The City of Void. Berlin: A Wild Ocean by Justina Surplyte

THE CITY OF VOID Berlin: A Wild Ocean

A thesis (2014) by Giada Bonatti and Justina Surplyte Supervisor: Giancarlo Floridi

Politecnico di Milano Scuola di Architettura e SocietĂ Master of Science in Architecture Supervisor Giancarlo Floridi Students Giada Bonatti Justina Surplyte Academic Year 2012/2013

THE CITY OF VOID Berlin: A Wild Ocean

A thesis (2014) by Giada Bonatti and Justina Surplyte Supervisor: Giancarlo Floridi

Index

Introduction

01_ History

Historical Notes of Berlin 02_ The City in the City

Berlin Manifesto 03_ Imaging the Ocean

The system of Nature 04_ The Catalogue

Neglected Berlin 05_ The Project

163

Mini Archipelago

Bibliography

191

Introduction

The thesis “The City of Void. Berlin: A Wild Ocean” is a statement combining theory and reality. It is an illustration of a manifesto. During our research and study process we came across “The City in the City. Berlin: A Green archipelago”, a manifesto written by Oswald Mathias Ungers and Rem Koolhaas in 1977. It is presented as “urban planning concept for future development of Berlin” [1] with a very radical position. It is stating that just certain parts of the city meant to be preserved and the rest should be left over and within a time taken over by wild nature. The preserved parts, carefully selected from different morphological urban tissues, become the islands in the ocean of greenery. Together they form “The Green archipelago”. This very utopical perception intrigued us and became even more relevant after our visit to Berlin. Researching the site we discovered a huge amount of abandoned places within the city center, suburban areas and periphery. Places that have historical and architectural value become left over for social changes, political reasons, unsolved ownership status.

Even though Berlin has a strong community of peo-

manifesto. Eventually three main categories were de-

ple trying to preserve and reuse such places, adopting

fined - three zones in which certain of those elements

them as “new creative spaces for new creative people”,

emerge strongest. To illustrate Ungers perception, 25

the outcome is very poor and in a longer or shorter

real situations were taken, each of them abandoned,

period of time it cycles back to being abandoned once

each of them maintaining a strong character, each of

again.

them a part of “The Wild Ocean”.

Suddenly the manifesto written almost 40 years ago

The thesis is showing the relationship of selected pla-

didn’t seem so utopical, it started to merge with the

ces with urban pattern of the city and is presenting

reality.

them as monumental objects, in order to demonstra-

As the original text was more focused on the islands,

te and emphasize their significance within the urban

explaining their typology, density, identity, with just

and local scale.

a brief description of the “left over”, our aim became

Furthermore one example in particular was selected,

to understand the structure and to give the image to

the place where manifesto elements emerge strongest,

so called “wild ocean”.

and which buildings have a very specific morpho-

Taking the guidelines from O.M. Ungers and R.

logy and prominent identity. This punctual project

Koolhaas manifesto, interpreting the text, reading

demonstrates relationship between morphology and

between the lines, we are imaging The Ocean. The

function, relationship between wilderness and public

analysis of real examples made us understand the hie-

space. It creates a mini archipelago and becomes the

rarchy and the structure of wilderness (waste land).

synthesis Ungers theory.

It also showed the diversity of forgotten spaces, diffe-

Overall the thesis “The City of Void. Berlin: A Wild

rences and similarities based on their position in the

Ocean“ is an urban strategy, that is emphasizing the

city and the relationship with the elements found in

concept of “City in the City“.

History

Historical Notes of Berlin

The history of Berlin as a city is a history of destruc-

in Berlin. In 1920, the Greater Berlin Act incorpo-

tion. It is a fragmented city. The urban texture was

rated dozens of suburban cities, villages, and estates

constantly reedited and adapted to the model of the

around Berlin into an expanded city Gross Berlin.

day. Compared to other Western metropolis Berlin

This new area included Spandau and Charlottenburg

has a special story to tell, and signs of its history can

in the west, as well as several other areas that are now

be read in its physical structure.

major municipalities.

Berlin grew out of a large number of settlements

During World War II, large parts of Berlin were de-

which slowly developed in the valley along the Ri-

stroyed. Following political events, Berlin was divided

ver Spree. Originally, the town radiated equally in all

into four sectors. The sectors of the Western Allies

directions from the villages Berlin and Cölln, which

(the United States, the United Kingdom and France)

formed the core.

formed West Berlin, while the Soviet sector formed

The Industrial Revolution transformed Berlin during

East Berlin. As a result of the political and economic

the 19th century; the city’s economy and popula-

tensions brought on by the Cold War, on 13 August

tion grew dramatically, and it became the main rail

1961, East Germany began the building of the Berlin

hub and economic center of Germany. Additional

Wall between East and West. The split in the histori-

suburbs soon developed and increased the area and

cal center caused by building of the wall represented a

population of Berlin. In 1861, neighboring villages

particularly brutal dimension of the destruction. Fur-

including Wedding, Moabit, and several others were

thermore, in the decades of division Berlin was the

incorporated into the city. Berlin became the capital

scene of ambitious competition between the systems

of the German Empire in 1871 and expanded rapidly

in terms of architecture and urban development.

in the following years.

West part followed the concept of “Critical Recon-

At the end of World War I a republic was proclaimed

struction” leaded by IBA (director P.J. Kleihues). The

design was based on saving the plan of historical city

gest construction site in Europe at that time, with the

with its spatial confirmation, creating an architectu-

ambition of once again becoming a metropolitan city.

ral concept that would encompass both overall city

However, as global economic crisis stroke, the city

planning and individual building design. Eastern part

had to look for “possible futures”. With the decline

followed the concept of modernism, city model that

in building activities, Berlin shifted urban politics

was zoned according to the functions. Although du-

towards marketing for attractiveness on global stage,

ring the time it admitted the failure of this model and

and till now is being promoted as “creative city”.

began to promote restoration of urban mix.

