Circumnavigation of Earth | Voyage of Makulu Beautiful Nation by Justin Farrow

Circumnavigation of Earth Curated by Beautiful Nation

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Contents Articles Circumnavigation

Navigation

Circumference

Meridian (geography)

Sailing

Cruising (maritime)

List of circumnavigations

Around the world sailing record

Juan SebastiĂĄn Elcano

Ferdinand Magellan

Francis Drake

MartĂn Ignacio de Loyola

Thomas Cavendish

Jacques Mahu

Olivier van Noort

Joris van Spilbergen

Willem Schouten

100

Jacques l'Hermite

103

Pedro Cubero

105

William Dampier

106

Gemelli Careri

113

Woodes Rogers

118

George Anson, 1st Baron Anson

127

John Byron

133

Samuel Wallis

135

Louis Antoine de Bougainville

137

James Cook

143

Tobias Furneaux

156

Alessandro Malaspina

158

George Dixon (Royal Navy officer)

168

Nathaniel Portlock

172

Robert Gray (sea captain)

174

Great White Fleet

182

Harry Pidgeon

193

References Article Sources and Contributors

195

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

201

Article Licenses License

206

Circumnavigation

Circumnavigation "Round the world" redirects here. For the airline ticket, see Round-the-world ticket. Circumnavigation — literally, "navigation of a circumference" — refers to travelling all the way around an island, a continent, or (usually) the entire planet Earth. The first world circumnavigation in history was the Magellan-Elcano expedition which sailed from Spain in 1519 and returned in 1522 after having crossed the Atlantic, the Pacific and the Indian oceans.

Global circumnavigation In principle, if a person walks completely around either Pole, they will have crossed all meridians, but this is not generally considered a "circumnavigation." A basic definition of a global circumnavigation would be a route which covers at least a great circle, and in particular one which passes through at least one pair of points antipodal to each other. In practice, different definitions of world circumnavigation are used, in order to accommodate practical constraints depending on the method of travel. Since the planet is quasispheroidal, a trip from one Pole to the other, and back again on the other side, would technically be a circumnavigation, but practical difficulties generally preclude such a voyage.

Jason Lewis of Expedition 360 pedaling his boat Moksha on the River Thames in London, shortly before completing the first human-powered circumnavigation of the Earth (2007)

In 2012, PlanetSolar became the first ever solar

The first single voyage of global circumnavigation was that of the ship electric vehicle to circumnavigate the globe "Victoria", between 1519 and 1522, known as the Magellan–Elcano expedition. It was a Spanish voyage of discovery led initially by Ferdinand Magellan between 1519 and 1521, and then by Juan Sebastián Elcano from 1521 to 1522. The voyage started in Seville, crossed the Atlantic Ocean, and after several stopovers rounded the southern tip of South America. It then continued across the Pacific "discovering" a number of islands on its way, including Guam and the Philippines. After Magellan's death in the Philippines in 1521, Elcano took command of the expedition and continued the journey across the Indian Ocean, round the Cape of Good Hope, north along the Atlantic Ocean, and back to Spain in 1522. Elcano and a small group of 18 men were actually the only members of the expedition to make the full circumnavigation. In 1577, Elizabeth I sent Francis Drake to start an expedition against the Spanish along the Pacific coast of the Americas. Drake set out from Plymouth, England in November 1577, aboard Pelican, which Drake renamed Golden Hind mid-voyage. In September 1578, he passed through the southern tip of South America, named Drake Passage, which connects the southwestern part of the Atlantic Ocean with the southeastern part of the Pacific Ocean. In June 1579, Drake landed somewhere north of Spain's northern-most claim in Alta California, which is known as Drakes Bay, California. Drake completed the second circumnavigation of the world in September 1580. For the wealthy, long voyages around the world, such as was done by Ulysses S. Grant, became possible in the 19th century, and the two World Wars moved vast numbers of troops around the planet. However, it was later improvements in technology and rising incomes that made such trips relatively common.

Circumnavigation

Nautical The nautical global circumnavigation record is currently held by a wind-powered vessel.

Wind powered The map on the right shows, in red, a typical, non-competitive, route for a sailing circumnavigation of the world by the trade winds and the Suez and Panama canals; overlaid in yellow are the points antipodal to all points on the route. It can be seen that the route roughly approximates a great circle, and passes through two pairs of antipodal points. This is a route followed by many cruising sailors, going in the western direction; the use of the trade winds makes it a relatively easy sail, although it passes through a number of zones of calms or light winds.

The route of a typical modern sailing circumnavigation, via the Suez Canal and the Panama Canal is shown in red; its antipodes are shown in yellow.

In yacht racing, a round-the-world route approximating a great circle would be quite impractical, particularly in a non-stop race where use of the Panama and Suez Canals would be impossible. Yacht racing therefore defines a world circumnavigation to be a passage of at least 21,600 nautical miles (40,000 km) in length which crosses the equator, crosses every meridian and finishes in the same port as it starts. The map on the left shows the route of the Vendée Globe round-the-world race in red; overlaid in yellow are the points antipodal to all points on The route of a typical yacht racing the route. It can be seen that the route does not pass through any pairs circumnavigation is shown in red; its antipodes are shown in yellow. of antipodal points. Since the winds in the higher latitudes predominantly blow west-to-east it can be seen that there is an easier route (west-to-east) and a harder route (east-to-west) when circumnavigating by sail; this difficulty is magnified for square-rig vessels. For around the world sailing records, there is a rule saying that the length must be at least 21,600 nautical miles calculated along the shortest possible track from the starting port and back that does not cross land and does not go below 63°S. It is allowed to have one single waypoint to lengthen the calculated track. The equator must be crossed. The current wind powered circumnavigation record of 45 days 13 hours 42 minutes 53 seconds was established by Loïck Peyron on the maxi-multihull sailing yacht Banque Populaire V and completed on the 6th of January 2012. The voyage followed the North Atlantic Ocean, Equator, South Atlantic Ocean, Southern Ocean, South Atlantic Ocean, Equator, North Atlantic Ocean route in an easterly direction.

Mechanically powered Since the advent of world cruises in 1922, by Cunard's Laconia, thousands of people have completed circumnavigations of the globe at a more leisurely pace. Typically, these voyages begin in New York City or Southampton, and proceed westward. Routes vary, either travelling through the Caribbean and then into the Pacific Ocean via the Panama Canal, or around Cape Horn. From there ships usually make their way to Hawaii, the islands of the South Pacific, Australia, New Zealand, then northward to Hong Kong, South East Asia, and India. At that point, again, routes may vary: one way is through the Suez Canal and into the Mediterranean; the other is around Cape of Good Hope and then up the west coast of Africa. These cruises end in the port where they began.

Circumnavigation The current mechanically powered circumnavigation record of 60 days 23 hours and 49 minutes was established by a voyage of the wave-piercing trimaran Earthrace which was completed on 27 June 2008. The voyage followed the North Atlantic Ocean, Panama Canal, Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, Suez Canal, Mediterranean Sea route in a westerly direction.

Aviation Since the development of commercial aviation thousands of people have flown around the world. Some regular routes, such as Pan American Flight One (and later United Airlines Flight One), circled the globe, and today planning such a trip through connections is simple. The first successful attempt to circumnavigate the planet Earth by air occurred in 1924, flown by aviators of the U.S. Army Air Service in a quartet of Douglas World Cruiser biplanes. The first lighter-than-air aircraft of any type to circumnavigate the Earth under its own power was the rigid airship LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin, which did so in 1929. Aviation records take account of the wind circulation patterns of the world; in particular the jet streams, which circulate in the northern and southern hemispheres without crossing the equator. There is therefore no requirement to cross the equator, or to pass through two antipodal points, in the course of setting a round-the-world aviation record. Thus, for example, Steve Fossett's global circumnavigation by balloon was entirely contained within the southern hemisphere. For powered aviation, the course of a round-the-world record must start and finish at the same point and cross all meridians; the course must be at least 36,787.559 kilometres (22,858.729 mi) long (which is the length of the Tropic of Cancer). The course must include set control points at latitudes outside the Arctic and Antarctic circles. In ballooning, which is totally at the mercy of the winds, the requirements are even more relaxed. The course must cross all meridians, and must include a set of checkpoints which are all outside of two circles, chosen by the pilot, having radii of 3,335.85 kilometres (2,072.80 mi) and enclosing the poles (though not necessarily centred on them).[1]

Astronautics The first person to fly in space, Yuri Gagarin, also became the first person to complete an orbital spaceflight in the Vostok 1 spaceship, in 1961. Early NASA space missions included only sub-orbital spaceflights.

Human-powered According to adjudicating bodies Guinness World Records and Explorersweb, Jason Lewis completed the first human-powered circumnavigation of the globe on October 6, 2007. This was part of a thirteen-year journey entitled Expedition 360. In 2012, Turkish adventurer Erden Eruç of Around-n-Over [2] completed the first entirely solo human-powered circumnavigation. Eruç traveled by rowboat, sea kayak, foot and bicycle from 10 July 2007 to 21 July 2012. Erden crossed the equator two times, passed over 12 antipodal points, and logged 66,299 kilometres (41,196 mi) in 1,026 days of travel time, excluding breaks.[3][4] Controversy: National Geographic lists Colin Angus as being the first to complete a global circumnavigation. However, his journey did not cross the equator or hit the minimum of two antipodal points as stipulated by the rules of Guinness World Records and AdventureStats [5] by Explorersweb. A true circumnavigation of the world must pass through two points antipodean to each other. Norris McWhirter, founding editor of Guinness, 1971. [A] true circumnavigation of the Earth must: start and finish at the same point, traveling in one general direction, reach two antipodes, cross the equator, cross all longitudes, cover a minimum of 40,000km. AdventureStats [5] by

Circumnavigation

Explorersweb In popular parlance, a "Loop" refers to a lengthy trip circumnavigating the globe, especially when done with an educational intent or a general goal of broadening one's cultural perspectives, such as a Loop taken during a Gap Year between high school and college. People have both bicycled and run around the world, but the oceans have had to be covered by air travel, making the distance shorter than the Guinness guidelines. To go from North America to Asia on foot is theoretically possible but very difficult. It involves crossing the Bering Strait on the ice, and around 3000 km of roadless swamped or freezing cold areas in Alaska and eastern Russia. No one has so far travelled all of this route by foot. David Kunst was the first verified person to walk around the world between 20 June 1970 and 10 October 1974. See also: Around the world cycling record

Notable circumnavigations Main article: List of circumnavigations

Maritime • The Spanish Magellan-Elcano expedition of August 1519 to 8 September 1522, started by Portuguese navigator Fernão de Magalhães (Ferdinand Magellan) and completed by Spanish navigator Juan Sebastián Elcano after Magellan's death, was the first global circumnavigation.[6] • Francis Drake carried out the second circumnavigation of the world, from 1577 to 1580. • HMS Driver completed the first circumnavigation by a steam ship in 1845–1847. • The Spanish frigate Numancia, commanded by Juan Bautista Antequera y Bobadilla, completed the first circumnavigation by an ironclad in 1865–1867. • Joshua Slocum completed the first single-handed circumnavigation in 1895–1898. • In 1960, the U.S. Navy nuclear-powered submarine USS Triton (SSRN-586) completed the submerged circumnavigation of the world.

A replica of Magellan's Nao Victoria, the first vessel to circumnavigate the planet

• In 2012, PlanetSolar became the first ever solar electric vehicle to circumnavigate the globe.

Aviation • United States Army Air Service, 1924, first aerial circumnavigation, 175 days, covering 44,360 kilometres (27,560 mi), with examples of the Douglas World Cruiser biplane. • In 1949, the Lucky Lady II, a Boeing B-50 Superfortress of the U. S. Air Force, commanded by Captain James Gallagher, became the first aeroplane to circle the world nonstop. This was achieved by refueling the plane in flight. Total time airborne was 94 hours and 1 minute. • In 1999, Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones, achieved the first non-stop balloon circumnavigation in Breitling Orbiter 3. • In 2005, Steve Fossett, flying a Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer, set the current record for fastest aerial circumnavigation (first non-stop, non-refueled solo circumnavigation in an airplane) in 67 hours, covering 37,000 kilometers.

Circumnavigation

• The Swiss solar-powered aircraft Solar Impulse plan to make the first solar-powered aerial circumnavigation of the globe in 2015.

Land • In 1841-1842 Sir George Simpson (administrator) made the first "land circumnavigation", crossing Canada and Siberia and returning to London.

Human • On June 13, 2003, Robert Garside completed the first recognized run around the world, taking 5 ½ years; the run was authenticated in 2007 by Guinness World Records after 5 years of verification.[7] • On October 6, 2007, Jason Lewis completed the first human-powered circumnavigation of the globe. • On July 21, 2012, Erden Eruç completed the first entirely solo human-powered circumnavigation of the globe. Eruç set several ocean rowing records during the journey including the first to row three oceans, longest non-stop row and most days at sea for any living rower.

References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]

FAI Sporting Code Section 1: Aerostats: Around-the-World Records (http:/ / www. fai. org/ documents/ sportingcode/ sc1) http:/ / www. around-n-over. org Around-n-Over (http:/ / www. around-n-over. org/ circumnavigation. htm) The Ocean Rowing Society (http:/ / www. oceanrowing. com/ ErdenEruc/ index_all_routes. htm) http:/ / www. adventurestats. com/ rules. shtml#around Magellan's Voyage: A Narrative Account of the First Circumnavigation.'Magellan's Voyage' By Antonio Pigafetta, Raleigh Ashlin Skelton. Published by Courier Dover Publications, 1994. ISBN 0-486-28099-3, ISBN 978-0-486-28099-8 [7] Guinness press release, as linked from Garside's website (http:/ / docs. google. com/ viewer?a=v& q=cache:V5wI2K5loskJ:www. guinnessworldrecords. com/ mediazone/ pdfs/ news/ 070327_Earliest_Run_around_the_World. pdf+ robert+ garside+ guinness+ world+ records& hl=en& gl=uk& pid=bl& srcid=ADGEESgYDAaXJ4u9SS-hljTJnM-oNd2ElGFjlgz1GiVkdIbusTJTa8SU_fGHkC2e-NgqVLg7kXTahtZRcz6bsaWAb6fsy1iY3Rxahbg5HdlMpC9JS5qdrVX sig=AHIEtbQn8bz04_0Tb97HHmPjoC4JcKjfKg): "Although Robert’s record attempt finished in 2003, it has taken 5 years to collate and confirm the record evidence [...] We are very cautious to accept records like this because they are difficult to certify, however Robert has provided us with full evidence which enabled us to authenticate his amazing achievement. We initially evaluated 15 boxes full of credit card statements, receipts in Robert’s name and other useful evidence, which supported Robert’s presence in all of the 29 countries within the time specified. We then moved on to establish whether Robert had actually been running and started to look through an astronomical number of pictures and newspaper cuttings from different parts of Robert’s route. We also reviewed over 300 time-coded tapes featuring Robert running at different locations during his journey. We could finally double check the route followed through statements from several witnesses, and passports stamps and visas..."

Navigation

Navigation This article is about determination of position and direction on or above the surface of the earth. For other uses, see Navigation (disambiguation). Navigation is a field of study that focuses on the process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another.[1] The field of navigation includes four general categories: land navigation, marine navigation, aeronautic navigation, and space navigation. It is also the term of art used for the specialized knowledge used by navigators to perform navigation tasks. All navigational techniques involve locating the navigator's position compared to known locations or patterns. Navigation, in a broader sense, can refer to any skill or study that involves the determination of position and direction. In this sense, navigation includes orienteering and pedestrian navigation. For information about different navigation strategies that people use, visit human navigation.

History For more details on this topic, see History of navigation.

Table of geography, hydrography, and

In the European medieval period, navigation was considered part of the navigation, from the 1728 Cyclopaedia set of seven mechanical arts, none of which were used for long voyages across open ocean. Polynesian navigation is probably the earliest form of open ocean navigation, though it was based on memory and observation rather than on scientific methods or instruments. Early Pacific Polynesians used the motion of stars, weather, the position of certain wildlife species, or the size of waves to find the path from one island to another. Maritime navigation using scientific instruments such as the mariner's astrolabe first occurred in the Mediterranean during the Middle Ages. Although land astrolabes were invented in the Hellenistic period and existed in classical antiquity and the Islamic Golden Age, the oldest record of a sea astrolabe is that of Majorcan astronomer Ramon Llull dating from 1295.[2] The perfectioning of this navigation instrument is attributed to Portuguese navigators during early Portuguese discoveries in the Age of Discovery.[3] The earliest known description of how to make and use a sea astrolabe comes from Spanish cosmographer Melvin Mel Pros Cespedes's[4] Arte de Navegar (The Art of Navigation) published in 1551,[5] based on the principle of the archipendulum used in constructing the Egyptian pyramids. Open-seas navigation using the astrolabe and the compass started during the Age of Discovery in the 15th century. The Portuguese began systematically exploring the Atlantic coast of Africa from 1418, under the sponsorship of Prince Henry. In 1488 Bartolomeu Dias reached the Indian Ocean by this route. In 1492 the Spanish monarchs funded Christopher Columbus's expedition to sail west to reach the Indies by crossing the Atlantic, which resulted in the Discovery of America. In 1498, a Portuguese expedition commanded by Vasco da Gama reached India by sailing around Africa, opening up direct trade with Asia. Soon, the Portuguese sailed further eastward, to the Spice Islands in 1512, landing in China one year later. The first circumnavigation of the earth was completed in 1522 with the Magellan-Elcano expedition, a Spanish voyage of discovery led by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan and completed by Spanish navigator Juan SebastiĂĄn Elcano after the former's death in the Philippines in 1521. The fleet of seven ships sailed from SanlĂşcar de

Navigation

Barrameda in Southern Spain in 1519, crossed the Atlantic Ocean and after several stopovers rounded the southern tip of South America. Some ships were lost, but the remaining fleet continued across the Pacific making a number of discoveries including Guam and the Philippines. By then, only two galleons were left from the original seven. The Victoria led by Elcano sailed across the Indian Ocean and north along the coast of Africa, to finally arrive in Spain in 1522, three years after its departure. The Trinidad sailed east from the Philippines, trying to find a maritime path back to the Americas, but was unsuccessful. The eastward route across the Pacific, also known as the tornaviaje (return trip) was only discovered forty years later, when Spanish cosmographer Andrés de Urdaneta sailed from the Philippines, north to parallel 39º, and hit the eastward Kuroshio Current which took its galleon across the Pacific. He arrived in Acapulco on October 8, 1565.

