhūmi of the Bodhisattva path: 1. the ten fundamental precepts of traditional Buddhism, 2. the cultivation of the Ten Courses of Wholesome Action 3. compassion and altruism toward all beings. (2007: p. 68) Again, the Bodhisattva precepts presented in the Uss. may be seen to be organized generally around these three practices. Many prevailing factors may have contributed to the manifestation of Bodhisattva precepts texts, including the Uss., in China during this time period. Filial piety provided strong arguments against ordination. Bodhisattva precepts offered a more stringent form of ethical and moral practice than did the conventional Five Precepts but still fell short of the monastic precepts. Bodhisattva precepts helped to equalize lay and renunciant populations, focusing attention more on practice than on designation. The emphasis on giving in the texts provided laypeople with appreciation of their wealth as well as motivation to acquire it in proper ways and distribute it for benevolent purposes. Emphasizing generosity to the poor and sick, as well as the social responsibilities of the Bodhisattva, was in keeping with Confucian ideals.
25
From his publication “Daijōkai to bosatsukaikyō” (“Mahāyāna Precepts and the Bodhisattva Precepts Scriptures”), in Tōyō shisōron shū (Collection of Essays on East Asian Thought), Tokyo, Fukui hakashi shōjukinen ronbunshū kankōkai, pp. 522–544, which is not available in translation. Page | 25
Chapter 4: THE UPĀSAKA-ŚĪLA SŪTRA The Sūtra “Upāsaka-śīla sūtra” is a reconstruction of the possible Sanskrit name of the Youposaijie jing (優婆塞戒經; U-ba-soku-kai-kyō; Ưu Bà Tắc Giới Kinh; 우바색계경)26(T. 1488). (Other possible reconstructions of the Sanskrit from the Chinese include Upāsaka-śiksā sūtra or Upāsakapratimokṣa sūtra). (Robinson, 1966: p. 34) To date, no complete edition of this sūtra, or fragments thereof, in Sanskrit or any other Indic language has been found. Nakamura indicates that the Uss. was made using the Bodhisattvabhūmi as a source. (1980: p. 227, footnote 32) This implies that the text was likely composed in China, perhaps by or with involvement of Dharmakṣema.27 Whatever his role in its creation, if any, it is certain that Dharmakṣema translated the text in the period between 424 and 426 CE. The Sigālovāda Sutta is also a source. In addition to the version of that sutta in the Pāli canon (DN 31/D.iii.180; Sīgāla Sutta, Sīgālaka Sutta, Siṅgālovāda Sutta), there are three extant recensions in the Chinese canon: Sūtra Spoken by the Buddha to Sigālavat on the Worship of the Six Directions (T. 16) (尸迦羅越六方禮經; Foshuo shijialuoyue liufanli jing); Sūtra Spoken by the Buddha to Sujāta Putra (T. 17) (善生子經; Shanshengzi jing); Sujāta Sūtra of the Dīrghāgama (善生經; Shansheng jing)28 (DA 16); and Sujāta Sūtra of the Madhyamāgama (MA 135) (善生經; Shansheng jing).29 (See Appendix 8 for typescripts of Pannasiri‖s 1950 translations of these four sūtras and Appendix 7 for a comparison of the features of these sūtras with the Uss.) The first thirteen chapters of the Uss. describe the path of the Bodhisattva, from arousing the aspiration for enlightenment (Chapter II) to compassion (Chapter III) to a comparison of the three kinds of enlightenment (Chapter V) to the cultivation of the physical and personal attributes of a Bodhisattva (the “eight dharmas”) (Chapter XII). The last fifteen chapters focus on practice, beginning with taking the Bodhisattva precepts (Chapter XIV), then making offerings (Chapter XVII), practicing the perfections (Chapter XVIII), and expounding the virtues of the Five Precepts (Chapter XXII).
26
There are numerous renderings of the sūtra’s title in English. Among the ones encountered in researching this dissertation were Sūtra on Upāsaka Precepts, Upāsaka Precept Sūtra, Sūtra on Precepts for Lay Buddhists, Sūtra of the Six Obeisances of Sujāta and Sujāta Sūtra. 27
“The dating rules out the supposition that the text is earlier than Śūnyavāda but it might still represent a primitive Mahāyāna sect in which the bodhisattva-yāna existed independent of both Śūnyavāda and the cults of the savior Buddhas and savior bodhisasttvas. Another possibility is that under the influence of some Hīnayāna sect the group amid which this sūtra arose had rejected features such as Śūnyvāda and the savior cults.” (Robinson, 1966: p. 35) 28
The Upāsaka-Śīla Sūtra is also known in Chinese as the Shansheng jing.
29
The English versions of these sūtra titles follow the translations by Pannasiri (1950). Page | 26
The thirty-four precepts laid out in the Uss. include six cardinal precepts and twentyeight lesser precepts. The cardinal precepts include the first four of the Five Precepts. In addition, the upāsaka is prohibited from discussing the faults of any lay or ordained Buddhist disciple and from selling intoxicants. The lesser precepts fall into several broad categories: proper comportment for an upāsaka (not using intoxicants, not traveling alone in dangerous places, attending Dharma lectures, etc.); proper respect toward others (parents/teachers/ elders/ordained Saṅgha members); appropriate concern for the poor and sick; respect for the government and one‖s duties as citizen; and improper forms of livelihood. (A list of the precepts may be found in Appendix 5.) A word count analysis of the English translation of the sūtra attests to its main themes: precepts, the path and practice of the Bodhisattva, giving and offerings, the perfections, wealth, and karma. (See Appendix 6.) Certain words one might expect to occur in a Mahāyāna text, such as the names of celestial Bodhisattvas, do not appear at all and others, such as “empty” or “emptiness(es),” occur very rarely (3 and 6 times, respectively). What else is not found in the Uss. that might be expected in a Mahāyāna sūtra? First, there is no mention by name of celestial Buddhas or Bodhisattvas, except for the one occurrence of Maitreya. Secondly, there is no mention of other buddhalands, such as Sukhāvatī. There is no reference to reciting the name of the Buddha and few references to reciting māntras. The three bodies doctrine is never mentioned. Although the sūtra advocates reading and copying the twelve divisions of the sūtras (e.g., pp. 96, 127), there is no recommendation to copy, recite, preach, or worship the Uss. itself, as there is in many other Mahāyāna sūtras. The paradoxical language of the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras is largely missing from the Uss., but there are occasional hints of this, including early in the first chapter: World-honored One, if one who has attained enlightenment is called a bodhisattva, how can he be called a bodhisattva before he makes offerings to these six directions? If one who has the nature of enlightenment is called a bodhisattva, then who has the nature? If one who has the nature can make offerings, one who has no such nature cannot. Therefore the Tathāgata cannot say that the six directions belong to the minds of sentient beings. (p. 6)
Likewise, the sectarian language that colors other sūtras associated with the Mahāyāna has little place in the Uss. Certainly the paths of the Śrāvaka and the Pratyekabuddha are seen as lower than that of the Bodhisattva, but for the most part, the language is respectful and inclusive: Good son, three kinds of animals can cross over the Ganges, namely, the rabbit [Śrāvaka], the horse [Pratyekabuddha], and the fragrant elephant [Tathāgata]. The rabbit does not have to touch the bottom of the river in order to swim over; the horse may or may not touch the bottom; and the elephant touches the bottom. (p. 26)
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Some aspects of certain Śrāvakayāna traditions are disparaged (Dharmaguptaka and Mahīśāsaka, p. 178), but so are Hindu traditions sometimes criticized (e.g., the practice of washing statues with milk, p. 95).30 There is no direct reference to any historical event or any historical figure. There is nothing to firmly place the sūtra geographically, although references to features of the Indian religious traditions leave the reader feeling that there was an Indian origin for the sūtra. The Bodhisattva path as it is envisioned by the Uss. is not an easy path. As Nattier says of the Ugra., “there are no shortcuts.” (2003: p. 45) Friendship is a key feature of the other suttas/sūtras in this family of Sujāta/Sigāla texts, as may be seen in Appendix 7. In the Uss., duties to friends are described in the text on the six directions, but the benefits of spiritual friendship are not a strong focus of the sūtra. The ideas of a spiritual community of Bodhisattvas, joint practices, or gatherings do not appear. The sūtra begins with the layman Sujāta asking the Buddha for an explanation of why one should pay reverence to the six directions. This gives the sūtra historical credence, linking it with the earlier Sujāta/Sigāla texts and establishing the framework of a dialogue between the Buddha and another person, the framework of most sūtras. It becomes immediately apparent that this is a Mahāyāna text.31 The six directions are associated with the six perfections (pāramitās). And who can make such offerings? Only the quintessentially Mahāyāna Bodhisattva. Concepts from the Abhidharmakośa, a Sarvāstivāda/Sautrantika text of which Dharmakṣema translated one part (the Bodhisattvabhūmi), make an appearance in the Uss. The “state of warmth” (uṣmagata) referred to in Chapter XIV (“On Taking the Precepts”) (pp. 79ff) is from the Abhidharmakośa, as are the stages of “perceiving and cultivating the way” referred to in Chapter XX (“On the Three Pure Refuges”) (pp. 142-3). There are also mentions of and references to other Mahāyāna sūtras, including the Lotus Sūtra. (p. 13) Although the Uss. generally considers the path of the renunciant superior (except in the area of the practice of dāna, as shall be seen), the sūtra does hold out the possibility that the householder may in some respects be equal to the renunciant: “A bodhisattva who perfects these dharmas is not different from one who has left the home life although he is still a householder.” (p. 59) The ordination ceremony for the Bodhisattva described in the Uss. is clearly modeled on that of the bhikkhu/bhikkhuni. In offering a set of formal precepts to be undertaken by the householder, the Uss. and other Bodhisattva precepts texts represent a departure from the Śrāvakayāna. In the earlier tradition, ethical guidelines for laypeople do not appear as sets of rules, as do the rules for monks (Vinaya). Moral instruction for householders was offered primarily in the form of guidelines for living. Phra Rajavaramuni suggests that this was because “the wider lay society was so open to changing circumstances of space and time that the monks did not consider it as a sub30
“The sūtra then states and denies the concepts of liberation held by five out of the six orthodox darśanas.” (Robinson, 1966: p. 39) (referring to Uss., p. 143) 31
This is clear even though in the list of beings present at the teaching, there is no mention of Bodhisattvas. (p. 5) Page | 28
ject appropriate for fixed rules.” (1990: p. 35) By contrast, the Uss. is very much a set of fixed rules. The word “sūtra” in the title of the Uss., according to Lai, is a “misnomer; better call it praktimoksa, i.e., a set of rules for the layman to go with the monk's fortnight confessionals.”32 Among the many practices mentioned in the Uss., the practice of giving (dāna) is emphasized above all others and is a special focus for the householder Bodhisattva.
Dāna Whether we focus upon developments of ascetic rigor, the apotheosis of the Buddha or buddhas, or the virtues of dāna (gifting, generosity), in almost every instance we see continuity from early Buddhism to multiple Mahāyāna developments. (Boucher, 2008: p. xii)
In the word count analysis of the Uss., the words “giving,” “gift,” and “give(s)” appear more frequently than any other term. (See Appendix 6.) Giving (dāna) is a lens through which the evolution of ethical thinking from the Śrāvakayāna to Mahāyāna may be examined more closely. This is especially useful because dāna, or generosity, is a primary practice recommended to householders in the early suttas. The primary change from the earlier to the later traditions is that dāna in Mahāyāna becomes primarily a matter of compassion, but in both the Śrāvakayāna and the Mahāyāna of the Uss. the practice of dāna is multivariate. The preeminence of dāna in householder teaching, then, is to provide a foundation, spiritual and material, upon which all other transformative elements naturally depend and without which there would be no tradition to follow. (Findly, 2003: p. 186)
This statement could easily apply to the Uss., as well: a world in which lay and monastic Buddhists support each other, offering material and spiritual gifts, and cultivate wholesome states of mind.33 There are several reasons giving may be emphasized in the Uss. It is the first of the six pāramitās, the practice of which is a strong feature of the sūtra. Because of the material wealth of householders (relative to that of renunciants), householders are in a position to be able to practice giving. Giving is relatively easy for the householder to practice. It does not require special conditions (as meditation, for example, may). It counters the afflictions that plague householders, such as stinginess (due to a desire to protect one‖s wealth), insularity (due to a focus on one‖s self and one‖s family), and laziness (due to dull contentment or inability to see
32
Personal email correspondence, 20 February 2011.
33
In Mogao cave 275, created under Mengxun, there are portrayals of the Jātaka stories of Sivi and Candraprabha. Both tales focus on the pāramī of dāna. See Appendix 3 for photographs and more information. Page | 29
the needs of others) and promotes the development of wholesome states such as generosity, equanimity, joy, non-hatred, and non-fear. The Sigālovāda Sutta, in all its recensions, outlines six key interpersonal relationships that define the householder‖s life.34 (See Appendix 7 for details.) Each relationship entails certain reciprocal responsibilities. All include some kind of gift or offering. To parents, a child makes donations on behalf of dead ancestors (DN 31); pays off family debts (T. 17); or offers all the requirements (DA 16). Parents reciprocate by handing over inheritance (DN 31); giving over family possessions (T. 17); or providing the necessities of life (DN 31). Similarly, in the Uss. a son offers his parents clothing, food, bedding, medicine, lodging & valuables and parents respond by giving their children wealth. (Uss., p. 71) Contentment and limited desires are encouraged in the Śrāvakayāna texts, but poverty is not seen as a virtue. Rather, laypeople are guided in correct ways to accumulate and use wealth. Because those who go forth into homelessness renounce their wealth and all means of acquiring wealth, laypeople must provide the requisites to monastics (dānadhamma). Monastics, in turn, offer laypeople the opportunity to gain karmic fruitfulness (puñña) through giving and provide laypeople with Dhamma instruction (dhammadāna). If the donative relationship is seen as a four-factor relationship (donor/offering; recipient/gift), it is possible to see several levels operating simultaneously. The householder with wealth accrues karmic fruitfulness through offerings. The recipient, by accepting the gift, provides a vehicle for karmic fruitfulness. The puñña increases depending up on the virtue of the recipient. An offering made without regard for the recipient would not be seen, according to the Śrāvakayāna, to maximize karmic fruitfulness. The Uss. revalues the factors in the donative relationship. Donors are classified in three categories by the Uss., superior, medium, and inferior. The inferior…does not believe in karmic consequences, is very stingy, fears to exhaust his wealth, and feels angry with supplicants. The medium…believes in karmic consequences but is stingy and afraid of exhausting his wealth; [nevertheless] he arouses the thought of giving when he sees the supplicant. The superior…deeply believes in karmic consequences, is not stingy with his wealth, considers it as impermanent, feels happy if he can give to supplicants, and feels sorry if he cannot give. He even exchanges himself for things so as to help others. (p. 109)
This classification is similar to the Buddha‖s description in this text: Suppose a peasant farmer has three fields, one excellent, one middling, and one poor, sandy, salty, with bad soil. Tell me: when the farmer wants to sow his seed, which field would he sow first: the excellent one, the middling one or the poor one that is sandy, salty and with bad soil? … that excellent field is like my monks and nuns… The middling field is like my male and female lay-followers… The poor field that is sandy, salty and with bad soil is like my wandering recluses and Brahmans of other sects. (SN 42.7/S.iv.314-316; Desanā Sutta)35 34
Interestingly, although giving to the poor and sick is stressed in the sūtra, these groups do not appear in the six directions. This is in keeping with Robinson‖s observation that “the up-and-down lines [dominate] while the crossways lines are recessive in [the Bodhisattva’s] personal relations.” (1960: p., 50) 35
“Desanaa Sutta: Teaching,” http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn42/sn42.007.wlsh.html Page | 30
In the Uss. as in the Śrāvakayāna tradition, there is reciprocity between the householder and the renunciant. “An ordained bodhisattva practices the path for the laity, and the lay people practice the Dharma for the ordained.” (p. 55) The ordained Bodhisattva practices dāna in several ways. He “practices giving the Dharma without laxity, subdues sentient beings‖ [afflictions], looks after the sick, and gives to the poor.” (p. 66) A lay Bodhisattva who is a king “always gives to his people” (p. 68) and “always takes delight in making offerings to monks.” (p. 69) The lay Bodhisattva may cultivate both the practices of giving and receiving. The ordained practices reciting and teaching. The Bodhisattva mahāsattva (non-retrogressing Bodhisattva) practices all four. (p. 54) The poor are not excused from giving, despite their poverty. “There is no one who does not have access to water or grass [which he can give away].” (p. 111-112) Sharing the happiness of others is a form of giving that does not require wealth: “[I]f one joyfully helps or rejoices when seeing others [practicing giving], the rewards one receives are not different [from that of the giver], because their thoughts are the same.” (p. 113) That the poor can also practice dāna makes perfect sense; otherwise they would be excluded from the karmic fruitfulness of giving. In the Uss. world, lay and ordained Bodhisattvas may be each other‖s teachers. The teacher/disciple relationship is defined in part by dāna. This represents an innovation over the Śrāvakayāna. If [the ordained bodhisattva with a lay disciple] himself does not have things [to give to his disciple], he should go out everywhere to look for them; and if he still cannot obtain them, he can borrow from the Three Treasures. (p. 67)
In the Śrāvakayāna, generosity to holy people is seen to aid the donor‖s good rebirth in a condition of wealth. Why? “The concept of a ―field of “merit”‖, is that, just as a seed planted in better ground yields better fruit, so a gift given to a more virtuous person generates more ―merit‖.”(Harvey, 1990: p. 178) The Uss. does not overturn this, as seen in this quotation: After giving, the giver becomes delighted without regret, draws near to good people, gains wealth and self-mastery, is reborn in a noble family, obtains worldly and heavenly happiness all the way up to unsurpassed happiness, and is capable of severing all bonds of afflictions. (Uss., p. 62)
The Uss. expands the idea, however, adding the condition of poverty as a consideration in assessing the virtue of a particular gift. Good son, there are three fundamentals to all kinds of giving: (1) giving compassionately to the poor, (2) giving to foes without seeking rewards, and (3) giving joyfully and respectfully to the virtuous. (p. 130)
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Three “fields of blessings” are described: (1) the field of returning kindness (parents, teachers, and monks), (2) the field of meritorious virtue (the Noble Saṅgha), and (3) the field of poverty. The Tathagata, the World-honored One, belongs to two fields of blessings, the field of returning kindness and the field of meritorious virtue. The Dharma also belongs to these two fields. The Sangha belongs to the three fields of blessings, the fields of returning kindness, meritorious virtue, and poverty. (p. 93)
Here, the Saṅgha, because of their renunciation of material wealth, are considered part of the field of poverty, but their poverty is not the same as that of other poor people. The Saṅgha is an object of respect: “When he gives to fields of blessings, he arouses joyful and respectful thoughts.” (p. 109) The poor are objects of compassion: “When [the bodhisattva] gives to the poor, he brings forth compassionate thoughts.” (p. 109) It is through gifts to the poor that the householder generates karmic fruitfulness: “In order to forsake afflictions, he gives to the field of blessings; and in order to accomplish merit and virtue, he gives to the poor.” (p. 62) Offerings should also be made to “the relics, images, and stupas [of the Tathagata after he has entered nirvana].” (p. 93) Regardless of the value of the gifts—“all the jewels in the four continents” or “various merits and utmost sincere praise”—“the blessings and virtues of these …are equal.” (p. 95) As in the Sigālovāda Sutta, the householder is encouraged to divide his wealth in four ways: one part offered to parents, oneself, wife, and relatives; two parts invested; and one part saved. (p. 77) It would appear, then, that the householder is not being advised to give everything away, as is the case in the Ugra. Material items are not the only object of dāna. The gift of the Dharma and the gift of fearlessness are also forms of dāna. In the Nikāyas, dāna is almost always material wealth, but there are a few references to a second kind of gift, including this one from the Aṅguttaranikāya (A.I.23-27): O monks, there are two gifts. What are these two? The material (āmisa) and the spiritual (dhamma) gift. These are the [two] gifts. O monks, of these two gifts, the spiritual gift is the foremost. (p. 149) (Walser, 2005: p. 147)
The Bodhisattva may give his body and his life, as well as his wealth, and may practice giving the Dharma, as well as “exhorting sentient beings to practice these things.” (p. 37) In the Śrāvakayāna traditions, the karmic fruitfulness of giving is a strong motivating factor. Belief in karmic consequences is a critical determinant of the superiority (or inferiority) of a donor in the Uss., but it is not the ultimate determinant: [T]he inferior giver gives for present rewards, the medium giver gives for future rewards, and the superior giver gives out of compassion…for the treasure of the Dharma…without making distinctions between foes or friends…gives more than asked. (pp. 109-110)
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In addition to the benefits of giving, the Uss. enumerates how one should not practice giving: …in order to be repaid with kindness, to gain things, to protect stingy persons, to be born in heaven in order to enjoy heavenly pleasures, or to spread his fame…nor does he aim to surpass others, lose his wealth, have too much wealth, or make no use [of his wealth]; … nor does he practice to acquire friends. (p. 122)
Another function of dāna is to destroy arrogance. This was a practice of the Tathāgata while still a Bodhisattva: “he made offerings to teachers, prostrated to Buddhas and bodhisattvas, and hence broke his arrogance.” (p. 31) Householders do nothing less than emulate the Tathāgata when they practice dāna. Like the Tathāgata, who “gives away what is hard to give and endures what is hard to endure” (p. 91) and who is “a great giver” (p. 28), the householder, supported by compassion, “can give what is difficult to give, endure what is difficult to endure, and do what is difficult to do.”36 (p. 17) In the world of the Uss., there are three factors in giving: the gift, the purity of the recipient, and the purity of the mind of the donor. Purity of mind means not seeking rewards for giving in the current life but giving for the sake of “adorning enlightenment and subduing sentient beings.” (p. 58) Omitting to make offerings or give gifts is not merely a missed opportunity but “a grave offense” against the Bodhisattva precepts. (p. 80) As in the Śrāvakayāna, stinginess (withholding gifts) and stealing (depriving another of material wealth) are seen to lead to poverty in the current life or in future lives. As in the Śrāvakayāna, dāna alone is not enough to secure the ultimate goal, however. The Bodhisattva also “loathes the faults of samsara and perceives deeply the virtue and happiness of nirvana,” and so, “although he might give just a little, keep a few precepts, and hear a little [Dharma], he can attain the way to liberation.” (pp. 19-20) Having attained the way to liberation, even “a little practice of giving” yields “immeasurable fruition.” (p. 21) Differences and convergences with other Mahāyāna sūtras reveal how difficult it is to extrapolate from one text to the larger tradition. For example, the Ugra., like the Uss., emphasizes gifts to the needy (in the case of the Ugra., to ordinary beggars [Nattier, 2003: p. 112]). The Uss. also emphasizes the virtue of gifts to the Three Gems, while in the Ugra., “there is not a single case…in which the bodhisattva either makes, or is exhorted to make an offering to the Buddha himself.” (Nattier, 2003: p. 163) In the Ugra., the householder is enjoined to give up all material possessions. In the Bodhisattvapiṭaka (Bdp.), the merit of dāna depends upon the nature of the gift and the donor‖s purity of thought. The Bdp. “disregards the role of beneficiary (pratigrāhaka) 36
Among the thirty-two marks of the Tathāgata, according to the Uss., five are dependent on giving and offerings practiced in past lifetimes (level feet, images of wheels on the soles of his feet and fingers, body hair that stands upward, excellent sense of taste, an invisible mark on the head). (pp. 31-34) Page | 33
as a field of merit (puṇyakṣetra).” (Pagel, 1995: p. 150) The Uss. also emphasizes the state of mind of the giver. “I have said in the sutras that I made offerings to Śāriputra and that Śāriputra also made offerings to me. But it was I, not Śāriputra, who gained more blessings.” (p. 124) Why? Because of the level of sincerity and compassion motivating the gift, and perhaps also because there is no expectation of a good reward for the giving. Dāna, then, is a multi-faceted practice in both the Śrāvakayāna and the Uss. The Uss. in many ways presents ideas on dāna that are consistent with the older traditions but with some changes in emphasis: giving to the poor and sick; offering the gift of fearlessness as well as material wealth and Dharma; lauding the capacity of the householder to give; and perfecting dāna. Perfecting giving is not easily accomplished, but the efforts are rewarded in this lifetime and in future lifetimes, and, especially in the Uss., it is not only the donor who benefits, but also the recipient.