The urban landscape of today’s Berlin is not dense,

The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 signed the be-

but still very fragmented. Rather than one clearly de-

ginning of reunification process of Germany. The

fined city center, the city has many smaller centers.

historical center became East Berlin, and the west

What is more, the urban morphology is exceedingly

became the “City West”. After reunification there

heterogeneous; the city is pieced together of frag-

was a period on a reflection about Berlin’s urban de-

ments from several historical layers.

velopment tradition as a European metropolis. The

Today, real collages can be observed all over the city.

city was no longer pursuing the goal of re-inventing Berlin but using build history as a resource. This was the basis of Planwerk Innenstadt - planning concept for development of historical center (Mitte). It called for establishment of a system of the block perimeters along the street, aiming for an orientation to the historic urban fabric. Post reunification period with the determination to rebuild the city made Berlin the lar-

Berlin, 1945

IBA director J.P. Kleihues. The design was based on traditional forms, modified and improved upon using a critical approach adopted from Modernism

Critical Reconstruction

Design process has changed the evaluation of the urban image and structure. First attempt to safeguard the plan of historical city

IBA

City plan, new system of roads and highways, surrounding the inner city

Flachennutzungsplan

Architectural program for city center in West-Berlin

Stadterneuerungsprogramme

Berlin physically divided into East Berlin and West Berlin

Construction of Berlin Wall

Town plan of the “Internationale Bauausstellung” - hypothesis for the reconstruction of Berlin

Hauptstadt Berlin competiton

Division to West part and East part

Administrative division of Berlin

World War II

Berlin hardly damaged from bombing

1975

1973

1965

1963

1961

1957

1948-1949

1939-1945

1957

“ Collage City” by Colin Rowe

Timeline

Main events since 1939

Sommerakademie

International image campaign “ the place to be for individuality”

“be Berlin”

City marketing campaign, promoting Berlin as creative city, open and vivid for creative people

Berlin - “creative city”

City marketing campaign, consuquence of global financial crisis

“Poor, but sexy”

Officially passed by the Senate and the City Parliament.

Planwerk

Planning concept for development of neighbourhood Mitte, based on Critical Reconstruction

Introduction of Planwerk Innenstadt

Temporary building in Potsdamer Platz, marking Berlin as the largest construction site in Europe

Red Info Box

Beginning of the reunification of Germany

Fall of the Berlin Wall

“Critical Reconstruction” becomes the foundational approach for IBA (director J.P. Kleihues)

Bauausstellung Berlin GmbH

Summer School for Cornell University students on topic Urban Villa, organized by O. M. Ungers

2008

2004

2000

1999

1996

1994

1989

1979

1977

2014

1991

1984

1977

by G. B. and J. S.

“The City of Void. Berlin: A Wild Ocean”

Projects by O.M. ungers, J. Nouvel, Pei Cobb Freed & Partners

IBA - Neubau International Building Exhibition

“ The City in the city. Berlin: A Green Archipelago”

by O. M. Ungers and R. Koolhaas

Black and White Maps This set of maps are essentially based on historical events that were most important for urban structure.

1940_

1989_

This shows the Berlin building stock before the first

The political upheaval of 1989 affected the structu-

war damage was inflicted. The body of the city is still

reof the city considerably. This plan shows the two

largely intact as mature organic structure. Howe-

halves of the city in their most divided state, with

ver, the demolition and new building work arising

the Berlin Wall still standing. The â&#x20AC;&#x153;death stripâ&#x20AC;? still

from National Socialist planning are already visible

divides the two halves of the city; it created a large

(Kulturforum, Spree Bend, Molkenmarkt etc.). The

quantity of centrally placed derelict land suitable for

buildings planned by A. Speer for north-south axis

large urban development projects. The historic city

(1942) are marked in red here for clarity. the research

centre has been demolished, along with Hansaviertel,

was based on aerial photographs from the 1939/1940

the Konigsvorstadt, Luisenstadt and large parts of

flight surveys and plans of berlin on the scale 1:4000

Friedrichstadt.

from this period.

2001_

1953_

The 90s building boom after reunification is illustra-

The early 50s had largely cleared war damage away.

ted in the curent situation. Striking features are both

Of the buildings present around 1940, those that had

the extensive rebuilding of whole quarters and also

either been destrroyed by the war or damaged by the

the gradual reconstruction of urban spaces by indivi-

war and then demolished were shown as destryed in

dual building.

the plan. Thus the plan records destruction in the war

2010_

and post-war demolition of buildings that could cer-

This plan shows concrete building plans of the pre-

tainly have been rebuilt. For all other buildings still

sent and measures on the Planwerk Innenstadt Berlin

present in the photographs the basis was continued

that are to be developed as shown according to Senate

existence or possibility of rebuilding, and they were

resolution of 1999. Work started early in 2000.

marked in black for this reason. 12

1940

Berlin in 1940 Black and white plan of city centre, 1:35000

1953

Berlin in 1953 Black and white plan of city centre, 1:35000

1989

Berlin in 1989 Black and white plan of city centre, 1:35000

2001

Berlin in 2001 Black and white plan of city centre, 1:35000

2010

Berlin in 2010 Black and white plan of city centre, 1:35000

The City in the City Berlin: A Green Archipelago A manifesto (1977) by O. M. Ungers and R. Koolhaas

Berlin Manifesto

“The City in the City. Berlin: A Green archipelago” is

their contrast to the field between them. “Each part

a manifesto written by R. Koolhaas and developed by

of the city taken in itself will thus receive an identity of

O.M Ungers, which presented the first concepts and

its own that will fundamentally differentiate it from the

intellectual models for shrinking cities.

others” [4]. Berlin of distinct islands, each with an in-

“The urban concept of city in the city[..] is antithesis of

dividual morphological identity, was conjugated with

current planning theory […] of city as single whole”[2].

a wild nature condition, “islands form a green urban

Opposing ideas of historical reconstruction of the

archipelago in natural lagoon” [5]. For Ungers and

European city, which was popular at that time (for

Koolhaas, the city could be reduced to these strategic

example “Critical Reconstructure”), they developed

segments and connected by a ‘green ocean’ that stated

the figure of a polycentric urban landscape.

the limits of the urban megalopolis.