Etymology 1530s, from L. navigationem (nom. navigatio), from navigatus, pp. of navigare "to sail, sail over, go by sea, steer a ship," from navis "ship" and the root of agere "to drive".[6]

Basic concepts

Map of Earth Longitude (λ) Lines of longitude appear vertical with varying curvature in this projection, but are actually halves of great ellipses, with identical radii at a given latitude. Latitude (φ) Lines of latitude appear horizontal with varying curvature in this projection; but are actually circular with different radii. All locations with a given latitude are collectively referred to as a circle of latitude. The equator divides the planet into a Northern Hemisphere and a Southern Hemisphere, and has a latitude of 0°.

Navigation

Geodesy Fundamentals • • • •

Geodesy Geodynamics Geomatics Cartography Concepts

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Datum

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Distance

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Geoid

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Fig. Earth

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Geodetic system

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Geodesic

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Geog. coord. system

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Hor. pos. represent.

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Lat. / Long.

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Map proj.

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Ref. ellipsoid

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Satellite geodesy

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Spatial ref. system Technologies

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GNSS

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GPS

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GLONASS

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Galileo

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IRNSS

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Beidou-2 Standards

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ED50

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ETRS89

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GRS 80

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NAD83

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NAVD88

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SAD69

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SRID

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UTM

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WGS84 History

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History of geodesy NAVD29

v t

e [7]

Navigation

Latitude Further information: Latitude Roughly, the latitude of a place on Earth is its angular distance north or south of the equator.[8] Latitude is usually expressed in degrees (marked with °) ranging from 0° at the Equator to 90° at the North and South poles. The latitude of the North Pole is 90° N, and the latitude of the South Pole is 90° S. Mariners calculated latitude in the Northern Hemisphere by sighting the North Star Polaris with a sextant and sight reduction tables to correct for height of eye and atmospheric refraction. The height of Polaris in degrees above the horizon is the latitude of the observer, within a degree or so.

Longitude Further information: Longitude Similar to latitude, the longitude of a place on Earth is the angular distance east or west of the prime meridian or Greenwich meridian. Longitude is usually expressed in degrees (marked with °) ranging from 0° at the Greenwich meridian to 180° east and west. Sydney, for example, has a longitude of about 151° east. New York City has a longitude of 74° west. For most of history, mariners struggled to determine longitude. Longitude can be calculated if the precise time of a sighting is known. Lacking that, one can use a sextant to take a lunar distance (also called the lunar observation, or lunar for short) that, with a nautical almanac, can be used to calculate the time at zero longitude (see Greenwich Mean Time). Reliable marine chronometers were unavailable until the late 18th century and not affordable until the 19th century. For about a hundred years, from about 1767 until about 1850,[9] mariners lacking a chronometer used the method of lunar distances to determine Greenwich time to find their longitude. A mariner with a chronometer could check its reading using a lunar determination of Greenwich time.

Loxodrome Further information: Rhumb Line In navigation, a rhumb line (or loxodrome) is a line crossing all meridians of longitude at the same angle, i.e. a path derived from a defined initial bearing. That is, upon taking an initial bearing, one proceeds along the same bearing, without changing the direction as measured relative to true or magnetic north.

Modern technique Most modern navigation relies primarily on positions determined electronically by receivers collecting information from satellites. Most other modern techniques rely on crossing lines of position or LOP.[10] A line of position can refer to two different things: a line on a chart and a line between the observer and an object in real life.[11] A bearing is a measure of the direction to an object. If the navigator measures the direction in real life, the angle can then be drawn on a nautical chart and the navigator will be on that line on the chart. In addition to bearings, navigators also often measure distances to objects. On the chart, a distance produces a circle or arc of position. Circles, arcs, and hyperbolae of positions are often referred to as lines of position. If the navigator draws two lines of position, and they intersect he must be at that position. A fix is the intersection of two or more LOPs. If only one line of position is available, this may be evaluated against the Dead reckoning position to establish an estimated position.[12] Lines (or circles) of position can be derived from a variety of sources: • celestial observation (a short segment of the circle of equal altitude, but generally represented as a line), • terrestrial range (natural or man made) when two charted points are observed to be in line with each other,[13] • compass bearing to a charted object,

Navigation

• radar range to a charted object, • on certain coastlines, a depth sounding from echo sounder or hand lead line. There are some methods seldom used today such as "dipping a light" to calculate the geographic range from observer to lighthouse Methods of navigation have changed through history.[14] Each new method has enhanced the mariner’s ability to complete his voyage. One of the most important judgments the navigator must make is the best method to use. Some types of navigation are depicted in the table. Modern navigation methods Illustration

Description

Application

Dead reckoning or DR, in which one advances a prior position using the ship's Used at all times. course and speed. The new position is called a DR position. It is generally accepted that only course and speed determine the DR position. Correcting the DR position for leeway, current effects, and steering error result in an estimated position or EP. An inertial navigator develops an extremely accurate EP. Pilotage involves navigating in restricted waters with frequent determination of When within sight of position relative to geographic and hydrographic features. land. Celestial navigation involves reducing celestial measurements to lines of position using tables, spherical trigonometry, and almanacs.

Used primarily as a backup to satellite and other electronic systems in the open ocean.

Electronic navigation covers any method of position fixing using electronic means, including: Radio navigation uses radio waves to determine position by either radio direction finding systems or hyperbolic systems, such as Decca, Omega and LORAN-C.

Losing ground to GPS.

Radar navigation uses radar to determine the distance from or bearing of objects whose position is known. This process is separate from radar’s use as a collision avoidance system.

Primarily when within radar range of land.

Satellite navigation uses artificial earth satellite systems, such as GPS, to determine position.

Used in all situations.

The practice of navigation usually involves a combination of these different methods.

Navigation

Mental navigation checks By mental navigation checks, a pilot or a navigator estimates tracks, distances, and altitudes which then will help him or her avoid gross navigation errors.

Piloting Further information: Pilotage Piloting (also called pilotage) involves navigating an aircraft by visual reference to landmarks,[15] or a water vessel in restricted waters and fixing its position as precisely as possible at frequent intervals.[16] More so than in other phases of navigation, proper preparation and attention to detail are important. Procedures vary from vessel to vessel, and between military, commercial, and private vessels. A military navigation team will nearly always consist of several people. A military navigator might have bearing takers stationed at the gyro repeaters on the bridge wings for taking simultaneous bearings, Manual navigation through Dutch airspace while the civilian navigator must often take and plot them himself. While the military navigator will have a bearing book and someone to record entries for each fix, the civilian navigator will simply pilot the bearings on the chart as they are taken and not record them at all. If the ship is equipped with an ECDIS, it is reasonable for the navigator to simply monitor the progress of the ship along the chosen track, visually ensuring that the ship is proceeding as desired, checking the compass, sounder and other indicators only occasionally. If a pilot is aboard, as is often the case in the most restricted of waters, his judgement can generally be relied upon, further easing the workload. But should the ECDIS fail, the navigator will have to rely on his skill in the manual and time-tested procedures.

Celestial navigation Main article: Celestial navigation Celestial navigation systems are based on observation of the positions of the Sun, Moon, Planets and navigational stars. Such systems are in use as well for terrestrial navigating as for interstellar navigating. By knowing which point on the rotating earth a celestial object is above and measuring its height above the observer's horizon, the navigator can determine his distance from that subpoint. A nautical almanac and a marine chronometer are used to compute the subpoint on earth a celestial body is over, and a sextant is used to measure the body's angular height above the horizon. That height can then be used to A celestial fix will be at the intersection of two or compute distance from the subpoint to create a circular line of position. more circles. A navigator shoots a number of stars in succession to give a series of overlapping lines of position. Where they intersect is the celestial fix. The moon and sun may also be used. The sun can also be used by itself to shoot a succession of lines of position (best done around local noon) to determine a position.

Navigation

Marine chronometer In order to accurately measure longitude, the precise time of a sextant sighting (down to the second, if possible) must be recorded. Each second of error is equivalent to 15 seconds of longitude error, which at the equator is a position error of .25 of a nautical mile, about the accuracy limit of manual celestial navigation. The spring-driven marine chronometer is a precision timepiece used aboard ship to provide accurate time for celestial observations.[] A chronometer differs from a spring-driven watch principally in that it contains a variable lever device to maintain even pressure on the mainspring, and a special balance designed to compensate for temperature variations. A spring-driven chronometer is set approximately to Greenwich mean time (GMT) and is not reset until the instrument is overhauled and cleaned, usually at three-year intervals. The difference between GMT and chronometer time is carefully determined and applied as a correction to all chronometer readings. Spring-driven chronometers must be wound at about the same time each day. Quartz crystal marine chronometers have replaced spring-driven chronometers aboard many ships because of their greater accuracy. They are maintained on GMT directly from radio time signals. This eliminates chronometer error and watch error corrections. Should the second hand be in error by a readable amount, it can be reset electrically. The basic element for time generation is a quartz crystal oscillator. The quartz crystal is temperature compensated and is hermetically sealed in an evacuated envelope. A calibrated adjustment capability is provided to adjust for the aging of the crystal. The chronometer is designed to operate for a minimum of 1 year on a single set of batteries. Observations may be timed and shipâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s clocks set with a comparing watch, which is set to chronometer time and taken to the bridge wing for recording sight times. In practice, a wrist watch coordinated to the nearest second with the chronometer will be adequate. A stop watch, either spring wound or digital, may also be used for celestial observations. In this case, the watch is started at a known GMT by chronometer, and the elapsed time of each sight added to this to obtain GMT of the sight. All chronometers and watches should be checked regularly with a radio time signal. Times and frequencies of radio time signals are listed in publications such as Radio Navigational Aids. The marine sextant For more details on this topic, see Sextant. The second critical component of celestial navigation is to measure the angle formed at the observer's eye between the celestial body and the sensible horizon. The sextant, an optical instrument, is used to perform this function. The sextant consists of two primary assemblies. The frame is a rigid triangular structure with a pivot at the top and a graduated segment of a circle, referred to as the "arc", at the bottom. The second component is the index arm, which is attached to the pivot at the top of the frame. At the bottom is an endless vernier which clamps into teeth on the bottom of the "arc". The optical system consists of two mirrors and, generally, a low power telescope. One mirror, referred to as the "index mirror" is fixed to the top of the index arm, over the pivot. As the index arm is moved, this mirror rotates, and the graduated scale on the arc indicates the measured angle ("altitude").

The marine sextant is used to measure the elevation of celestial bodies above the horizon.

Navigation The second mirror, referred to as the "horizon glass", is fixed to the front of the frame. One half of the horizon glass is silvered and the other half is clear. Light from the celestial body strikes the index mirror and is reflected to the silvered portion of the horizon glass, then back to the observer's eye through the telescope. The observer manipulates the index arm so the reflected image of the body in the horizon glass is just resting on the visual horizon, seen through the clear side of the horizon glass. Adjustment of the sextant consists of checking and aligning all the optical elements to eliminate "index correction". Index correction should be checked, using the horizon or more preferably a star, each time the sextant is used. The practice of taking celestial observations from the deck of a rolling ship, often through cloud cover and with a hazy horizon, is by far the most challenging part of celestial navigation.[citation needed]

Inertial navigation Further information: Inertial navigation Inertial navigation is a dead reckoning type of navigation system that computes its position based on motion sensors. Once the initial latitude and longitude is established, the system receives impulses from motion detectors that measure the acceleration along three or more axes enabling it to continually and accurately calculate the current latitude and longitude. Its advantages over other navigation systems are that, once the starting position is set, it does not require outside information, it is not affected by adverse weather conditions and it cannot be detected or jammed. Its disadvantage is that since the current position is calculated solely from previous positions, its errors are cumulative, increasing at a rate roughly proportional to the time since the initial position was input. Inertial navigation systems must therefore be frequently corrected with a location 'fix' from some other type of navigation system. The US Navy developed a Ships Inertial Navigation System (SINS) during the Polaris missile program to ensure a safe, reliable and accurate navigation system for its missile submarines. Inertial navigation systems were in wide use until satellite navigation systems (GPS) became available. Inertial Navigation Systems are still in common use on submarines, since GPS reception or other fix sources are not possible while submerged.

Electronic navigation Radio navigation For more details on this topic, see Radio navigation. A radio direction finder or RDF is a device for finding the direction to a radio source. Due to radio's ability to travel very long distances "over the horizon", it makes a particularly good navigation system for ships and aircraft that might be flying at a distance from land. RDFs works by rotating a directional antenna and listening for the direction in which the signal from a known station comes through most strongly. This sort of system was widely used in the 1930s and 1940s. RDF antennas are easy to spot on German World War II aircraft, as loops under the rear section of the fuselage, whereas most US aircraft enclosed the antenna in a small teardrop-shaped fairing. In navigational applications, RDF signals are provided in the form of radio beacons, the radio version of a lighthouse. The signal is typically a simple AM broadcast of a morse code series of letters, which the RDF can tune in to see if the beacon is "on the air". Most modern detectors can also tune in any commercial radio stations, which is particularly useful due to their high power and location near major cities. Decca, OMEGA, and LORAN-C are three similar hyperbolic navigation systems. Decca was a hyperbolic low frequency radio navigation system (also known as multilateration) that was first deployed during World War II when

Navigation

the Allied forces needed a system which could be used to achieve accurate landings. As was the case with Loran C, its primary use was for ship navigation in coastal waters. Fishing vessels were major post-war users, but it was also used on aircraft, including a very early (1949) application of moving-map displays. The system was deployed in the North Sea and was used by helicopters operating to oil platforms. The OMEGA Navigation System was the first truly global radio navigation system for aircraft, operated by the United States in cooperation with six partner nations. OMEGA was developed by the United States Navy for military aviation users. It was approved for development in 1968 and promised a true worldwide oceanic coverage capability with only eight transmitters and the ability to achieve a four mile (6Â km) accuracy when fixing a position. Initially, the system was to be used for navigating nuclear bombers across the North Pole to Russia. Later, it was found useful for submarines.[17] Due to the success of the Global Positioning System the use of Omega declined during the 1990s, to a point where the cost of operating Omega could no longer be justified. Omega was terminated on September 30, 1997 and all stations ceased operation. LORAN is a terrestrial navigation system using low frequency radio transmitters that use the time interval between radio signals received from three or more stations to determine the position of a ship or aircraft. The current version of LORAN in common use is LORAN-C, which operates in the low frequency portion of the EM spectrum from 90 to 110 kHz. Many nations are users of the system, including the United States, Japan, and several European countries. Russia uses a nearly exact system in the same frequency range, called CHAYKA. LORAN use is in steep decline, with GPS being the primary replacement. However, there are attempts to enhance and re-popularize LORAN. LORAN signals are less susceptible to interference and can penetrate better into foliage and buildings than GPS signals. Radar navigation Further information: Radar navigation When a vessel is within radar range of land or special radar aids to navigation, the navigator can take distances and angular bearings to charted objects and use these to establish arcs of position and lines of position on a chart.[18] A fix consisting of only radar information is called a radar fix.[19] Types of radar fixes include "range and bearing to a single object,"[20] "two or more bearings," "tangent bearings," and "two or more ranges." Parallel indexing is a technique defined by William Burger in the 1957 book The Radar Observer's Handbook.[21] This technique involves creating a line on the screen that is parallel to the ship's course, but offset to the left or right by some distance. This parallel line allows the navigator to maintain a given distance away from hazards.

Radar ranges and bearings can be very useful navigation.

Some techniques have been developed for special situations. One, known as the "contour method," involves marking a transparent plastic template on the radar screen and moving it to the chart to fix a position.[22] Another special technique, known as the Franklin Continuous Radar Plot Technique, involves drawing the path a radar object should follow on the radar display if the ship stays on its planned course.[23] During the transit, the navigator can check that the ship is on track by checking that the pip lies on the drawn line.

Navigation Satellite navigation Further information: Satellite navigation Global Navigation Satellite System or GNSS is the term for satellite navigation systems that provide positioning with global coverage. A GNSS allow small electronic receivers to determine their location (longitude, latitude, and altitude) to within a few metres using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites. Receivers on the ground with a fixed position can also be used to calculate the precise time as a reference for scientific experiments. As of October 2011, only the United States NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) and the Russian GLONASS are fully globally operational GNSSs. The European Union's Galileo positioning system is a next generation GNSS in the initial deployment phase, scheduled to be operational by 2013. China has indicated it may expand its regional Beidou navigation system into a global system. More than two dozen GPS satellites are in medium Earth orbit, transmitting signals allowing GPS receivers to determine the receiver's location, speed and direction. Since the first experimental satellite was launched in 1978, GPS has become an indispensable aid to navigation around the world, and an important tool for map-making and land surveying. GPS also provides a precise time reference used in many applications including scientific study of earthquakes, and synchronization of telecommunications networks. Developed by the United States Department of Defense, GPS is officially named NAVSTAR GPS (NAVigation Satellite Timing And Ranging Global Positioning System). The satellite constellation is managed by the United States Air Force 50th Space Wing. The cost of maintaining the system is approximately US$750 million per year,[24] including the replacement of aging satellites, and research and development. Despite this fact, GPS is free for civilian use as a public good.

Navigation processes Day's work in navigation The Day's work in navigation is a minimal set of tasks consistent with prudent navigation. The definition will vary on military and civilian vessels, and from ship to ship, but takes a form resembling:[25] 1. Maintain continuous dead reckoning plot. 2. Take two or more star observations at morning twilight for a celestial fix (prudent to observe 6 stars). 3. Morning sun observation. Can be taken on or near prime vertical for longitude, or at any time for a line of position. 4. Determine compass error by azimuth observation of the sun. 5. Computation of the interval to noon, watch time of local apparent noon, and constants for meridian or ex-meridian sights. 6. Noontime meridian or ex-meridian observation of the sun for noon latitude line. Running fix or cross with Venus line for noon fix. 7. Noontime determination the day's run and day's set and drift. 8. At least one afternoon sun line, in case the stars are not visible at twilight. 9. Determine compass error by azimuth observation of the sun. 10. Take two or more star observations at evening twilight for a celestial fix (prudent to observe 6 stars).

Navigation

Passage planning Main article: Passage planning Passage planning or voyage planning is a procedure to develop a complete description of vessel's voyage from start to finish. The plan includes leaving the dock and harbor area, the enroute portion of a voyage, approaching the destination, and mooring. According to international law, a vessel's captain is legally responsible for passage planning, however on larger vessels, the task will be delegated to the ship's navigator. Studies show that human error is a factor in 80 percent of navigational accidents and that in many cases the human making the error had access to information that could have prevented the accident. The practice of voyage planning has evolved from penciling lines on nautical charts to a process of risk management.