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CONCLUSION The Uss. offers a new orientation in householder śīla from the Śrāvakayāna: a new and rigorous set of precepts, greater emphasis on concern for others, especially the poor and sick, and a firm focus on developing compassion. The sūtra has not pushed these developments to the limit, however; there is no urging the Bodhisattva to remain in saṃsāra that marks later texts. Ultimately, a religion must respond to the needs and concerns of people. With the available information about the Uss., its context, and its history, one can made educated guesses about what purposes the text may have served for those who disseminated it. Dharmakṣema may have cemented his relationship with Juqu Mengxun by complying with the ruler‖s wishes that certain types of texts be made available. He may also have advanced the purpose of proselytization and foreseen the important role that lay practice would assume as Buddhism expanded into China. Juqu Mengxun himself may have found satisfaction in presenting a text that supports the development of moral uprightness and appropriate social engagement among the people. But what of the Uss.‖s audience? How did the people respond? It may not be possible ever to answer this question satisfactorily. Evidence is sorely lacking—both archaeological and historical. Through time, the Brahmajāla Sūtra, which is of the same era, has had greater appeal. Perhaps this is because its teachings are more clearly consistent with Chinese cultural and religio-spiritual traditions. Or perhaps because the Brahamjala’s precepts are taken by both monastics and laypeople, the audience for that sūtra has historically been larger. Nor it is possible, absent substantive new evidence, to know how the local populace of the 5 century Northern China received the sūtra. Were there laypeople who actually practiced in this way? Because the Northern Liang enjoyed relative prosperity, the Uss.‖s teachings on dāna may have had a receptive audience. Were there laypeople who took the precepts according to the Uss.? Almost certainly there were. How many? That cannot be known. Certainly the sūtra demands a fairly high level of practice for a householder and some depth of familiarity with the Buddhadharma. Northern China had been a stronghold of Buddhism for some time, so there may have been people who were ready for this level of commitment and engagement with the teachings. th
Liangzhou Buddhism did have a lasting impact on China. In 439, the Northern Wei annexed Liangzhou. As a result, about 30,000 households moved to the new capital, Pingcheng (平 城; now Datong; 大同) in Shanxi (山西). “The historian Wei Shou wrote, ―The śramaṇas and Buddhist practices both went east, and both the images and the doctrine prospered more and more.‖” (Wong, 2004: p. 50) Householder practice developed in new and revolutionary ways in the period immediately following the demise of the Northern Liang. The monk Tanyao (曇曜), a disciple of Dharmakṣema, was part of the migration from Liangzhou to Pingcheng. There, in about 470, after a period of famine in the area, he proposed the idea of organizing Buddhist laypeople into Page | 35
Saṅgha-households. Families and entire villages were, in essence, adopted by a temple or monastery. The households contributed grain or other agricultural products to a central store.37 In times of famine, these resources were used to feed the Saṅgha-households. From the vantage point of the Uss., this dissertation has examined the development of the Bodhisattva path and its many manifestations; the diversity of Mahāyāna—its practices, its texts, its ethics; and the relationship of Mahāyāna ethics to those of the earlier Śrāvakayāna tradition. What has become clear is that whatever may be said of these topics must be said with a very specific context (in this instance, Northern China in the 5th century). How does understanding a 5th c. Chinese text relate to the practice of 21st c. Western Buddhists? Quite well, in fact. Westerners have an opportunity to explore the panoply of Buddhist traditions in a way that is not possible for many Asians. Rather than accepting that the interpretation of one person or one tradition is unassailable, Westerners can use texts like the Uss. to understand how Buddhist forbears engaged with the practice. Westerners may be surprised to learn that the Bodhisattva path was not always one of engagement, nor one that was considered universally accessible, that Mahāyāna was not only a splinter group of nonconformists but also a mindset of those who wished to return to the forest for solitary practice. Spending time with texts like the Uss. and contemplating how they emerge and diverge from earlier and contemporaneous traditions may afford greater authenticity to contemporary practice and soften what is, in some places, a hard line between Theravāda and Mahāyāna. It may also deepen appreciation of the diversity, beauty, and adaptability of the Buddhist path.
37
This subsequently led to another persecution of Buddhism in 574 as the government sought to reclaim access to the resources acquired by temples and monasteries through the saṅgha-households. Page | 36
APPENDICES Appendix 1: Dynasties of Northern China in the Early Medieval Period
Wei (220-265) Western Jin (265-317) Sixteen Kingdoms Cheng-Han (304-347) Former Zhao (304-329) Later Zhao (319-250) Former Yan (337-370) Later Yan (385-409) Northern Yan (409-436) Southern Yan (398-410) Former Liang (314-376) Later Liang (386-403) Northern Liang (398-439) Southern Liang (397-414) Western Liang (400-421) Former Qin (351-395) Later Qin (385-417) Western Qin (385-431) Xia (407-432) Northern Wei (386-534)
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Appendix 2: Maps
Ill. 1. The Silk Road1
Ill. 2. Asia, ca. 400 CE2
1 2
Source: http://www.silkroadproject.org/tabid/177/defaul.aspx Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Asia_400ad.jpg Page | 38
Ill. 3. Map of Gansu Province, showing locations of Dunhuang, Mogao, and Wuwei (formerly Liangzhou)3
3
Source: http://huntingtonarchive.osu.edu/resources/images/maps/detailed/gansu.jpeg Page | 39
Appendix 3: Mogao Caves, Dunhuang The importance of Gansu art during the fourth century, before the Northern Wei takeover in 439, is clear. The caves opened along the Hexi corridor demonstrate the artistic synthesis of different central Asian influences as well as the interpretation of numerous iconographies derived from the sutras whose translation by famous foreign ecclesiastics has been sponsored by the native Liang and Qin dynasties. Moreover, the cave art of the corridor is not uniform, because it interprets different central Asian modes. The intense effort made in Gansu to create a language suited to local Buddhism generated this Liangzhou art, which heavily influenced the development of later Northern Wei artistic styles. (Howard, 2006: p. 222)
Ill. 4. Site of Mogao Caves4
Ill. 5. Maitreya from the Mogao Cave 275 (421-439 CE) (Xiongnu style)5 4
Source: http://en.radio86.com/travel/mogao-caves-thousand-years-chinese-buddhism. A short video by UNESCO may be seen here: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/440/video. 5 Source: http://enweb.dha.ac.cn/0014/index.htm Page | 40
[The Sivi Jātaka] exists in four versions, all of which express and propagate dāna paramita (the virtue of generosity). … The first of the two scenes…shows King Sivi sitting on a seat or backless throne, with a footstool or rug, in lalitasana while being acclaimed by an aspara above him. … The pigeon, which he is saving, is held protectively in his right hand. At the same time, he passively watches the kneeling figure cutting flesh from his “dangling” left leg. … The following scene, beneath two asparas in adoration, is of the moment of climax in which King Sivi, since no amount of his flesh equals the weight of the dove, sits…on a plate of the scale. … The pigeon sits, now lighter than the king, on the other plate. (Bell, 2000: p. 72-3) [A]n ascetic presented himself before King Candraprabha and asked for his head. The king, who never refused to fulfill the desire of anyone, offered the ascetic a head made of “the seven kinds of precious substances” instead, but the ascetic refused. Descending from his audience hall, the king attached his hair to a tree, and responded “I give you my head.” The ascetic grasped his sword and advanced rapidly toward the king but the tree-spirit, indignant about the perversity of the man, struck him such a blow that the sword fell from his hand. … In conclusion, the Buddha adds: “… [Candraprabha] was I, myself; the ascetic was Devadatta.” … The scene…shows King Candraprabha…kneeling with a tray of three heads before an uncrowned but equally large seated figure, who is making a gesture of refusal (Bell, 2000: p. 74) .
Ill. 6. Portrayal of Jātaka tales of King Sivi (left and center) and King Candraprabha (right)6
6
Source: http://enweb.dha.ac.cn/0014/index.htm Page | 41
Although the concept of Mogao 275 is a Mahayana Maitreya context, the jatakas have kept their Hinayana purity and are as such documents in the transitional process leading to Tang dynasty Mahayana visual absorption or fusion. (Bell, 2000: p. 75)
Ill. 7 and 8. More images from Mogao cave 2757
7
Source: http://enweb.dha.ac.cn/0014/index.htm Page | 42
Appendix 4: Texts Translated By Dharmakṣema (417-422 CE) Less renowned that Kumārajīva, Dharmakṣema translated a far wider and more representative set of works. The Vaipulya scriptures he rendered appealed to the whole Buddhist community: there were Jātaka (birth) stories of the Buddha for the young and old, the Golden Light Sūtra for rulers, the avadāna (myths of origins) explaining the expanding Mahāyāna pantheon, magical dhāraṇī for all occasions, the Upāsaka-śīla-sūtra (Sūtra of Lay Precepts), and the Bodhisattva-śīlasūtra (Sūtra of Bodhisattva Precepts) for the creation of lay and monastic communities based on Mahāyāna precepts, and texts more in the philosophic line of Kumārajīva, such as the Karuṇāpuṇḍarīka (Lotus of Compassion), which celebrates the ekayāna (one vehicle) and the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra, which teaches universal Buddhahood. No other community had at its disposal so formidable a range of scriptures. (Lai, 1993: p. 296)
Mahāparinirvāṇa sūtra (大般涅槃經; Daban niepan jing) (T. 374) Bodhisattva-śīla sūtra (菩薩戒經; Pusajie jing) (Contains excerpts from the Bodhisattvacaryā-nirdeśa, which expound the Mahāyāna precepts) (No longer extant) Bodhisattvaprātimokṣa or Book of Bodhisattva Commandments (spoken by Maitreya) (菩薩戒 本; Pusajie ben) (T. 1500) (includes four heavy and forty-two light precepts) Upāsaka-śīla sūtra (優婆塞戒經; Youposaijie jing) (T. 1488) Suvarṇaprabhāsa sūtra or Suvaṇa-prabhāsottama Sūtra (金光明經; Jinguangming jing) (T. 663) Mahāvaipulyamahāsaṃnipāta sūtra (方等大集經; Fangdeng daji jing) o including the方等王虛空藏經; Fangdeng wang xukongzang jing Sāgaranāgarājaparipṛcchā sūtra or Scripture of the Sea Dragon King (海龍王經; Hailongwang jing)8 (No longer extant) Bodhisattvabhūmi or Sūtra of a Bodhisattva's Spiritual States or Sūtra on the Observance of the States of Bodhisattva Practice or Retaining of the Bodhisattva’s Ten Grounds (菩薩地持經; Pusa dichi jing) (T. 1581)—used mainly for ordination ceremonies Karuṇāpuṇḍarīka sūtra (悲華經; Beihua jing) Mahāsaṃnipāta9 or Great Collection of Sūtras (方等大雲經; Fangdeng dayun jing) 菩薩戒優婆塞戒壇文; Pusajie youposai jietan wen (No longer extant) Strī-vivarta-vyākaraṇa sūtra (佛説腹中女聽經; Fo shuo fu zhong nü ting jing) (T. 563) (Alternative title: 不莊校女經; Bu zhuang jiao nü jing) Mahāmegha sūtra or Sūtra of the Great Cloud (大方等無想經) (T. 387)—includes rites for rain Trisaṃvaranirdeśaparivarta sūtra (大方廣三戒經; Da fang kuang san chieh ching) (T. 311)
8
A dhāraṇī text (see Pagel, U., 2007, “The Dhāraṇīs of Mahāvyutpatti #748: Origin and Formation,” Buddhist Studies Review, 24(2), pp. 151–91) 9
“A compilation of seventeen Mahāyāna sūtras. A complete version of this collection only exists in Chinese translation although there is clear evidence that it also existed in a similar form in India and many individual sūtras were also translated into Tibetan. It includes such important works as the Dhāraṇīśvara-rāja Sūtra and the Akṣayamati-nirdeśa Sūtra.” (Keown, D., 2004, “Mahāsa nipāta Sūtra,” in A Dictionary of Buddhism) retrieved May 04, 2011 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O108-MahsaniptaStra.html) Page | 43
Buddha-carita-kāvya sūtra (佛所行讃; Fo suo xing zan) (T. 192)—by Aśvaghoṣa 佛説文陀竭王經 (頂生王經; Fo shuo ding sheng wang gushi jing) (T. 39) Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra (Lengqie jing;楞伽經)--already reported out of circulation by the time the Tang Buddhist bibliographer Zhisheng 智昇 (fl. 700-786) compiled his catalogue in 730.10 (No longer extant)
These texts total 121 juan. (Chen, 2004: p. 225, footnote 23)
10
Chen, 2004: p. 215-16, footnote 1 Page | 44
Appendix 5: The Precepts of the Lay Bodhisattva (Upāsaka) THE SIX CARDINAL PRECEPTS11 1. The Precept of Killing Good son, after an upāsaka takes the precepts, he should not kill any being from a goddess all the way down to an ant. After taking the precepts, if he instructs others to kill or if he himself kills, he loses his upāsaka precepts. This person cannot attain even the state of warmth (uṣmagata), let alone the fruition of a stream-enterer or a nonreturner. He is called a preceptbreaking upāsaka, a stinking upāsaka, an outcast (caṇḍāla) upāsaka, a defiled upāsaka, and an afflicted upāsaka. The precept against killing is called the first cardinal precept. 2. The Precept of Stealing He should not steal even as little as a penny for his own life. If he breaks this precept, he loses the upāsaka precepts. This person cannot even attain the dharma state of warmth, let alone the fruition of a stream-enterer or a nonreturner. He is called a precept-breaking upāsaka, a stinking upāsaka, an outcast upāsaka, a defiled upāsaka, and an afflicted upāsaka. This is the second cardinal precept. 3. The Precept of Lying Even for the sake of his life, he should not lie that he has mastered the contemplation of impurity or the fruition of a nonreturner. If he breaks this precept,… This is the third cardinal precept. 4. The Precept of Sexual Misconduct Even for the sake of his life, he should not engage in sexual misconduct. If he breaks this precept,… This is the fourth cardinal precept. 5. The Precept of Talking About the Wrong Deeds of the Four Categories of Buddha's Disciples Even for the sake of his life, he should not speak of the faults of bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇis, upāsaka, or upāsikās. If he breaks this precept,... This is the fifth cardinal precept. 6. The Precept of Selling Intoxicants Even for the sake of his life, he should not sell intoxicants. If he breaks this precept,.... This is the sixth cardinal precept. THE TWENTY-EIGHT LESSER PRECEPTS 1. The Precept of Not Making Offering to One's Parents and Teachers If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts does not make offerings to his parents and teachers, he commits a grave offense (duṣkṛta). He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 2. The Precept of Indulging in Intoxicants If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts indulges in intoxicants, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 11
Excerpt from Uss., Chapter XIV, “On Taking The Precepts” (pp. 79-83)
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3. The Precept of Not Visiting and Looking after the Sick If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts does not look after those who are sick, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 4. The Precept of Ignoring Supplicants If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts does not, upon seeing supplicants, give away whatever he can, but rather sends them away empty-handed, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 5. The Precept of Not Paying Respect to the Buddha‖s Disciples and the Elderly If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts does not, upon seeing bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇis, elder upāsakas, or elder upāsikās, get up to greet and bow to them, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 6. The Precept of Pride When Seeing the Four Categories of Buddha's Disciples Break the Precepts If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts arouses this arrogant thought upon seeing bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇis, upāsakas, or upāsikās who violate the precepts, 'I am superior to them, for they are not as good as I,' this upāsaka commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 7. The Precept of Not Fulfilling the Six Monthly Days of Practice If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts does not keep the eight precepts or make offerings to the Three Treasures for six days each month, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 8. The Precept of Not Attending Dharma Lectures If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts does not attend the Dharma lectures held within a distance of forty miles, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 9. The Precept of Taking the Saṅgha's Furniture and Bedding If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts takes bedding, beds, or furniture from the Sangha, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 10. The Precept of Drinking Water that Contains Insects If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts suspects that there are living organisms in water and drinks it anyway, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 11. The Precept of Traveling Alone in Dangerous Places If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts travels alone in questionable places, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 12. The Precept of Staying Alone in a Nunnery If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts stays overnight alone [without other men] in a nunnery, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 13. The Precept of Fighting for the Sake of Wealth If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts beats or scolds his slaves, servants, or other people Page | 46
for the sake of his own wealth and life, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 14. The Precept of Giving Leftover Food to the Four Categories of Buddha's Disciples If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts offers leftovers to bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇis, upāsakas, or upāsikās, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 15. The Precept of Keeping Cats or Foxes If an upāsaka has taken the precepts and raises cats or foxes, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 16. The Precept of Rearing Animals and Not Giving Them Away to Those Who Have Not Taken the Precepts If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts raises elephants, horses, cows, sheep, camels, donkeys, or any other animals and does not give them to those who have not yet taken the precepts, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 17. The Precept of Not Keeping the Three Robes, Bowls and Staff If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts does not keep the precept robes, begging bowls, and staff, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 18. The Precept of Not Ensuring that Irrigation Water and Farm Land is Pure If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts needs to farm for a living but does not seek pure water and land to farm, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 19. The Precept of Using an Unjust Scale in Business and Not Calling Off Business Deals If a precept-holding upāsaka engages in business for a living using weights or scales— and after having made a deal, he should not call off a previous deal for a more profitable one—when weighing goods, he should weigh them correctly. If [the amount is] not correct, he should speak out and make it correct. If he does not do so, he commits a grave offense. 20. The Precept of Having Sexual Intercourse at the Improper Times and Places If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts has sexual intercourse in improper places and at improper times, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 21. The Precept of Evading Government Taxes on Business If a precept-holding upāsaka who is engaged in business erases taxes or appropriates public funds, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 22. The Precept of Not Obeying the Country's Law If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts violates the laws of a country, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 23. The Precept of Not Making Offerings to the Triple Gem when Obtaining New Food If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts does not offer the newly harvested grain, fruits, and
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vegetables first to the Three Treasures but eats them first himself, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 24. The Precept of Giving Dharma Lectures without the Saṅgha‖s Permission If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts then lectures on the Dharma without permission from the Sangha and praises himself for it, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 25. The Precept of Walking in Front of the Buddha's Disciples If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts walks ahead of bhikṣus or śrāmaṇeras, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 26. The Precept of Not Distributing Food Equally to the Saṅgha If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts offers food to monks, meanwhile offering the better food in excessive amount to his own teacher, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 27. The Precept of Rearing Silk Worms If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts raises silkworms, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions. 28. The Precept of Ignoring the Sick on the Road If an upāsaka who has taken the precepts comes across a sick person along the road and does not look after and arrange a place for him but deserts him, he commits a grave offense. He cannot rise from degradation, nor can he purify his actions.