According to Ungers and Koolhaas, the future plan-

The first draft of Berlin manifesto consists of a 6-page

ning of Berlin had to respond to decreasing popula-

typescript, written by Rem Koolhaas in June-July

tion without compromising the general quality of the

1977, titled “Berlin: A Green Archipelago”, as reflec-

urban environment, “the reduction of the population of

tion on West Berlin and handed to Ungers, when he

Berlin might provide an outstanding opportunity to re-

visited Summer School. Second known version is the

develope zones that are no longer satisfactory” [3].

same re-typed text with many corrections and edi-

Instead of adding , the design was composed from se-

tions added by Ungers himself and renamed to “The

lective subtracted urban tissues from the existing ge-

City in the City”.

neric fabric in order to remove under-performing spa-

Final version was reversed to the format of 11 thesis,

ces and replace them with a neutral field. This act of

each accompanied an explanation and conclusion. It

neglecting parts of urban pattern was made to indivi-

was renamed combining both titles “The City in the

dualize the preserved neighborhoods by intensifying

City. Berlin: A Green Archipelago”. The text of this

final version was illustrated by series of maps and dra-

manifesto, positioning the work in the planning hi-

wings produced by Ungers student Peter Riemann,

story of Berlin, and reveal its influence on current

showing the urban islands and the architectural or

approaches

urban planning references that the project proposed transplanting to Berlin. “The City in the City. Berlin: A Green Archipelago” was first presented at the end of Summer School along with the students’ work on Urban Villa. Later on, in 1978 paper was published by Lotus International magazine in English and Italian translation. However, the importance of manifesto really began to be recognized in beginning of 1990s onwards, when the focus of the urban planning switched towards the decadence and the phenomenon of demographic shrinkage. Only in 2013, the critical edition by Florian Hertweck and Sebastien Marot was issued, containing a previously unpublished version of the manifesto by Rem Koolhaas, also incorporating interviews with co-authors Rem Koolhaas, Peter Riemann, Hans Kollhoff, and Arthur Ovaska. Introductory texts explain the development of the

Tandem Oswald Mathias Ungers and Rem Koolhaas, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA, November 1982

The City in the City Berlin the Green Urban Archipelago An urban planning concept for the future development of Berlin revised and presented by O. M. Ungers

The model of the city in the city was conceived during the Summer School organized in Berlin in 1977 by Cornell University, the senator in charge of building and housing systems, the IDZ, and the Kunstlerhaus Bethanien. The villa as form of urban housing and the city in the city were the subjects discussed at that Summer School. Cornell University architectural students drew up their proposals for the urban villa during eight-week course held at the Kunstlerhaus Bethanien. The results of this seminar will be published in a separate volume.

The 11 Thesis _ Table of Contents

Berlinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Population Drop

Current evaluations predict that Berlin, by 1980s, will have lost more than 10 percent of its population, dropping from 2 to 1.7 million of inhabitants. Future strategies must be devised that will allow for a controlled decrease in the population density, without jeopardizing the general quality of the urban environment.

Criticism of Current Planning Theories The opinion that prevails today, whereby the historic parts of the city can be preserved and saved only throught additional and supplementary construction, stems from erroneous assumptions and is therefore illusory. The postulate of urban repair denies an established fact, namely, that the most areas have by now ended in ruins precisely because, in almost all cases and especially in Berlin, the necessity to increase their density does not exist anymore

Map of the building structure of Berlin

The Population of Shrinkage in General

The future task will no longer be to plan the growth of the cities but rather to develop new proposals and concepts for dealing with this exodus by protecting the better aspects of the cities.

The Differentiated Urban Structure in Berlin Large cities are characterized by an overlapping of many mutually exclusive and divergent conceptions. The ideal would be to find an urban configuration in which both unity and an atmosphere of clarity exist. The reduction of the population in Berlin might provide an outstanding opportunity to redevelop zones that are no longer satisfactory on the technical, social and structural level. Those zones that deserve to be preserved should be identified and their characteristics be either underlined or, if incomplete, completed. These enclaves liberated from the anonymity of the city would in their quality of quasi islands from a green urban archipelago in a natural lagoon.

Map of the selective urban islands

The Concept of The City in The City The idea of the city in the city is the basic concept for a future urbanistic model of Berlin. It is substantiated in the image of Berlin as a city-archipelago. The urban islands have an identity in keeping with their history, social structure, and environmental characteristics. The city as a whole is formed by the federation of all these urban entities with different structures, developed in a deliberately antithetic manner. The first step is to select those districts of the city that possess clearly identifiable features likely to justify their preservation and accentuation. The second step is the completion of the fragments to be preserved that would receive their definitive architectural and urbanistic form. Each part of the city taken in itself will thus receive an identity of its own that will fundamentally differentiate it from the others. (For personal initiative and participation, the small entity always provides a much better field of operations than the city as a whole)

Cities in the city

The Location of Urban Islands The chosen zones represent extremely different structures in content and form; that contain not only buildings in blocks but also single, radial, linear and reticular urban layouts, open and closed systems, regular and irregular street networks, while also having different graphic, spatial, functional, and social characteristics. To establish the characteristics of the city, one could take into consideration a number of typical cases that were designed at other times for other situations and may have comparable typological features. For example, the ideal project of Karlsruhe, with its radial axis, might serve as an example for a configuration of the Südliche Friedrichstadt, or the project for Manhattan’s Central Parl be transferred just as it is into the Görlitz station zone. Leonidov’s linear design for Magnitogorsk is similar from typological point of view to the built structure along the avanue Unter den Eichen.

Comparion of the urban structures: S端dliche Friedrichstadt - Karlsruhe _ Arial view of S端dliche Friedrichstadt _ S端dliche Friedrichstadt urban island _ Site plan of S端dliche Friedrichstadt _ City map of Karlsruhe

Comparion of the urban structures: Görlitz station - Central Park, New York _ Arial view of Kreuzberg _ Kreuzberg’s urban island _ Site plan of Kreuzberg _ City map of Manhattan, N.Y.

Comparion of the urban structures: the street Unter den Eichen - Leonidovâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s project for Magnitogorsk _ Arial view of Lichterfelde _ Unter den Eichen urban island _ Site plan of Lichterfelde _ Leonidovâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s map for Magnitogorsk

The Location of Urban Islands

The concept of the city in the city, which proceeds from a collage of different urban entities, will be completed antithetically by the space in between the urban islands. Here, the structures ought to be allowed to gradually retransform into natural zones and pastures, without any rebuilding. The urban islands will be divided from each other by strips of nature and green, thus defining the framework of the city in the city and thereby explaining the metaphor of the city as a green archipelago. The green interspaces form a system of modified nature, and contain a repertoire of types that range from suburban

zones to parks and woodland to urban areas put to

the greenbelts should also be used to “park temporary

agricultural use (allotment gardens). Suburbs could

modern facilities”. This would encourage the emergence

be different densities, and integrate existing districts.