Poor passage planning and deviation from the plan can lead to groundings, ship damage and cargo loss.

Passage planning consists of four stages: appraisal, planning, execution, and monitoring, which are specified in International Maritime Organization Resolution A.893(21), Guidelines For Voyage Planning, and these guidelines are reflected in the local laws of IMO signatory countries (for example, Title 33 of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations), and a number of professional books or publications. There are some fifty elements of a comprehensive passage plan depending on the size and type of vessel. The appraisal stage deals with the collection of information relevant to the proposed voyage as well as ascertaining risks and assessing the key features of the voyage. In the next stage, the written plan is created. The third stage is the execution of the finalised voyage plan, taking into account any special circumstances which may arise such as changes in the weather, which may require the plan to be reviewed or altered. The final stage of passage planning consists of monitoring the vessel's progress in relation to the plan and responding to deviations and unforeseen circumstances.

Integrated bridge systems Electronic integrated bridge concepts are driving future navigation system planning. Integrated systems take inputs from various ship sensors, electronically display positioning information, and provide control signals required to maintain a vessel on a preset course. The navigator becomes a system manager, choosing system presets, interpreting system output, and monitoring vessel response.

Notes [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

Bowditch, 2003:799. The Ty Pros Companion to Ships and the Sea, Peter Kemp ed., 1976 ISBN 0-586-08308-1 http:/ / www. ancruzeiros. pt/ anci-astrolabio. html See es:MartĂn CortĂŠs de Albacar for the Spanish Wikipedia biography Swanick, Lois Ann. An Analysis Of Navigational Instruments In The Age Of Exploration: 15th Century To Mid-17th century, MA Thesis, Texas A&M University, December 2005 [6] Online Etymology Dictionary (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?search=& searchmode=none) [7] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Geodesy& action=edit [8] Bowditch, 2003:4. [9] Lecky, Squire, Wrinkles in Practical Navigation [10] Maloney, 2003:615. [11] Maloney, 2003:614 [12] Maloney, 2003:618. [13] Maloney, 2003:622. [14] Bowditch, 2002:1.

Navigation [15] Federal Aviation Regulations Part 1 §1.1 [16] Bowditch, 2002:105. [17] http:/ / www. jproc. ca/ hyperbolic/ omega. html [18] Maloney, 2003:744. [19] Bowditch, 2002:816. [20] National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 2001:163. [21] National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 2001:169. [22] National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 2001:164. [23] National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 2001:182. [24] GPS Overview from the NAVSTAR Joint Program Office (http:/ / gps. losangeles. af. mil/ jpo/ gpsoverview. htm). Accessed December 15, 2006. [25] Turpin and McEwen, 1980:6-18.

References • Bowditch, Nathaniel (2002). The American Practical Navigator (http://www.irbs.com/bowditch/). Bethesda, MD: National Imagery and Mapping Agency. ISBN 0-939837-54-4. • Cutler, Thomas J. (December 2003). Dutton's Nautical Navigation (15th ed.). Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-55750-248-3. • Department of the Air Force (March 2001). Air Navigation (http://www.e-publishing.af.mil/pubfiles/af/11/ afpam11-216/afpam11-216.pdf) (PDF). Department of the Air Force. Retrieved 2007-04-17. • Great Britain Ministry of Defence (Navy) (1995). Admiralty Manual of Seamanship. The Stationery Office. ISBN 0-11-772696-6. • Bernhard Hofmann-Wellenhof; K. Legat; M. Wieser (2003). Navigation: principles of positioning and guidance (http://books.google.com/books?id=losWr9UDRasC). Springer. ISBN 978-3-211-00828-7. Retrieved 7 February 2012. • Maloney, Elbert S. (December 2003). Chapman Piloting and Seamanship (64th ed.). New York, NY: Hearst Communications Inc. ISBN 978-1-58816-089-8. • National Imagery and Mapping Agency (2001). Publication 1310: Radar Navigation and Maneuvering Board Manual (http://www.nga.mil/portal/site/maritime/) (PDF) (7th edition ed.). Bethesda, MD: U.S. Government Printing Office. • Turpin, Edward A.; McEwen, William A. (1980). Merchant Marine Officers' Handbook (4th ed.). Centreville, MD: Cornell Maritime Press. ISBN 0-87033-056-X. • Encyclopædia Britannica (1911). "Navigation" (http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/User:Tim_Starling/ ScanSet_TIFF_demo). In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica 19 (11th edition ed.). Retrieved 2007-04-17. • Encyclopædia Britannica (1911). "Pytheas" (http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/User:Tim_Starling/ ScanSet_TIFF_demo). In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica 22 (11th edition ed.). Retrieved 2007-04-17. • Raol, Jitendra; Gopal, Ajith (2013), Mobile Intelligent Autonomous Systems (http://books.google.com/ books?id=HaS91phGuRQC&pg=PA141&dq=sanskrit+navgati&hl=en&sa=X& ei=HnF0UorSGu6gjAK86IGIDQ&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=sanskrit navgati&f=false), CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742, USA

Navigation

External links • The Navlist community: devoted to the history, practice, and preservation of traditional navigation techniques (http://www.fer3.com/NavList/) • General Concepts about Marine Navigation (http://www.globmaritime.com/martech/marine-navigation/ general-concepts/) • Lectures in Navigation (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/27642) by Ernest Gallaudet Draper • Navigasyon (http://www.navigasyon.net) Navigasyon • Navigation (http://www.wildernessmanuals.com/manual_6/chpt_2/index.html) - U.S. Army Manual • Bowditch Online (http://fer3.com/arc/imgx/Bowditch-American-Practical-Navigator-2002-(2004).pdf) complete online edition of the 2002 edition of "Bowditch," The American Practical Navigator • Navigational algorithms (http://sites.google.com/site/navigationalalgorithms/) • Precision navigation tutorial (http://gge.unb.ca/Research/GRL/GeodesyGroup/tutorial/precision_navigation. htm) at University of New Brunswick • How to navigate with less than a compass or GPS (http://alsworld.topcities.com/bwgg/index.html) • LOCUS (http://www.locus.org.uk/) research project about mobile navigation using a digital compass and a GPS. • IACS Unified Requirement N: Navigation (http://www.iacs.org.uk/document/public/Publications/ Unified_requirements/PDF/UR_N_pdf156.PDF) • Glossary of Nautical Terms (http://www.camelot-sailing.com/glossary.html) • SOLAS requirement (http://www.nauticpal.com/content/solas-amendments-additional-bridge-equipment) for Bridge Navigational Watch Alarm System (BNWAS) and for an Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS)

Circumference Part of a series of articles on the

mathematical constant π

Uses • • •

Area of disk Circumference Use in other formulae Properties

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Irrationality Transcendence Value

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Less than 22/7 Approximations Memorization People

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Archimedes

Circumference

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Liu Hui

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Zu Chongzhi

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Aryabhata

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Madhava

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Ludolph van Ceulen

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Seki Takakazu

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Takebe Katahiro

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Yasumasa Kanada History

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Chronology Book In culture

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Legislation Holiday Related topics

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Squaring the circle Basel problem Feynman point Other topics related to π

v t

e [1]

Circumference (from Latin circumferentia, meaning "to carry around") is the linear distance around the edge of a closed curve or circular object. The circumference of a circle is of special importance in geometry and trigonometry. However "circumference" may also refer to the edge of elliptical closed curve. Circumference is a special case of perimeter in that the perimeter is typically around a polygon while circumference is around a closed curve.

Circumference

Circumference of a circle The circumference of a circle is the distance around it. The term is used when measuring physical objects, as well as when considering abstract geometric forms.

Circle illustration with circumference (C) in black, diameter (D) in cyan, radius (R) in red, and centre or origin (O) in magenta. Circumference = π × diameter = 2 × π × radius.

When a circle's radius is 1, its circumference is 2π.

When a circle's diameter is 1, its circumference is π.

Relationship with Pi The circumference of a circle relates to one of the most important mathematical constants in all of mathematics. This constant, pi, is represented by the Greek letter π. The numerical value of π is 3.14159 26535 89793 ... (see A000796), and is defined by two proportionality constants. The first constant is the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter and equals π. While the second constant is the ratio of the diameter and two times the radius and is used as to convert the diameter to radius in the same ratio as the first, π. Both proportionality constants combine in respect with circumference c, diameter d, and radius r to become:

Circumference

The use of the mathematical constant π is ubiquitous in mathematics, engineering, and science. While the constant ratio of circumference to radius also has many uses in mathematics, engineering, and science, it is not formally named. These uses include but are not limited to radians, computer programming, and physical constants.

Circumference of an ellipse The circumference of an ellipse can be expressed in terms of the complete elliptic integral of the second kind.

Circumference of a graph In graph theory the circumference of a graph refers to the longest cycle contained in that graph.

References [1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Pi_box& action=edit

External links • Numericana - Circumference of an ellipse (http://www.numericana.com/answer/ellipse.htm#elliptic) • Circumference of a circle (http://www.mathopenref.com/circumference.html) With interactive applet and animation

Meridian (geography) This article is about the geographical concept. For other uses, see meridian (disambiguation). A meridian (or line of longitude) is the half of an imaginary great circle on the Earth's surface, terminated by the North Pole and the South Pole, connecting points of equal longitude. The position of a point along the meridian is given by its latitude. Each meridian is perpendicular to all circles of latitude. Each is also the same length, being half of a great circle on the Earth's surface and therefore measuring 20,003.93 km (12,429.9 miles).

Geographic The meridian through Greenwich, England, also called the Prime Meridian, was set at zero degrees of longitude, while other meridians were defined by the angle at the center of the earth between where it and the prime meridian cross the equator. As there are 360 degrees in a circle, the meridian on the opposite side of the earth from Greenwich, forming the other half of a circle with the one through Greenwich, is 180° longitude, and the others lie between 0° and 180° of West longitude in the Western Hemisphere (West of Greenwich) and between 0° and 180° of East longitude in the Eastern Hemisphere (East of Greenwich). Most maps show the lines of longitude.

The prime meridian at Greenwich, England. The meridian is actually about 200 metres east of this point since the adoption of WGS84.

The position of the meridian has changed a few times throughout history, mainly due to the transit observatory being built next door to the previous one (to maintain the service to shipping). Such changes had no significant effect.

Meridian (geography) Historically, the accuracy of the determination of longitude was much larger than the change in position. The adoption of WGS84 as the positioning system, has moved the meridian 102.5 metres east of its last position (measured at Greenwich). The position of the current meridian is not identified at all in Greenwich but is located using a GPS receiver. The term "meridian" comes from the Latin meridies, meaning "midday"; the sun crosses a given meridian midway between the times of sunrise and sunset on that meridian. The same Latin stem gives rise to the terms a.m. (ante meridiem) and p.m. (post meridiem) used to disambiguate hours of the day when utilizing the 12-hour clock

Magnetic The magnetic meridian is an equivalent imaginary line connecting the magnetic south and north poles and can be taken as the magnetic force lines along the surface of the earth.[1]Wikipedia:Disputed statement Therefore a compass needle will be parallel to the magnetic meridian. The angle between the magnetic and the true meridian is the magnetic declination, which is relevant for navigating with a compass.[2]

References [1] http:/ / www. met. gov. pk/ Subpage4/ geomagnotes. html [2] http:/ / brunelleschi. imss. fi. it/ museum/ esim. asp?c=100234

External links • The Principal Meridian Project (US) (http://www.pmproject.org/) • (http://www.blm.gov/pgdata/etc/medialib/blm/wo/ MINERALS__REALTY__AND_RESOURCE_PROTECTION_/W0350/cadastral_pdfs.Par.13270.File.dat/ histrect.pdf) Note: This is a large file, approximately 46MB. Searchable PDF prepared by the author, C. A. White. • Resources page of the U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management (http://www.blm.gov/wo/ st/en/prog/more/cadastralsurvey/tools.html/)

Sailing

Sailing For other uses, see Sailing (disambiguation). Sailing is the propulsion of a vehicle and the control of its movement with large (usually fabric) foils called sails. By changing the rigging, rudder, and sometimes the keel or centreboard, a sailor manages the force of the wind on the sails in order to move the vessel relative to its surrounding medium (typically water, but also land and ice) and change its direction and speed. Mastery of the skill requires experience in varying wind and sea conditions, as well as knowledge concerning sailboats themselves and an understanding of one's surroundings.

America's Cup defender Reliance

While there are still some places in the world where sail-powered passenger, fishing and trading vessels are used, these craft have become rarer as internal combustion engines have become economically viable in even the poorest and most remote areas. In most countries sailing is enjoyed as a recreational activity or as a sport. Recreational sailing or yachting can be divided into racing and cruising. Cruising can include extended offshore and ocean-crossing trips, coastal sailing within sight of land, and daysailing.

History For more details on this topic, see Maritime history. Throughout history sailing has been instrumental in the development of civilization, affording humanity greater mobility than travel over land, whether for trade, transport or warfare, and the capacity for fishing. The earliest representation of a ship under sail appears on a painted disc found in Kuwait dating between 5000 and 5500 BC.[1] Advances in sailing technology from the Middle Ages onward enabled Arab, Chinese, Indian and European explorers to make longer voyages into regions with extreme weather and climatic conditions. There were Sea storm with sailing ships, circa 1640 improvements in sails, masts and rigging; navigation equipment improved. From the 15th century onwards, European ships went further north, stayed longer on the Grand Banks and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and eventually began to explore the Pacific Northwest and the Western Arctic.[2] Sailing has contributed to many great explorations in the world.

Sailing

Physics Introduction The air interacting with the sails of a sailing vessel creates various forces, including reaction forces. If the sails are properly oriented with respect to the wind, then the net force on the sails will move the vessel forward.[3] However, boats propelled by sails cannot sail directly into the wind. They must tack (turn the boat through the eye of the wind) back and forth in order to progress directly upwind (see below "Beating").

Sails as airfoils Sails are airfoils that work by using an airflow set up by the wind and the motion of the boat. Sails work in two "modes" to use the wind to generate force (see Forces on sails): • when the boat is going in the same direction as the wind, the wind force simply pushes on the sail. The force on the sail is mostly aerodynamic drag, and sails acting in this way are aerodynamically stalled. • when the boat is traveling across the wind, the air coming in from the side is redirected toward the rear; according to Newton's Third law, the air is accelerated towards the rear of the boat and the sails experience a force in the opposite direction. This force manifests itself as pressure differences between the two sides of the sail - there is a region of low pressure on the front side of the sail and a region of high pressure on the back. Another way to say this is that sails generate lift using the air that flows around them in the same way as an aircraft wing. The wind flowing over the surface of the sail creates a force approximately perpendicular to the sail; the component of that force parallel to the boat's keel pulls the boat forward, the component perpendicular to the keel makes the boat heel and causes leeway.

Apparent wind The wind that a boat experiences is the combination of the true wind (i.e. the wind relative to a stationary object) and the wind that occurs due to the forward motion of the boat. This combination is the apparent wind, which is the relative velocity of the wind relative to the boat. When sailing upwind the apparent wind is greater than the true wind and the direction of the apparent wind will be forward of the true wind. Some high-performance boats are capable of traveling faster than the true windspeed on some points of sail, see for example the Hydroptère, which set a world speed record in 2009 by sailing 1.71 times the speed of the wind. Iceboats can typically sail at 5 times the speed of the wind.[4] The energy that drives a sailboat is harnessed by manipulating the relative movement of wind and water speed: if there is no difference in movement, such as on a calm day or when the wind and water current are moving in the same direction at the same speed, there is no energy to be extracted and the sailboat will not be able to do anything but drift. Where there is a difference in motion, then there is energy to be extracted at the interface. The sailboat does this by placing the sail(s) in the air and the hull(s) in the water. A sailing vessel is not maneuverable due to sails alone—the forces caused by the wind on the sails would cause the vessel to rotate and travel sideways instead of moving forward. In the same manner that an aircraft requires stabilizers, such as a tailplane with elevators as well as wings, a boat requires a keel and rudder. The forces on the sails as well as those from below the water line on the keel, centreboard, and other underwater foils including the hull itself (especially for catamarans or in a traditional proa) combine and partially cancel each other to produce the motive force for the vessel. Thus, the physical portion of the boat that is below water can be regarded as functioning as a "second sail." The flow of water over the underwater hull portions creates hydrodynamic forces, which combine with the aerodynamic forces from the sails to allow motion in almost any direction except straight into the wind.[5] When sailing close to the wind the force generated by the sail acts at 90° to the sail. This force can be considered as split into a small force acting in the direction of travel, as well as a large sideways force that heels (tips) the boat. To enable maximum forward speed, the force needs to be cancelled out, perhaps using human balast, leaving only a

Sailing

smaller forward resultant force. Depending on the efficiency of the rig and hull, the angle of travel relative to the true wind can be as little as 35° or may need to be 80° or greater. This angle is half of the tacking angle and defines one side of a 'no-go zone' into the wind, in which a vessel cannot sail directly. Tacking is essential when sailing upwind. The sails, when correctly adjusted, will generate aerodynamic lift. When sailing downwind, the sails no longer generate aerodynamic lift and airflow is stalled, with the wind push on the sails giving drag only. As the boat is going downwind, the apparent wind is less than the true wind and this, allied to the fact that the sails are not producing aerodynamic lift, serves to limit the downwind speed.[6]

Effects of wind shear Wind shear affects sailboats in motion by presenting a different wind speed and direction at different heights along the mast. Wind shear occurs because of friction above a water surface slowing the flow of air. Thus, a difference in true wind creates a different apparent wind at different heights. Sailmakers may introduce sail twist in the design of the sail, where the head of the sail is set at a different angle of attack from the foot of the sail in order to change the lift distribution with height. The effect of wind shear can be factored into the selection of twist in the sail design, but this can be difficult to predict since wind shear may vary widely in different weather conditions. Sailors may also adjust the trim of the sail to account for wind gradient, for example, using a boom vang.