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Appendix 6: Word Count Analysis for the Upāsaka-Śīla Sūtra Words scanned: 71922 Distinct words: 5117 Word precepts bodhisattva(s) son giving/gift sentient beings give(s) Dharma Buddha enlightenment cause(s) life wealth person dharmas offerings perfection(s) body wisdom true mind upasaka karma cultivate(s) lay blessings suffering offense immeasurable means afflictions practices future result
Frequency12 416 410 40913 335 315 243 217 183 179 177 166 157 156 145 138 138 137 135 134 128 125 123 114 112 109 108 105 102 94 92 87 86 84
Word benefit conditions ordained actions killing difficult virtues retribution unsurpassed giver evil speech meditation endurance wise Treasures parents friends faults Sangha Tathāgata food refuge kindness receiver happiness rewards aspiration Refuges vigor unwholesome
Frequency 83 82 81 80 78 76 71 71 70 70 69 65 65 64 62 60 59 59 58 57 69 52 51 51 50 50 50 50 44 43 43
12
Word counts were done using a utility called “Word Frequency Counter.” Counts were cross-checked with Microsoft Word and were not always an exact match but very close, so I believe these counts are reasonably accurate. Also, Ven. Shih Heng-Ching was very consistent in her translation of the Chinese, which makes a word count analysis of the English quite reliable. 13 Almost always as the form of address, “Good son,…” Page | 49
Appendix 7: Table of S큰tra Correspondences
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Sigālovāda Sutta DN31
Location Rājāgaha, Squirrels’ Feeding Place in the Bamboo Grove Intro to Sigālaka Four defilements of actions taking life taking what is not given sexual misconduct lying speech
Four evil actions desire, hatred, ignorance, fear
Sūtra spoken by the Buddha to Sigālavat on the worship of the six directions T161 Translated between 148-170; 1,893 characters
Sūtra spoken by the Buddha to Sujāta Putra T172
Sujāta Sūtra of the Madhyamāgama MA 1353
Sujāta Sūtra of the Dīrghāgama DA164
Upāsaka-śīla Sūtra T14885
Translated in 301; 2,900 characters
Translated in 397-398; 4,431 characters
Translated in 412-413; 3,155 characters
Location Kukkuṭagiri in Rājagṛha
Location Gṛdhrakūṭa at Rājagṛha
Location Rājagṛha in the Wood of the Frogs’ Feeding Ground
Location Gṛdhrakūṭa at Rājagṛha
Translated/compiled 424-26; approx. 67,500 characters Location Jeta Grove, Śrāvastī
Intro to Sigālavat Four precepts not to kill not to steal not to make love to others’ wives not to tell lies
Intro to Sujāta Fourfold vices in conduct destroying life stealing cheating others and telling lies seeking after others’ wives
Intro to Sujāta Four kinds of vices of conduct/ Four kinds of impurities destroying life taking what is not given licentiousness lying speech
Four evil actions desire, lust, hatred/anger, ignorance
Four evil actions desire, anger, ignorance, fear
Four evil actions desire, hatred, fear, ignorance
Intro to Sujāta Four limits destroying life stealing committing adultery lying
Four evil actions desire, hatred, fear, ignorance
Five things that prevent one from attaining wealth and a long life span (p. 74) killing stealing sexual misconduct lying taking intoxicants Four conditions leading to cheating (p. 76) greed, hatred, stupidity, fear Four evils
1
Pannasiri, B., 1950, ―Sigālovāda Sutta,‖ Visva-Bharati Annals, Vol 3, pp. 165-173. Pannasiri, B., 1950, ―Sigālovāda Sutta,‖ Visva-Bharati Annals, Vol 3, pp. 173-187. 3 Pannasiri, B., 1950, ―Sigālovāda Sutta,‖ Visva-Bharati Annals, Vol 3, pp. 187-203. 4 Pannasiri, B., 1950, ―Sigālovāda Sutta,‖ Visva-Bharati Annals, Vol 3, pp. 203-217. 5 Shih, H.-C., 1994, The Sutra on Upāsaka Precepts, Berkeley, CA, Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. 2
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Six ways of squandering wealth intoxication roaming partying gambling bad friends laziness
Six ways of squandering wealth intoxication gambling laziness partying bad friends vanity
Six ways of squandering wealth intoxication roaming gambling partying bad friends laziness
Six ways of squandering wealth gambling roaming intoxication bad friends partying laziness
Six ways of squandering wealth intoxication gambling dissipation partying bad friends laziness
precept-transgression, doubt, deviant views, stinginess Five things that prevent one from attaining wealth & long life (p. 74) killing stealing sexual misconduct lying taking intoxicants Dangers of [past] killing in present & future lives (p. 74) unpleasant appearance weakness infamy short life decreased wealth separation from dear ones reproach from sages distrust from others blame for misdeeds of others
in future life on falls into hells suffers afflictions, hunger, thirst a long life span in hell bad appearance weakness infamy poverty (if born in Page | 52
Six dangers of intoxication losing wealth fights illness disrepute indecent exposure weakened insight
Six dangers of roaming one’s self is unguarded one’s family is unprotected one’s property is unguarded one is suspected of crimes rumors spread
Six dangers of intoxication losing wealth getting ill fights anger bad reputation losing intelligence
Six dangers of lust no protection wife & children unprotected family unprotected suspicion leading to evil deeds enemies have advantage surrounded by suffering
Six dangers of drinking lose wealth get sick quarrel indecent exposure not praised or protected by others impaired intelligence
Six dangers of roaming one is unprotected wealth is unprotected wife and children unprotected suspected by others many miseries reproached by others
Six dangers of intoxication losing wealth getting ill fights bad reputation anger losing intelligence
Six dangers of dissipation unprotected property unprotected descendants unprotected full of fear entangled in misery inclined to lie
human realm) Dangers of intoxication in present and future lives (p. 75) losing wealth unhealthy in body & mind likes to fight bad reputation reproached by all people avoid him cannot practice well in next life born in hell suffer from hunger & thirst if reborn in human realm body & mind out of harmony not mindful of good dharma all external things degenerate Retributions of bad karma of sexual misconduct (p. 76) cannot protect self & others suspect among all sentient beings whatever he does, he lies about it suffers from afflictions Page | 53
one is subjected to miseries
mind is distracted: cannot practice well & loses wealth not loved by wife & children life span is short
in future lives born in hell bad appearance weak hungry & thirsty for a long time
if reborn in human realm inferior appearance bad speech people will avoid him cannot protect & keep wife or children all external things are not at ease Six dangers of partying looking for… …dancing …singing …music …stories …applause …drumming Six dangers of gambling win and others are resentful
Six dangers of partying looking for… …dancing …singing …music …cymbal …drums always asking where these are Six dangers of gambling winning, others are angry
Six dangers of musical performances fond of… …music …dances …going for enjoyment …hearing cymbals …clapping …huge crowds
Six faults of dancing & music one seeks… …singing …dancing …music …cymbals …drums …shau-ho-na
Six dangers of gambling having lost, one… …gets angry
Six dangers of gambling waste wealth in winning, gain enPage | 54
losing, mourn what is lost lose wealth word mistrusted others are contemptuous not sought after for marriage
losing, one becomes infatuated friends pity and worry enemies are happy many misfortunes mistrusted
…becomes resentful ... loses sleep enemies are happy family and friends worry one’s word is mistrusted
emies despised by wise mistrusted avoided by others get thieving mentality Retributions of bad karma of stealing in present and future lives (p. 74) bad appearance weakness infamy a short life wealth diminishes one is separated from family suspected if someone loses something not trust reproached by sages
in future lives reborn in hell bad appearance weakness infamy hunger & thirst
if reborn in human realm poor loses wealth as soon as it is gained not loved by parents, Page | 55
brothers, or wife body suffers; mind full of sorrow others do not gain strength from what they eat Retributions of bad karma of lying in present and future lives (p. 75) foul mouth bad appearance people do not trust him even if he tells the truth people avoid and dislike him in future lives reborn in hell suffer from hunger, thirst, & heat if reborn in human realm body & mouth will be deformed people do not trust him even if he tells the truth people avoid him even if he speaks proper Dharma, people will not listen all external things decrease Six dangers of bad
Six dangers of evil
Six dangers of evil
Six dangers of evil Page | 56
companions friends will be… …rogues …drunkards …addicts …cheats …swindlers …thugs Six dangers of laziness one does not work due to… …cold …heat …late hour …early hour …hunger …being full
friends get addicted to drink get accustomed to irregularities get used to unrestrained indulgence haunt liquor shops fall in with low people use vulgar speech
Six dangers of idleness not working because… …too full …too hungry …too hot …?6 …too early …too late
friends companions will be… …thieves …swindlers …tipplers …loose characters …one will roam gambling dens …evil friends will become one’s clique Six dangers of idleness not working because… …too early …too late …too cold …too hot …too full …too hungry
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friends becomes a cheat stays in hiding seduces others swindles others is possessive finds fault with others Six dangers of idleness when all is well, not willing to work when poor, not industrious in cold, not industrious in hot, not persevering too late, inattentive
Dangers of laxity (p. 77) One cannot cultivate good dharmas when… …cold …hot …hungry …thirsty …very full …in the morning or afternoon …at times of business, initial action, loss, gain, fear, joy, or theft …grain is expensive …one is sick …one is young …one is weak …one is old …one is wealthy …one is poor …one makes money for a living Five places one should
Occasionally in the translations, there is an omission. These are indicated by “?”. Page | 57
Four enemies disguised as friends taker talker flatterer
Four classes of evil friends all having to do with friends who behave one way in one’s presence and another
Four who appear as friends but are not takes from you flatters you loves you
Four who appear as friends but are not gets close to spy on you speaks well only to your face
Four who appear as friends but are not submissive has charming words never opposes
not roam (p. 76) butcher prostitute bars palace place of an outcast (candala) Eight professions to avoid (p. 76) One should not sell… …living beings …weapons …poisons …alcohol …oil making traps dying silk making leather Activities to avoid (p. 77) six kinds of gambling in games, chess, and so forth entertainment such as singing, dancing, and so forth Activities to undertake (p. 77) first pursue secular studies seek wealth properly Four kinds of people to avoid (p. 77) gamblers those who take intoxicants Page | 58
reckless companion
Four attributes of taker only takes asks for much, gives little performs duty out of fear offers service to gain something Four attributes of talker
in the presence of others
teaches you to do evil
Four kinds of evil friends difficult to advise, follows evil friends goes with those who drink against advice, goes out and gets in trouble against advice, goes with gamblers
Four dangers of friend who loves you outwardly speaks others’ shortcomings secretly finds out others’ past and future undervalues gifts from friend wishes others to have troubles Four dangers of ill-advising friend encourages killing encourages stealing encourages lustful pursuits encourages cheating and deceiving
Four kinds of evil friends provoked by small things no response in urgent situation forsakes one in hour of need runs when others are dying
Four dangers of rapacious friends greedy and extorts gives less and covets much friendly out of selfinterest ?
friend only in word lures one to evil
Four dangers of spying friend wants to extort money gives little and extorts friend out of fear cajoles you in his own interest
Friend in words only makes professions
evil-minded
cheaters those who sell intoxicants Four kinds of bad people (p. 77) those who talk of others’ faults those who express deviant views those who are gentle in speech but vicious in mind those who do little but say much
Four dangers of submissive friend giving then taking back gives less and hopes for more friendliness is false and unreliable is intimate in order to gain Four dangers of foe in likeness of friend Page | 59
reminds one of past generosity promises future generosity empty words of kindness cites own misfortune when asked to help Four attributes of flatterer supports bad conduct dissents from good conduct praises to your face puts down behind your back
about past argues about future lies destroys present opportunities
Four attributes of reckless companion go drinking with you roam at night party gamble Four good friends helper friend in good and bad times mentor compassionate friend
Four kinds of good friends outwardly inimical & inwardly friendly admonishes you but speaks well of you to others concerned about your illness or difficulty with king’s officials seeing your poverty, looks for ways to
Four dangers of Four dangers of flatterer charmer reveals others’ secrets makes up mysterious affairs hides his own secrets lead you to viciouspraises to one’s face ness speaks ill behind praise to one’s face one’s back speaks ill behind one’s back Four dangers of evil-alluring friend lead you to gamble lead you to prowl at night tutor you in bad ways persuade you to have evil friends Four kinds of Four types of benevolent & wise good friends friends same in happiness and adversity same in happiness and adversity sympathizer shares benefits with helper others benefactor helper sympathizer
lied in the past will lie in future lies in present pretends to be punished for slightest mistake Four dangers of charmer always agrees abandoning & aloof in danger intercepts happiness flees in danger
Four dangers of evil-minded friend friend only when… …drinking …gambling …at performances …?