of a new type of city dwellers. In the open zones

The surfaces earmarked for agriculture could penetrate

between urban islands, project of suburban quality

all parts of the city and at the same time create an

should be realized, such as:

additional source of industry and employment. As for

- building of low density detached individual housing

the wooded areas designated as natural reserve, they

- building of complexes of temporary residential areas

could be completed and stimulated by wild parks,

with mobile homes as an alternative to city center

and encourage a form of inner tourism. The natural

living, which would stimulate living in the open and a

grid ought also to incorporate the infrastructure of

way of life oriented towards leisure time

the modern technological age that is an extended

- building of sports, rest and recreational facilities,

motorway network linking the urban islands to one

beginning with parks and play areas and extending to

another, it ought also to include supermarkets, drive-in

shooting preserved and artificial landscapes, and to

cinemas, drive-in banks, and similar automobile-related

amusement zones of the Disneyland type and National

services. Next to the suburban zones with different

Parks for friends of nature

densities, the wooded areas, shooting preserves, natural

- the setting aside of production areas in the “industrial

parks, allotment gardens, land for urban agriculture,

park” –style of American cities – with leisure time, play

and the infrastructural services of the modern age,

and sport facilities for the workers

Uses of the green grid: _ Open-air baths on the lake in Wannsee _ Infrastructure of the automobile age _ Tent city in Wannsee _ Artificial landscape in Kreuzberg

The Urban Villa as a Form of Urban Housing In the housebuilding sector, the construction of town houses as rented villas ought to be encouraged much more than it has been so far. The transformation of historic villas to meet the reduced requirements of today has demonstrated that this type of home is suitable not only for residential purposes but also lends itself to other functions. In an ideal way, it satisfies the desire of those who wish to personalize their environment, while also accommodating public interest not least with regard to infrastructures and social density. Villa-type houses with a limited number of individually designed apartments fit fairly easily into a historic urban fabric. While the building of a big housing blocks in each case results in a redevelopment of the urban fabric, with all the ensuing social, economic, and planning disadvantages, with urban villas all this is avoided because they are more an integrative than a substitutive urbanistic element.

Urban Villas _ Housing project by K. F. Schinkel, 1978 _ House at Victoriastrasse 9 by F. Hitzig, 1858 _ Villa Plug by E. Knoblauch, 1859 _ Villa Rosenburg, 1902

Transformation of the City in the course of History

The history of Berlin shows the development of a city from many different places. It is not a unified image but a living collage, a collection of fragments. From a historical point of view, the simultaneous juxtaposition of contrasting elements is the expression of the dialectic process in which the city has always found itself and still does. The concept of critical antithesis and divergent multiplicity is the very essence and unique character of Berlin.

Criteria and definition of objectives for the future The concept of the archipelago - city answers a series of fundamental urban design demands, such as: - finding a solution to the problem of reduction that goes hand in hand with improvement in quality - improving urban quality by offering varied and versatile spaces for living and activities - creating a pluralistic system of unresolved contradictions - restoring identity in urban spaces

_10

- establishing a close link between city and country, which means renewing the relationship between culture and nature- preservation of collective memory and historical consciousness, understood as a continuity of space and time - individualization of architecture and an improved adaptability to the wishes and expectations of inhabitants - the need for smaller units so as to create more manageable living and working areas

11_

Schedule and realization of the planning project The first phase consists in cataloging the elements and structures of the city. The second phase consists in the development of alternative models and serves to go more deeply into the architectonic and urban planning vocabulary. Then it comes the phase of designing the urban islands and the green zones between them.

The Authors

Oswald Mathias UNGERS (1926-2007) was one of the most influential German architects of the latter half of the twentieth century. Following his studies of architecture at the Technische Hochschule in Karlsruhe, he established a professional practice in Cologne in 1950. In 1963, at the invitation of Hans Scharoun, he accepted a professorship at the Technische Universitat Berlin, He became dean of the architecture faculty two years later and developed a O. M. Ungers

teaching approach that in its combination of theory, history, and design was unusually experimental in Germany at that time. After the student revolt of 1967/68, which discredited his contribution to the Markisches Viertel housing complex in Berlin, he relocated to the USA to head the Department of Architecture at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. For almost a decade, Ungers devoted himself to the teaching and investigation of, in particular, morphological design process, which he explored in projects for numerous competitions. During this period, he consolidated his position as one of the major exponents of the Neo-Rationalist movement and published his most important theoretical writings:

R. Koolhaas

Planning Criteria (1976), Morphologie: City Metaphors (1982), and Die Thematisierung der Architektur (1983),

as well as the trilogy of Summer School publications:

launched the Office for Metropolitan Architecture in

The Urban Block (1976), The Urban Villa (1977), and

1975. Returned to London to teach at the AA and in

The Urban Garden (1978). He later taught at Harvard,

1978 published “Delirious New York: A Retroactive

the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA),

Manifesto for Manhattan”, which established his

the University of Applied Arts in Vienna, and the

reputation as a theoretician of metropolitan congestion

Kunstakademie in Dusseldorf. In the late 1970s, Ungers

and as a genuine writer. In the 1980s and 1990s OMA

finally began to receive prominent major commissions.

developed a projective reflection on the architecture of

His Enthusiasm for morphological processes increasingly

Bigness, contrary to the Post-Modernist trends oh those

gave way to a rigorously geometrical approach,

years. 1995 Koolhaas and the graphic designer Bruce Mau

culminating in his “Haus ohne Eigenschaften” (House

collected the projects resulting from their collaboration

without Qualities). An ardent lifelong collector, Ungers

(along with a number of essays and critical writings) into

amassed, in addition to an impressive art collection,

a monumental book, S,M,L,XL, which has done much

one of the world’s most extensive architectural book

to revive the genre of architectural monographs. While

collections, which today is housed in the Ungers Archives

the number of OMA productions has multiplied on all

for Architectural Research in Cologne.

continents since then, Koolhaas has continued to pursue his theoretical research: “Generic City”, “Junkspace”, and

Rem KOOLHAAS

the mutations of architecture in the age of globalization-

Born in Rotterdam in 1944. Worked as a journalist

first, in his research studio at the Harvard Graduate

and scriptwriter before studying architecture at the

School of Design and then within OMA’s mirror image,

Architectural Association in London, where he

AMO, which is devoted to para-architectural debates:

distinguished himself with a memoir on “The Berlin

Content (2003). In addition to a number of other texts,

Wall as Architecture”. In 1972 he moved to USA, first

such as on the conversation of rural areas, he has recently

to Cornell to study the teachings of Oswald Mathias

published an important oral history “Project Japan:

Ungers, and to New York, where he and his friends

Metabolism Talk” (2011).