Points of sail Further information: Points of sail The point of sail describes a sailing boat's course in relation to the wind direction. No sailboat can sail directly into the wind (known as being "in irons"), and for a given boat there is a minimum angle that it can sail relative to the wind; attempting to sail closer than that leads to the sails luffing and the boat will slow down and stop. This "no-go zone" (shown shaded in accompanying figure) is about 45° either side of the true wind for a modern sloop. There are 5 main points of sail. In order from the edge of the no-go zone (or "irons") to directly downwind they are: • close haul (the minimum angle to the wind that the boat and its rig can manage - typically about 45° ) • close reach (between close hauled and a beam reach) • beam reach (approximately 90° to the wind) • broad reach (between a beam reach and running)

The points of sail. A. In Irons (into the wind) B. Close Hauled C. Beam Reach D. Broad Reach E. Running (not shown: Close Reach, between Close Haul and Beam Reach)

• running (close to directly downwind) The sail trim on a boat is relative to the point of sail one is on: on a beam reach sails are mostly let out, on a run sails are all the way out, and close hauled sails are pulled in very tightly. Two main skills of sailing are trimming the sails correctly for the direction and strength of the wind, and maintaining a course relative to the wind that suits the sails once trimmed.

Sailing

Close Hauled or "Beating" A boat can be 'worked to windward', to arrive at an upwind destination, by sailing close-hauled with the wind coming from one side, then tacking (turning the boat through the eye of the wind) and sailing with the wind coming from the other side. By this method of zig-zagging into the wind, known as beating, it is possible to reach any upwind destination. A yacht beating to a mark directly upwind one mile away will cover a distance through the water of at least 1.4 miles, if it can tack through an angle of 90 degrees including leeway. An old adage describes beating as sailing for twice the distance at half the speed and three times the discomfort.[7] Using a series of close-hauled legs to beat a

An estimate of the correct tacking distance can be obtained (and course upwind. thereby the time taken to travel it at various boat speeds) by using Pythagoras' theorem with equal tacks (assume a value of 1). This also assumes a tacking angle of 90°. The straight line distance is the hypotenuse value of √2 When beating to windward one tack may be more favorable than the other - more in the desired direction. The best strategy is to stay on the favorable tack as much as possible. If the wind shifts in the sailor's favor, called a lift, so much the better, then this tack is even more favorable. But if it shifts against the sailor's, called a header, then the opposite tack may become the more favorable course. So when the destination is directly into the wind the best strategy is given by the racing adage "tack on a header." This is true because a header on one tack is a lift on the other. How closely a boat can sail into the wind depends on the boat's design, sail shape and trim, the sea state, and the wind speed. Typical minimum pointing angles to the true wind are as follows. Actual course over the ground will be worse due to leeway. • about 35° for modern racing yachts which have been optimized for upwind performance (like America's Cup yachts) • about 40 to 45° for modern cruiser-racer yachts (fast cruising yachts) • about 50 to 60° for cruisers and workboats with inefficient keels, inefficient hull shapes, or low draught, when compared to craft designed for sailing performance, and for boats carrying two or more masts (since the forward sails adversely affect the windward ability of sails further aft when sailing upwind) • close to 90° for square riggers and similar vessels due to the sail shape which is very ineffective when sailing upwind

Sailing

Sailing close-hauled under a large amount of sail, and heeling a great deal, can induce weather helm, or a tendency for the boat to turn into the wind. This requires pulling the tiller to windward (i.e. 'to weather'), or turning the wheel leeward, in order to counteract the effect and maintain the required course. The lee side of the hull is more under water than the weather side and the resulting shape of the submerged parts of the hull usually creates a force that pushes the bow to weather. Driving both the asymmetric heeling hull form and the angled rudder through the water produces drag that Close hauled or "beating" slows the boat down. If weather helm builds further, it can limit the ability of the helmsperson to steer the boat, which can be turned towards but not effectively away from the wind. At more extreme angles of heel, the boat will spontaneously 'round up' into the wind during gusts, i.e. it will turn into the wind regardless of any corrective action taken on the helm. Any action that reduces the angle of heel of a boat that is reaching or beating to windward will help reduce excessive weather helm. Racing sailors use their body weight to bring the boat to a more upright position, but are not allowed to use "movable ballast" during a race. [8] Reducing or reefing the total sail area will have the same effect and many boats will sail faster with less sail in a stiff breeze due to the reduction in underwater drag. Easing the sheets on aft-most sails, such as the mainsail in a sloop or cutter can have an immediate effect, especially to help with manoeuvering. Moving or increasing sail area forward can also help, for example by raising the jib (and maybe lowering the staysail) on a cutter.

Reaching When the boat is traveling approximately perpendicular to the wind, this is called reaching. A beam reach is with the wind at right angles to the boat, a close reach is anywhere between beating and a beam reach, and a broad reach is between a beam reach and running. For most modern sailboats, that is boats with fore-and-aft sails, reaching is the fastest way to travel. The direction of the wind is ideal when reaching because it can maximize the lift generated on the sails in the forward direction of the boat, giving the best boat speed. Also when reaching, the boat can be steered exactly in the direction that is most desirable, and the sails can be trimmed for that direction.

Reaching

Reaching may, however, put the boat on a course parallel with the crests of the waves. When the waves are steep, it may be necessary to sail closer to the wind to avoid waves directly on the beam, which create the danger of capsizing.

Sailing

Running Sailing the boat within roughly 30 degrees either side of dead downwind is called a run. This can be the most comfortable point of sail, but requires constant attention. When the wind is coming directly behind the boat, the sailor must sail "wing on wing," one sail on port the other on starboard. Loss of attention by the helmsperson can lead to an accidental jibe, causing injury to the boat or crew. All on deck must be aware of, and if possible avoid, the potential arc of the boom, mainsheet and other gear in case an accidental jibe occurs during a run. A preventer can be rigged to reduce danger and damage from accidental jibes. This is generally the most unstable point of sail, but the easiest for a novice to grasp conceptually, making it a common downfall for beginners. In stronger winds, rolling increases as there is less rolling resistance provided by the sails, as they are eased out. Also, having the sails and boom(s) perpendicular to the boat throws weight and some wind force to that side, making the boat harder to balance. In smaller boats, death rolls can build up and lead to capsize. Also on a run an inexperienced or inattentive sailor can easily misjudge the real wind strength since the boat speed subtracts directly from the Running wing and wing true wind speed and makes the apparent wind less. In addition sea conditions can also falsely seem milder than they are as the waves ahead are being viewed from behind making white caps less apparent. When changing course from this point of sail to a reach or a beat, a sailboat that seemed under control can instantly become over-canvassed and in danger. Any boat over-canvassed on a run can round up, heel excessively and stop suddenly in the water. This is called broaching and it can lead to capsize, possible crew injury and loss of crew into the water. Options for maneuvering are also reduced. On other points of sail, it is easy to stop or slow the boat by heading into the wind; there may be no such easy way out when running, especially in close quarters or when a spinnaker (including an Asymmetrical spinnaker), whisker pole or preventer are set.

Basic sailing techniques Trim An important aspect of sailing is keeping the boat in "trim". â&#x20AC;˘ Course made good - The turning or steering of the boat vessel using the wheel or tiller to the desired course or buoy. See different points of sail. This may be a definite bearing (e.g. steer 270 degrees), or along a transit, or at a desired angle to the apparent wind direction. â&#x20AC;˘ Trim - This is the fore and aft balance of the boat. The aim is to adjust the moveable ballast (the crew) forwards or backwards to achieve an 'even keel'. On an upwind course in a small boat, the crew typically sit forward to reduce drag. When 'running', it is more efficient for the crew to sit to the rear of the boat. The position of the crew matters less as the size (and weight) of the boat increases.

Sailing in front of Helsinki, Finland. 8mR Sagitta (Camper & Nicholson 1929), a true sailboat with no motor, lowers its mainsail after a training session before returning to its mooring with the foresail only.

â&#x20AC;˘ Balance - This is the port and starboard balance. The aim, once again, is to adjust weight 'windward' or 'leeward' to prevent excessive heeling. The boat moves at a faster velocity if it is flat to the water.

Sailing â&#x20AC;˘ Sail trim - Trimming sails is a large topic. Simply put, however, a sail should be pulled in until it fills with wind, but no further than the point where the front edge of the sail (the luff) is exactly in line with the wind. Let it out until it starts to flap, and then pull it in until it stops. â&#x20AC;˘ Centreboard (Daggerboard) - If a moveable centreboard is fitted, then it should be lowered when sailing "close to the wind" but can be raised up on downwind courses to reduce drag. The centreboard prevents lateral motion and allows the boat to sail upwind. A boat with no centreboard will instead have a permanent keel, some other form of underwater foil, or even the hull itself which serves the same purpose. On a close haul the daggerboard should be fully down, and while running, over half way up. Together, these points are known as 'The Five Essentials' and constitute the central aspects of sailing.

Tacking and Jibing There are two ways to change from port tack to starboard tack (or vice versa): either by turning the bow through the eye of the wind, "tacking" or the stern, "jibing". In general sailing, tacking is the safer method and preferred especially when sailing upwind; in windsurfing, Jibing is preferred as this involves much less manoeuvring for the sailor. For general sailing, during such course changes, there is work that needs to be done. Just before tacking the command "Ready about" is given, at which point the crew must man the sheet lines which need to be changed over to the other tack and the helmsperson gets ready. To execute the tack the command "Lee-ho" or "Hard-a-lee" is given. The latter is a direct order to the helmsperson to push the tiller hard to the leeward side of the boat making the bow of the boat come up and quickly turn through the eye of the wind to prevent the boat being caught in irons. As the boat turns through the eye of the wind, some sails such as those with a boom and a single sheet may self-tack and need only small adjustments of sheeting points, but for jibs and other sails with separate sheets on either side, the original sheet must be loosened and the opposite sheet lines hauled in and set quickly and properly for the new point of sail. Jibing is often necessary to change course when sailing off the wind or downwind. It is a more dangerous manoeuvre because the boom has further to travel (because the sails are let further out to the side of the boat when travelling downwind) in the same amount of time and therefore must be controlled as the sails catch the new wind direction from astern. An uncontrolled jibe can happen suddenly by itself when sailing downwind if the helmsperson is not paying attention to the wind direction and can be very dangerous as the main boom will sweep across the cockpit very quickly and with great force. Before jibing the command "Ready to jibe" is given. The crew gets ready at their positions. If any sails are constrained with preventers or whisker poles these are taken down. The command "Jibe-ho" is given to execute the turn. The boomed sails must be hauled in and made fast before the stern reaches the eye of the wind, so that they are amidship and controlled as the stern passes through the eye of the wind, and then let out quickly under control and adjusted to the new point of sail. The choice of which strategy to use (coming-about or jibing) depends on the conditions, sail configuration, and the craft. For light craft such as a Hobie Cat (which has little mass) coming into the wind should only be attempted when moving very quickly such as >8 knots. Of course this happens under strong wind. The timing of the crew shift is also critical when coming into the wind. If in light wind, a jibe is the better choice as there's less danger of the wind tipping the boat. A phrase to help remember this is: "light jibe, hard tack" (light/hard referring to wind strength) Of course being caught in irons near shore/structures in strong wind can be catastrohphic.

Sailing

Reducing sail An important safety aspect of sailing is to adjust the amount of sail to suit the wind conditions. As the wind speed increases the crew should progressively reduce the amount of sail. On a small boat with only jib and mainsail this is done by furling the jib and by partially lowering the mainsail, a process called 'reefing the main'. Reefing means reducing the area of a sail without actually changing it for a smaller sail. Ideally reefing does not only result in a reduced sail area but also in a lower centre of effort from the sails, reducing the heeling moment and keeping the boat more upright. There are three common methods of reefing the mainsail: • Slab reefing, which involves lowering the sail by about one-quarter to one-third of its full length and tightening the lower part of the sail using an outhaul or a pre-loaded reef line through a cringle at the new clew, and hook through a cringle at the new tack. • In-mast (or on-mast) roller-reefing. This method rolls the sail up around a vertical foil either inside a slot in the mast, or affixed to the outside of the mast. It requires a mainsail with either no battens, or newly developed vertical battens. • In-boom roller-reefing, with a horizontal foil inside the boom. This method allows for standard- or full-length horizontal battens. Mainsail furling systems have become increasingly popular on cruising yachts, as they can be operated shorthanded and from the cockpit, in most cases. However, the sail can become jammed in the mast or boom slot if not operated correctly. Mainsail furling is almost never used while racing because it results in a less efficient sail profile. The classical slab-reefing method is the most widely used. Mainsail furling has an additional disadvantage in that its complicated gear may somewhat increase weight aloft. However, as the size of the boat increases, the benefits of mainsail roller furling increase dramatically. An old saying goes, "The first time you think of reducing sail you should,"[citation "When you think you are ready to take out a reef, have a cup of tea first."[citation needed]

needed]

and correspondingly,

Sail trimming The most basic control of the sail consists of setting its angle relative to the wind. The control line that accomplishes this is called a "sheet." If the sheet is too loose the sail will flap in the wind, an occurrence that is called "luffing." Optimum sail angle can be approximated by pulling the sheet in just so far as to make the luffing stop, or by using of tell-tales - small ribbons or yarn attached each side of the sail that both stream horizontally to indicate a properly trimmed sail.[9] Finer controls adjust the overall shape of the sail. A Contender dinghy on a reach.

Two or more sails are frequently combined to maximize the smooth flow of air. The sails are adjusted to create a smooth laminar flow over the sail surfaces. This is called the "slot effect". The combined sails fit into an imaginary aerofoil outline, so that the most forward sails are more in line with the wind, whereas the more aft sails are more in line with the course followed. The combined efficiency of this sail plan is greater than the sum of each sail used in isolation. More detailed aspects include specific control of the sail's shape, e.g.: • reefing, or reducing the sail area in stronger wind • altering sail shape to make it flatter in high winds • raking the mast when going upwind (to tilt the sail towards the rear, this being more stable) • providing sail twist to account for wind speed differential and to spill excess wind in gusty conditions • gibbing or lowering a sail

Sailing

Hull trim Hull trim is the adjustment of a boat's loading so as to change its fore-and-aft attitude in the water. In small boats, it is done by positioning the crew. In larger boats the weight of a person has less effect on the hull trim, but it can be adjusted by shifting gear, fuel, water, or supplies. Different hull trim efforts are required for different kinds of boats and different conditions. Here are just a few examples: In a lightweight racing dinghy like a Thistle, the hull should be kept level, on its designed water line for best performance in all conditions. In many small boats, weight too far aft can cause drag by submerging the transom, especially in light to moderate winds. Weight too far forward can cause the bow to dig into the waves. In heavy winds, a boat with its bow too low may capsize by pitching forward over its bow (pitch-pole) or dive under the waves (submarine). On a run in heavy winds, the forces on the sails tend to drive a boat's bow down, so the crew weight is moved far aft.

Heeling When a ship or boat leans over to one side, from the action of waves or from the centrifugal force of a turn or under wind pressure or from amount of exposed topsides, it is said to 'heel'. A sailing boat that is over-canvassed and therefore heeling, may sail less efficiently depending on fundamental or opportunistic factors such as temporary nature of the feature (e.g. wind gust), use (e.g. racing), crew ability, point of sail, hull size & design. When a vessel is subject to a heeling force (such as wind pressure), vessel buoyancy & beam of the hull will counter-act the heeling force. A weighted keel provides additional means to right the boat. In some high-performance racing yachts, water ballast or the angle of a canting keel can be changed to provide additional righting force to counteract heeling. The crew may move their personal weight to the high (upwind) side of the boat, this is called hiking, which also changes the Boats heeling in front of Britannia Bridge in a centre of gravity & produces a righting lever to reduce the degree of round-Anglesey race 1998 heeling. Incidental benefits include faster vessel speed caused by more efficient action of the hull & sails. Other options to reduce heeling include reducing exposed sail area & efficiency of the sail setting & a variant of hiking called "trapezing". This can only be done if the vessel is designed for this, as in dinghy sailing. A sailor can (usually involuntarily) try turning upwind in gusts (it is known as rounding up). This can lead to difficulties in controlling the vessel if over-canvassed. Wind can be spilled from the sails by 'sheeting out', or loosening them. The number of sails, their size and shape can be altered. Raising the dinghy centreboard can reduce heeling by allowing more leeway. The increasingly asymmetric underwater shape of the hull matching the increasing angle of heel may generate an increasing directional turning force into the wind. The sails' centre of effort will also increase this turning effect or force on the vessel's motion due to increasing lever effect with increased heeling which shows itself as increased human effort required to steer a straight course. Increased heeling reduces exposed sail area relative to the wind direction, so leading to an equilibrium state. As more heeling force causes more heel, weather helm may be experienced. This condition has a braking effect on the vessel but has the safety effect in that an excessively hard pressed boat will try and turn into the wind therefore reducing the forces on the sail. Small amounts (â&#x2030;¤5 degrees) of weather helm are generally considered desirable because of the consequent aerofoil lift effect from the rudder. This aerofoil lift produces helpful motion to windward & the corollary of the reason why lee helm is dangerous. Lee helm, the opposite of weather helm, is generally considered to be dangerous because the vessel turns away from the wind when the helm is released, thus increasing forces on the sail at a time when the helmsperson is not in control.

Sailing

Sailing hulls and hull shapes Further information: Hull (watercraft) Sailing boats with one hull are "monohulls", those with two are "catamarans", those with three are "trimarans". A boat is turned by a rudder, which itself is controlled by a tiller or a wheel, while at the same time adjusting the sheeting angle of the sails. Smaller sailing boats often have a stabilizing, raisable, underwater fin called a centreboard, daggerboard, or leeboard; larger sailing boats have a fixed (or sometimes canting) keel. As a general rule, the former are called dinghies, the latter keelboats. However, up until the adoption of the Racing Rules of Sailing, any vessel racing under sail was considered a yacht, be it a multi-masted ship-rigged vessel (such as a sailing frigate), a sailboard (more commonly referred to as a windsurfer) or remote-controlled boat, or anything in between. (See Dinghy sailing.)

Musto Performance Skiff

Multihulls use flotation and/or weight positioned away from the centre line of the sailboat to counter the force of the wind. This is in contrast to heavy ballast that can account for up to 90% (in extreme cases like AC boats) of the weight of a monohull sailboat. In the case of a standard catamaran, there are two similarly-sized and -shaped slender hulls connected by beams, which are sometimes overlaid by a deck superstructure. Another catamaran variation is the proa. In the case of trimarans, which have an unballasted centre hull similar to a monohull, two smaller amas are situated parallel to the centre hull to resist the sideways force of the wind. The advantage of multihulled sailboats is that they do not suffer the performance penalty of having to carry heavy ballast, and their relatively lesser draft reduces the amount of drag, caused by friction and inertia, when moving through the water. One of the most common dinghy hulls in the world is the Laser hull. It was designed by Bruce Kirby in 1969 and unveiled at the New York boat show (1971). It was designed with speed and simplicity in mind. The Laser is 13 feet 10.5Â inches long and a 12.5 foot water line and 76 square feet (7.1Â m2) of sail.