Four types of affable friends stops others from evil sympathizes beneficial cooperative
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Four attributes of helper protects you when you are vulnerable protects your wealth is a refuge when you are afraid provides double what is requested
Four attributes of enduring friend tells you secrets guards your secrets does not abandon you in misfortune dies for you
make you rich Four kinds of good friends seeing your poverty, looks for work for you keeps you from arguing with others daily enquires about friends always thinks of others with concern Four kinds of good friends conceals his friend after his arrest and settles the matter cares for him in sickness takes care of funeral takes care of deceased’s family Four kinds of good friends stops you from quarrelling helps you avoid evil company induces you to work encourages faith in Dharma
Four attributes of friend who stops one from evil restrains one from evil leads one to justice full of mercy, loving and sympathetic mind shows way to heaven
Four qualities of helpmate friend acts in interest of friend gives strength to friend restrains friend when he is relaxed gives friend nourishment
Four qualities of friend in happiness and adversity giving his precious things to friend giving friend same facilities he gives to
Four attributes of helper reveals his secrets hides one’s secrets happy at one’s gains not jealous
Four attributes of friend in happiness and adversity sacrifices himself for friend sacrifices wealth for friend Page | 61
Four attributes of mentor restrains you from wrongdoing guides you to good actions tells you what you ought to know shows path to heaven
Four attributes of compassionate friend does not rejoice at one’s misfortune delights in one’s good fortune prevents others speaking ill of one shows path to heaven Dividing wealth one part should be enjoyed two parts invested in business fourth part set aside against future misfortunes
wife & children giving friend what his family owns speaking sincerely and genuinely Four qualities of friend who shares benefits keeps friend’s secrets does not hide his own secrets commends friend in his presence restrains others who speak ill of him Four qualities of friend who sympathizes encourages faith teaches śīla teaches learning teaches dāna
sacrifices wife and children for friend patiently bears whatever is said
Four attributes of benefactor knows when one is poor supplies with wealth advises one when one is slack feels sympathy
Four attributes of sympathizer teaches Good Law restrains from evil admonishes to one’s face Checks one’s enemies
Six divisions of wealth food agriculture & business reserve interest on money borrowed marriage building a house
Four attributes of benefactor protects one by… …not allowing indulgences …indulging in something that causes one to lose wealth …by making him fearless gives good advice & instruction Four attributes of sympathizer happy at friend’s benefits unhappy in his adversity praises friend’s merits ? Four divisions of wealth (p. 77) one part offered to parents, oneself, wife, relatives two parts invested one part saved Where not to entrust wealth (p. 77) Page | 62
[Worshiping the directions: East=parents South=teachers West=wife & children North=friends & companions/colleagues Nadir=servants, workers & helpers Zenith=ascetics & Brahmins] Child support them do duty to them maintain lineage & tradition be worthy of inher-
[Worshiping the directions: East=parents South=teacher West=husband North=relations & friends Earth=servants & working folk Heaven= Śramaṇas & Brāhmaṇas]
[Worshiping the directions: East=parents South=teacher West=wife North=friends Nadir=servants & working folk Zenith= Śramaṇas & Brāhmaṇa-recluses]
Children think of earning a living rise early & order servants to prepare food
Child fulfill family obligations pay off family debts understand rules of conduct
[Worshiping the directions: East = parents South=teachers West=wife North=servants & employees Nadir=friends & friendly officers of the state Zenith= Śramaṇas & Brāhmaṇas] Son increase wealth & property manage everything offer what they wish do not offend them
[Worshiping the directions: East: parents South: teacher West: wife North: kith & kin Nadir: servants & employees Zenith: Śramaṇas & Brāhmaṇanarecluses] Son offers all the requirements seeks parents’ consent in everything obedient
places of old people distant places places of bad people places of powerful people The six directions (p. 5) East: perfection of giving South: perfection of morality West: perfection of endurance North: perfection of vigor Lower: perfection of meditation Upper: perfection of wisdom [Worshiping the directions: East: parents South: teachers West: wife North: beneficial friends Lower: servants Upper: Śramaṇas & Brahmans] Son offers clothing, food, bedding, medicine, lodging & valuables pays reverence to them Page | 63
not add to parents’ worries remember obligations to them seek doctors for them when they are ill Parents train away from vice and toward virtue train to count and write instruct to observe śīla contract marriage give him family property Disciple Disciple rise for teachers respect attend lessons remember his obligations desire to learn follow what he has serve them been taught receive instruction have regard for Teachers teacher and never be train in self-discipline discourteous ensure teachings praise him in his abwell-grasped sence instruct in every Teacher branch of knowledge make disciple… introduce friends & …acquire knowledge colleagues quickly provide safeguards …surpass others’ disciples …retain what is taught itance make donations on behalf of dead ancestors Parents restrain from wrongdoing guide toward good actions train in a profession choose suitable spouse hand over inheritance
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support parents make them happy Parent train child in profession give sufficient provision contract marriage instruct him to learn scriptures give over family possessions
Disciple love studies ? be prompt in work be faultless offer support Teacher teaching him what teacher has learned teaching him as well as possible making him learned quickly guide him in noble path introduce to good friends
offer his personal possessions Parents have loving thoughts give supplies manage affairs so as to avoid debts contract a marriage plan to hand over property
Disciples regard & respect do good service rise to salute work diligently be proficient in service Teacher instruct in every art teach quickly train thoroughly provide safety introduce to their good friends
does not transgress their orders doesn’t discontinue religious practices Parents do not allow child to do any vice instruct child & point out noble path are merciful & loving seek a suitable marriage7 provide necessities of life
praises them Parents sincerely love children never deceive children give them wealth arrange marriages to those of good family teach children worldly affairs
Disciple wait on & attend needs make salutations & give offerings pay homage & due respects obey & follow instructions without contradiction hold fast to teachings Teacher train according to doctrine teach what has not been learnt make him understand meaning of what he wants to
Disciple offers clothes, food, bedding, medicine, lodging, & valuables pays reverence to them & praises them gets up early & stays up late to receive & practice the wholesome teaching Teachers teach without wasting time teach without withholding are not jealous when student excels refers student to strict teachers & ben-
A particularly lovely turn of phrase accompanies this: ―as if [love] has entered their bones and even has permeated deep into their marrow.‖ (DN16, 22a) Page | 64
explain his doubts & difficulties hope disciple’s knowledge exceeds his own
Spouses honor her do not disrespect her be faithful share authority give gifts Reciprocate be well-organized kind to in-laws & household workers be faithful look after household goods be skill and diligent in duties
Wife rise in salutation to husband Cook, sweep and wait for him not lust after other men or resist scolding follow his instructions and not hide her possessions prepare his bed and go to bed after him Husband arriving home, greet her give her with food, clothing give her jewelry entrust family wealth to her not keep unlawful wives
Husband show respect not dislike her sentiments be faithful supply cloth and food provide with adornments Wife performs duties well helps husband accomplish his aims careful in giving & receiving rises early goes to be later learns household affairs waits for her husband greets husband upon his return amicable & gentle manners soft words keeps tables & seats in order
Husband be compassionate do not be discourteous give jewelry give charge of household consider her as dearest of all Wife has extreme love & respect is best support has best thoughts performs duties well treats relations well attends to elders affectionate to young speaks genuinely & sincerely does not check him at gate greets him well prepares bed prepares good food & drink supports to Śramaṇas & Brāhmaṇas
know introduce to good friends teach what teacher knows with reservation
eficial friends gives student his possessions before he dies
Husband treats wife courteously maintains her dignity & does not slight her supplies food & clothing provides adornments gives her authority in household affairs Wife rises earlier than husband rests later uses gentle speech is obedient understands her husband’s mind
Husband provide her with garments, food, bedding, medicine & adornments Wife in whatever she does, she does her best is constantly at work & never lazy completes whatever she does does things promptly often entertains guests cleans house & bedding is loving and speaks gently instructs servants gently keep property well rises early & goes to bed late cooks well is patient in receiving teaching covers up husband’s faults Page | 65
One is generous has kind words acts for their welfare is impartial is honest Friends & Colleagues protect when one is vulnerable protect one’s wealth be a refuge when one is afraid does not abandon one in misfortune honors one’s descendants
Master allocate work according to aptitude provide wages & food care for sick share treats give reasonable time off Servants & Workers
Family and friends seeing them commit crimes, advise them help them when in need not tell others their secrets help in difficulties share his good things
Master give them food and clothes call doctors when they are ill not beat without cause not take belongings by force
serves clean food & drink thinks of giving alms courteous Person to friends genuinely respects not disliking sentiments not insincere shares happiness & adversity keeps permanent friendship Friends to person take over approaching dangers admonishes when relaxed conceals his private affairs helps him to benefits & profits sincere & benevolent words
Friend is courteous toward friends & friendly officers of the state does not disregard them does not dupe them offers them precious things has constant good thoughts for them Friends & Officers of State realize when friend’s wealth is exhausted support him by supplying wealth admonish him when he is slack have affectionate feelings toward him are a refuge in time of danger Master Master assigns them appro assigns work to servpriate work ants & employees according to strength gives food and clothes feeds them shares delicacies gives them drinks encourages observance of fasting gives them holidays days provides medical aid gives rest when sick Servants & employees
takes care of husband when he is sick
Friend be generous have good words be benevolent have feelings of common interest do not dupe kith & kin Kith and Kin Protect friend when he is off guard protect friend’s property protect friend from fear and danger give advice privately and admonish friend constantly speak praise of friend
Friend does his best to provide things for them respects them speaks gently to them praises them Beneficial friends teaches him to cultivate good dharmas causes him to avoid bad ones helps one when he is in fear strengthens him against laxity when he is lax
Master assign work according to capacity of servants and employees feed them ??? give medicine when they are sick
Master provides clothes, food, and medicine does not beat or scold them Servants does not make mistakes does work without
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start early finish late take only what is given do work well promote a good reputation
give equally to all Servants rise early attend to duties with care do not give master’s belonging to beggar give good wishes when he goes out and welcome him when he comes in praise his good qualities and not speak ill of him
Disciple kindly… …actions …speech …thoughts have an open door provide material needs Ascetics and Brahmins restrain from wrongdoing guide to good actions think compassionately tell what one should know clarify what one knows
Laypeople think well of them speak good words to them pay respects to them admire them Śramaṇas and Brāhmaṇas instruct them… …to be charitable …observe precepts and avoid lust …be patient and not hate …persevere and not be lazy …concentrate and not allow mind to stray …develop wisdom and
Servants do work well do work to best of ability careful in giving & receiving goes to sleep later starts work on time learns household affairs diligent & industrious stay with master through thick and thin not leave when master is away praise master when they are out Householder keep doors open welcome, greet, pay homage arrange seats keep & preserve scriptures & sacred objects serve pure food Śramaṇas & Brāhmaṇas encourage faith instruct to have learning ? instruct to do dāna instruct to improve wisdom
do work at proper time do work with best attention do all work assigned attend to master when he is present have loving attitude towards him when he is absent do not leave him at urgent hour offer good wishes when he is going out praise him [to others?]
Benefactor does not check Śramaṇas & Brāhmaṇas at the gate pays tribute to them when he sees them coming prepares and offers seats to them offers pure & nice food gives them required protection according to Dharma Śramaṇas & Brāhmaṇas give instructions in faith, make benefactor practice faith &
allow them holidays Servants & Employees rise early work carefully do not take things unless given do work in proper order praise the master
Benefactor practice merciful affection towards Śramaṇas & Brāhmaṇa-recluses… …with the body …with words …with mind make offerings do not check them at the gate Śramaṇas & Brāhmaṇa-recluses restrain benefactor from vice show the good way teach benefactor to foster a good heart teach what has not yet been learned
being told completes whatever he does works promptly without wasting time never leaves master even when master is poor rises early preserves property repays much for small favors is sincerely respectful covers up master’s errors
Layperson offers clothes, food, housing, bedding, medicine relieves them of fear offers food during famine covers up unwholesome actions he hears of pays respect to & praises them Śramaṇas & Brahmans teaches him to bring forth faith teaching him to bring forth wisdom teaches him to pracPage | 67
show the path to heaven
Takes refuge in Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha
not be ignorant
Takes Five Precepts
Takes refuge and precepts
have thoughts of faith instruct him to observe precepts instruct him to have wider learning instruct him in liberality instruct him to acquire & uphold wisdom & act wisely Sujāta ―glad at heart and practices accordingly‖ Four Dharmas (catussangraha vastu) liberality affability beneficial conduct equality
make benefactor ? what has been learned
Takes Three Refuges and Five Precepts
tice giving teaches him to keep precepts teaches him to listen more to the Dharma
Sujāta arouses aspiration for unsurpassed, complete enlightenment Four all-embracing virtues [not enumerated in text but typically… Dānam (giving) Priyavacanam (speaking kindly) Arthacaryā (purposeful activity) Samānārthatā (mutuality of purpose)]
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Appendix 8: Texts of Related S큰tras from the Chinese Canon
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SHAN SHENG KING Sutra Spoken by the Buddha to Sujātaputra Sujāta Sūtra of the Madhyamāgama (135th Sūtra of the Madhyamāgama—translated by Gautama Saṅghadeva in 397-398 A.D.) 1. Thus have I heard. Once Buddha was sojourning at Rāhagṛha in the Wood of the Frogs‖ Feeding Ground. At that time, a Householder‖s son, the father of Sujāta, was a-dying. So he gave his death-bed instructions to the son regarding the six directions, in these good, instructive noble sayings. He said: Sujāta, when I am no more, with clasped hands you should worship the six directions saying:--If there are any beings in the eastern direction, with full reverence and regard, I pay my worship to them. As I have, already, with full reverence and regard, paid my worship to them, they should also reverence, regard and pay their worship to me. Thus the directions of the west, the north, the nadir and the zenith [you should worship saying]: If there are any beings [in the southern direction, etc.]…worship to me. Sujāta, the householder‖s son, listened to his father‖s instructions. Since what the wise father said should humbly be obeyed, Sujāta the householder‖s son, after his father‖s death, acted accordingly. He bathed early morning, wore fresh garments of kṣauma cloth and with Kuśa (Kiu-sha) grass in hand, came to the side of the water, and with his clasped hands, worshipped the six directions saying thus: If there are any beings in the eastern direction, with full reverence and regard I pay my worship to them. As I, already, with full reverence and regard, have paid my worship to them, they also should reverence, regard, pay their worship to me. Thus the directions of the south, the west, the north, the nadir and the zenith (he worshipped and spoke the same words]. 2. At that time, as the night was over and as the dawn had come, the Exalted One put on his robes, took the bowl and entered the city of Rājagṛha, seeking alms. And as the Exalted One entered the city of Rājagṛha seeking alms, he saw Sujāta, the householder‖s son, who bathed early morning, put on fresh garments of kṣauma, and with green kuśa grass in hand, was worshipping the six directions at the bank of the water with his clasped hands, saying thus: If there are any beings in the eastern direction…worship to me. The Exalted One having seen Sujāta, the householder‖s son, went up to him and asked thus: Householder‖s Son, is it any recluse of Brahmaṇa that instructed you to do in this way, taught you to respect, make offerings and worship with such full devotion, that you should rise early morning, wear fresh garments of kṣauma clothes, and kuśa grass in hand, come to the side of the water and with your clasped hands, worship the six directions, saying thus: If there are any beings in the eastern direction, with full reverence and regard, I pay my worship to them. As I, already, with full reverence and regard, have paid my worship to them, they also should reverence, regard, and pay their worship to me? Sujāta, the householder‖s son, replied: Exalted One, I did not get instructions from any recluse of Brāhmaṇa. Exalted One, when my father was a-dying, he gave me these death-bed instructions as regards the six directions in these good, instructive noble sayings. [He said]: Sujāta, after I am no more, with clasped hands, you should worship…to me.
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Exalted One, I accepted my father‖s death-bed instructions and respect, make offerings and worship [the six directions]. Therefore early morning I bathe and wear fresh clothes of kṣauma clothes and with kuśa grass in, come to the side of the water and with my clasped hands worship the six directions, saying thus: If there are any beings in the eastern direction…worship to me. 3. The Exalted One, having heard him, said: Householder‖s Son, I say there are six directions. I do not deny. Householder‖s son, if men have discerned what the six directions are, and they stand far from the four-sided evils, which are not desirable and abhorrent, they will be highly honoured and appreciated in this present life. And at the dissolution of the body, after death, they are reborn in a happy destiny in heaven. 3a. Householder‖s son, men have four kinds of vices of conduct, which are the four kinds of impurities. Which are the four? Householder‖s Son, (1) destroying life is a kind of impure action that men do, (2) the taking of [what is] not given, (3) licentiousness, (4) and lying speech. [These] are the four kinds of impure actions that men do. Hence, the Exalted One uttered them in gāthās: i. Slaughter of life and taking what is not given, licentiousness by defiling others‖ wives, and giving out falsehood in speech— [to these] no word of praise the wise award. 4. Householder‖s son, men get more sins on account of these four motives. Which are the four? (1) Desire, (2) hatred, (3) fear and (4) ignorance. So the Exalted One uttered these in gāthās: ii. Desire, hatred, fear and ignorance, practicing evil and following the Adharma by these will [one‖s] name and fame be diminished like the moon on her wane. 4a. Householder‖s son, men gain more assets on account of these four causes. Which are the four? Householder‖s Son, not having desire, not having hatred, not having fear and not having ignorance [are the four causes]. Hence the Exalted One uttered these in a gāthā: iii. Cutting off desire, having neither hatred nor fear, being without ignorance; and following religious practices— by these, one‖s name and fame will be universally known as the moon gradually becomes full in her waxing. 5. Householder‖s son, one who is seeking wealth should know that there are six misleading ways (lit. amārga). Which are the six? (1) Being infatuated with gambling is a misleading way for one who is seeking wealth, (2) prowling around at unseemly hours is a misleading…wealth, (3) being addicted to intoxicating liquors is a misleading way…wealth, (4) being intimate with evil companions is a misleading way…wealth, (5) being always fond of music and dancing is a misleading way…wealth, and (6) the habit of idleness is a misleading way for one who is seeking wealth. 6. Householder‖s son, if one is infatuated by gambling he will have, you should know, six evil consequences. Which are the six? (1) If one is defeated, then one begets anger, (2) if one is defeated, one cannot get peaceful sleep, [(3) ?], (4) one‖s enemies will be delighted, (5) one will make the kith and kin worried, and (6) one‖s word will not be trusted by the public.
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The gambler does not venture to do any money-making enterprise; nor draws up plans for it. Hence he cannot achieve success. Whatever wealth has not been acquired cannot be acquired; whatever wealth he originally had will dwindle away and he will be ruined. 7. Householder‖s son, prowling around at unseemly hours, you should know, has six evil consequences. Which are the six? (1) One‖s own self is unprotected, (2) his wealth is unprotected, (3) his wife and children are unprotected, (4) he is suspected by others, (5) many are the miseries involved, and (6) he is reproached by people. Householder‖s son, the one who is prowling around at unseemly hours does not venture to do any business enterprise, nor does draw plans for it. Hence he cannot achieve success. Whatever wealth has not been acquired cannot be acquired, whatever wealth he originally owned will dwindle away and he will be ruined. 8. Householder‖s son, if a man is addicted to intoxicating liquor, you should know, he will have six evil consequences. Which are the six? (1) Actual loss of wealth, (2) getting sickness and miseries thereby, (3) increase of quarrels, (4) indecent exposure, (5) never getting a word of tribute nor protection, and (6) getting impaired in intelligence and becoming an imbecile. Householder‖s son, man who is addicted to drinks does not venture…be ruined. 9. Householder‖s son, if a man associates with evil friends, you should know, there will be six evil consequences. Which are the six? (1) Any thief will be his companion,(2) any swindler will be his companion, (3) any tippler…companion, (4) any one of loose character…companion, (5) he will be haunting gambling dens, one after another, and (6) he will be taking these people as his intimates, and he will have them for his own clique. If a man gets intimate with evil friends he will not undertake to do any business enterprise…be ruined. 10. Householder‖s son, if a man is too fond of musical performances, you should know, there are six evil consequences. Which are the six? (1) Being fond of hearing music, (2) being fond of seeing dances, (3) being fond of going for enjoyment, (4) being fond of hearing timing with cymbals, (5) being fond of clapping the two hands [in timing], (6) being fond of huge crowds and gatherings. Householder‖s son, if a man is fond of musical performances, he will…be ruined. 11. Householder‖s son, if one has the habit of idleness, you should know, there are six evil consequences. Which are the six? (1) Refusal to work because it is too early, (2) refusal…too late, (3) refusal…too cold, (4) refusal…too hot, (5) refusal…too full, and (6) refusal to work because one is too hungry. Householder‖s son, if one has the habit of idleness such person does not venture to do any business enterprise, nor does he draw up plans for it. Hence he cannot achieve success. Whatever wealth has not been acquired cannot be acquired; whatever wealth he originally owned will dwindle away and he will be ruined. Hence the Exalted One uttered these gāthās:-iv. Being infatuated with gambling and passing from one place to another, being addicted to drinks and fond of musical performances, desiring for intimacy with evil friends. being given to idleness and not doing any work. v. Self-indulgence, wherewith one‖s own self is insecure— these are the appendages of the corrupt men. Prowling around with no self-protection, committing adultery and violating others‖ wives. Page | 72
vi.