Imaging the Ocean

The System of Nature

Berlin manifesto brings the strong attention to the

diversified and complex urban environment”[6].

islands, it explains their importance as individual

From the analysis of the original text six types of

units and as overall urban concept. It is accentuated

greenery were discovered, which further on will be

that every island will be divided from each other by

referred as “Ungers elements”.

strips of nature and green, defining the framework

These types are the constructive elements for the

of the city in the city. However, nowhere in the

“Wild Ocean”. Differentiated in the spectrum from

drawings nor texts Ungers and Koolhaas suggest how

natural to urban, these fundamental components have

connection between these islands occurs.

a very specific character and function for the overall

What is evident in “A Green Archipelago” project, is

structure. Furthermore, their stronger evidence in

that city can be reduced to a series of urban segments

certain parts of the city leaded to the definition of

and the isolation of them is even more extenuating

three zones.

their individuality as self-sustaining urban nodes. Yet,

The zones diverse from one based on mobility, to

the “green ocean” hosting the islands is as important

recreational one and finally to natural wild areas,

as islands themselves, if they are to be part of a

according to elements they are combined of and

larger entity. Such ocean, described as a conducting

according to the functions they host. However they

whole, anyhow cannot sustain the islands unless it is

don’t have a physical boarders between themselves,

consciously constructed. The ocean is the network

the definition comes from relationship with the

that allow the islands to be simultaneously connected

islands and the green elements and infrastructure.

yet remain distinct. The islands and the ocean as connective network - unified raw elements of identity is complex template of urbanism. It “is an open urban system, in which many different places together form a

“The idea of the City in the city is substantiated in the image of Berlin as a city-archipelago. [...] The city as a whole is formed by the federation of all these urban entities with different structures, developed in a deliberately antithetic manner.”

“The City in the City Berlin: A Green Archipelago” Thesis 5

The Islands

“The development of a linear Wall Park along Berlin wall, which, after unification, could be joined, at regular intervals with existing wall zone on East Germany territory.”

“Berlin: A Green Archipelago” Original Document

The Islands

“The next step in the operation is the ‘completion’ of the preserved fragments, that will now receive their final architectural intervention. [...] Not all the new insertions have to be designed anew. The most relevant examples of such an approach are still offered by certain Constructivist proposals for Moscow.”

“Berlin: A Green Archipelago” Original Document

References Unbuilt Projects

03 11

08 02 04 01

References Unbuilt Projects _ West Berlin “The City in the City.Berlin: A Green Archipelago”

01 _ Angular Skyscaper

02 _ MKPT Project (double tower)

03 _ Skyhook on intersection

04 _ Lenin Institute

05 _ Royal Crescent, Bath

06 _ Alger Project

Unbuilt Projects _ East Berlin “The City of Void. Berlin: A Wild Ocean”

07 _ La Villette

08 _ Le Corbusier Venice Hospital

09 _ World Trade Center

10 _ British Olivetti HQ

11 _ Jussieu

12 _ Office Tower

“The concept of City in the City, which proceeds from a collage of different urban enities, will be completed antithetically by the space in between the Urban Islands.”

“The City in the City Berlin: A Green Archipelago” Thesis 7

“The concept of the Ocean, such as the space in between the Urban Islands, will complete the anhitetical concept of the City in the City.”

“The City of Void Berlin: A Wild Ocean”

The Ocean

“Urban islands would be divided from each other by strips of nature and green, thus defining the framework of the city in the city.”

“The City in the City Berlin: A Green Archipelago” Thesis 7

“Nature and Green will detach urban islands and connect them at the same time, thus defining a framework of the Ocean.”

“The City of Void Berlin: A Wild Ocean”

The Strips

The Types of Greenery

Wooded Areas Natural forests, surrounding the city. Designed as natural reserve, they are complete and stimulated by Wild Parks, and encourage a form of inner tourism

Agricolture Penetrates all the part of the city and at the same time creates an additional source of industry and employment

Detached Houses Different densities, in suburban areas and integrating existing districts

Urban Parks Existing parks within urban texture

Water River Spree, and lakes as a natural alternative connection

Infrastructure Connecting network between the islands

The Structure of the Ocean

“The Ocean of the Archipelago is divided in 3 Zones, each of them with its own functions and facilities and all connected by the existing infrastructure, and by the natural system. ‘Green’ is the element in common in the Archipelago’s Ocean.“

Zone 1 Urban areas in between the islands. All the areas that serve the islands and contain functions and facilities for them and similar automobile-related services, as well as the 20th century typologies that rely on mobility

Zone 2 Suburban areas with detached individual houses and industries. All the areas that serve the production areas and contain recreational and sport facilities for them. It containes also infrastructural connections

Zone 3 Peripheric areas such as the natural external green belt which includes the wild green and the amusement zones, such as wooded areas, forests and wild parks

Zone 3

Zone 1

The scheme demonstrates the proportion between Ungersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Elements and the Zones Zone 2

Wooded Areas

Water

Detached Houses

Islands

Urban Parks

Infrastructure

The Synthesis Map

The Catalogue

Neglected Berlin

“Of the most cities people have a sort of image in their head;

lack any programmatic code.” [7]

an image of what the city looks like though a collection of

We became a witness of such situation. During the

icons. Berlin does not have such an image. One cannot go to the central market place, or the grand palace, to look for its

survey, Berlin gave the impression of being full of

identity. The city is not beautiful. But presents itself more as

abandoned places. It is true that the research was

a challenge. It pushes its visitors to explore it and ever again

focused on left over spaces and a part of case studies

it confronts them with new and different perspectives, always postponing the moment where one gets a grip of it. Berlin is

were selected before the trip, however the amount of

clumsily unfinished. It appearances do not reveal its different

the ones discovered being there was stunning. What

meanings.”

was even more unusual, that these places were very (Cupers and Miessen, 2002, p. 58)

easily accessible and inside you could find a camp of junkies, and next to it alternative tourists exploring

Twenty-four years after the reunification of Germany,

the space.

gentrification is taking its toll on culturally vital but

Among all visited areas, 25 places were selected to

economically troubled capital. As property prices

demonstrate “The city in the City. Berlin: A Green

keep on growing, parts of the city remain derelict

Archipelago” theory’s reflection in the reality. These

and abandoned. The spaces that once functioned as

25 areas are waste lands of former West and East

factories, embassies and government offices under

parts of Berlin. They were carefully chosen to show

the German Democratic Republic (GDR) remain

the relationship between Ungers elements and the

redundant and the future seems uncertain. In Berlin,

zones they are representing. These case studies are

a city that is no stranger to financial instability and

categorized according to the zone they are belonging.

shifting political situations, money seems to be the

Each place is presented with a picture to express their

main hesitation whether to revitalize these historically

monumental value. 3D views show each site in the

and culturally significant spaces. They “are ill-defined

existing urban pattern with the layer of perception to

spaces that are not officially or definitely occupied. They

the future based on Berlin manifesto.