Types of sails and layouts Further information: Sailboat A traditional modern yacht is technically called a "Bermuda sloop" (sometimes a "Bermudan sloop"). A sloop is any boat that has a single mast and usually a single headsail (generally a jib) in addition to the mainsail (Bermuda rig but c.f. Friendship sloop). A cutter (boat) also has a single mast, set further aft than a sloop and more than one headsail. Additionally, Bermuda sloops only have a single sail behind the mast. Other types of sloops are gaff-rigged sloops and lateen sloops. Gaff-rigged sloops have quadrilateral mainsails with a gaff (a Traditional sailing off the northern coast of small boom) at their upper edge (the "head" of the sail). Gaff-rigged Mozambique. vessels may also have another sail, called a topsail, above the gaff. Lateen sloops have triangular sails with the upper edge attached to a gaff, and the lower edge attached to the boom, and the boom and gaff are attached to each other via some type of hinge. It is also possible for a sloop to be square rigged (having large square sails like a Napoleonic Wars-era ship of the line). Note that a "sloop of war", in the naval sense, may well have more than one mast, and is not properly a sloop by the modern meaning. If a boat has two masts, it may be a schooner, a ketch, or a yawl, if it is rigged fore-and-aft on all masts. A schooner may have any number of masts provided the second from the front is the tallest (called the "main mast"). In both a

Sailing ketch and a yawl, the foremost mast is tallest, and thus the main mast, while the rear mast is shorter, and called the mizzen mast. The difference between a ketch and a yawl is that in a ketch, the mizzen mast is forward of the rudderpost (the axis of rotation for the rudder), while a yawl has its mizzen mast behind the rudderpost. In modern parlance, a brigantine is a vessel whose forward mast is rigged with square sails, while her after mast is rigged fore-and-aft. A brig is a vessel with two masts both rigged square. As one gets into three or more masts the number of combinations rises and one gets barques, barquentines, and full rigged ships. A spinnaker is a large, full sail that is only used when sailing off wind either reaching or downwind, to catch the maximum amount of wind.

Sailing by high altitude wind power SkySails is sailing freighter ships. Speedsailor Dave Culp strongly introduced his OutLeader kite sail for speedsailing. Malcolm Phillips invents an advanced sailing technique using high altitude kites and kytoon.[10]

Rigid foils With modern technology, "wings", that is rigid sails, may be used in place of fabric sails. An example of this would be the International C-Class Catamaran Championship and the yacht USA 17 that won the 2010 America's Cup. Such rigid sails are typically made of thin plastic fabric held stretched over a frame. See also AC72 wing-sail catamarans which competed in the 2013 America's Cup.

Alternative wind-powered vessels Some non-traditional rigs capture energy from the wind in a different fashion and are capable of feats that traditional rigs are not, such as sailing directly into the wind. One such example is the wind turbine boat, also called the windmill boat, which uses a large windmill to extract energy from the wind, and a propeller to convert this energy to forward motion of the hull. A similar design, called the autogyro boat, uses a wind turbine without the propellor, and functions in a manner similar to a normal sail.[11] A more recent (2010) development is a cart that uses wheels linked to a propeller to "sail" dead downwind at speeds exceeding wind speed.

Kitesurfing and windsurfing Kitesurfing and windsurfing are other forms of sailing.

Sailing terminology Further information: Glossary of nautical terms Sailors use traditional nautical terms for the parts of or directions on a vessel: starboard (right), port or larboard (left), forward or fore (front), aft or abaft (rearward), bow (forward part of the hull), stern (aft part of the hull), beam (the widest part). Vertical spars are masts, horizontal spars are booms (if they can hit the sailor), yards, gaffs (if they are too high to reach) or poles (if they cannot hit the sailor).==Further [12]

Sailing

Rope and lines In most cases, rope is the term used only for raw material. Once a section of rope is designated for a particular purpose on a vessel, it generally is called a line, as in outhaul line or dock line. A very thick line is considered a cable. Lines that are attached to sails to control their shapes are called sheets, as in mainsheet. If a rope is made of wire, it maintains its rope name as in 'wire rope' halyard. Lines (generally steel cables) that support masts are stationary and are collectively known as a vessel's standing rigging, and individually as shrouds or stays. The stay running forward from a mast to the bow is called the forestay or headstay. Stays running aft are backstays or after stays. Moveable lines that control sails or other equipment are known collectively as a vessel's running rigging. Lines that raise sails are called halyards while those that strike them are called downhauls. Lines that adjust (trim) the sails are called sheets. These are often Standing rigging (on the left) and running rigging referred to using the name of the sail they control (such as main sheet, (on the right), on a sailing boat. or jib sheet). Sail trim may also be controlled with smaller lines attached to the forward section of a boom such as a cunningham; a line used to hold the boom down is called a vang, or a kicker in the United Kingdom. A topping lift is used to hold a boom up in the absence of sail tension. Guys are used to control the ends of other spars such as spinnaker poles. Lines used to tie a boat up when alongside are called docklines, docking cables or mooring warps. In dinghies the single line from the bow is referred to as the painter. A rode is what attaches an anchored boat to its anchor. It may be made of chain, rope, or a combination of the two. Some lines are referred to as ropes: • • • •

a bell rope (to ring the bell), a bolt rope (attached to the edge of a sail for extra strength), a foot rope (for sailors on square riggers to stand on while reefing or furling the sails), and a tiller rope (to temporarily hold the tiller and keep the boat on course).

Other terms Walls are called bulkheads or ceilings, while the surfaces referred to as ceilings on land are called 'overheads'or 'deckheads'. Floors are called 'soles' or decks. "Broken up" was the fate of a ship that hit a "rocky point" or was simply no longer wanted. The toilet is traditionally called the 'head', the kitchen is the galley. When lines are tied off, this may be referred to as 'made fast' or 'belayed.' Sails in different sail plans have unchanging names, however. For the naming of sails, see sail-plan. Sailboat on a mooring ball near Youngstown, NY, USA

Sailing

Knots and line handling See also: List of knots The tying and untying of knots and hitches as well as the general handling of ropes and lines are fundamental to the art of sailing. The RYA basic 'Start Yachting' syllabus lists the following knots and hitches: • figure-eight knot — stopper knot • round turn and two half hitches — secure the end of a rope to a fixed object • bowline — used to form a fixed loop at the end of a rope It also lists securing a line around a cleat and the use of winches and jamming cleats. The RYA Competent Crew syllabus adds the following to the list above, as well as knowledge of the correct use of each: • • • •

clove hitch — securing lines running along a series of posts rolling hitch — rigging a stopper to relax the tension on a sheet reef knot — joining two ends of a single line to bind around an object single and double sheet bend — joining two ropes of different diameters

In addition it requires competent crewmembers to understand 'taking a turn' around a cleat and to be able to make cleated lines secure. Lines and halyards need to be coiled neatly for stowage and reuse. Dock lines need to be thrown and handled safely and correctly when coming alongside, up to a buoy, and when anchoring, as well as when casting off and getting under way.

Rules and regulations Every vessel in coastal and offshore waters is subject to the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (the COLREGS). On inland waterways and lakes other similar regulations, such as CEVNI in Europe, may apply. In some sailing events, such as the Olympic Games, which are held on closed courses where no other boating is allowed, specific racing rules such as the Racing Rules of Sailing (RRS) may apply. Often, in club racing, specific club racing rules, perhaps based on RRS, may be superimposed onto the more general regulations such as COLREGS or CEVNI. In general, regardless of the activity, every sailor must • Maintain a proper lookout at all times • Adjust speed to suit the conditions • Know whether to 'stand on' or 'give way' in any close-quarters situation. The stand-on vessel must hold a steady course and speed but be prepared to take late avoiding action to prevent an actual collision if the other vessel does not do so in time. The give-way vessel must take early, positive and obvious avoiding action, without crossing ahead of the other vessel.(Rules 16-17) 1. If an approaching vessel remains on a steady bearing, and the range is decreasing, then a collision is likely. (Rule 7) This can be checked with a hand-bearing compass. 2. The sailing vessel on port tack[13] gives way to the sailing vessel on starboard tack[14] (Rule 12) 3. If both sailing vessels are on the same tack, the windward boat gives way to the leeward one (Rule 12) 4. If a vessel on port tack is unable to determine the tack of the other boat, she should be prepared to give way (Rule 12) 5. An overtaking vessel must keep clear of the vessel being overtaken (Rule 13) 6. Sailing vessels must give way to vessels engaged in fishing, those not under command, those restricted in their ability to manoeuvre and should avoid impeding the safe passage of a vessel constrained by her draft. (Rule 18) The COLREGS go on to describe the lights to be shown by vessels under way at night or in restricted visibility. Specifically, for sailing boats, red and green sidelights and a white sternlight are required, although for vessels under

Sailing

7 metres (23.0 ft) in length, these may be substituted by a torch or white all-round lantern. (Rules 22 & 25) Sailors are required to be aware not only of the requirements for their own boat, but of all the other lights, shapes and flags that may be shown by other vessels, such as those fishing, towing, dredging, diving etc., as well as sound signals that may be made in restricted visibility and at close quarters, so that they can make decisions under the COLREGS in good time, should the need arise. (Rules 32 - 37) In addition to the COLREGS, CEVNI and/or any specific racing rules that apply to a sailing boat, there are also • The IALA International Association of Lighthouse Authorities standards for lateral marks, lights, signals, and buoyage and rules designed to support safe navigation. • The SOLAS (International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea) regulations, specifically Chapter V, which became mandatory for all leisure craft users of the sea from 1 July 2002. These regulations place the obligations for safety on the owners and operators of any boat including sailboats. They specify the safety equipment needed, the emergency procedures to be used appropriate to the boat's size and its sailing range, and requirements for passage planning with regard to weather and safety.

Licensing Licensing regulations vary widely across the world. While boating on international waters does not require any license, a license may be required to operate a vessel on coastal waters or inland waters. Some jurisdictions require a license when a certain size is exceeded (e.g., a length of 20 meters), others only require licenses to pilot passenger ships, ferries or tugboats. For example, the European Union issues the International Certificate of Competence, which is required to operate pleasure craft in most inland waterways within the union. The United States in contrast has no licensing, but instead has voluntary certification organizations such as the American Sailing Association.[15] These US certificates are often required to charter a boat, but are not required by any federal or state law.

Sailboat racing Main article: Sailing (sport) Sailboat racing generally fits into one of two categories: Class Where all the boats are substantially similar, and the first boat to finish wins. (e.g. 470, 49er, Contender, Farr 40, Laser, Lido 14, RS Feva, Soling, Star, Thistle, etc.) Handicap Windjammer Parade at Kiel Week in Germany, Where boats of different types sail against each other and are the world's biggest regatta and sailing event scored based on their handicaps which are calculated either before the start or after the finish. ( e.g. Fastnet Race, Commodore's Cup, Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race, Bermuda Race, etc.) The two most common handicap systems are the IRC and the Portsmouth Yardstick, while the Performance Handicap Racing Fleet (PHRF) is very common in the U.S.A.

Class racing can be further subdivided. Each class has its own set of class rules, and some classes are more restrictive than others. In a strict one-design class the boats are essentially identical. Examples include the 29er, J/24, Laser, and RS Feva.

Sailing

A yacht race on Lake P채ij채nne in Jyv채skyl채, Finland.

U.S. Sailing team at the World Military Games Sailing Competition, December 2003

At the other end of the extreme are the development classes based on a box-rule. The box-rule might specify only a few parameters such as maximum length, minimum weight, and maximum sail area, thus allowing creative engineering to develop the fastest boat within the constraints. Examples include the Moth (dinghy), the A Class Catamaran, and the boats used in the America's Cup, Volvo Ocean Race, and Barcelona World Race. Many classes lie somewhere in between strict one-design and box rule. These classes allows some variation, but the boats are still substantially similar. For instance, both wood and fiberglass hulls are allowed in the Albacore, Wayfarer, and Fireball classes, but the hull shape, weight, and sail area are tightly constrained. Sailboat racing ranges from single person dinghy racing to large boats with 10 or 20 crew and from small boats costing a few thousand dollars to multi-million dollar America's Cup or Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race The Thistle, an example of a one-design sailboat campaigns. The costs of participating in the high end large boat class. competitions make this type of sailing one of the most expensive sports in the world. However, there are inexpensive ways to get involved in sailboat racing, such as at community sailing clubs, classes offered by local recreation organizations and in some inexpensive dinghy and small catamaran classes. Additionally high schools and colleges may offer sailboat racing programs through the Interscholastic Sailing Association (in the USA) and the Intercollegiate Sailing Association (in

Sailing the USA and some parts of Canada). Under these conditions, sailboat racing can be comparable to or less expensive than sports such as golf and skiing. Sailboat racing is one of the few sports in which people of all ages and genders can regularly compete with and against each other. Most sailboat and yacht racing is done in coastal or inland waters. However, in terms of endurance and risk to life, ocean races such as the Volvo Ocean Race, the solo VELUX 5 Oceans Race, and the non-stop solo VendĂŠe Globe, rate as some of the most extreme and dangerous sporting events. Not only do participants compete for days with little rest, but an unexpected storm, a single equipment failure, or collision with an ice floe could result in the sailboat being disabled or sunk hundreds or thousands of miles from search and rescue. The sport of Sailboat racing is governed by the International Sailing Federation, and the rules under which competitors race are the Racing Rules of Sailing, which can be found on the ISAF web site.

Recreational sailing Sailing for pleasure can involve short trips across a bay, day sailing, coastal cruising, and more extended offshore or 'blue-water' cruising. These trips can be singlehanded or the vessel may be crewed by families or groups of friends. Sailing vessels may proceed on their own, or be part of a flotilla with other like-minded voyagers. Sailing boats may be operated by their owners, who often also gain pleasure from maintaining and modifying their craft to suit their needs and taste, or may be rented for the specific trip or cruise. A professional skipper and even crew may be hired along with the boat in some cases. People take cruises in which they crew and 'learn the ropes' aboard craft such as tall ships, classic sailing vessels and restored working boats. Cruising trips of several days or longer can involve a deep immersion in logistics, navigation, meteorology, local geography and history, fishing lore, sailing knowledge, general psychological coping, and serendipity. Once the boat is acquired it is not all that expensive an endeavor, often much less expensive than a normal vacation on land. It naturally develops self-reliance, responsibility, economy, and many other useful skills. Besides improving sailing skills, all the other normal needs of everyday living must also be addressed. There are work roles that can be done by everyone in the family to help contribute to an enjoyable outdoor adventure for all. A style of casual coastal cruising called gunkholing is a popular summertime family recreational activity. It consists of taking a series of day sails to out of the way places and anchoring overnight while enjoying such activities as exploring isolated islands, swimming, fishing, etc. Many nearby local waters on rivers, bays, sounds, and coastlines can become great natural cruising grounds for this type of recreational sailing. Casual sailing trips with friends and family can become lifetime bonding experiences.

Passagemaking Long-distance voyaging, such as that across oceans and between far-flung ports, can be considered the near-absolute province of the cruising sailboat. Most modern yachts of 25â&#x20AC;&#x201C;55 feet long, propelled solely by mechanical powerplants, cannot carry the fuel sufficient for a point-to-point voyage of even 250â&#x20AC;&#x201C;500 miles without needing to resupply; but a well-prepared sail-powered yacht of similar length is theoretically capable of sailing anywhere its crew is willing to guide it. Even considering that the cost benefits are offset by a much reduced cruising speed, many people traveling distances in small boats come to appreciate the more leisurely pace and increased time spent on the water. Since the solo circumnavigation of Joshua Slocum in the 1890s, long-distance cruising under sail has inspired thousands of otherwise normal people to explore distant seas and horizons. The important voyages of Robin Lee Graham, Eric Hiscock, Don Street[16] and others have shown that, while not strictly racing, ocean voyaging carries with it an inherent sense of competition, especially that between man and the elements. Such a challenging enterprise requires keen knowledge of sailing in general as well as maintenance, navigation (especially celestial navigation), and often even international diplomacy (for which an entire set of protocols should be learned and practiced). But one of the great benefits to sailboat ownership is that one may at least imagine the type of adventure that the average

Sailing affordable powerboat could never accomplish.

Notes [1] Carter, Robert "Boat remains and maritime trade in the Persian Gulf during the sixth and fifth millennia BC"Antiquity Volume 80 No.307 March 2006 (http:/ / oxfordbrookes. academia. edu/ documents/ 0010/ 3548/ Carter_Boats_Antiquity. pdf) [2] "Transportation and Maps" in Virtual Vault (http:/ / www. collectionscanada. ca/ virtual-vault/ 026018-119. 01-e. php?q1=Transportation+ and+ Maps& PHPSESSID=709io6475tfesngi2m7226o454), the art of the boat is sofa an online exhibition of Canadian historical art at Library and Archives Canada [3] Robert Stawell Ball (1871) Experimental Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=CPo4AAAAMAAJ), §30 Sailing, page 21, from Google books [4] See "How fast do these things really go?" in the [5] How sail boats sail against the wind? Faster than the wind? http:/ / PhysicsForArchitects. com/ Sailing_against_the_wind. php [6] Large sails of big area, spinnakers serve to increase the sail area for more performance downwind. [7] Each leg at 45 degrees to the true wind is 0.71 miles, but in reality is longer as total tacking angles greater than 90° are the norm and leeway can be significant [8] http:/ / www. sailing. org/ documents/ racing-rules. php, "51 MOVABLE BALLAST: All movable ballast, including sails that are not set, shall be properly stowed. Water, dead weight or ballast shall not be moved for the purpose of changing trim or stability. Floorboards, bulkheads, doors, stairs and water tanks shall be left in place and all cabin fixtures kept on board. However, bilge water may be bailed out." [9] http:/ / www. aclasssailing. co. nz/ Sailing%20With%20A%20Smile. pdf [10] * US Patent 6925949 (http:/ / www. google. com/ patents/ about?id=0MwTAAAAEBAJ) Elevated sailing apparatus by Malcolm Phillips, filed Dec 31, 2002. [11] WebCite query result (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ query?url=http:/ / uk. geocities. com/ fnsnclr@btinternet. com/ yachts/ auto/ index. htm& date=2009-10-25+ 04:15:58) [12] ISBN 978-0393339185 [13] Sails set for a breeze coming from the left hand side of the boat [14] Sails set for a breeze coming from the right side of the boat [15] ASA Approved Training is U.S.A (http:/ / www. edumaritime. com/ main/ asa-and-us-sailing-approved-sailing-schools-in-usa) [16] http:/ / www. street-iolaire. com/ bio. htm

Bibliography • "Transportation and Maps" in Virtual Vault (http://www.collectionscanada.ca/virtual-vault/026018-119.01-e. php?q1=Transportation+and+Maps&PHPSESSID=709io6475tfesngi2m7226o454), an online exhibition of Canadian historical art at Library and Archives Canada • Rousmaniere, John, The Annapolis Book of Seamanship, Simon & Schuster, 1999 • Chapman Book of Piloting (various contributors), Hearst Corporation, 1999 • Herreshoff, Halsey (consulting editor), The Sailor’s Handbook, Little Brown and Company, 1983 • Seidman, David, The Complete Sailor, International Marine, 1995 • Jobson, Gary, Sailing Fundamentals, Simon & Schuster, 1987

Further reading • Rousmaniere, John (June 1998). The Illustrated Dictionary of Boating Terms: 2000 Essential Terms for Sailors and Powerboaters (Paperback). W. W. Norton & Company. p. 174. ISBN 0393339181. ISBN 978-0393339185

External links • American Sailing Association (http://www.asa.com/) • US Sailing (http://www.ussailing.org/) • Sailing (http://www.dmoz.org/Recreation/Boating/Sailing/) at DMOZ • The physics of sailing (http://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/sailing.html) (School of Physics, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) • Cruising on small craft travel guide from Wikivoyage

Cruising (maritime)

Cruising (maritime) This article is about yacht cruising. For cruising on cruise liners, see Cruise ship. Cruising by boat is a lifestyle that involves living for extended time on a boat while traveling from place to place for pleasure. Cruising generally refers to trips of a few days or more, and can extend to round-the-world voyages.