Harbouring hatred for ever in the mind, seeking and wishing what is unbeneficial, drinking hard and designing to have wenches— these are the appendages of the corrupt men. vii. Again, very inactive in work very stubborn and never yielding to advice, abusing the Śramaṇas and the Brāhmaṇas, having wrong views—just the other way, resorting to violence and practicing evil deeds— these are the ways of the wicked men. viii. When one is in need then, one has no wealth; lost in drinks that give way to indecent exposure, his debts will rise like springs of water— by these he will insult his family. ix. Often he will haunt the bar, and will associate with evil friends; when money is wanted he would never get any; then banded together with his gang and deriving pleasure, having a legions of foul-minded companions, hand in hand with whom, he whiles away the whole day. x. The present life and the one to come, both will go to wreck and ruin; man‖s vicious habits will turn him to naught, [whilst] the noble practices lead him to exaltation. xi. Repeat your noble habits which will lead [you] to the better; therefore you should practice the most excellent; when ascending, good habits will make [you] peaceful. Always follow the wise in order to rise. xii. Turning away from observing the pure śīla, and with extreme subtlety showing desire to sleep by day and prowl by night for indulging always in drinking liquor, and leaving home, disinclined to stay there. xiii. ―Too cold‖ and ―too hot‖— this is what he, the idler, says. Finally he cannot succeed in anything. Even if it be cold or hot, like grass be heedless to the same. If men carry on their work, they will never be wanting in happiness. 12. Householder‖s son, there are four types of friends who are not [actually] friends but have the likeness of friends. Which are the four? (1) One who is intimate with you for espying your affairs, is a foe in the likeness of a friend; (2) one who speaks charming words to your face only is a foe in the likeness of a friend; (3) one who is a friend only in word is a foe in the likeness of a friend; and (4) an evil-alluring companion is a foe in the likeness of a friend. Page | 73
13. Householder‖s son, on account of four grounds, one who is [intimate with you] for espying your affairs is a foe in the likeness of a friend. Which are the four? (1) One who espies your affairs in order to extort money from you, (2) one who gives you little and extorts more from you, (3) one who becomes friend out of fear, and (4) one who is cajoling you for his own interests. Hence the Exalted One uttered these gāthās:-xiv. One who wants to easy your affairs and whose words are very soft and sweet, one who out of fear and self-interest be-friends— from such you should always keep afar, like a road full of horrors. 14. Householder‖s son, on four grounds, one who speaks charming words to your face is a foe in the likeness of a friend. Which are the four? (1) He will set his wits to work and make up mysterious affairs, (2) he will lead you to viciousness, (3) he will praise you to your face, and (4) he will speak ill of you behind you. Hence the Exalted One uttered these in gāthās:-xv. If one fabricates something and shows it as the Good Law and teaches [you] to do evil—not the good, and goes on praising you to your face, and behind you speaks ill of you. xvi. If you know such strange and wicked one, and already fell his double tongued speech, and feel that he is a friend but not in reality, then, know that they are like such, as you should always keep away from, like [avoiding] a road full of horrors. 15. Householder‖s son, on four grounds, the friend of charming words is a foe in the likeness of a friend. Which are the four? (1) He makes professional as regards the past, (2) he will argue opinions as regards the future, (3) he will speak falsehood, things that are not real, and (4) the present opportunities he will destroy and will say: ―Although I should do this, yet I refrain from doing it because I know well [what it is]‖. Hence the Exalted One uttered these in gāthās:-xvii. One professing the past and future, bringing forth arguments to undo the present, and saying—―Though I should do, yet I do not do,‖ such a one ye reckon as a foe in the likeness of a friend. You should always keep afar from him, like [avoiding] a road full of horrors. 16. Householder‖s son, on four grounds, the evil-alluring companion is a foe in the likeness of a friend. Which are the four? (2) He will lead you to habitual gambling, (2) he will lead you to prowl around at unseemly hours, (3) he will tutor you to go to the bard, and (4) he will persuade you to have evil fellows for you companions. Hence the Exalted One uttered these in a gāthā:-xviii. One teaching you various types of gambling, and taking you to drinking and violating morals of others‖ wives, practicing lower habits, ignoring the superior ones Page | 74
from such a one you should always keep a way, just like [avoiding] a road full of horrors. 17. Good friends, O householder‖s son, should be reckoned as of four types. Which are the four? (1) The friend who is the same in happiness and adversity should be reckoned as a good friend, (2) the sympathizer should be reckoned as a good friend, (3) the helper should be reckoned as a good friend, and (4) the benefactor should be reckoned as a good friend. 18. Householder‖s son, on four grounds, the friend who is the same in happiness and adversity should be reckoned as a good friend. Which are the four? (1) Sacrificing himself for the sake of a friend, (2) sacrificing his wealth for the sake of a friend, (3) sacrificing his wife and children for the sake of his friend, and (4) patiently bearing whatever is said. Hence the Exalted One uttered these in a gāthā:-xix. One sacrificing such gratifying things as wealth, wife and children, bearing the brunt of what is said— reckon such a one as the friend who is the same in happiness and adversity; the wise should associate with him. 19. Householder‖s son, on four grounds the sympathizer should be reckoned as a good friend. Which are the four? (1) He teaches you the Good Law, (2) he restrains you from evil, (3) he admonishes you to the face, and (4) he is checking your enemies. Hence the Exalted One uttered these in a gāthā:-xx. One who is teaching you the Good Law and is restraining you from evil, admonishing to your face and checking your enemies, reckon him as good friend—the sympathizer. The wise should associate with him. 20. Householder‖s son, on four grounds, the helper should be reckoned as a good friend. Which are the four? (1) He is revealing all his secret matters to you, (2) he will hide your secrets form others, (3) he will be delighted to see you getting any benefits, (4) he will not be worried for not getting those benefits [for himself]. Hence the Exalted One uttered these in a gāthā:-xxi. One opening his secrets to you and hiding yours from others, delighting to see your benefits and grumbling not for not getting them for himself— reckon him as a good friend, the helper (?). The wise should associate with him. 21. Householder‖s son, on four grounds the benefactor should be reckoned as a good friend. Which are the four? (1) He understands that your wealth is exhausted, (2) knowing that your wealth is already exhausted, he supplies you with it, (3) when he sees you slack he would advise you, and (4) always he harbours sympathetic feelings for you. Hence the Exalted One uttered these in a gāthā:-xxii. Knowing your wealth is all over, he gives you wealth, when slackened, he would advise you and harbor sympathy— reckon such man as a good friend—the benefactor. The wise should associate with him. 21a. Householder‖s son, there are six directions in the Vinaya of the Aryan Doctrine, [to wit]: the east, the south, the west, the north, and nadir and the zenith. 22. Householder‖s son, the eastern direction is to be regarded as the son‖s ministering to the parents. The son should in five ways respect and serve the parents. Which are the five? Page | 75
(1) Increasing the wealth and the property, (2) managing everything for them, (3) offering whatever they wish, (4) not offending them consciously and, (5) offering whatever personal possessions he has for their benefit. The son in these five ways respects and supports the parents. 22a. And the parents also in five ways bear good will towards their child. Which are the five? (1) Having loving thoughts towards the child, (2) giving him supplies so that he may not be in wants, (3) managing affairs in such way that the son may not get into debts, (4) contracting a marriage for him and satisfying him, and (5) having such thoughts as to hand over whatever property they own. The parents in these five ways cherish good thoughts towards their son. 6. Householder‖s son, such is the two fold view in worshipping the eastern direction. Householder‖s son, in the Vinaya of the Aryan religion eastern direction means the son‖s regard towards he parents. Householder‖s son, if sons have loving kindness and filial piety towards the parents, then prosperity is certainly to be had and not decay. 23. Householder‖s son, the southern direction is to be reckoned as the disciples‖ regard towards the teachers. The disciples should in five ways respect and minister to the teachers. Which are the five? (1) Having high regard and respect, (2) doing good service to them, (3) quickly rising [from the seats] in salutation, (4) doing their work very diligently, and (5) having proficiency in doing service to them. These are the five ways of the disciple‖s paying respect and doing service to the teachers. 23a. And the teachers also in five ways have benevolent thoughts for the pupil. Which are the five? (1) They instruct him in the lore of every art, (2) they teach him quickly, (3) they train him thoroughly in which they have knowledge, (4) they provide for his safety in every place [choosing] best quarters for his stay, and (5) they introduce him to their good friends. In these five ways, the teachers think well of their pupil. Householder‖s son, such is the twofold view in worshipping the southern direction. Householder‖s son, in the Vinaya of the Aryan religion, southern direction means the pupils‖ regard towards the teachers. If they increase loving kindness, obedience to their teacher, then prosperity is certainly to be had and…not decay. 24. Householder‖s son, the western direction is to be reckoned as the husband‖s regard towards his wife. A husband should in five ways love, respect and support his wife. Which are the five? (1) Having compassionate feelings, (2) not being discourteous, (3) supplying her with jewellery and adornments, (4) giving charge of all what is in the household, and (5) considering her as the dearest of all. A husband loves, respects and supports his wife in these five ways. 24a. And the wife should in thirteen ways have great respect and be agreeable to the husband. Which are the thirteen? (1) Having extreme love and respect, (2) being the best support, (3) having best thoughts for him, (4) performing her duties in the very best way, (5) treating the relations very well, (6) attending to the elders, (7) showing affection to the youngsters, (8) speaking genuine and sincere words, (9) not checking him at the gate, (10) greeting him in complimentary terms when he is seen coming, (11) preparing the bed and waiting for him, (12) preparing pure, nice and nourishing food and drinks, and (13) supporting the Śramaṇas and Brāhmaṇas. In these thirteen ways a wife pays high regard and respect to the husband. Householder‖s son, such is the twofold view in [worshipping] the western direction. Householder‖s son, in the Vinaya of the Aryan religion, western direction means the husband and the wife. Householder‖s son, if men practice loving kindness to the wife then prosperity is certainly to be had and not decay.
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25. Householder‖s son the northern direction is to be regarded as [a term for the mutual relation between] a master and servants or employees. A master should in five ways sympathise and support his servants and employees. Which are the five? (1) Assigning them work according to their strength, (2) giving them food at proper times, (3) giving them drinks at proper times, (4) allowing them holidays, (5) giving them medical aid whenever they are sick. A master should in these five ways sympathise and support the servants and employees. 25a. And the servants should in nine ways serve the master very well. Which are the nine? (1) Doing their work at the proper time., (2) doing their work with best attention, (3) doing all the work assigned to them, (4) attending upon [the master] when he is present, (5) having a loving attitude towards him when he is absent, (6) being faithful, (7) nor leaving him at the urgent hour, (8) offering good wishes when he is outward bound, and (9) praising the master to fame (?). Servants and employees in these nine ways serve the master very well. Householder‖s son, such is the twofold view in [worshipping] the northern direction. In the Vinaya of the Aryan religion northern direction means the masters and the servants or employees. Householder‖s son, if men have sympathetic consideration towards servants and employees then prosperity is certainly to be had and not decay. 26. Householder‖s son, the nadir is to be reckone3d as friends and friendly Officers of the State. A friend should in five ways have kind regard and do service to the friendly Officers of the State. Which are the five? (1) Being courteous, (2) not disregarding, (3) not duping, (4) offering them precious things, and (5) having constant good thoughts for the friendly Officers of the State. The friends should in these five ways have loving regard and do service to the friendly Officers of the State. 26a. And the friendly Officers of the State also should, in these five ways, have benevolent thoughts for such friends. Which are the five? (1) Realizing that his wealth is exhausted, (2) after realizing that his wealth is exhausted, support him by supplying with wealth, (3) finding him slack admonish him, (4) having affectionate feelings, and (5) becoming a refuge in danger. Friendly Officers of the State in these five ways think well of their intimate friends. Householder‖s son, such is the twofold view in [worshipping] the nadir. Householder‖s on, in the Vinaya of the Aryan religion the nadir means intimate friends and Friendly Officers of the State. Householder‖s son, if men have loving kindness towards friendly Officers of the State, then prosperity is certainly to be had and not decay. 27. Householder‖s son, the zenith is to be reckoned as a term for the relations between a dāyaka or benefactor (lit. dānapati) and the Śramaṇas and Brāhmaṇas. Which are the five? (1) Not checking them at the gate, (2) paying tribute to them when seeing them coming, (3) preparing seats and offering to them, (4) offering pure and nice food (both hard and soft), and (5) giving them the required protection according to the Dharma. In these five ways the dāyaka reveres and makes offerings to the Śramaṇas and Brāhmaṇas. 27a. And the Śramaṇas and Brāhmaṇas, also in five ways, think well of the dāyakas. Which are the five? (1) Giving instructions in faith (Śraddhā), , making them practice faith, and making them have thoughts of faith, (2) instructing them to observe precepts, (3) instructing them to have wider learning, (4) instructing them in liberality, and (5) instructing them to [acquire] wisdom, to act wisely and to uphold wisdom. Śramaṇas and Brāhmaṇas in these five ways think well of the dāyaka. Householder‖s son, such is the twofold view in [worshipping] the zenith. Householder‖s son, in the Vinaya of the Aryan religion the zenith means the dāyaka and the Śramaṇas [and
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Brāhmaṇas. Householder‖s son, if men have…towards Śramaṇas and Brāhmaṇas], then prosperity is certainly to be had and not decay. 28. Householder‖s son, there are four Dharmas (Catussangraha vastu—grounds of popularity). Which are the four? Largeness or liberality, affability, beneficial conduct and equality. Then the Exalted One uttered these in gāthās:-xxiii. If one has the qualities of liberality and affability and always be of beneficial conduct, and practice equality towards all beings, one‖s fame will spread far and wide. xxiv. These [Dharmas] regulate the world, as a driver who controls a chariot. If the world be without such a controlling factor, [then] the mother, from her son, will get no offering or reverence. And the father, too, in respect to his son, will fare no better. xxv. If there is such a controlling Dharma, then men would receive great blessings. They would be reflecting light afar as the sun‖s glow, due to the wisdom of quick and penetrating nature and not the intelligence commonly spoken of; such men would obtain a name and fame. xxvi. One must attain an incomparable height by the wisdom of quick and penetrating nature and succeed in having faith in Śīla (she-la) in this way one would get a name and fame. xxvii. One should be active in rising—never be lazy, and be pleased to entertain others with food and drinks, and should proceed to train others in the right way— such a person gets a good name and fame. xxviii. Relations, friends and Officers of the State are regarded with equality; have pleasures with them up to a limit. This means to have a prestige amidst one‖s friends; [thus] he will be dominating [over them] just like a lion. xxix. One should first learn some art, then should proceed in seeking wealth. When once wealth has been acquired, it should be divided into four parts. xxx. One portion he should spend on food, one portion on agriculture and business, one portion should be kept in stock as reserve which will meet any dire necessity. For monies borrowed from merchants for agriculture interest may be paid from the [other] portion; fifth he may spend on the marriage function, and sixth be spent in erecting a dwelling-house. xxxi. If a houseman adapts himself to these six ways Page | 78
will he not augment and quickly attain happiness? Certainly, he will abound in wealth and prosperity, as the ocean embodies all the waters of the streams. xxxii. He who thus amasses wealth, like a bee gathering honey from the flowers, acquiring wealth and property at all times, should himself reap and carry the highest pleasure. xxxiii. Whoever fain worships all these directions in the twofold ways, he gets great honour and distinction, and having worshipped all these directions, the dāyaka is born in the heaven! 29. The Buddha spoke thus. Sujāta, the Householder‖s son, listened to what was spoken by the Buddha. He was glad at heart and practiced according. Shou Sheng King or the Sujāta Sūtra the 19th. This is a transcription of the text as it appears in Pannasiri, B. “Sigālovāda-Sutta,” Visva-Bharati Annals 3, 1950, pp. 150-228; trans. 173 ff.
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SHAN SHENG TSEU KING Sutra Spoken by the Buddha to Sujāta Putra. (Translated by Che Fa-tu in 301 A.D.) 1. Thus have I heard. Once the Lord was sojourning on Gṛdhrakūta at Rājagṛha. At this time the householder Sujāta (Shan Sheng) was down with sickness, and when it turned very serious he sent for his son and said to him: ―When I am no more, you must do the worship of the six directions‖. Sujāta died some days later. The some then gave the offerings [to the spirit of the dead as the custom was]. Having already performed the funeral rites, every morning he used to get up early, take a bath, put on fresh garments and worship the six directions by the side of the water. Whilst worshipping he would speak thus: With the greatest respect, I worship all beings in the eastern direction so that they may return their salutation to me. And turning to the south, to the west, to the north, towards the zenith and towards the nadir, he would worship all the directions in the same way and also speak the same words. 2. At that time—early morning as it was—the Buddha putting on his robes and taking the almsbowl in hand, was just entering the city, when he saw the householder Sujātaputra thus engaged in worshiping the six directions by the waterside and speaking as before. Then the Blessed One went up to him and said to him: “Householder‖s Son, have you heard recently that you should rise early, come to the water and bathe there and after putting on fresh garments, should worship the six directions by the side of the water, saying to yourself that you worship with reverence and respect all the directions so that you also may be respected? Sujātaputra replied: “My father, just before death, has given me this order, therefore I observe it. I did not hear it from any Teacher.” The Blessed One [then] spoke to him and said: Householder‖s Son, these are not the six directions mentioned to you by your father. 3. Due to the sixfold desire, throughout day and night, one practices the fourfold vices in conduct, which one cannot atone for. Then, when the body perishes, the spirit is reborn in bad realms or hell. Man is a pretty to these four things which should be understood. What are these four? The delight in killing, in stealing, in lysing speech and committing adultery. The Buddha extolled these ideas in verse:-i. Destroying life and stealing, cheating others and telling lies, seeking after others‖ wives this, by the wise, was never praised. 4. Again, Householder‖s Son, there are four things by which one goes to evil destinies. What are the four? Desire, anger, stupidity and fear. These ideas are extolled in verses:-ii. If one has desire, anger, stupidity and fear and does not accept the Good Law, then, it is said, one‖s name becomes abased, just like the moon waning and becoming less. iii. If one has no desire, anger, stupidity and fear and accept the Good Law, then, it is said, one‖s name becomes exalted, just like the moon waxing and becoming full. Page | 80
5. Again, Householder‖s Son, there are six unfortunate ways of dissipating wealth and entering the evil realms which should be understood. What are the six? (1) Being fond of wine, and going about in a licentious manner; (2) going about in gambling; (4) [sic] being too fond of dancing and music; (5) having evil friends; (6) being given to idleness. These ideas were extolled in verse:-iv. Drinking wine and entering others‖ houses, gambling and being too fond of dancing and music, having evil friends and given to idleness this, by the wise, has never been praised. 6. Drinking wine has six disastrous effects which should be known. What are the six? (1) Losing wealth, (2) getting ill, (3) picking up quarrels, (4) increasing anger, (5) losing fame, and (6) getting impaired in intelligence. By these evils one would spoil one‖s enterprises; whatever wealth that has not been acquired will never be acquired, and whatever wealth that has already been acquired will dwindle away, and all savings will be exhausted. 7. Lust has six disastrous effects which should be known. What are the six? (1) One‖s own person is unprotected; (2) his wife and children are unprotected; (3) his homestead (family) is unprotected; (4) he is led to evil deeds by suspicion; (5) his enemies get advantage and; (6) he is surrounded by all kinds of sufferings. By these evils one would spoil… [§6]…exhausted. 8. Gambling has six disastrous effects which should be known. What are the six? (a) As winner, one begets anger; (2) when loser he becomes more infatuated; (3) his friends feel sorry and are worried on his account; (4) his enemies feel happy; (5) he gets all kinds of misfortunes such as imprisonment etc. and (6) all people being to suspect him. By these evils one would spoil… [§6]…exhausted. 9. Fondness for dancing and music has six disastrous effects which should be known. What are the six? (1) One is ever thinking ―where is dancing?‖ (2) he is ever thinking ―where is singing?‖ (3) he is ever thinking ―where is instrumental music?‖ (4) he is ever thinking ―where is a playing of cymbals?‖ (5) he is ever thinking ―where is a playing of drums?‖ and (6) he is ever thinking ―where are all these?‖ By these evils one would spoil… [§6]…exhausted. 10. Having evil friends has six disastrous effects which should be known. What are the six? (1) getting addicted to intoxicating liquors; (2) getting accustomed to irregularities (3) getting habituated to unrestrained indulgences; (4) getting the habit of haunting liquor shops; (5) falling to the company of low people and (6) getting the habit of using vulgar talks. By these evils one would spoil… [§6]…exhausted. 11. Idleness has six disastrous effects which should be known. What are the six? (1) Not working because one is too full; (2) not working because one is hungry; (3) not working because it is hot; (5) [sic] not working because it is too early; and (6) not working because it is too late. By these evils one would spoil one‖s enterprise; whatever wealth that has not been acquired will never be acquired, and whatever wealth that has already been acquired will dwindle away, and all savings will be exhausted. These ideas are extolled in verses:-v. To be fond of music, singing and dance, sleeping by day and following them by night, keeping evil company and given to idleness all these lead to great disaster. vi. Gambling and drinking wine, idling, mind filled with thoughts of women, Page | 81
shunning good company, associating with fools— such things cause damage to man like the moon‖s waning. vii. Those that behave with self-conceit, Those that despise the way of the monks, Those that hold wrong views and are miserly— Such men are called vain masters. viii. Wine leads to waste of wealth, with no profit to the drinker, the more he drinks the more thirsty he gets; disease and debts like waters rise producing troubles and endangering health. ix. Some make friends with others by wine, whilst some, through it, violate the law; if it would [really] have been of any benefit at all, then, it could have been tolerated. x. Some appear as if respecting the śīlas by day, at night they go out and do evil, always lingering in wine shops; [you] must never associate with these. xi. If you, from winter to summer, do not take care of yourself, and if you do not use diligence and enterprise, then, all your benefits will surely be spoilt. xii. If you can bear cold and heat, like grass which does not care for itself, and practice diligence in your enterprise, then gradually your happiness will increase more and more. xiii. The downward incline will gradually cease, as the tendency to rise has not been damaged. Advance to good, superiority and honour; for by doing good, [you] will certainly get good [results]. xiv. If you do extreme good, then will meet with good. If you can practice honesty and do good things side by side. then by your relations, you will be praised and followed as example. The way to destroy evil is to observe righteousness. xv. Therefore, you should learn to practice [good things]; once it is done, continue with the same. Then your relations will praise and raise you up. as if you were a king raised above other folk. 12. Again, Householder‖s Son, there are four kinds of men, who should be known. They are those that are not actually friends but appear only in the likeness of friends. Who are those four? (a) He who takes different things [from you]; (2) he who flatters [you]; (3) he who loves [you]; and (4) he who teaches [you] to do evils. These ideas are extolled in verses:-xvi. One who extorts things from his friend, one who flatters to please the ear, one who flatters to your face, one who teaches evil and puts you in danger— Page | 82
xvii.