25 Places

Zone 1

d erlan Feu

09 höfe

08 uerei Bötzow Bra

Judengan07 g

Elem ent

Böh m i sc hes B raue 06 rei

Ungers’

02 stadt s n e m n Sie SBah

03 che r i in K t n a nst Ko

04 f o lh pe m Te

Ku nst hau sT ach 05 ele s

Zone 1

n ds isla

01 Bierpinsel infrastructure

wa ter

d are

urb a

n pa

rks

detached houses

e wood

01_Bierpinsel Location: Schloßstraße 17, 12163 Berlin Previous Function: Restaurant and Disco Actual Condition: Closed

02_S-Bahnhof Siemensstadt Location: Rohrdamm, Hรถhe Hausnummer 83, 13629 Berlin Previous Function: Train station Actual Condition: Abandoned

03_ St. Konstantin und Helena Kirche Location: WittestraĂ&#x;e 37, 13509 Berlin Function: Russian Orthodox Cemetery, and St. Konstantin und Helena Church

04_Tempelhof Location: Tempelhof, 12099 Berlin Previous Function: Airport Actual Condition: Open as recreational park

05_ Kunsthaus Tacheles Location: Oranienburger StraĂ&#x;e 54, 13437 Berlin Previous Function: Cultural Center and Sculpture Park Actual Condition: Abandoned

06_Bรถhmisches Brauhaus Brauerei Location: Pufendorfstraร e 4, 10249 Berlin Previous Function: Brewery \Abandoned

07_Judengang Location: Senefelderplatz/Kollwitzplatz, 10405 Berlin Function: Jewish Cementery Actual Condition: Close for public

08_Bรถtzow - Brauerei Location: Prenzlauer Allee 242, 10405 Berlin Previous Function: Brewery Actual Condition: Partially restored buildings and abandoned outdoor space

09_Feuerlandhรถfe Location: Chausseestraร e 40A, 10115 Berlin Previous Function: Electronic devices factory Actual Condition: Abandoned

Zone 2

19 k abri F G hA c s t Pin

18 Eisfabrik

17 Raw Tempel

Schw immh 16 alle

Swa nso 15 ng

ret ten fab 14 rik

Elem ent

13ei er u ra B l el qu ren ä B

Sov iet

11 s enhau k n a r k r e d n i K 12 h of n h a terb ü G

Ungers’

Zi ga

Zone 2

n ds isla

10 Iraqi Embassy infrastructure

wa ter

d are

urb a

n pa

rks

detached houses

e wood

10_Iraqi Embassy Location: TschaikowskistraĂ&#x;e 51, 13156 Berlin Previous Function: Iraqi Embassy to East Germany Actual Condition: Abandoned

11_Kinderkrankenhaus Location: HansastraĂ&#x;e 178, 13088 Berlin Previous Function: Municipal Childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Hospital Actual Condition: Abandoned

12_G端terbahnhof Pankow Location: Am Feuchten Winkel 137-145, 13089 Berlin Previous Function: Freight station with two train turntables Actual Condition: Abandoned

100

13_Bärenquell Brauerei Location: Schnellerstraße 137, 12439 Berlin Previous Function: Brewery Actual Condition: Abandoned

101

14_Garbáty’s Zigarettenfabrik Location: Berliner Straße 120/121, 13187 Berlin Previous Function: Cigarette Factory Actual Condition: Under Reconstruction

102

15_Soviet Swansong Location: Zwieseler StraĂ&#x;e 50, 10318 Berlin Previous Function: Soviet Military Headquarters Actual Condition: Abandoned

103

16_Schwimmhalle Pankow Location: Wolfshagener StraĂ&#x;e 91, 13187 Berlin Previous Function: Swimming pool Actual Condition: Abandoned

104

17_Raw Tempel Location: Revaler StraĂ&#x;e 99, 10245 Berlin Previous Function: Port for Prussian Eastern Railway Actual Condition: Abandoned, partly reused

105

18_Eisfabrik Location: Kรถpenicker Straร e 40/41, 10179 Berlin Previous Function: Ice Factory Actual Condition: Abandoned

106

19_Julius Pintsch AG Fabrik Location: AndreasstraĂ&#x;e 71, 10243 Berlin Previous Function: Gas Factory Actual Condition: Abandoned

107

Zone 3

lsbe 23 rg

25 park Spree

24 Friedhofsbahn

Teu fe

elt 2 ur 2 m

Elem ent

21 l nne u t e e Spr

Ungersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

M Ăźg g

Zone 3

n ds isla

infrastructure

20 Ballhaus Riviera

wa ter

d are

urb a

n pa

rks

detached houses

e wood

20_Ballhaus Riviera Location: Regattastraße – Büxsteinstraße , 12527 Berlin Previous Function: Ball House Actual Condition: Abandoned

110

21_Spreetunnel Location: Josef-Nawrocki Straße, 12587 Berlin Function: Tunnel, connection between the Friedrichshagen’s shore and the Müggelschlösschen one

111

22_Müggelturm Location: Straße zum Müggelturm 1, 12557 Berlin Previous Function: First Observation and Recreational Tower, then Military Radio Tower Actual Condition: Abandoned

112

23_Teufelsberg Location: Teufelsberg, 14055 Berlin Previous Function: Listening Stations Actual Condition: Abandoned

113

24_Friedhofsbahn Location: Stahnsdorfer Damm, 14109 Berlin Previous Function: Railway line Actual Condition: Abandoned

114

25_Spreepark Location: Kiehnwerderallee 1, 12437 Berlin Previous Function: Amusement Park Actual Condition: Abandoned

115

7 Samples

01 _ The Bierpinsel

Zone: 1 Location: Schloßstraße 17, 12163 Berlin Area: 100 m2 Land use: Building Previous Function: Restaurant and Disco Architect: Ralf Schüler and Ursulina Schüler-Witte Year: 1972-1976 Actual Conditions: Closed

The 47 Meter high, bright red building was initially designed and built to offset the dominant presence of the overpass expressway and integrate it into the cityscape. The tower had 3 levels which were used by a Fast Food Chain and housed a Disco. None of the business in the Bierpinsel lasted though, causing a heavy rotation in occupants and causing some financial woes for the owners. In April 2010 an artists cafe opened up inside and the new owners hosted a street art festival and commissioned the graffiti Artists to “redecorate” the tower facade. During the winter of 2010/2011 a water pipe broke, and caused substantial damage to the tower. Arguments between the owners and the insurance company has delayed any repairs and the possible reopening.