History "The sea, the great unifier, is man's only hope. Now, as never before, the old phrase has a literal meaning: We are all in the same boat."

A cruising sailboat anchored in the San Blas Islands, in Panama.

Jacques Cousteau

Boats were almost exclusively used for working purposes prior to the nineteenth century. In 1857, the philosopher Henry David Thoreau, with his book Canoeing in Wilderness chronicling his canoe voyaging in the wilderness of Maine, was the first to convey the enjoyment of spiritual and lifestyle aspects of cruising. The modern conception of cruising for pleasure was first popularised by the Scottish explorer and sportsman John MacGregor. He was introduced to the canoes and kayaks of the Native Americans on a camping trip in 1858, and on his return to the United Kingdom constructed his own 'double-ended' canoe in Lambeth. The boat, nicknamed 'Rob Roy' after a famous relative of his, was built of lapstrake oak planking, decked in cedar covered with rubberized canvas with an open cockpit in the center. He cruised around the waterways of Britain, Europe and the Middle East and wrote a popular book about his experiences, A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe.

'Canal barges in Belgium', an image from Robert Louis Stevenson's book, An Inland Voyage.

In 1866, Macgregor was a moving force behind the establishment of the Royal Canoe Club, the first club in the world to promote pleasure cruising.[1][2] The first recorded regatta was held at on 27 April 1867, and it received Royal patronage in 1873. The latter part of the century saw cruising for leisure being enthusiastically taken up by the middle class. The author Robert Louis Stevenson wrote An Inland Voyage in 1877 as a travelogue on his canoeing trip through France and Belgium. Stevenson and his companion, Sir Walter Grindlay Simpson travelled in two 'Rob Roys' along the Oise River and witnessed the Romantic beauty of rural Europe. The Canadian-American Joshua Slocum was one of the first people to carry out a long-distance sailing voyage for pleasure, circumnavigating the world between 1895 and 1898. Despite opinion that such a voyage was impossible, Slocum rebuilt a derelict 37-foot (11Â m) sloop Spray and sailed her single-handed around the world. His book Sailing Alone Around the World was a classic adventure, and inspired many others to take to the seas.[3]

Cruising (maritime)

41 Other cruising authors have provided both inspiration and instruction to prospective cruisers. Key among these during the post World War II period are Electa and Irving Johnson, Miles and Beryl Smeeton, Bernard Moitessier, Peter Pye, and Eric and Susan Hiscock. During the 1970s - 1990s Robin Lee Graham, Lin and Larry Pardey, Annie Hill, Herb Payson, Linda and Steve Dashew, Margaret and Hal Roth, and Beth Leonard & Evans Starzinger have provided inspiration for people to set off voyaging.

The development of ocean crossing rallies, most notably the ARC (Atlantic Rally for Cruisers), have encouraged less experienced sailors to undertake ocean crossings. These rallies provide a group of sailors crossing the same ocean at the same time with safety inspections, weather information and social functions. Cruisers can see traditional life in remote areas of the world; here, a Kuna paddles a dugout canoe in the San Blas Islands.

Types of boats used Cruising is done on both sail and power boats, monohulls and multihulls although sail predominates over longer distances, as ocean-going power boats are considerably more expensive to purchase and operate. The size of the typical cruising boat has increased over the years and is currently in the range of 10 to 15 metres although[4] smaller boats have been used in around-the-world trips, but are generally not recommended given the dangers involved.[5][6] Many cruisers are "long term" and travel for many years, the A yacht in Lorient, Bretagne, France most adventurous among them circle the globe over a period of three to ten years. Many others take a year or two off from work and school for shorter trips and the chance to experience the cruising lifestyle.

Sailing near shore and at sea Sailing at sea is totally different from sailing near shore. Before embarking on a sea voyage, planning and preparation will include studying charts, almanacs and navigation books and recent weather conditions of the route to be followed. In addition, food needs to be stocked, navigation instruments and the ship itself needs to be revised and the crew needs to be given exact directions on the jobs they need to perform (e.g. the watch; which is generally 4 hours on and 4 hours off, navigation, steering, rigging sails, ...). In addition, the crew needs to be well trained at working together and with the ship in question. Finally, the sailor must be mentally prepared for dealing with harsh situations. An alternative for those people may however be sailing near the coast, which still gives a certain amount of safety. Sailing near the coast can be done as a ship is always granted 'innocent passage' through the country (most countries usually claim up to 22Â km (14Â mi) off the coast). When this method is practiced however, one must still remember that if the ship needs to stop (e.g. for repairs), a trip to a customs checkpoint to have passports checked would be required.

Cruising (maritime)

Equipment Cruisers use a variety of equipment and techniques to make their voyages possible, or simply more comfortable. The use of wind vane self steering was common on long distance cruising yachts but is increasingly being supplemented or replaced by electrical auto-pilots. Though in the past many cruisers had no means of generating electricity on board and depended on kerosene and dry-cell batteries, today electrical demands are much higher and nearly all cruisers have electrical devices such as lights, communications equipment and refrigeration. Although most boats can generate power from their inboard engines, an increasing number carry auxiliary generators. Carrying sufficient fuel to power engine and generator over a long voyage can be a problem, so many cruising boats are equipped with other ancillary generating devices such as solar panels, wind turbines and towed turbines. Cruisers choosing to spend extended time in very remote locations with minimal access to marinas can opt to equip their vessels with watermakers (reverse-osmosis seawater desalination units) used to convert sea water to potable fresh water.

The solar panels on this 28-foot (8.5Â m) yacht can keep her self-sufficient in electrical power.

Satellite communications are becoming more common on cruising boats. Many boats are now equipped with satellite telephone systems; however, these systems can be expensive to use, and may operate only in certain areas. Many cruisers still use short wave maritime SSB and amateur radio, which has no running costs. These radios provide two-way voice communications, can receive weather fax graphics or GRIB files via a laptop computer, and with a compatible modem (e.g. PACTOR) can send and receive email at very slow speed. Such emails are usually limited to basic communication using plain text, without HTML formatting or attachments. Awareness of impending weather conditions is particularly important to cruising sailors who are often far from safe harbours and need to steer clear of dangerous weather conditions. Most cruising boats are equipped with a barometer or a weather station that records barometric pressure as well as temperature and provides rudimentary forecasting. For more sophisticated weather forecasting, cruisers rely on their ability to receive forecasts by radio, phone or satellite. Cruisers navigate using paper charts and radar. Modern yachts are often also equipped with a chartplotter which enables the use of electronic charts and is linked to GPS satellites that provide position reports. Some chartplotters have the ability to interface charts and radar images. Those that still wish to work with traditional charts as well as with GPS may do so using a Yeoman Plotter. Certain advanced sailing vessels have a completely automated sailing system which includes a plotter, as well as course correcting through a link with the ship's steering organs (e.g. sails, propeller). One such device can be found at the Maltese Falcon.

Expense Purchasing and maintaining a yacht can be costly. Most cruising sailors do not own a house and consider their boat their home during the duration of their cruise. Many cruisers find they spend, on average, 4% of their boat's purchase price annually on boat maintenance.[7] Like living a conventional life on land, the cost of cruising is variable. How much a person ends up spending depends largely on their spending habits (for example, eating out a lot and frequenting marinas vs. preparing local foods aboard and anchoring out) and the type of boat (fancy modern production boats are very expensive to purchase and maintain, whilst low-key cruising boats often involve much lower expenses). Most long-term cruisers prefer to live a simple life, usually with far lower expenses than people who live ashore.

Cruising (maritime) An alternative solution is to sail on someone else's yacht. Those who know how to sail can sometimes find boats looking for an extra crewmember for a long trip, whilst some non-sailors are also able to find boats willing to carry a hitch-hiker.[8] Crew-finding websites exist to help match-up people looking for a crossing with yachts with a berth available or looking for a temporary crewmember. Another common tactic for finding a yacht is to visit local yacht clubs and marinas and get to know the sailors there, in the hope that one of them will be able to provide a berth.

Safety Travel by water brings hazards: collision, weather, and equipment failure can lead to dangerous situations such as a sinking or severely disabled and dangerous vessel. For this reason many long distance cruising yachts carry with them emergency equipment such as SARTs, EPIRBs and liferafts or proactive lifeboats. Medical emergencies are also of concern, as a medical emergency can occur on a long passage when the closest port is over a week away. For this reason before going cruising many people go through first aid training and carry medical kits. In some parts of the world (e.g., near the Horn of Africa) piracy can be a problem.

Other kinds of maritime cruising • Camp cruising, also known as beach cruising or gunkhole cruising, is a form of cruising in which sailors sail from point to point in an open or semi-enclosed boat, generally remaining within sight of land. Camp cruisers either camp ashore ("camp cruising" or "beach cruising"), or aboard the boat at anchor. The boats used may be specialized cruising dinghies, small keelboats, trailer sailers or general purpose daysailing or racing boats pressed into service for the purpose. • Commute cruising, also known as seasonal cruising, is becoming increasingly popular. Commute cruisers live aboard and sail for a few months at a time, exploring new or favorite areas, then leave the vessel in a new location or maybe return it to the same location, travel home for a few months, and return to the vessel to continue cruising during favorable seasons. This type of cruising is somewhat akin to owning a second home that travels by sea and allows for a dual lifestyle. • Daysailing is recreational sailing that does not involve racing or cruising. Many racers refer to all non-racers as "cruisers," including dinghy and small keelboat sailors who primarily focus on daysailing. • Travel on cruise ships may be referred to as cruising. Those who take frequent cruise ship vacations may be called cruisers. • Expedition cruising, where the trips can be a combination of scientists working and tourists along for the adventure, or where scientists lead a group of tourists in order for the tourists to observe animals, plants or natural phenomena.

References [1] Canoe and Kayak (http:/ / sports. london-2012. co. uk/ Kayaking/ ) [2] Olympic Canoe and Kayak Flatwater History (http:/ / www. olympic. org/ uk/ sports/ programme/ history_uk. asp?DiscCode=CF& sportCode=CA) [3] Sailing Alone Around the World, Captain Joshua Slocum; Sheridan House, 1954. ISBN 0-911378-20-0 [4] Around the world boat yachts and equipment (http:/ / www. yachtcouncil. com/ boating-stories. asp?t=stories& news_id=248) [5] Anthony Steward sailing around the world in small boat (http:/ / www. dixdesign. com/ steward. htm) [6] Webb Chiles giving advice on sailing the globe (http:/ / www. inthepresentsea. com/ escape. html) [7] Costs of boats and maintenance (http:/ / www. yachtsurvey. com/ boatbuying. htm) [8] Catching a ride across the Atlantic : Hitch-hiking on a yacht (http:/ / www. yachtmollymawk. com/ 2011/ 03/ hich-hiking-across-the-atlantic/ )

Cruising (maritime)

Further reading • Jim Howard, Charles J. Doane. Handbook of offshore cruising: The Dream and Reality of Modern Ocean Cruising (http://books.google.ch/books?id=NB4uFQuUlnEC&pg=PA37&dq=catamaran+cruising+ offshore&hl=en&sig=JappWYho-lc6EFs5b-0rkZqO6HM#PPA36,M1). • William F. Buckley, Jr., Atlantic High - an account of an Atlantic passage. • William F. Buckley, Jr., Racing Through Paradise - etc. about a Pacific passage. • Michael Carr, "Weather Prediction Simplified" • Don Casey, Dragged Aboard: a Cruising Guide for the Reluctant Mate • Linda and Steve Dashew, Offshore Cruisers' Encyclopedia • Linda and Steve Dashew, Mariner's Weather Handbook • Robin Lee Graham, Dove - The story of a 16-year-old boy who sails around the world in a 28-foot (8.5 m) sloop in the nineteen-sixties • Eric Hiscock (1991). Cruising Under Sail (http://www.amazon.com/Cruising-Under-Sail-Eric-Hiscock/dp/ 0713635649/ref=la_B001H6KKEC_1_2?ie=UTF8&qid=1348452887&sr=1-2). Adlard Coles. ISBN 9780713635645. Retrieved 2012-09-24. - just the facts, a classic. • Beth A. Leonard, The Voyager's Handbook • Elbert Maloney, Dutton's Navigation and Piloting - a classic, professional reference, continuously updated. • • • • • • •

Lawrence and Lin Pardey, The Self-Sufficient Sailor Lin Pardey, 'Care and Feeding of Sailing Crew' Lin and Larry Pardey, "Storm Tactics Handbook." Merle Turner, Celestial Navigation for the Cruising Navigator - some theory. Alan Villiers, Cruise of the Conrad. Scribner's, 1937. Reprinted, Seafarer Books, 2006. Jeff & Raine Williams Around the World in Eighty Megabytes (http://www.j40.org) Follow the Horizon (http://followthehorizon.com) Cruising Blog

External links • Personal boating and cruising logs (http://www.dmoz.org/Recreation/Boating/Sailing/Personal_Pages/) at DMOZ

List of circumnavigations

List of circumnavigations This is a list of circumnavigations of the planet Earth. Sections are ordered by ascending date of completion of voyage.

Global circumnavigations Seacraft 16th century The Ferdinand MagellanMagellan–Elcano Timeline of Magellan's

• The 18 survivors, led by Juan circumnavigationvoyage was the first world circumnavigation in history. The Victoria (ship)Victoria, one of the original five ships, led by Elcano, circumnavigated the globe, Sebastián Elcano, of Ferdinand finishing 16 months after Magellan's death. Magellan's Spanish expedition (which began with 5 ships and 200 men); 1519–1522; westward from Spain; in the Victoria. After Magellan died in the Philippines on 27 April 1521, the circumnavigation was completed under the command of the Basque Spanish seafarer Juan Sebastián Elcano who returned to Sanlúcar de Barrameda, Spain, on 6 September 1522, after a journey of 3 years and 1 month.[1] These men were the first to circumnavigate the globe in a single expedition. • The survivors of García Jofre de Loaísa's Spanish expedition 1525–1536 including Andrés de Urdaneta; westward from Spain. None of Loaísa's seven ships completed the voyage, but Santa María de la Victoria reached the Moluccas before being wrecked in a Portuguese attack. Successive chiefs of the expedition (Loaísa, Elcano, Salazar, Iñiguez, De la Torre) died during the voyages. Andrés de Urdaneta and other fellow men survived, reaching the Spice Islands in 1526, to be taken prisoner by the Portuguese. Urdaneta and a few of his men returned to Spain in 1536 aboard Portuguese ships via India, the Cape of Good Hope and Portugal, and completed the second world circumnavigation in history. • Francis Drake; 1577–1580; westward from England; in Golden Hind; discovered the Drake Passage but entered the Pacific via the Strait of Magellan; first English circumnavigation. Drake was the first to complete a circumnavigation as captain and leader throughout the entire expedition. • Martín Ignacio de Loyola; 1580–1584; westward from Spain. • Thomas Cavendish; 1586–1588; westward from England; in Desire. • Martín Ignacio de Loyola; 1585–1589; eastward from Spain (via Macau, China, and Acapulco, Mexico); First person to circumnavigate the world twice, first one to do so both westwards and eastwards (1580–1584 westward and 1585–1589 eastward), and first to use overland routes in his circumnavigation.

List of circumnavigations 17th century • The survivors of the expedition of Jacques Mahu; 1598–1601; westward from Holland; Of Mahu's five ships only two returned. • The survivors of the expedition of Olivier van Noort; 1598–1601; westward from Holland; Of Van Noort's four ships only two returned. • Francesco Carletti, Florentine merchant; 1594–1602; westward from Italy; travelled across the American continent overland, through Panama. All Carletti's other travel was by sea until he ended in the Netherlands; he travelled from there overland back to Italy. Carletti was perhaps the first to travel all legs as a passenger, not as a ship's officer or a crew member. Carletti described his journey in his autobiography, "My Voyage Around the World", translated into various languages. • Joris van Spilbergen; 1614–1617; westward from Holland. • Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire; 1615–1617; westward from Holland; in Eendraght; Discovered Cape Horn and the first expedition to enter the Pacific via the Drake Passage. • Jacques l'Hermite and John Hugo Schapenham; 1623–1626; westward from Holland. • Pedro Cubero; 1670–1679; eastward from Spain; the first maritime circumnavigation including significant travel overland. • William Dampier (English); 1679–1691; westward from England. • Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri; 1693–1698; eastward from Naples; the first tourist to circumnavigate the globe, paying his own way on multiple voyages, crossing Mexico on land. 18th century • William Funnell (English); 1703–1707. • William Dampier (English); 1703–1707. • Woodes Rogers (English); 1708–1710; with the Duke and the Duchess; He rescued Alexander Selkirk on Juan Fernandez on 31 January 1709. Selkirk had been stranded there for four years. • William Dampier (English); 1708–1711; First person to circumnavigate the world three times (1679–1691, 1703–1707 and 1708–1711). • George Anson, 1st Baron Anson; 1740–1744; in HMS Centurion. • John Byron; 1764–1766; in HMS Dolphin. • Samuel Wallis and Philip Carteret; 1766–1768; in Dolphin and HMS Swallow; Carteret had served on Byron's expedition. Dolphin was the first ship to survive two circumnavigations. • Louis de Bougainville; 1766–1769; On board was Jeanne Baré, disguised as a man, the first woman to circumnavigate the globe. • James Cook; 1768–1771; in HMS Endeavour; The first circumnavigation to lose no personnel to scurvy. • Tobias Furneaux; 1772–1774; in HMS Adventure (Furneaux was a veteran of Byron's expedition.) • James Cook; 1772–1775; in HMS Resolution. • Alessandro Malaspina; 1776–1778. • George Dixon and Nathaniel Portlock; 1785–1788; in Queen Charlotte and King George respectively; early pioneers of the Maritime Fur Trade between the Pacific Northwest and China. • Robert Gray; 1787–1790; first American circumnavigation.