These are not friends, except by their appearance; the wise, with them, will never associate. If you already know them, keep them afar, just as you avoid an imperiled road. 13. The rapacious friend who takes things from his friend, should be known as of four types. Which four? (1) One who is greedy and extorts things from others; (2) one who gives less to others and covets much; (3) one who becomes a friend out of self-interest; [4? one who is greedy?] These ideas are extolled in verses:-xviii. Whosoever extorts things of others, gives less and covets much, and out of fear and self-interest befriends— such a greedy one is friend only by his appearance. xix. These are not friends except by their appearance; the wise, with them, will never associate. If you already know them, keep afar, just as you avoid an imperiled road. 14. The friend of flattering speech should be known as of four types. Which four? (1) One who lets out others‖ secrets; (2) one who hides his own secrets‖ (3) one who praises to one‖s face; and (4) one who speaks ill behind one‖s back. These ideas are extolled in verses:-xx. Fond of letting out others‖ secrets, whilst keeping his own secured; to the face [he] goes on praising, and in absence speaks ill [of others]. xxi. These are not friends except by their appearance, the wise, with them, will never associate. If you already know them, keep afar, just as you avoid an imperiled road. 15. The friend who has outward love should be known as of four types. Which four? (1) One who speaks of others‖ shortcomings; (2) one who secretly finds out others‖ past and future; (3) one who undervalue the gifts given by his friend; and (4) one who wishes others to have troubles. These ideas are extolled in verses:-xxii. Doing what should not be done, concocting lies, harmful to you; however much given, yet, they never count and wish to see you amidst troubles— xxiii. such are not friends except by their appearance; the wise, with them, will never associate. If you already know them, keep afar, just as you avoid an imperiled road. 16. The ill-advising friend should be known as of four types. Which four? (1) One who encourages destruction of life; (2) one who encourages stealing of others‖ property; (3) one who encourages lustful pursuits; (4) one who encourages cheating and deceiving others. These ideas are extolled in verses:-Page | 83
xxiv.
Destroying life and stealing, cheating and speaking lying words, running after others‖ wives— in pursuing such evils they tender advice. xxv. These are not friends except by their appearance; the wise with them, will never associate. If you already know them, keep afar, just as you avoid an imperiled road. 17. Again, Householder‖s Son, there are four kinds of benevolent and wise friends who should be known. Who are those four? (1) One who is the same with you in happiness and adversity; (2) one who shares his benefits with others; (3) the helper; and (4) the sympathizer. These ideas are extolled in verse:-xxvi. He who remains the same with others in happiness or in distress, giving the benefit of his counsel; helping others when help is needed, sympathizing with the friend and leading him in the right way. xxvii. Such is the good friend‖s behavior, and, this, by the wise, is praised. Hence, he who associates with him, will surely gain; no evil will befall him. 18. The friend who is the same with you in happiness and adversity has four qualities that should be known. Which four? (1) Giving to the friend precious things which are I his possession; (2) giving to his friend the same facilities as to his wife and children; (3) giving to the friend what is in the possession of his family; and (4) speaking sincere and genuine words. These ideas are extolled in verses:-xxviii. Bestowing upon others what is beneficial to himself, imparting whatever gains and benefits he got; giving away whatever wealth the family owns, and sincere and genuine are the words of such a good friend. xxix. Such is the good friend‖s behavior, and this, by the wise, is praised. Hence, he who associates with him, will surely gain; no evil will befall him. 19. The friend who shares his benefits with others has four qualities that should be known. Which four? (1) Keeping the friend‖s secrets secured; (2) not hiding his own secrets from the friend; (3) commending the friend in his presence; and (4) restraining others who speak ill of the friend [in his absence]. These ideas are extolled in verses:-xxx. Secrets of the friend are kept secured, hiding not his own from him; whenever one meets him, he talks something good of his friend, and when far, restrains others who speak ill of him. xxxi. Such is the good friend‖s behavior, and, this, by the wise, is praised; hence he who associates with him will surely be benefited; no evil will befall [him]. Page | 84
20. The friend who is a helpmate has four qualities that should be known. What are these four? (1) Acting in the interest of his friend; (2) giving strength to the friend; (3) restraining the friend when he is relaxed; and (4) giving the friend all nourishment. These ideas are extolled in verses:-xxxii. Acting in the interest of his friend‖s property, helping the friend with moral support, restraining him when relaxed in conduct, and nourishing the friend with best intentions. xxxiii. Such is the good friend‖s behavior, and, this, by the wise, is praised. Hence, he who associates with him will surely be benefited; no evil will befall [him]. 21. The friend who sympathises has four qualities that should be known. What are these four? (1) Giving encouragement to be firmly established in faith (śraddha); (2) teaching the friend what is righteousness (śīla); (teaching the friend what is learning (Śruti), (4) teaching the friend what is alms-giving (dāna). These ideas are extolled in verses:-xxxiv. The way to śraddha, śīla, śruti and dāna, one constantly preaches to others; Such is the good friend‖s behavior, and, this, by the wise, is praised. Hence, he who associates with him, will surely be benefited; no evil will befall [him]. 22. Again, Householder‖s Son, worshiping the eastern direction implies the child‖s ministering to parents. Therefore a child should in five ways respect, support and give happiness to parents. What are these five? (1) Thinking of fulfilling the obligations of the family; (2) taking the responsibility of paying off any debts incurred by the family; (3) understanding the traditional rules of conduct; (4) maintaining and supporting the parents, and (5) making them happy and contented. 22a. And the parent also should, in five ways, show their love to the child. What are these five (1) giving training as a basis for a profession; (2) providing him with sufficient provision; (3) contracting a suitable marriage for him; (4) instructing him to learn the scriptures; and (5) giving over all the family possessions to the child. This is the twofold purpose desired by worshipping the eastern direction, and there is a dual purpose in doing so. This is in accordance with the good laws made by the ancient sages that children should have filial affection and that parents should have loving kindness. Good men hope to abide by them and the good laws will not fall in decay. 23. Worshipping the southern direction implies the disciple‖s ministering to the teacher. Therefore, a disciple should, in five ways respect, support and give happiness to the teacher. What are these five? (1) He must have love for studies; [(2) ?]; (3) he must be prompt in work; (4) he must be faultless; and (5) he must offer support to the teacher. 23a. The teacher also should, in five ways, sympathise and instruct the disciple, What are these five? (1) teaching him whatever he (the teacher) has learnt; (2) teaching him to his (the teacher‖s) utmost ability; (3) making him learned quickly, (4) guiding him in the noble path; and (5) introducing him to good friends.
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This is the twofold purpose desired by worshipping the southern direction, and there is a dual purpose in doing so. This is in accordance with the good laws made by the ancient sages that disciples should be obedient to the teacher and the teacher on his part should be kindly disposed to the taught. Good men hope to abide by them and the good laws will not fall into decay. 24. Worshipping the western direction implies the husband‖s ministering to the wife. Therefore, a husband should in five ways respect, support and give contentment to the wife. Which are these five? (1) Showing genuine respect, (2) not disliking her sentiments, (3) showing his faithfulness, (4) supplying cloth and food at proper times, and (5) providing her with adornments. 24a. The wife also should in fourteen ways serve the husband. Which are these fourteen? (1) Performing her duties well; (2) helping the husband to accomplish his aims, (3) being carefully in giving and receiving, (4) rising early, (5) going to rest later [than her husband], (6) learning all (household) affairs, (7) keeping doors closed and waiting for her husband, (8) greeting the husband on his return from outside, (9) being amicable and having gentle manners, (10) speaking well-prepared and soft words and language, (11) keeping the tables and seats in good order, (12) serving with clean food and drink, (13) having thoughts of almsgiving, and (14) being courteous to her husband. 25. Worshipping the northern direction implies a person‖s ministering to his friends. Therefore, a person should, in five ways, respect, support and give happiness to the friend. Which five? (1) Showing genuine respect, (2) not disliking their sentiments, (3) not being insincere, (4) always sharing happiness and diversity, (5) keeping permanent friendship. 25a. Friends also should, in five ways treat such friend who minister to them. Which five? (1) Taking over any dangers approaching him, (2) admonishing him whenever he is relaxed, (3) concealing his private affairs from others, (4) helping him to benefits and profits; and (5) speaking sincere and benevolent words. This is the twofold purpose desired by worshiping the northern direction. This is in accordance with the good laws made by the ancient sages regarding the relations between friends. Good men hope to abide by them and the good laws will not fall into decay. This is the twofold purpose desired by worshipping the western direction that such agreement between wife and husband should prevail. Good men hope to abide by them and the good laws will not fall into decay. 26. Worshipping the nadir implies a master‖s ministering to his servants and working folk. Therefore, a master should, in five ways, respect, support and give contentment to his servants and working folk. Which are the five? (1) Assigning them work according to their strength, (2) supplying them with food and clothing at proper times, (3) sharing with them unusual delicacies, (4) always encouraging them in the observance of Fasting-days, and (5) giving them rest when sick. 26a. And the servants and working folk also should in ten ways offer service to their master. Which are the ten? (1) Doing their work well, (2) performing their work to the best of their ability, (3) being careful in giving out and receiving anything, (4) going to sleep later [than their master], (5) starting work in time, (6) learning the affairs in the household, (7) working diligently and industriously, (8) not leaving their master even though he may become poor and empty, (9) not leaving the house in the absence of the master, (1) praising the master whenever they go out, thus; ―Out master is very clever and wise.‖
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This is the twofold purpose desired by worshipping the nadir. This is in accordance with the good laws made by the ancient sages—than an agreeable attitude should prevail between masters and servants or employees. Good men hope to abide by them and the good laws will not fall into decay. 27. Worshipping the zenith implies the householder‖s ministering to Śramaṇas and Brāhmaṇa recluses. Therefore, a layman should, in five ways, respect, support and give happiness to Śramaṇas and Brāhmaṇa-recluses. Which five? (1) Keeping open doors for them, (2) welcoming, greeting and paying homage to them on their arrival, (3) arranging seats etc. for them, (4) keeping and preserving the scriptures and other sacred things that they bring, and (5) serving them with pure food. 27a. Therefore, Śramaṇas and Brāhmaṇa-recluses in return should benefit the householder in five ways. Which five? (1) Instructing them to have Śraddhā (faith), (2) instructing them to have Śruti (leaning), [(3) ?], (4) instructing them to do dāna (being generous) and (5) instructing them to improve their Prajñā (wisdom). This is the twofold purpose desired by worshipping the zenith, and this is in accordance with the good laws made by the ancient sages regarding the relation between the householder and the Śramaṇas and Brāhmaṇa-recluses. Good men hope to abide by them and the good laws will not fall in decay. These ideas are extolled in verses:-xxxv. Mother and father are the eastern direction, and teachers are the quarters of the south; husband and wife are the western direction, and friends occupy the quarters of the north. xxxvi. Servants and working-folk the nadir are and overhead are the Śramaṇas and Brāhmaṇa-recluses. Thus should man worship these quarters— this is the way for a householder to act. xxxvii. Those who have benefits and share them with others, are assured wherever they go, of peace and protection. This means benefiting the world at large and this becomes the foundation of happiness. xxxviii. If one favours others with benefits, like the mother benefiting her children, virtue controls and protects the world; its blessings are numerous. xxxix. One gets a high place in assemblies, if he can benefit and give peace to others and make them faithful and righteous, necessarily making their names famous. xl. Never have thoughts of illness, cast away the miserly habits; gain people by friendly actions or by mutual feasting with friends. xli. Visit friends more often, and thus your fame will not be waning. Sages took care of themselves, Page | 87
so, should you householders care for virtues. xlii. Those who amassed precious wealth should in acts of kindness dwell. Learning is of first import, then the way to gain wealth. xliii. If one begs of you the wealth you have, then you should divide it into four (?) parts— for food and raiment the first part, the second one to conduct business. xliv. The third is kept for savings; when dangers come, [you] can spend from them. Farming, trading, cattle-breeding, and keeping goats for trade could be done from the fourth share. xlv. The fifth [you] may use in house-equipments, and the sixth for use in the marriage ceremony; thus one abounding in all treasures tries to increase them day by day. xlvi. Thus wealth aggregates day in and day out, like streams pouring into the vast main, making your property increase in gradations, as the bees that produce their honey. xlvii. Have wealth and yet not to deem oneself wealthy, not to disperse it on any side, to be miserly and to practice wrongful deeds is to be with power, but bereft of friends. xlviii. The way of using wealth should be learnt; if [you] don‖t utilize it, it will be a hindrance to yourself. Observe then those who are more clever, who are bright and good like blazing fires. xlix. Amidst all [your] kith and kin, do deeds beneficial for you and them, as if with them [you] were seated in peace, in the Heaven of the Thirty-three Devas! 28. When the Buddha finished preaching this, Sujātaputra at once bowed down at the feet of the Buddha and rising therefrom, went round Him three times in salutation. He also took refuge in the Buddha and received the Precepts. This is a transcription of the text as it appears in Pannasiri, B. “Sigālovāda-Sutta,” Visva-Bharati Annals 3, 1950, pp. 150-228; trans. 173 ff.