118

119

120

121

122

123

09 _ Feuerlandhöfe

Zone: 1 Location: Chausseestraße 40A, 10115 Berlin Area: 20.000 m2 Land use: Building complex with outdoor space Previous Function: Electronic devices factory Architect: Max Richter Year: 1910 Actual Conditions: Abandoned

Former factory buildings of Secura – werk corporation of Computer 314 and of hole card devices production. The historic factory buildings in the Chausseestraße, Berlin-Mitte are listed as historical monument. The preserved buildings that surround two courtyards were built in 1910 and designed by Max Richte . The area was carried out the removal, dismantling of existing contaminated sites and ailing parts of the building (during the pre-sales for the fundamental assessment of the building stock). Now there are some proposal projects for this area to build a residential complex with mixed used functions. 124

125

126

127

128

129

10 _ Iraqi Embassy

Zone: 2 Location: TschaikowskistraĂ&#x;e 51, 13156 Berlin Area: 6.600 Land use: Building Previous Function: Iraqi Embassy to East Germany Architect: German-Iraqi Architect Group (headed by Horst Bauer) Year: 1974 Actual Conditions: Abandoned

The building was built in 1974 when Iraq enjoyed good relations with the GDR. It had been the first non-socialist state to recognize East Germany as a country in 1969. The Iraqi embassy was always suspected to be a retreat camp for terrorists. It was reported that in 1990, the embassy had amassed an explosive storage for potential attacks. After the start of the First Gulf War in 1991, the German Government expelled the Iraqi Embassy staff from the country (under no pressure of their Nato counterparts) â&#x20AC;&#x201C; leaving the building empty until this day. Today the German Government is the owner of the Land and the Building, but the Republic of Iraq has a permanent and royalty-free right to use the property. 130

131

132

133

134

135

12 _ Güterbahnhof Pankow

Zone: 2 Location: Am Feuchten Winkel 137-145, 13089 Berlin Area: 43.500 m2 Land use: Building complex with outdoor space Previous Function: Freight station with two train turntables Actual Conditions: Abandoned

Güterbahnhof Pankow was a railroad yard and freight station with two train turntables, one inside, one outside, that used to handle up to 1,800 freight cards a day. Now it handles none. The railroad yard began operations in 1893. The impressive round building, where they were able to turn locomotive engines with no reverse, is a listed building apparently dating to 1893 and one of the last two in Germany. Güterbahnhof Pankow was only closed down in 1997. They ripped out the rail tracks and knocked down a few buildings by 2007. The trains are gone. The surviving buildings mourn their absence, they’re hollow and empty inside Now it just rots. Nothing works and nothing’s being repaired. The train turntable doesn’t spin anymore and the control cabin’s in a sorry state. 136

137

138

139

140

141

142

143

18 _ Ice Factory

Zone: 2 Location: Köpenicker Straße 40/41, 10179 Berlin Area: 7.200 m2 Land use: Building with outdoor space Previous Function: Ice factory Year: 1896 Actual Conditions: Abandoned

The Norddeutsche Eiswerke AG was founded in 1872 by Carl Bolle. Bolle had purchased several plots of land throughout the city 1893among them a piece of land on the Köpenicker Straße along the Spree. In 1896 construction for a brand new Ice Factory had begun. The Factory was completed within the same year and started producing ice rods and blocks. In 1914, a new Ice Machine was installed, which greatly increased the production capabilities. After the war and subsequent partitioning of Germany, the factory continued in GDR times, before being heartlessly abandoned by the Berliner Kühlhaus GmbH in 1995. Eisfabrik then was packed with people. Film students, an advertising agency was shooting a commercial, there was even a dance crew practicing on one of the floors. This place was far from abandoned. The Eisfabrik, which somehow managed to survive the various bombs and several fires during the years, is now caught in the web of the huge Mediaspree project which wants to allow corporate greed corrupt Berlin’s riversides for investors.

144

145

146

147

148

149

23 _ Teufelsberg

Zone: 3 Location: Teufelsberg, 14055 Berlin Area: 50.100 m2 Land use: Building complex Previous Function: Listening Stations Architect: Stanislav Dravoneg Actual Conditions: Abandoned

During the Cold War, the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) built a man-made mountain of rubble over the top of an underground Nazi technical college in Berlin. This massive hill was called Devil’s Mountain, or Teufelsberg in German. It was on Devil’s Mountain where the NSA built one of the largest and highly classified Listening Stations in the world to eavesdrop and spy, intercepting Soviet, East German and other countries’ communications. The station continued to operate until the fall of East Germany and the Berlin Wall. Yet after the station was closed, abandoned, and the equipment removed, the derelict buildings and radar domes still remained. This was too much temptation to urban explorers, especially since the elevation of Teufelsberg is 115 mt, and the former NSA Listening Station is over 80 mt high, offering the best views overlooking Berlin. The once highly classified, now highly vandalized NSA radar domes at Teufelsberg. 150

151

152

153

154

155

25 _ Spreepark

Zone: 3 Location: Kiehnwerderallee 1, 12437 Berlin Area: 29.5 hectare Land use: Park Previous Function: Amusement Park Year: 1969 Actual Conditions: Abandoned