List of circumnavigations 19th century • Ignacio Maria de Alava; 1795–1803; in Montañés, flagship of a Spanish Navy squadron. • Adam Johann von Krusenstern and Yuri Lisyansky; 1803–1806; the first Russian circumnavigation. • Hipolito Bouchard; 1817–1819; in La Argentina (Corsair Ship, Frigate); from Buenos Aires (Argentina, South America) via Cape of Good Hope, Madagascar, Java, Philippines, Hawaii, California, El Salvador, Valparaiso (Chile). The first Argentine to circumnavigate the world. • Faddey Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev; 1819–1821; the first circumnavigation mostly between 60° and 70° S, discovered Antarctica and the first islands south of the Antarctic Circle. • HMS Warspite ; 1826–1828; as part of her assuming the role of the flagship of the South American station squadron, from England via Cape of Good Hope, Burma, Australia and Brazil, returning to England via the Caribbean. • USS Vincennes, 3 September 1826 – 8 June 1830; from New York by way of Cape Horn, visiting the Hawaiian islands in 1829 and Macau in 1830. Her return voyage was made by way of China, the Philippines, the Indian Ocean, and the Cape of Good Hope. After nearly four years, Vincennes arrived back in New York under Commander William B. Finch.:pp.208–9 Two days later the ship was decommissioned. • USS Potomac, 19 August 1831 – 23 May 1834, Commodore John Downes commanding, departed New York for the first Sumatran Expedition via the Cape of Good Hope, and returned via Cape Horn to Boston. • Robert Fitzroy; 1831–1836; in HMS Beagle; with Charles Darwin. • Sir George Simpson (administrator); 1841–1842; made the first "land circumnavigation" by crossing Canada and Siberia. • The paddle sloop HMS Driver; 1845-1847; first steamship circumnavigation. • The first Galathea expedition; 1845–1847; first Danish circumnavigation. • The screw frigate Amazonas; 1856–1858; first Peruvian circumnavigation. • SMS Novara; 1857–1859; first Austrian circumnavigation. • CSS Shenandoah; 1864–65; only Confederate ship to circumnavigate. Capt. James Iredell Waddell. • Casto Méndez Núñez; 1865–1868; aboard Numancia; first ironclad warship circumnavigation; "Enloricata navis que primo terram circuivit". • Fernando Villaamil; 1892–1894; aboard Nautilus; first training ship circumnavigation. • Joshua Slocum; 1895–1898; first single-handed circumnavigation. 20th century • The Great White Fleet; 1907–1909; first fleet to circumnavigate the world. • Harry Pidgeon; 1921–1925; second single-handed circumnavigation. • HMS Hood, HMS Repulse, and the rest of the Special Service Squadron; 1923–24; in the Empire Cruise, a tour of the British Empire after World War I. • Harry Pidgeon; 1932–1937; third single-handed circumnavigation, first person to circumnavigate solo twice (1921–1925 and 1932–1937). • Irving Johnson; 1934–1958; sail training pioneer together with his wife Electa "Exy" Johnson, circumnavigated the world 7 times with amateur crews. • Vito Dumas; 1942; single handed circumnavigation of the southern oceans, including the first single handed passage of all three great capes. • 1954 HMCS Labrador first circumnavigation of North America. Halifax west through Northwest Passage. South to Panama canal and return to Halifax • Operation Sandblast; 1960; USS Triton; first underwater circumnavigation. • Operation Sea Orbit; 1964; USS Enterprise (CVN-65), USS Long Beach (CGN-9), and USS Bainbridge (DLGN-25); first circumnavigation by an all-nuclear naval task force. • 1966 Soviet submarine global circumnavigation

List of circumnavigations • • • • • • • • • • • •

Sir Francis Chichester; 1966–1967; first single-handed circumnavigation with just one port of call. Leonid Teliga; 1967–1969; single-handed circumnavigation aboard SY Opty. Robin Knox-Johnston; 1968–1969; first single-handed non-stop circumnavigation. Robin Lee Graham; 1965–1970; then youngest (at ages 16–21) solo circumnavigation aboard 24-foot sailboat Dove. Chay Blyth; 1971; first westwards single-handed non-stop circumnavigation. USS Inchon LPH-12 [2] Ed Shea [3] ETR-3 crew SEP-1972-SEP-1973 Circumnavigation via Panama Canal Norfolk VA. East to West. http://www.hullnumber.com/LPH-12 Krystyna Chojnowska-Liskiewicz; 1976–1978; first woman to perform a single-handed circumnavigation. Larry Briggs and Eric J Lund; 1976–1979; Smallest motor yacht to circumnavigate the world on a 53' single engine diesel motor yacht named the "Champion". Naomi James; 1977–1978; first woman to perform a single-handed circumnavigation via Cape Horn. Mark Schrader; 1982; completed two solo circumnavigations. In 1982–1983 became the first American to complete a solo circumnavigation via the five Great Capes.[4] Marvin Creamer (USA); 21 December 1982 – 17 May 1984; only known person to circumnavigate the globe by boat with no nautical aids, not even a compass or watch [5]. David Scott Cowper; 1985; first single-handed circumnavigation by motor boat.

• Curtis and Lettie Ciszek; Sept. 1982 – June 1987; S/V Rough & Ready, 42' ketch; Seattle to Seattle. Daughter Eulalie may be youngest ever circumnavigator (was three months old when starting voyage and 4½ when completed). Daughter Shelly born on board along the way. Hilo, Hawaii first redundant port. • Trishna; 28 September 1985 - 10 January 1987; First Indian circumnavigation by a Indian Army Corps of Engineers crew. Also had the first handicapped sailor to sail around the globe. • Teddy Seymour; 1987; aboard sailboat Love Song; the first African-American to complete solo single-handed circumnavigation. • Mike Plant; 1987–1991; completed three circumnavigations [6]

• • • • • • •

• 1986–87: Won the BOC Challenge (Class II - Open 50) with a time of 157 days aboard Airco Distributor, an Open 50 sloop built by Plant and designed by Roger Martin.[7][8] • 1989: Competed in the first Vendée Globe on Duracell, an Open 60 sloop built by Plant and designed by Roger Martin. Although eliminated from the race after receiving help with a rudder repair in New Zealand, Plant still set a record for the fastest American to sail single-handed around the world with a time of 135 days.[9] • 1990/91: Finished 4th overall in the BOC Challenge, setting the highest mark in a solo-sailing event for an American with a time of 132 days. Tania Aebi; 1985–1987; American woman who completed a solo circumnavigation by the age of 21, one 80-nautical-mile (150 km) stretch with crew disqualified her from an official record. Kay Cottee; 1988; first woman to perform a solo non-stop circumnavigation. David Scott Cowper; 1990; first single-handed circumnavigation via the North West Passage. William "Bill" Pinkney;1990-1992; Commitment Valiant 47 First Black man of any nation to complete solo circumnavigation via five southern capes Brian 'bj' Caldwell; 1995-1996; '1st-Under-Age-21' to complete solo circumnavigation with stops, completed by age-20 David Dicks; 1996; youngest recognized assisted circumnavigation, completed aged 18 years 41 days. Henk de Velde; 1997; sailed a catamaran eastbound around the world in 119 days, non-stop. He is still the only person in the world to perform this feat single-handed with a catamaran,[citation needed] although others have made faster single-handed circumnavigations in trimarans (Ellen MacArthur, 2005, and Francis Joyon, 2008).

• Robert Case; 1998–2001; first solo American amputee to sail eastbound around the world.. • Jesse Martin; 1999; youngest recognized unassisted circumnavigation, completed aged 18 years 66 days.

List of circumnavigations • Azhar Mansor; 1999; first Malaysian to sail solo around the world. 21st century • Ellen MacArthur; 2001; monohull; circumnavigated singlehandedly as the then fastest woman. • Mike Golding; 2001; First person to circumnavigate non-stop in both eastward and westward directions. 1993 World record for a westward circumnavigation, 161 days, Group 4. 2001 Vendee Globe Race 7th position. • Tony Gooch 2002–2003; First person to make solo non-stop circumnavigation(177 days) from west coast of North America. Victoria BC, Canada. • Charl DeVilliers; 2004; First deaf person to perform a solo circumnavigation. • Bruno Peyron and crew; 2005; aboard maxi catamaran Orange II; set the then current windpowered circumnavigation record, 50 days, 16 hours, 20 minute. • Ellen MacArthur; 2005; trimaran B&Q/Castorama; then the fastest singlehanded circumnavigation (71 days), is still the fastest woman in 2010. See also 2001. • Donna Lange; 2005–2007; Eastward via the southern ocean with three stops.[10] • Dee Caffari; 2005-2006; first woman to perform a solo westward non-stop circumnavigation, in 178 days.[11] • Spanish frigate Álvaro de Bazán (F101); 2007; First circumnavigation of the globe by a Spanish warship in 142 years. • Aron MEDER [12], (26 years old Hungarian sailor), 2006-2009 solo circumnavigation with a 19ft (36 years old) daily sailboat. East to West. • RMS Queen Mary 2; 2007 world cruise; at 148,528 gross ton, the world's largest passenger ship to circumnavigate the globe. • Fernando Garcia Herran; 2006–2008; Circumnavigation North Atlantic Route. • Earthrace; 2008; wave-piercing trimaran, with two 540 horsepower multi-fuelled engines; current world record holder for a motorized vessel (disputed with USS Triton, 1960), in 60 days 23 hours and 49 minutes. • Francis Joyon; 2008; 95 ft (29 m) trimaran IDEC; current fastest singlehanded multihull circumnavigation, in 57 days 13 hours 34 minutes 06 seconds. • Natasza Caban; 2007–2009; boat "Tanasza"; Polish woman, born 1977, East to West, Hawaii to Hawaii through the Panama Canal. • Michael Perham; 2009; then youngest person (aged 16–17 years) to perform a singlehanded circumnavigation (with stops, through Panama Canal). • Franck Cammas and a crew of 10; 20 March 2010; French trimaran Groupama 3; current absolute fastest maritime circumnavigation, in a time of 48 days, 7 hours 44 minutes and 52 seconds. • Cdr Dilip Donde (Indian Navy); 2009-2010; First Indian to carry out a solo circumnavigation; stopped in four ports - Fremantle, Lyttelton, Port Stanley and Cape Town • Jessica Watson; 2009-2010; youngest person (aged 16) to perform a solo non-stop circumnavigation (past Cape Horn). • Reid Stowe; 2007-2010; eastbound circumnavigation, 1152 days; longest time spent at sea without resupply or touching land. • Minoru Saito; 2008-2011; oldest person (aged 77) to perform a singlehanded circumnavigation (westbound, past Cape Horn, with stops). He has made eight singlehanded circumnavigations; after the seventh (which was non-stop) at age 71 he was already the oldest. • Laura Dekker; 2011–2012; youngest person (aged 15–16 years) to perform a singlehanded circumnavigation (with stops, through Panama Canal). • In 2012, PlanetSolar became the first ever solar electric vehicle to circumnavigate the globe. • Maria Victor; 2007-2013; first woman of African descent (Barbados) to perform a circumnavigation (with stops, past Cape of good Hope, through Panama Canal).

List of circumnavigations • British sailor Jeanne Socrates; 2012-2013; oldest woman (aged 70) to single-handedly sail around the world, non-stop without outside assistance.,[13] also making her first woman to make solo non-stop unassisted circumnavigation from west coast of North America (Victoria BC, Canada). Oldest, in 2010-2011 (aged 68), to sail single-handedly around the world, with stops. Both were eastbound via Cape Horn.[14] • Abhilash Tomy (Indian Navy) 2012-2013; First Indian to sail solo, nonstop around the world without outside assistance. Sailed south of the five Great Capes. Fastest nautical circumnavigations of the globe (Ordered by ascending date of completion of voyage) • Operation Sandblast; 1960; USS Triton; first underwater circumnavigation, and fastest mechanically powered circumnavigation (disputed with Earthrace, 2008), in 60 days 21 minutes. • Jon Sanders; 1986–1988; holds the world record for completing a single-handed, non-stop, triple circumnavigation, in 658 days 21 hours and 18 minutes. • Jean Luc Van Den Heede (French); 2004; fastest westward single-handed circumnavigation, 122 days 14 hours 3 minutes 49 seconds. • Adrienne Cahalan (Australian); February–March 2004; fastest woman to complete a circumnavigation (crew of "Cheyenne") 58 days 9 hours 32 minutes 45 seconds. • Earthrace; 2008; wave-piercing trimaran, with two 540 horsepower multi-fuelled engines; current world record holder for a motorized vessel (disputed with USS Triton, 1960), in 60 days 23 hours and 49 minutes. • Francis Joyon (French); Nov 2007–Jan 2008; current fastest single-handed circumnavigation, in 57 days, 13 hours, 34 minutes, 6 seconds. • Franck Cammas and a crew of 10; 20 March 2010; French sail-powered trimaran Groupama 3; previous absolute (wind or mechanically powered) fastest maritime circumnavigation, in a time of 48 days, 7 hours 44 minutes and 52 seconds. • Loïck Peyron and crew of fourteen sailors; Nov 2011–Jan 2012; the Maxi trimaran Banque Populaire V; current absolute (wind or mechanically powered) fastest maritime circumnavigation,in 45 days 13 hours 42 minutes 53 seconds of sailing. Average speed of 26.51 knots (30.51 MPH), covering a total distance of 29 002 miles.

List of circumnavigations

Aircraft • United States Army Air Service, 1924, first aerial circumnavigation, 175 days, covering 44,360 kilometres (27,560 mi). • Friedrich Karl von Koenig-Warthausen, in a Klemm L.20, circumnavigated the globe solo, between August 1928 and November 1929. • LZ-127 Graf Zeppelin, 1929, piloted by Hugo Eckener set a record for the fastest aerial circumnavigation, 21 days, which was also the first circumnavigation in an airship. • On 1 July 1931, pilot Wiley Post and navigator Harold Gatty completed their circumnavigation of the world in a Lockheed Vega aeroplane, Winnie Mae, in 8 days, 15 hours and 51 minutes; the record for fastest circumnavigation was once again held by an aeroplane. • In 1932, Wolfgang von Gronau flew around the world in a twin-engine Dornier seaplane, Gronland-Wal D-2053, in nearly four months, making 44 stops en route. He was accompanied by co-pilot Gerth von Roth, mechanic Franzl Hack, and radio operator Frtiz Albrecht.[15]

In 1999, Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones achieved the first non-stop balloon circumnavigation in Breitling Orbiter 3.

• In 1933, Wiley Post repeated his circumnavigation by aeroplane, but this time solo, using an autopilot and radio direction finder. He made the first solo aerial circumnavigation in a time one day faster than his previous record: 7 days, 19 hours, 49 minutes, in which he covered 25,110 kilometres (15,600 mi). • Richarda Morrow-Tait became the first woman pilot to fly around the world, accompanied by navigator Michael Townsend, in a year and a day, from 18 August 1948 to 19 August 1949. • In 1949, the United States Air Force B-50 Superfortress Lucky Lady II made the first non-stop aerial circumnavigation in 94 hours and 1 minute. Four in-air refuelings were required for the flight, which covered 37,743 kilometres (23,452 mi). • • • • • • • • • •

Geraldine Mock, 1964, first woman to complete a solo aerial circumnavigation. Don Taylor, 1976, first general aviation circumnavigation by homebuilt aircraft. Dick Smith, 1982–1983, first solo circumnavigation by helicopter. Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager, 1986, Voyager, first non-refueled circumnavigation in an airplane, 9 days, 3 minutes and 44 seconds. In 1992 an Air France Concorde achieved the fastest non-orbital circumnavigation in 32 hours 49 minutes and 3 seconds. Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones, 1999, first non-stop balloon circumnavigation in Breitling Orbiter 3, 19 days, 1 hour and 49 minutes, covering 42,810 kilometres. Polly Vacher, 2001, in the smallest aircraft flown in a solo circumnavigation by a woman, via Australia and the Pacific. Steve Fossett, 2 July 2002, first solo balloon circumnavigation. Steve Fossett, 3 March 2005, GlobalFlyer, first non-stop, non-refueled solo circumnavigation in an airplane, 67 hours, covering 37,000 kilometres. Steve Fossett, 11 February 2006, GlobalFlyer, longest non-stop, non-refueled solo flight (with circumnavigation) in an airplane, covering 42,469.5 kilometres (26,389.3 mi), in 76 hours and 45 minutes.[16][17]

• Riccardo Mortara, Gabriel Mortara, and Flavien Guderzo, 2010, flying a Rockwell Sabreliner 65, completed the 36,770 km minimum distance around the world in 57 hours 54 minutes. current record for fastest aerial

List of circumnavigations circumnavigation; • Jack Wiegand, 2013, youngest pilot to circumnavigate the globe, solo (21).[18] • The Swiss solar-powered aircraft Solar Impulse plan to make the first solar-powered aerial circumnavigation of the globe in 2015.