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SHE-KIA-LO-YUE FANG LI KING (Sūtra spoken by the Buddha to Sigālavat on the worship of the six directions) (Translated by Ngan She-kao (148-188 A.D.) 1. The Buddha was a Kukkuṭagiri in Rājagṛha. There was then the son of a householder names Sigālavat. He would rise early, dress his hair, and after bathing and wearing chequered clothes, would offer worship four times to the east, f our times to the south, four times to the north, four times towards the sky and four times towards the earth. 2. The Buddha entered the city for seeking alms and saw him from a distance. [Then] the Buddha went to this worshipper and asked him: Why are you worshipping the six directions? According to which Dharma is this done? Sigālavat [then] replied: When my father was alive, he instructed me to worship the six directions; I do not know what it means. Since my father has passed away, I do not dare go behind his instructions. The Buddha said: [It is true, your] father instructed you to worship the six directions, [but he] did not mean the worship with your body. Sigālavat then knelt down and said: Pray, my Lord, may your Lordship explain to me the meaning of worshipping the six directions. The Buddha said: Listen now and keep in mind: 3. The householder who is clever and can observe the four precepts without transgressing them, will, in this life, be respected by others; and after death will be reborn in heaven. 3a. The four precepts are: (1) not to kill living beings; (2) not to steal; (3) not to make love to others‖ wives; and (4) not to tell lies [as if speaking] with a double-tongue. 4. Have control over (1) desire, (2) lust, (3) hatred and (4) ignorance. Of those, who cannot have control over these four {evil] thoughts, daily increasing ill-reputation will be heard, just like the gradual darkening of the moon during its waning period. Of those, who can have control over these [evil] thoughts [fame will be increased] like the new moon‖s lustre that gradually brightens up to fullness during the fifteen days of the waxing period. 5. Again the Buddha said: There are six ways of dissipating one‖s weather, [to wit]: (1) being addicted to intoxicating liquors, (2) being infatuated with gambling, (3) being fond of sleeping early and rising late, (4) being fond of entertaining others and wishing to be invited by others, (5) being fond of keeping company with evil friends, and (6) being vain and looking down on others. 6. If one indulges in the aforesaid four evils and practices the six ways which obstruct good deed, and also if one does not care to earn a living and allows the wealth to dwindle away, what would be the benefit of worshipping the six directions? 7. [Again] the Buddha said: Evil friends are of four classes, [to wit]: (1) one who inwardly has enmity and outwardly pretends to be a friend; (2) on who speaks good words in the presence of another and speaks ill of him behind his back; (3) one who, in bad times, shows sorrow in the presence of another and feels happy afterwards; and (4) one who is very intimate outwardly and is plotting against [his friend] inwardly. 8. Good friends are also of four kinds, [to wit]: (1) one who is outwardly inimical [but] has friendly thoughts inwardly; (2) one who admonishes in front of you but outside speaks good of you to others, (3) one who is anxious about you in your sickness or in your difficulty with the
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king‖s officials and settles the matter, and (4) one who sees you in poverty and does not abandon you but seeks ways for making you rich. 9. Evil friends are again of four kinds, [to wit]: (1) one who is difficult to be convinced by advice, in spite of the advice to improve, he follows evil friends; (2) one who, although he is advised not to associate with t hem who are addicted to drinks, yet he keeps company with them, (3) one who, although advised to guard himself, goes out, all the more and [himself entangled] in many affairs, and (4) one who even though advised to be a friend of the noble ones, still becomes intimate with gamblers. 10. Good friends are also of four types [to wit]: (1) one who, seeing others in poverty, leads them to earn a living, (2) one who restrains [you] from disputations with others, (3) one who daily goes and enquires [about his friends], and (4) one who always thinks of others with concern. 11. Again, there are good friends of four types, [to wit]: (1) one who brings back and conceals his friend when he is arrested by officials, and afterwards settles the matter, (2) one who brings home and looks after the friend when he is sick, (3) one who will look after the friend‖s funeral affairs after his death, and (4) one who, after his friend‖s death, will take care of the deceased‖s family. 12. Good friend are again of four types, [to wit]: (1) one who stop [his friend] from quarrelling, (2) one who will stop [his friend] who longs to have evil company, by giving advice, (3) on who will induce [his friend] to earn his living when he does not wish to do it, and (4) one who induces [his friend] to have faith in the Dharma, when he is not inclined towards it. 13. Evil friends are again of four kinds, [to wit]: one who gets highly provoked in slight contention, (2) one who refuses to go, when called, in matters of urgency, (3) one who, seeing the other‖s hour of need forsakes him, and (4) one who, seeing others dying, callously runs away from them. 13a. The Buddha said: Choose the good ones and follow [them]; keep away from evil ones. I followed good friends and obtained the Buddhahood. 14. The Buddha said: Worshipping the eastern direction means that the son shall attend upon his parents. This has five aspects, [to wit]: (1) he should think of making a living, (2) he should rise early and order the male and female servants to prepare food at the proper time; (3) he should not increase worries of his parents, (4) he should have in mind his obligations towards the parents, and (5) if the parents fall ill, he should be anxious about them and seek doctors and give good treatment. There are also five ways as to how the parents should have regard for their son, [to wit]: (1) they should train him from vice and exhort him to virtue, (2) they should train him to count and to write, (3) they should instruct him to observe Śila, (4) they should, in suitable time, contract a marriage for him, and (5) they should give over the family properties to him. 15. Worshipping the southern direction means that the disciple should minister to the teacher. This is of five ways, [to wit]: (1) he should respect the teacher, (2) he should remember his obligations, (3) he should follow whatever he has been taught, (4) he should think and impress his mind with regard for the teacher and never treat him with discourtesy, and (5) he should praise him to others in his absence. There are also five ways as to how the teacher should teach the disciple, [to wit]: (1) he should make him acquire knowledge quickly, (2) he should make him surpass others‖ disciples, (3) he should wish to make him retain in memory (what is taught) and forget not, (4) he should
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explain to him all his doubts and difficulties, and (5) he should desire that the disciple‖s knowledge should surpass that of his own. 16. Worshiping the western direction means that the wife should minister to the husband. There are five ways, [to wit]: (1) whenever the husband comes from outside, the wife should rise up in salutation and receive him, (2) when the husband is out, she should do the cooking and sweeping and wait for him, (3) she should not harbor any lewd thoughts towards other men, and whenever scolded by the husband she should not abuse him in return or redden, (4) she should follow the instructions of the husband, and should not hide form him whatever she possesses, (5) when he goes to bed she should prepare the bed for him and she should go to rest after. 16a. The husband‖s ministering to the wife is [also] of five ways [to wit]: (1) when he goes out of or comes back [home], he should greet his wife, (2) he should supply her with food and clothing at proper times, (3) he should give her [ornaments of] gold, silver, and pearls, (4) he should entrust her with the family‖s wealth, whether much or little, and (5) he should not keep unlawful wives outside. 17. Worshipping the northern direction means that the [clansman] should minister to his relations and friends. It has five ways, [to wit]: (1) whenever he observes [any of them] committing a crime, he should privately take him to a corner and give him sound advice and check him, (2) whenever they are in need he should help them without delay, (3) if there is any [of their] secrets he should help them without delay, (3) if there is any [of their] secrets he should not tell others, (4) they should give heed to each other in difficulties, and (5) he should share with them whatever good things he has. 18. Worshipping the direction of the earth means that the master ministers to his servants and working-folk. It is also of five ways, [to wit]: (1) he should supply them with food and clothes at proper time, (2) he should summon doctors whenever they are ill, (3) he should not beat them without a cause, (4) he should not snatch away their personal belongings by force, (5) he should give equal shares when distributing things amongst them. There are also five ways as to how the servants and working folk should minister to their master, (to wit): (1) they should rise early and should not allow the master to call them, (2) they should attend to their duties with much care, (3) they should take good care of the master‖s belongings and not give them to the beggar, (4) Whenever the master goes out or comes back, they should give their good wishes or welcome him, and (5) they should praise the master‖s good qualities and should not speak ill of him. 19. Worshiping the direction of the heaven means that the people minister to the Śramaṇas and the Brāhmaṇas, it is of five ways, [to wit]: (1) thinking well of them, (2) choosing good words in speaking to them, (3) paying respects to them in person (4) they should admire them, and (5) should [regard] Śramaṇas and Brāhmaṇas as heroes amongst people. They should be respected, served and asked about matters relating to salvation. Śramaṇas should show their regard for the people in six says [to wit]: (1) instructing them to give charity (dāna), and not to be miserly, (2) instructing them to observe precepts (śīla) and not to be lustful, (3) instructing them to practice patience (kśānti) and not to have hatred, (4) instructing them to have perseverance (vīrya) and not to be slothful, (5) instructing them to concentrate mind (dhyāna) and not to allow it to stray and (instructing them to have wisdom (prajñā) and not to have ignorance. They show the proper way to the people and teach them to shun evil and do good. They open to them the right way. Therefore their merits are greater than those of the parents. Page | 91
20. If you thus practice, then you have understood the worshipping of the six directions as instructed by your father while [he was] alive. What is there to be worried that you are not wealthy? 21. Sigālavat then received Five Precepts (pañca-śīla), paid homage [to the Buddha] and went away. The Buddha pronounced the following verses (gāthās):--i. Rise early when cocks crow; come out of bed after putting on clothe; bathing and cleaning over, make the mind pure; and with both hands offer incense and flower. ii. Buddha is superior to all the devas; ghosts and devils cannot equal [him]. With lowered head go round the temple stūpa, with folded palms worshiping its ten sides. iii. If the virtuous is without effort (vīrya), he is like a tree without its root. As roots are severed, branches and leaves fall; will they ever be rejoined? iv. Flowers plucked and left in the sun— how long can they remain afresh? When this life is passed, what will he say? v. One should have thoughts of impermanence, to face the coming death, which has no fixed time. By your past sins, though you are not conscious, in your after-life, you yourself will be deceived. vi. Then you must enter hell, What time will you come out of it? The virtuous are those who accept the Buddha‖s words, Observe the śīlas carefully and do not have any doubts. vii. The Buddha is like a beautiful flower tree; Him, there is none who would not love Everywhere when the people listen to him, all of them become gladdened at heart. viii. May I obtain [a rebirth] during the presence of a Buddha. May I be sent as a Dharmarāja to liberate all from birth and death, without a single left unsaved! ix. One must count upon merits of śīla which can be depended upon, as reward for merit always follows the doer. The present Dharmas will go on increasing [for him] till at last one is far away from the three evil paths. x. Pay attention to śīla and have no fear, as merits and virtues in the three worlds are honoured! Ghosts and spirits with evil poisons do harm, but strike not those who observe śīla. xi. Fallen in to this world and [suffering from] worldly miseries, Page | 92
life as fast as lightning; when old age, disease and death come, there is no courage or strength to face them. xii. There are no dear ones in whom one can take refuge, there is no place where one can hide; even enjoyments of life in heaven have a limit, How could then man‖s life last long? xiii. Living with parents and the family, lodged as if like a guest— such a life owed to the past has its end. Give up that old and receive the new. xiv. Each man runs after what he does; limitless, just like a chariot wheel, rises and falls in accordance with merits or sins; for birth and death there are twelve causes. xv. Dedicate yourself to wandering and avoid misfortune, rescue and help all people; be merciful to those who are given to wrongs as if they are drowned in a very deep lake. xvi. Diligent with the six pāramītas, one reaches nature by religious practice; Therefore worship, with bowed head, and take refuge in the God of gods. xvii. It is difficult to obtain human life; once obtained, if again one be fond of desires, and cherish lust in mind, longings will never be disliked nor satisfied. xviii. [Hence] the seeds for the next life are already sown, and with willingness enter hell. As the six senses are fortunately perfect what more do you trouble yourself for? xix. All beings who can keep their minds aright, are in the three worlds blessed will not in the eight difficulties (aṣṭav-akṣaṇāḥ) be caught, and will be born according to their conduct [anywhere] in the ten directions. xx. Once come to be born, be always diligent, using the six pāramitās as a bridge; always exert towards that infinite wisdom, [so that] all those who are in the dark may be spiritually enlightened. The Sūtra spoken by the Buddha to She-kia-lo-yue on the worship of the six directions. This is a transcription of the text as it appears in Pannasiri, B. “Sigālovāda-Sutta,” Visva-Bharati Annals 3, 1950, pp. 150-228; trans. 173 ff.
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SHOU SHENG KING Sujāta Sūtra of Dīrghāgama (16th Sūtra of the Dīrghāgama—translated by Buddhayasas—412/413 AD with the collaboration of Chu Fu-nien) 1. Thus have I heard: The Buddha was once in Rājagṛha on the Vultures‖ Peak (Gṛdhrakūṭ) together with a great company of Bhikṣus numbering one thousand two hundred and fifty. That was the time for the Buddha for seeking alms. He [therefore] put on His robe, took His bowl, entered the city seeking alms. There was then, in the city of Rājagṛha the son of a householder named Sujāta (Shan Sheng). Early in the morning he came out of the city and took a stroll in the park. He then finished his bath and with the wet body worshipped all the directions—the east, the west, the north, the south and the zenith and the nadir. 2. The Buddha, at that time, saw the householder Sujāta, who came out of the city into the park, strolling about and after finishing his bath, with his wet body paying worship to all the directions. Having seen this, the Buddha immediately went up to Sujāta and spoke to him. Why do you come out of the city early in the morning to this park and with wet body worship all directions? Then Sujāta said to the Buddha: My father, at the time of his death, communicated to me his will [thus]: If you wish to do worship [then you] should first of all do the worship of the east, the south, the west, the north, the zenith and the nadir. I obey my father‖s instructions and dare not go against them. Therefore, finishing my bath I, with clasped and uplifted hands, facing the eastern direction, worship the east. The south, the north, [the west??], the zenith and the nadir are all worshipped. The Buddha spoke and said to Sujāta: Young householder, the directions are names but without significance. But in my Aryan Doctrine, the worship of these six directions is not reckoned as homage. Then Sujāta spoke and said to Buddha: Pray, the Lord Buddha may me well understand the method as to how it is according to the Aryan Doctrine, that the six directions are worshipped. The Buddha said to the young householder: Listen, then, with all attention and recollect it; I am telling you. Sujāta replied: Yes, certainly, I shall be very happy and eager to hear. 3. [Then] the Buddha said to Sujāta: If a householder of a son of a householder knows the four limits in conduct, does no evil in the four places and also can understand the six ways of dissipating wealth, he is called Sujāta (Shang Sheng, i.e., Well-born). If a householder or a householder‖s son is far from the four evil deeds, and worships the six directions, the present life will be good and in the next life also will get good reward; it will be a cause for happy results in this world as well as in the next. In the present life itself, he will be praised by the wise and he will get the best fruits of life. And at the dissolution of the body after death, he will be born in a happy abode in heaven. 3a. Sujāta, you should know the four limits; (they are): (1) destroying life; (2) stealing, (3) committing adultery and (4) lying. These are the four limits. 4. Which are the four evil deeds form evil motives (lit. place)? (1) Desire, (2) hatred, (3) fear and (4) ignorance. If a householder or a householder‖s son do evil deeds from these evil motives, then there will be dissipation of wealth. The Buddha having thus spoken, yet again uttered the gāthās:-i. Desire, hatred, fear and ignorance— Page | 94
if one acts with these evil Dharmas, one‖s repute will daily decrease like the moon in the darkening half. 4a. The Buddha said to Sujāta: If a householder or a householder‖s son does no evil deeds from these four motives, then there will be prosperity. Then again the Buddha said a gāthā:-ii. With desire, hatred, fear and ignorance, if one commits no evil deeds, one‖s repute will daily increase and spread like the moon in her waxing phase. 5. The Buddha said to Sujāta: [These are] the six ways of dissipating wealth: (1) being addicted to intoxicating liquor, (2) gambling, (3) indulging in dissipation (disorderly action); (4) haunting places of music and dance, (5) associating with evil friends, and (6) indulging in idleness. These are the six causes of dissipating wealth. 5a. Sujāta, if a householder or a householder‖s son understands the four limits in conduct, if he does no evil deeds in the four places, and if he knows the six ways of dissipating wealth, then he is well-born (Sujāta). If he is free from the four things, then he observes the worship of the directions. Both his present and after-life will be happy. It will be a cause for happy results in this world; it will be a cause for happy results in the next world (too). In the present life he will be praised by the wise and he will get the best fruits of life. And at the dissolution of the body, after death, he will be reborn in a happy abode in heaven. 6. Sujāta, you should know that drinking intoxicating liquors means six ways of losing, [to wit]: (1) losing wealth, (2) producing disease, (3) dragging oneself to quarrels, (4) spreading a bad name, (5) producing hatred, and (6) getting impaired in intelligence day by day. Sujāta, if a householder or a householder‖s son does not stop drinking intoxicating liquors, the properties of that family will daily diminish. 7. Sujāta, gambling has six faults. Which are the six? (1) Daily wastage of wealth, (2) although one may win, yet one begets enemies, (3) getting despised by the wise, (4) no man will trust him, (5) people will shun him, and (6) he will get a thieving mentality. Sujāta, these are the six faults of gambling. If a householder or a householder‖s son does not stop gambling, the possessions of that family will dwindle away. 8. Indulgence (dissipation) has six defects, [to wit]: (1) he himself is not protected, (2) his properties are no protected, (3) his descendants are not protected, (4) he is always full of dangers and fright, (5) always getting entangled in miseries and evil proceedings, and (6) getting inclined to take recourse to falsehood. These are the six defects of indulgence. If a householder or a householder‖s son does not give up indulgence, wealth and property of that family will daily diminish. 9. Sujāta, haunting places of dancing and music has six faults, [to wit]: (1) [one goes on] seeking singing, (3) seeking dancing, (3) seeking instrumental music (lute and the harp), (4) [seeking for] cymbals (po-nei-tsao=pānissaram in Pali), (5) [seeking] tālabhāṇḍ (to-lo-p‖an) and (6) [seeking] shau-ho-na. These are the six faults of [haunting] places of musical performances. If a householder or a householder‖s son does not stop going to these musical performances the wealth and properties of that family will daily be diminished. 10. Associating with evil friends has six ways of loss [of character], [to wit]: (1) he falls in the way of growing a cheat, (2) he prefers to remain in hiding, (3) he seduces other people, (4) he Page | 95
designs to swindle others‖ things, (5) he keeps his possessions only to himself, and (6) he becomes fond of finding fault with others. These are the six ways of loss by keeping company with evil friends. If a householder or householder‖s son does not stop the habit of associating with evil friends then the wealth of that family will daily dwindle. 11. Idleness has six drawbacks, [to wit]: (1) when one is quite well off and happy, he is not willing to work; (2) when one is poor, he is not willing to work actively and industriously, (3) when it is the cold season, he is not willing to be industrious; (4) when it is hot time, he is not willing to be persevering; (5) when it is too early, he is not willing to work hard; and (6) when it is too late, he is not willing to work attentively. These are the six drawbacks in the habit of idleness. If a householder or a householder‖s son does not give up the habit of idleness, then the wealth and properties of that family will daily decline. The Buddha having preached this yet again uttered these gāthās:-iii. One id addicted to drinks and is having companions in drinks— whatever stocked wealth he has, by following these, will dwindle away. iv. Drinking wine knows no control; one always wishes for song, dance and drama; by day he is out visiting others‖ homes— thus one falls into the pit. v. If one follows evil friends, without shunning them, he abuses and despises all recluses; he holds wrong views—scoffed at by the people, and follows the vulgar, to be degraded by others. vi. Good or bad he will decide by its outer colour, will discuss only matters of lost victories; with friends he will confer yet will never come to good senses, and will follow the vulgar to be degraded by the people. vii. If by drinks is one entrapped, he, though poor, will care not for moderation. By indiscreet use of wealth for luxury, the family goes bankrupt, and misery follows. viii. He gambles and creeps to a place for wines; with others goes and watches men‖s lewd acts; he is given more and more to practices of low mean acts, like the moon inclined towards the sun. ix. One who does evil is liable to suffer evil, in this world or in the next, for those done in the company of evil friend, from beginning to end no (good) he has secured. x. Longing to sleep by day and holding expectations for the night, this senseless man, bereft of noble friends, cannot fulfill his duties towards his family. xi. Morning or evening, he is not willing to work: from winter to summer he is keeping himself idle; Page | 96