An old GDR-era amusement park flanked by the River Spree, abandoned to the elements at the edge of Treptower Park in Berlin. East Germany’s only permanent fun park after opening as the 29.5 hectare Kulturpark Plänterwald in 1969, it was hugely popular, not least because of its 45 meter Riesenrad (Ferris wheel). Spreepark was host to some 1.7 million visitors a year at its peak. Since the Berlin Wall fell in 1989 however, its decline began . Only 400,000 visitors graced the park with their presence in 2001 before it finally closed on November 5. Meanwhile, Spreepark has been left to rot among the trees and foliage of Plänterwald for the last 12 years, its roller-coasters rusty and neglected, buildings boarded up, and fun-rides left only for the birds and rats to enjoy. The lease given to the owners in 1989 stipulates the land must remain in use as an amusement or recreational park until 2061. 156

157

158

159

160

161

The project

Mini Archipelago

The punctual project is the demonstration of how the

The site was left with two objects in the space, both

concept of “city in the city”, might be applied to the

of them geometrically defined, both very individual

reality in architectural scale.

however not forming an outer space in between

The place was selected as being the one most clearly

themselves.

representing Ungers’ elements, in this case infrastruc-

To unravel this condition and to increase the quali-

ture, detached houses and urban wild nature.

ty of the space an additional volume was designed. It

Guterbahnhof Pankow is a former railroad yard and

became the distribution point between the buildings

freight station. As it was abandoned several years

complex.

now, it is very visible the invasion of the wild nature

Each of the buildings has its own particular morpho-

all over the area.

logy: one is circular, the other one is semi-circular and

The site is framed by the existing railways on south

the squared. The aim is to show that the morphology

east side, overcrossing highway on north side the

of a space itself reveals the possible function the buil-

other side. Also the urban fabric is very diverse: on

ding can host.

the south detached housing while on the north mo-

The function that could settle in those buildings

dernist blocks.

(morphology) is a specialized center for performan-

Following the concept of “green archipelago”, the first

ces. The circle building reveals as a stage, the semicir-

operation applied in Guterbahnhof was to clarify the

cular one, since it naturally works in a radial direc-

hierarchy of the area. The area was cleaned by demo-

tion and has a significant height , is easily able to host

lishing all little buildings, that were additions and by

the various workshops. The third one works with a

preserving just the two main deposit buildings. Both

very rigid grid and it was thought to host residence

of these two volumes have a very specific morphology

apartments .

and a really strong character.

To specify the complex was chosen to become the

165

acrobatic academy, as a very particular and alternative attraction point to this side of the city. The circular building, as very homogeneous space, is accommodating the performance function of the school. It becomes the arena that is able to host various kinds of events. To keep the building as original as possible, only two little arm-like insertions were added for the distributional purposes, underlining the public and the services entrances, as well as helping to organize outside space. The radial building is the main academy building, which host the spaces for training and for studying. To keep the continuity of the space, all the serving functions (as changing rooms, bathrooms, storages) were placed in a box - like rooms which also help to separate the space between inner functions. The new volume, a squared - plan tower host the administration and residence for the students. It becomes a landmark for the area as well as distributional point. The outer space organization is based on the position of the buildings between each other and between emphasized wild greenery. The complex becomes a mini version of green archipelago. 166

167

168

169

170

1:1000 171

The Arena

9 5

10 9

2 1

Underground Floor

174

1 _ Access to the stage

6 _ Toilettes guests (women)

2 _ Entrance to backstage

7 _ Changing Room, Showers, Toilettes (men)

3 _ Main access to the stage

8 _ Changing Room, Showers, Toilettes (women)

4 _ Entrance to backstage

9 _ Maquillage Room

5 _ Toilettes guests (men)

10 _ Divaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Room

14 2

Ground Floor

11 _ Clothes Storehouse 12 _ Storage Room 13 _ Main Hall 14 _ Performance Arena 15 _ Seats Theater 1:500 175

Arena Section

176

m 0

20 177

The Academy

180

1 _ Cafeteria - Self-service restaurant

6 _ Fitness Room - High training gym

2 _ Kitchen

7 _ Storage Room

3 _ Library - Study room

8 _ Changing Room, Showers, Toilettes (men)

4 _ Information and administration offices

9 _ Changing Room, Showers, Toilettes (women)

5 _ Medical Clinics

10 _ Main Training Hall

3 4

6 7

10 9

1:500 181

Academy Section

182

m 0

20 183

The Residence

1 _ Main Entrance

6 _ Common Area

2 _ Reception

7 _ Common Terrace

3 _ Administration offices

8 _ Single Rooms

4 _ Services 5 _ Storage

186

9 _ Double Rooms

Ground floor

6 7

Floor Type

1:500 187

188

189

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Web sites - www.abandonedberlin.com - www.albertnromero.com - www.andberlin.com - www.anopenfactory.wordpress.com - www.alternativeberlin.com - www.berlin.de - www.berlin-eisfabrik.de - www.boetzowberlin.de - www.capitalofgermany.com - www.deutsches-architektur-forum.de - www.digitalcosmonaut.com - www.ilmitte.com - www.kunsthaus-tacheles.de - www.leerstandsmelder.de - www.mostlyberlin.blogspot.it - www.myberlin-wohnen.de - www.nautil.us - www.rottenrails.wordpress.com - www.rottenruins.blogspot.it - www.stadtbildberlin.wordpress.com - www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de - www.steland-twinning.net - www.transformationberlin.blogspot.it

Quotations: [1] Ungers O.M., “The city in the city. Berlin: A Green Archipelago” (cover) [2] Ungers O.M., “The city in the city. Berlin: A Green Archipelago” (Thesis 5) [3] Ungers O.M., “The city in the city. Berlin: A Green Archipelago” (Thesis 4) [4] Ungers O.M., “The city in the city. Berlin: A Green Archipelago” (Thesis 5 [5] Ungers O.M., “The city in the city. Berlin: A Green Archipelago” (Thesis 4) [6] Ungers O.M., “The city in the city. Berlin: A Green Archipelago” (Thesis 5) [7] Cupers K., Miessen M., “Spaces of Uncertainty” (pp 129)

Image credits to : www.abandonedberlin.com www.digitalcosmonaut.com

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Acknowledgements

A special thanks goes first to our supervisor Giancarlo Floridi who motivated this research, supported us and had the patience to follow our work. Without his full and active trust and encouragement this thesis could not have been produced. Help and advice was also provided at different stages of the process by number of people, including collegues and friends: Davide Carraâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, Anna Casati, Massimo Della Rosa, Chiara Luisa Ferraio and Ieva Ramonaite. We therefore wish to express our fullest gratitude to all of them. Last but not least we thank our families who gave us the opportunity and the support to reach this goal.

Giada and Justina, April 2014

195