whatever is already done is uncared for; thus he destroys his success. xii. If one does not mind cold or heat, and if he diligently does his work the whole day, then everything is possible, nothing will remain undone. At the end, he will have no worries or regrets. 12. The Buddha said to Sujāta: The foes in the likeness of a friend, you should understand, are of four types. Which are the four? (1) One who, out of fear, is submissive, (2) one who has charming words, (3) one who is never opposing; and (4) one who is the evil-minded friend. 13. The Buddha said to Sujāta: [The foe in the likeness of a friend] who is submissive out of fear is of four types. Which are the four? (1) First giving [something to his friend] and afterwards snatching it away from him; (2) giving less and hoping to get back much more; (3) always funking due to his own false friendliness; and (4) having intimacy for the sake of gains. These are the four types of the [foe in the likeness of a friend] who is submissive out of fear. 14. The Buddha said to Sujāta: [The foe in the likeness of a friend] with charming words is of four types. Which are the four? (1) Agreeing with the other whether right or wrong; (2) whenever there is a difficulty, he abandons the friend and is aloof, (3) whenever there is any prospect of happiness coming for others, he intercepts that secretly, and (4) whenever there is a danger, he schemes to flee away from it alone. These are the four qualities of [the foe in the likeness of a friend] with charming words. 15. The [foe in the likeness of a friend] who is ever complying is of four qualities. Which are the four? (1) previously he spoke lies, (2) afterwards he will speak lies, (3) at present he goes on speaking lies; and (4) for the slightest mistake, he would [feign] undergo punishment. These are the four qualities of [the foe in the likeness of a friend] who is evil-minded. The Exalted One having preached this yet again uttered the gāthās:-xiii. False friend, submissive out of fear, and the one of charming words are equally the same; so also the friend who is ever compliant with empty words; and one who is evil-minded; thus are these bad for friendship. xiv. These friends are not reliable. The Wise should understand, and keep away from them, just like turning away from an imperiled road. 17. The Buddha said: Sujāta, there are four types of the affable friend who is always beneficial to others and who is a protection to others. Which are the four? (1) One who stops [others] from doing evils; (2) one who sympathises with others; (3) one who is beneficial to others, and (4) one who co-operates with others. These are the four types of the affable friend who is always beneficial to others and saves and protects others. One should be intimate with him. 18. Sujāta, there are four types of the [the affable friend] who restrains others form evil and who is always beneficial and is a protection to others. Which are the four? (1) Whenever he sees the other committing any evil, he would restrain him; (2) he would lead people to justice; (3) he is full of mercy and has an ever-loving and sympathetic mind; and (4) he shows others the way to heaven. These are the four types of the affable friend who is always beneficial to others and who is a protection to others. 19. Again, the sympathizer is of four types, [to wit]: (1) He is happy at his friend‖s benefits; (2) he is unhappy when his friend is in adversity and amidst worries; (3) he would praise the merPage | 97
its of the friend. [(4)??] These are the four types of the sympathizer who is always beneficial to others and who is a protection to others. 20. The benefactor is of four types, which are the four? (1) He who protects you by not allowing wrongful indulgences; (2) he who protects you from indulging in what may make you lose wealth, (3) he who protects the friend and makes him fearless, and (4) he who constantly and repeatedly gives you good advice and instructions. These are the four types of the benefactor. 20. [sic] There are four types of the colleague. Which are the four? (1) He who would save his friend regardless of his own life; (2) he who would sacrifice his wealth and property for the sake of his friend, (3) he who would save his friend from fears; and (4) he who would have mutual and good counsel. These are the four types of the colleague who is beneficial to others as well as a good protection to others. The Exalted One preached these, yet again uttered these gāthās:-xv. One who restrains you from evil and protects you from the evil friends, one who has love and sympathy towards his friend, one who is beneficial to others— such a colleague-friend is equal to one‖s own self. xvi. These are the affable friends ever approached by the wise; unequalled are they even amongst friends, like a mother who sympathises with the child. xvii. [First] you wish to associate with such an affable friend and then form strong and lasting friendship. Such friendship thoroughly observed will reflect on others like a glowing fire. 21. The Buddha said: Sujāta, you should reckon the six directions. Which are the six? (1) Parents are the eastern direction; (2) the teacher is the southern direction; (3) wife is the western direction; (4) the kith and kin are the northern direction; (5) servants and employees are the nadir, and (6) Śramaṇas and Brāhmaṇa-recluses of superior conduct are the zenith. 22. Sujāta, to be a [true] son, one should, in five ways, regard and respect the parents. Which are the five? (1) offering all the requirements and allowing no shortage of them; (2) taking previous consent of the parents in whatever he may do; (3) being obedient to parents and never going against them; (4) daring not to transgress any orders of the parents, and (5) never discontinuing the religious practices. Sujāta, to be a [true] son one should regard and respect the parents in these five ways. 22a. And the parents, on their part, should have regard and love for that child in five ways. Which are the five? (1) By restraining the child and not allowing him to do any vice, (2) by giving him instructions and pointing out the noble path; (3) by being merciful and loving him as if [love] has entered their bones and even has permeated deep into their marrow; (4) by seeking a suitable marriage for him, and (5) by giving him the necessities of life in due time. Sujāta, if a son ministers to the parents in this way then that direction is protected for him and made safe and secure and is without worries and fears. 23. Sujāta, a disciple should in five ways respect and attend on the teacher. Which are the five? (1) By waiting on him and attending to his needs; (2) by making salutations and giving offerings to him; (3) by paying homage and due respects; (4) by obeying him and following his instructions without contradicting them, and (5) by not forgetting but holding fast to all his teachings. Sujāta, to be a [true] disciple one should minister to the teacher in these five ways. Page | 98
23a. And the teacher also should in five ways have consideration for the disciple. Which are the five? (1) Training him according to the doctrine; (2) teaching him what he has not learnt; (3) making him understand very well the meaning of what he desires to know; (4) introducing him to good friends; and (5) teaching him all that he [the teacher] knows without keeping any reservation. Sujāta, if a disciple does all these forms of ministering, then that direction is protected for him and made safe and secure and is without worries and fears. 24. Sujāta, a husband‖s regard for a wife is also of five ways. Which are the five? (1) Treating her courteously, (2) maintaining her dignity and propriety and not slighting her; (3) supplying her with clothing and food in due time; (4) providing her with adornments at proper times; and (5) entrusting her with authority in household affairs. Sujāta, these are the five ways of how a husband should regard his wife. 24a. And a wife, on her part, should in five ways minister to her husband. Which are the five? (1) Rising earlier [than her husband]; (2) resting later [than her husband]; (3) using gentle speech; (4) showing obedience; and (5) understanding the ideas [mind] of her husband. Sujāta, if a husband ministers to the wife thus, then that direction is protected for him and made safe and secure and is without worries and fears. 25. Sujāta, to be a [true] man, one should minister to the kith and kin [clansmen or relatives and friends] in five ways. Which are the five? (1) Being generous; (2) having good words; (3) being benevolent; (4) having feelings of common interest; and (5) not duping them. Sujāta, these are the five ways of ministering to one‖s kith and kin. 25a. And the kith and kin thus ministered to, also on their part, should minister to their friend in five ways. Which are the five? (1) Protecting him when he is slackened or off his guard; (2) protecting his property from undergoing any loss; (3) protecting him from any fears or dangers; (4) giving him advice privately and admonishing him, and (5) constantly speaking in praise of him. Sujāta, if thus one ministers to one‖s clansmen and kinsfolk, then that direction is protected for him and made safe and secure and is without worries and fears. 26. Sujāta, there are five ways of how a master should treat his servants and employees. Which are the five? (1) Assigning work according to their capacity; (2) feeding them at times; [(3) ??]; (4) giving medicine whenever they are sick; and (5) allowing them holidays. Sujāta, these are the five ways by which a master should treat servants and employees. 26a. And the servants and employees should in five ways serve their master. Which are the five? (1) Rising early; (2) attending to the work carefully; (3) not taking away things unless given; (4) doing the work in proper order; and (5) praising the master to fame. These are the five ways of how a master should treat his servants and employees and the direction is protected for him and made safe and secure and is without worries and fears. 27. Sujāta, a benefactor (dāyaka) should in five ways minister to the Śramaṇas and Brāhmaṇarecluses. Which are the five? (1) Practising merciful affection with his body (towards them); (2) practicing merciful affection in words; (3) practicing merciful affection in mind; (4) making offerings to them at times; and (5) not checking them at your gate. 27a. Sujāta, if a benefactor (dāyaka) in these five ways ministers to the Śramaṇas and Brāhmaṇa-recluses, they should in six ways give instructions to him. Which are the six? (1) Restraining him from vice; (2) showing him the good way; (3) teaching him to foster a pure mind [heart]; (4) teaching him what he has not heard [learnt]; (5) making him well what he has [already] heard [learnt]; and (6) revealing to him the Way to Heaven. Page | 99
Sujāta, thus if a benefactor (dāyaka) ministers to Śramaṇas and Brāhmaṇa-recluses, then that direction is protected for him and made safe and secure and is without worries and fears. The Exalted One having preaches this yet again exclaimed in gāthās:-xviii. Mother and father are the eastern direction, and teachers are the quarters of the south. Wife and children are the western direction and kith and kin the quarters to the north. xix. Servants and working folk the nadir are, and overhead are the Śramaṇas. All mean, Guildman‖s son, to worship all these directions. xx. By worshipping thus regularly, after death one is born in Heaven. Have liberality and kindly speech, and life full of manifold benefits to others. Practise equality between you and others, and whatever you have share with others. xxi. Upon these four are many things held, like the cart bears a heavy load. If there is absence of these four in the world, then it will also be bereft of filial support. xxii. Therefore such Dharmas in this world are adopted by the wise. So practice them and obtain greater fruits, name and fame will spread far and wide. xxiii. Well ornamented will be your seat and couch and food and drinks of choice will ever be provided. Whatever you want you will have, your name and fame will spread far and wide. xxiv. You will never be forsaken by the near and dear and will be led to the all beneficial ways. Young and old will ever be in harmony, and thus you will gain good reputation. xxv. First you should learn the art of earning, then get on with wealth and property. Since you have acquired wealth and property, you should carefully guard yourself xxvi. Against an extravagant use of them; and should be guided by ancestral traditions. The cheat and the rowdy— let them beg, and lend no support to them. xxvii. Amassing wealth begins from little as the bees in their gathering of honey from flowers. Wealth and treasures daily swell, without a loss till the end. Page | 100
xxviii. First, have limitation in taking food; secondly, do a trade without slothfulness. Thirdly, you should first have a stock, lest you should be in want and need. xxix. Farming and trading is the fourth— Rear animals in proper surroundings. Building pagodas and temples is the fifth; erecting of monks‖ quarters is the sixth— such is home-life in six pursuits untired. Chance to practice good should never be lost. xxx. If one follows the aforesaid callings, then his family will see no decay. Treasures will daily aggregate, like the ocean which swallows all the streams. 28. Then Sujāta spoke and said to the Exalted One: Extremely good, O Exalted One. Certainly it has surpassed my original expectations regarding my father‖s instructions. It can make those which are obscure to be seen; reveal that which had been hidden; enlighten those who have gone astray; [it is like] lighting up a dark room so that those who have eyes may see. Even so what was manifested by the Tathāgata will enlighten those who are in the darkness of ignorance. It has made clear what the pure Dharma is. The Buddha, as he is the All Enlightened One, is able to disclose [the Truth] for the unerring guidance of the worldlings. Now I take refuge in the Buddha, take refuge in the Dharma, and take refuge in the Saṅgha. May the Exalted One allow me to be in the Dharma as a lay-disciple (Upāsaka) from this day forth as long as life endures. 29. He also took [the Five Precepts, i.e.] [refraining from killing???], refraining from stealing, refraining from committing adultery; refraining from being deceitful; refraining from drinking intoxicating liquors. When Sujāta heard this preaching of the Buddha, he was delighted and [also] accepted [the Law] and practiced it. Buddhabhaṣita Dīrghāgama Sūtra, the eleventh This is a transcription of the text as it appears in Pannasiri, B. “Sigālovāda-Sutta,” Visva-Bharati Annals 3, 1950, pp. 150-228; trans. 173 ff.
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Appendix 9: Biographical Sketch of Dharmakṣema The High Master Dharmakṣema1 was a native of central India. When he was six years old, his father died and his widowed mother supported herself and her son by weaving woolen blankets. When she heard of the fame of the High Buddhayashas, who was receiving offerings from the great officials of the court and even from the king, she thought, “It's difficult to keep my son alive. Perhaps I should send him to a monastery to leave home. He will be well taken care of, and in the future, if he receives offerings anything like those received by Master Buddhayashas, I, as his mother, certainly won't starve to death.” After Dharmakṣema left home under Buddhayashas, he studied the Small Vehicle teachings and read and recited a great many Sutras. As a Shramanera, or novice, he was entirely different from his peers. None of them could match his wisdom or lofty character. At that time, he met the Great Vehicle Dhyana Master Pai T'ou and debated with him for one hundred days. Dharmakṣema was defeated and asked Dhyana Master Pai T'ou, “Do you have any Sutras I could read?” Dhyana Master Pai T'ou gave him a copy of the Nirvana Sutra, and when Dharmakṣema read it, he realized that his own realm was the size of a puddle, or like that of a frog sitting at the bottom of a well looking up at the sky. He knew that his wisdom was incomplete and that the Small Vehicle was not correct. So he gathered his fellow students, all novices, together and they bowed to Dhyana Master Pai T'ou, seeking repentance. After that, Master Dharmakṣema studied the Great Vehicle and read over two million words of Great Vehicle Sutras. Dharmakṣema's brother happened to be an expert elephant trainer, and, when the king's favorite white-eared elephant refused to listen to him, Dharmakṣema's brother killed it. The enraged king executed him and afterwards issued an edict. This said that anyone who even looked at the corpse would be put to death, including the dead man's family, and his father's family, and his mother's. So no one dared to look at it, except Dharmakṣema who cried because it was his brother and because he wanted to bury the corpse. When he went ahead and buried it, the king threatened to kill him. Dharmakṣema said, “You killed my brother according to the law, and I buried him because he was my relative. This is certainly no infringement upon moral duty.” Hearing this, the king noticed that Dharmakṣema's bearing was calm and undisturbed. “This Bhikshu doesn't fear death,” he thought. “He certainly must have virtue. Very well, we won't kill him.” and he made offerings to Dharmakṣema instead. Dharmakṣema was especially good at reciting mantras. His recitation was efficacious to the point that, if you were sick and he recited a mantra, you immediately got well. all unlucky affairs became auspicious, and because of this he was known as “The Great Mantra Master.” 1
The text consistently uses the name “Dharmaraksha,” but the monk in question is Dharmakṣema. Hsuan Hua uses the correct Chinese characters (曇無讖), but the translator has rendered it incorrectly. All occurences of “Dharmaraksha” have been replaced with “Dharmakṣema.” Page | 102
Once he accompanied the king to the mountains on a hunting expedition. AS there was no water in the area, the king said, “I am really thirsty, I wish I had some water.” Dharmakṣema secretly recited a mantra which told the Dragon king to send some water. Strangely enough, water started to flow from the dry rocks. Dharmakṣema said to the king, “Your Way Virtue and benevolence towards the citizens is so great that you have caused water to flow from the rocks.” Actually, it was Master Dharmakṣema's mantra that caused the water to flow, but he wanted to “give the king a high hat.” The king put the high hat on, and thought it quite comfortable. The story of the water spread to the surrounding countries and everyone admired and respected the king. “His virtue is so lofty.” they said, “that he caused water to flow from the barren rocks,” and everyone wanted to be his ally. The king made generous offerings to Dharma Master Dharmakṣema and so Dharmakṣema's mother was not disappointed. However, after a time, the king forgot about him and became distant from him. Master Dharmakṣema thought, “I really shouldn't stay here and wait for offerings. I should leave,” He traveled to Kashmir where there were many students of the Small Vehicle. Feeling no particular affinity for them, he then went to Kucha where he propagated the Teaching widely, converted many people, and gained a large following. Then he decided to go to Chung Kuo, and traveled to Hsi Liang, the present day Hsin Chiang, where the ruler, Chu Ch'u Meng Sun had established the Pei Liang Kingdom in Liang Chou at the beginning of the 5th Century. The king was especially respectful toward Master Dharmakṣema and made offerings to him, and so Master Dharmakṣema stayed there and taught the Dharma. Because Master Dharmakṣema could recite mantras, he was able to see ghosts. On one occasion he said to Meng Sun, “Many epidemic ghosts have come into the area.” Meng Sun said, “I don't believe you. If I see one, then I'll believe.” “All right,” said Master Dharmakṣema, “take a look.” Sure enough, Meng Sun saw a ghost and was nearly frightened out of his wits. Dharmakṣema recited a mantra for three days and the ghosts finally left. Many people of the country saw them. an epidemic of ghosts spread a deadly sickness; once people catch it, they die right away. When the ghosts left, everyone knew it was because of Master Dharmakṣema's merit and virtue. Meng Sun had sent his son, Hsing Kuo, to fight the Kingdom of Mu Mo, but Hsing Kuo was taken prisoner. Before long, the country of Mu Mo was leveled by Ho Lien, and, in the fighting, Hsing Kuo was slain. When Meng Sun heard that his son had been killed, he was enraged. “All my life I believed in the Buddha and yet I haven't received any response. Why hasn't the Buddha protected my son?” Then he issued an edict ordering all Bhikshus under the age of fifty to return to lay-life. Those over fifty could remain Bhikshus.
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Previously, the king had had a large stone image carved in rock (over sixteen feet high, in memory of his mother. When he was about to issue the edict, the statue wept; tears fell from its eyes and snot ran out of its nose. When he saw this, Dharmakṣema spoke to the king. “You shouldn't do things this way,” Dharmakṣema said, “It's not that the Dharma hasn't done anything for you. Your son's death was a matter of cause and effect. It couldn't be avoided.” After that, Meng Sun decided not to issue the order and instead helped to propagate the Buddhadharma. When General Ts'ao Ts'ao, in the country of Wei, heard that Dharma Master Dharmakṣema was as wise as National Master Kumarajiva, and as accomplished in spiritual penetrations as Master Fo T'u Cheng, he dispatched a party to bring Master Dharmakṣema back to Wei. But Meng Sun was too fond of Master Dharmakṣema to part with him. Several years passed without war, and then Wei sent the official Li Shun to request that Master Dharmakṣema come to Wei. At this time prodigious offerings were made to Meng Sun with the hope of obtaining the Master. Meng Sun invited the Wei official Li Hsun to eat, and during the meal said to him, “No matter what, I'll never let you have Master Dharmakṣema. He's my Teacher. He only leaves over my dead body! I won't let him go.” The official, Li Hsun said, “The Emperor has been so good to you. He's allowed you to be king and sent you many gifts. He wishes that Dharmakṣema go to Wei, but you've lost your head over a foreigner. If I were you, I wouldn't do things this way. You really should let Master Dharmakṣema go.” “Never!” said Meng Sun, “He's the most important person in my country and I can't let him go.” On one hand, Meng Sun feared the country of Wei, but on the other, he bear to part with Dharma Master Dharmakṣema. More time passed, and Dharma Master Dharmakṣema, who had previously visited India for a year, wanted to go back to India again. Meng Sun became angry and did not want him to go anywhere at all. However, Master Dharmakṣema decided to go after all. He wept when he left and said, “My karmic obstacles have found me, and they are such that the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas cannot rescue me. I wanted to teach the final portion of the Nirvana Sutra, but now I have to stop,” and he departed. Meng Sun was so angry that he sent a gang of assassins after Master Dharmakṣema. They killed him and recovered all of the valuable offerings Meng Sun had given him. Dharmakṣema was only forty-nine years old when he died. After his death, Meng Sun's attendants saw a ghost holding a sword standing at Meng Sun's side every day. Not long afterwards in the fourth month of that year, Meng Sun died. Before Master Dharmakṣema died, Dharma Master Tao Chin had requested Master Dharmakṣema to transmit the Bodhisattva Precepts to him. Master Dharmakṣema said,” Go and repent first.” Tao Chin returned and bowed to the Buddha in repentance for seven days and seven nights. On the eighth day, he went to see Dharmakṣema again . This time, Master Dharmakṣema acted really angry and scolded him soundly. Tao Chin said, “My karmic obstacles must be too heavy and so the Master won't transmit the Precepts to me.” He returned, and for Page | 104
three years he cultivated concentration and sought repentance. At the end of three years he had a dream in which he saw Shakyamuni Buddha and all the Bodhisattvas of the ten directions come to transmit the Precepts to him. He was not the only one who had this dream. Over ten people had the same dream. He went to inform Master Dharmakṣema, and as he approached the Master, at a distance of perhaps thirty feet, Dharmakṣema stood up and shouted, “Good indeed! Good indeed! You've already got the Precepts! Although you have obtained them, I will certify them for you.” They went before the Buddha images and Master Dharmakṣema transmitted the Bodhisattva Precepts to Master Tao Chin. On the very day Tao Chin had the dream, far off in Ch'ang An, the Western Capital, Master Tao Lang also had the same dream. Although Tao Lang was actually senior to hi, he called Tao Chin his superior and adopted a lesser position than his. Everyone thought these affairs most extraordinary, and because of them, many people received the Precepts from Master Tao Chin. These are the general events in the life of Master Dharmakṣema. (Source: Ven. Hsuan Hua, 1983, Records of High Sanghans, Vol. I, Buddhist Text Translation Society, Dharma Realm Buddhist Association, pp. 59-66. This volume is a re-telling of stories contained in the 6th c. Biographies of Eminent Monks (T. 2061; 高僧傳; Kao Seng Chuan , Gaoseng zhuan)
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