Spacecraft • On 12 April 1961 Yuri Gagarin made the first human flight in space, and completed the first orbit of the Earth, in Vostok 1, in 108 minutes. • The second and third orbital circumnavigations, the first two to have multiple orbits, were made by Gherman Titov (17.5 orbits, a little over a day, for the Soviet Union) and John Glenn, in Friendship 7 (3 orbits, almost five hours, for the USA, first American orbital flight), respectively. • The first woman to circumnavigate the Earth in orbit, and to also do so multiple times, was Valentina Tereshkova, who made forty-eight orbits between 16 and 19 June 1963, aboard Vostok 6. • Frank F. Borman II, James A. Lovell Jr., and William A. Anders, 21–27 December 1968, first human circumnavigation of the Earth-Moon system, 10 orbits around the moon in about 20 hours, aboard Apollo 8; total trip to the moon and back was more than 6 Earth days. • Sally K. Ride, Ph.D., 18–24 June 1983, the first American woman to circumnavigate the Earth in orbit, the youngest American to date to do so (aged 32 years, 23 days), and the first American woman to do so multiple times; she flew 97 orbits during STS-7 aboard Space Shuttle Challenger.

Mixed transportation (including on foot and various other human powered) See also: Long-distance riding and List of pedestrian circumnavigators • In 1881, King Kalākaua traveled around the world, over land and sea, thus becoming the first reigning monarch to complete such a journey. • Thomas Stevens was the first person to circle the globe by bicycle. The feat was accomplished between 1884 and 1886. While impressive at the time, a good portion of the trip was by steamer due to technical and political reasons. • Nellie Bly traveled around the world with public steamboats and trains in 72 days (from November 14, 1889 to January 25, 1890), a world record, resembling the Around the World in Eighty Days novel. • George Matthew Schilling is reputed to have walked around the world between 1897 and 1904, though this feat was unverified. • Dumitru Dan was the first person to have walked around the world, in 1910–1923 (he kept walking even on the boats' deck). • Clärenore Stinnes and Carl-Axel Söderström were the first persons to drive around the world in a car between 25 May 1927 and 24 June 1929. • Beginning in Montreal, Ben Carlin circumnavigated the world in a modified Ford GPA Jeep between 1950 and 1958, becoming the first person to circumnavigate the world by amphibious vehicle. • David Kunst walked around the world between 20 June 1970 and 10 October 1974. • Arthur Blessitt walked around the world carrying a 45 lb (20 kg) wooden cross, covering 38,102 miles (61,319 km) through 315 countries, between 1969 and 2008. • Heinz Stucke has been cycling around the world since 1962. • Sir Ranulph Fiennes, Charles Burton and their team circumnavigated 'vertically' via the two poles on the Transglobe Expedition. • Rick Hansen, a world-class paraplegic athlete, became the first person to travel around the world in a wheelchair on 22 May 1987, covering over 40,000 km through 34 countries on four continents.[19] • Robert Garside is credited by Guinness World Records as the first person to run around the world between 1997 and 2003, taking 2,062 days to cover 30,000 miles (48,000 km) across 29 countries and 6 continents.[20]

List of circumnavigations • Jesper Olsen travelled 26,000 kilometres (16,000 mi) in 2004, completed circumnavigation solely on foot (except for airplane or boats over the seas). • Colin Angus circumnavigated the northern hemisphere solely by human power in 2006 but did not qualify under the Guinness guidelines as a human powered circumnavigation. His attempt, however, was recognized by National Geographic.[21] • Jason Lewis completed the first true human-powered circumnavigation of the globe in 2007, covering 46,505 miles (74,843 km) in both the southern and northern hemispheres and reaching two antipodal points, gaining accreditation from Guinness World Records and Adventurestats [22] by Explorersweb [23]. • Mark Beaumont broke the record for cycling around globe in 2008. He began his attempt on 5 August 2007 and completed the 18,297-mile (29,446 km) journey across 4 continents and 21 countries 194 days and 17 hours later on 15 February 2008.[24] • Ed Gillespie (environmental communicator and Co-Founder of "Futerra" [25]) travelled around the world without flying between March 2007 and March 2008 [26] • Rosie Swale-Pope travelled 32,000 kilometres (20,000 mi) in 2008 completed circumnavigation solely on foot (except for airplane or boats over the seas). • Garry Sowerby holds four world records for circumnavigation in an automobile.[27][28][29] • Erden Eruç completed the first solo human-powered circumnavigation traveling by rowboat, sea kayak, foot and bicycle from 10 July 2007 to 21 July 2012. Erden crossed the equator two times, passed over 12 antipodal points, and logged 66,299 kilometres (41,196 mi).[30][31]

Significant non-global circumnavigations Seacraft • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Phoenician expedition sent by Pharaoh Necho II; c. 600 BC; possibly circumnavigating Africa. Roman Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola; c. 80; first circumnavigation of Britain. Jacques Cartier; 1534–1535; first circumnavigation of Newfoundland. García de Nodal; 1619; first circumnavigation of Tierra del Fuego. James Cook; 1769–1770; first circumnavigation of New Zealand. Matthew Flinders; 1801–1803; first circumnavigation of Australia.[questionable; Abel Tasman already circumnavigated Australia during 1642-1643] Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld; 1878–1879; first circumnavigation of Eurasia, via the Northeast Passage and the Suez Canal, during the Vega expedition. RCMP St Roch; 1940–1942 and 1950; first vessel to circumnavigate North America. 1940–1942 Vancouver to Halifax, Nova Scotia, via the Northwest Passage. 1950, Halifax to Vancouver, via the Panama Canal. HMCS Labrador (AW 50); 1954; first vessel to circumnavigate North America in a single voyage, via the Panama Canal. USS Belmont; 1967; circumnavigated South America via the Panama Canal. CCGS Hudson; 1970; first circumnavigation of North and South America. Miles Clark; 1992; circumnavigation of Europe, going from the White Sea to the Black Sea through several Russian waterways.[32] Phoenicia (a replica of a Phoenician ship); 2009–2010; remade the possible circumnavigation of Africa, but completed the modern trip by going from Syria to the Red Sea via the Suez Canal.[33]

• Børge Ousland in the yacht Northern Passage July–October 2010 and Daniel Gavrilov in the yacht Peter I; June–November 2010; first circumnavigation of the Arctic in a single season. Ousland claims to have crossed his wake north of Bergen on 14 October; it's unclear when Gavrilov crossed his wake. • Matt Rutherford; June 2011-April 2012; first single-handed, non-stop circumnavigation of the Americas, leaving from the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay, through the Northwest Passage (in the smallest vessel to make the

List of circumnavigations journey through the Northwest Passage), around Cape Horn, and back to the Chesapeake Bay.

Fictional circumnavigations â&#x20AC;˘ Jules Verne's 1872 adventure novel, Around the World in Eighty Days describes a fictional circumnavigation. Upper class Englishman Phileas Fogg and his servant Passepartout use a variety of transportation means and ingenuity to accomplish the adventurous feat. The book is a tribute to the new transportation possibilities of the early Industrial Revolution, with the coming of steamships, railways, etc., before which a year was a more probable time for a circumnavigation. British actor Michael Palin attempted in 1988 to follow the route as closely as possible in his television series Around the World in 80 Days. â&#x20AC;˘ By the Sun and Stars

References There should be references inside each article, according to a general policy for list articles. In addition further references can be located here. [1] Kurlansky, Mark. 1999. The Basque History of the World. Walker & Company, New York. ISBN 0-8027-1349-1, p. 63 [2] http:/ / www. hullnumber. com/ LPH-12 [3] http:/ / www. linkedin. com/ in/ leadslander [4] Mark Schrader (http:/ / sailorsforthesea. org/ about-sailors-for-the-sea/ advisors/ mark-schrader. aspx) [5] http:/ / www. globestar. org/ [6] The Museum of Yachting (http:/ / www. windlasscreative. com/ shshof_web/ mike_plant. htm) Retrieved March 27, 2013 [7] VELUX 5 Oceans Race (BOC Challenge) Official Website (http:/ / www. velux5oceans. com/ latest-news/ #) Retrieved March 27, 2013 [8] Roger Martin Design (http:/ / www. rodgermartindesign. com/ portfolio/ airco-distributor/ ) Retrieved March 27, 2013 [9] "Vendee Globe Website" (http:/ / www. vendeeglobe. org/ en/ ) [10] Donna Lange Completes Circumnavigation | Cruising World (http:/ / www. cruisingworld. com/ news/ voyaging/ donna-lange-completes-circumnavigation-53132. html) [11] wrong-way sailor back on UK soil (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ uk_news/ england/ hampshire/ 5000736. stm), BBC News. Retrieved 21 May 2006. [12] http:/ / meder. hu/ index-old. php [13] http:/ / www. sail-world. com/ Australia/ Sailor-Jeanne-Socrates,-worlds-oldest-non-stop-female-circumnavigator/ 111746 [14] Ealing grandmother's world record sail (From Ealing Times) (http:/ / www. ealingtimes. co. uk/ news/ 9025839. Ealing_grandmother_s_world_record_sail/ ) [15] Round-the-World Flights (http:/ / www. wingnet. org/ rtw/ rtw002i. htm), from WingNet. Retrieved 14 May 2006. [16] Fossett flies to non-stop record (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/ 4704762. stm), from BBC News. Retrieved 11 February 2006. [17] Steve lands as an uninvited guest! (http:/ / www. virginatlanticglobalflyer. com/ News/ landing_unscheduled. jsp), from Virgin Global Flyer. Retrieved 11 February 2006. [18] http:/ / www. guinnessworldrecords. com/ world-records/ 12000/ youngest-person-to-fly-solo-around-the-world [19] Still making a difference: Hansen continues to inspire while raising understanding and money (http:/ / www. canada. com/ globaltv/ national/ story. html?id=af547340-7321-439f-b457-883c2eef52d3& k=76435), By Darah Hansen, Vancouver Sun, 18 May 2007. [20] Around-World Runner Honoured (http:/ / www. nypost. com/ seven/ 03272007/ news/ worldnews/ around_world_runner_honored_worldnews_. htm) from the New York Post [21] Human-Powered Circumnavigation (http:/ / press. nationalgeographic. com/ pressroom/ index. jsp?pageID=pressReleases_detail& siteID=1& cid=1163531707116) [22] http:/ / www. adventurestats. com/ tables/ hpc. shtml [23] http:/ / www. explorersweb. com/ [24] Scot Smashes World Cycle Record (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ uk_news/ scotland/ edinburgh_and_east/ 7245381. stm) [25] http:/ / www. futerra. co. uk [26] "Low Carbon Travel" (http:/ / www. lowcarbontravel. com) [27] http:/ / www. digihitch. com/ canada20. html [28] Green gimmick leads to striking narratives; Car becomes historian for green projects - Motoring - The Western Star (http:/ / www. thewesternstar. com/ index. cfm?sid=252958& sc=23) [29] In Search of Nova Scotia's 25 Funkiest Things | novascotia.ca (http:/ / www. gov. ns. ca/ news/ details. asp?id=19990602004) [30] Around-n-Over (http:/ / www. around-n-over. org/ circumnavigation. htm) [31] The Ocean Rowing Society (http:/ / www. oceanrowing. com/ ErdenEruc/ index_all_routes. htm) [32] Clark, Miles. Russian Voyage. National Geographic Magazine, june 1994. p. 114 a 138.

List of circumnavigations

[33] The Phoenician Ship Expedition (http:/ / phoenicia. org. uk/ discovering-the expedition. htm)

Around the world sailing record The first around the world sailing record for circumnavigation of the world was Juan Sebastián Elcano and the remaining members of Ferdinand Magellan's crew who completed their journey in 1522. The first solo record was set by Joshua Slocum in the Spray (1898). Most races or solo attempts start from Europe. Due to the configuration of the continents, sailing around the world consists in sailing around the Antarctica continent, passing south of Cape Horn, Cape of Good Hope and Cape Leeuwin. Since 1918 the Panama Canal is an option but the locks must be entered and exited using engine power. Large stretches of the canal can be crossed under sail power. Sailing around the world can be done by two directions: eastward or westward. The dominant winds and currents (outside tropical areas) make the voyage eastwards on the Southern hemisphere faster, most skippers and yachts who race prefer this route. Today, the multihulls perform much better than monohulls and hold the best times. Leisure yacht skippers who prefer tropical seas more often go westward, using the Trade winds (and the Panama canal).

Banque Populaire V, current outright record holder at 45 days, 13 hours

The most famous races around the world are: • The Sunday Times Golden Globe Race, held in 1968-1969, was the first round-the-world yacht race. • The Vendée Globe is yacht race run single-handed on monohulls limited to 60 feet (around 18 metres). This races establishes the reference times on monohulls. • The Global Challenge, was race held every four years and followed the westward route. • The Race, was a race held in 2000, involving multihulls. • The Oryx Quest, held in 2005, starting from Qatar. • The Volvo Ocean Race, involving Volvo Open 70 monohulls. • The VELUX 5 Oceans Race, previously known as the BOC Challenge, later as Around Alone. The Jules Verne Trophy is awarded to the skipper who breaks the outright record, starting from an imaginary line between the Créac'h lighthouse on Ouessant (Ushant) Island, France, and the Lizard Lighthouse, UK. The records are homologated by the World Sailing Speed Record Council (WSSRC).[1] According to the WSSRC, for around the world sailing records, there is a rule saying that the length must be at least 21,600 nm calculated along the shortest possible track from the starting port and back that does not cross land and does not go below 63°S. The great-circle distance formulas are to be used, assuming that the great circle length is 21,600 nm. It is allowed to have one single waypoint to lengthen the calculated track. The equator must be crossed.[2] In reality, this means that the boat should pass a waypoint at or not far from the antipode of the starting port of the journey (the exact position depends on how short the shortest possible track is). For example, the Vendée Globe starts at 46°N 2°W, has a waypoint at 57°S 180°E, and barely makes the distance requirement. The participants don't have to go to the antipode at 46°S 178°E since the rounding of Africa gives extra distance.

Around the world sailing record

The eastward route Records crewed Year2012 January 2010 March 2005 March 2004 April 2002 May 1997 March 1994 January 1993 January Time 45d 13h 42m 53s[3]48d 07h 44m 52s[4]50d 16h 20m 04s[5]58d 09h 32m 45s64d 08h 37m 24s 71d 14h 18m 08s 74d 22h 17m 22s79d 06h 15m 56s Skipper Loick Peyron (FRA) Franck Cammas (FRA) Bruno Peyron (FRA) Steve Fossett (USA) Bruno Peyron (FRA) Olivier de Kersauson (FRA) Peter Blake (NZL) & Knox-Johnston (GBR) Bruno Peyron (FRA) YachtBanque Populaire VGroupama 3Orange IICheyenneOrangeSport-ElecEnzaCommodore Explorer Type Trimaran Trimaran Catamaran Catamaran Catamaran Trimaran Catamaran Catamaran No Crew 14 10 [6]14 13[7]13 7 6 5 Crew [8] Thierry Chabagny (FRA) Florent Chastel (FRA) Thierry Duprey du Vorsent (FRA) Kevin Escoffier (FRA) Emmanuel Le Borgne (FRA) Frédéric Le Peutrec (FRA) Jean-Baptiste Le Vaillant (FRA) Ronan Lucas (FRA) Pierre-Yves Moreau (FRA) Yvan Ravussin (SUI) Xavier Revil (FRA) Brian Thompson (GBR) Juan Vila (ESP) onshore router Marcel van Triest (NED)Fred Le Peutrec Stève Ravussin Lionel Lemonchois Thomas Coville Loïc Le Mignon Ronan Le Goff Bruno Jeanjean Jacques Caraës Stan HoneyRoger Nilson Lionel Lemonchois Philippe Péché Yann Elies Ronan Le Goff Sébastien Audigane Jacques Caraes Florent Chaste Yves Le Blévec Jean-Baptiste Epron Nicolas de Castro Ludovic Aglao et Bernard StammAdrienne Cahalan (navigator) AUS David Scully USA Brian Thompson GB Jacques Vincent FRA Guillermo Altadill ESP Mike Beasley NZL

Around the world sailing record Fraser Brown NZL Mark Featherstone GB Damian Foxall IRE Nick Leggatt ZA Justin Slattery IRE Paul Van Dyke USA. Gilles Chiori, Hervé Jan Nick Moloney (NZL) Yann Eliès (FRA) Benoît Briand Sébastien Josse Ronan le Goff Jean Baptiste Epron Florent Chastel Vladimir Dzada-Lyndis Yves le Blévec Philippe Péché Didier Gainette Hervé Jan Michel Bothuon Yves Pouillaude Thomas Coville (FRA) Marc le Fur Paul Stanbrigh David Alan-Williams Dod Whright Ed Dandy Olivier Despaignes Marc Vallin Jack Vincent Cam Lewis (USA) Context attempt for the Jules Verne Trophyattempt for the Jules Verne Trophyattempt for the Jules Verne Trophyattempt for the Jules Verne Trophyattempt for the Jules Verne Trophyattempt for the Jules Verne Trophyattempt for the Jules Verne Trophy

Records single-handed On Multihull

Francis Joyon on Trimaran IDEC, arriving from his round the world voyage in 57 days

Around the world sailing record

Year

Time

Skipper

Yacht

Type

Note

2008 57d 13h 34m 06s

Francis Joyon (FRA)

Trimaran IDEC

Trimaran 95 ft

Arrived on 19 January 2008, non-stop. Also the fourth fastest outright record.

2005 71d 14h 18m 33s

Ellen MacArthur (UK)

B&Q/Castorama

Trimaran 75 ft

Arrived on 8 of February, non-stop.

2004 72d 22h 54m 22s

Francis Joyon (FRA)

Idec

Trimaran

Non-stop

1989 125d

Olivier de Kersauson (FRA)

Un autre regard

Trimaran

Two stops

1988 129d 19h 17m

Philippe Monnet (FRA)

Kriter brut de brut

Trimaran

Two stops

Manureva

Trimaran

One stop

1973 169d

Alain Colas (FRA)

On Monohull

Michel Desjoyeaux on Foncia, former record holder on monohull

Year

Time

Skipper

Yacht

Type

Context

2013 (January)

78d 2h 16m

François Gabart (FRA)

MACIF

Monohull During Vendée Globe 2012-2013, non-stop and no assistance

2009 (January)

84d 3h 09m

Michel Desjoyeaux (FRA)

Foncia

Monohull During Vendée Globe 2008-2009, non-stop and no assistance

2005 (Feb) 87d 10h 45m 55s 2001 (Feb) 93d 3h 57' 32

Vincent Riou (FRA) PRB

Monohull During Vendée Globe 2004-2005, non-stop and no assistance

'PRB

Monohull During Vendée Globe 2000-2001, non-stop and no assistance

Michel Desjoyeaux (FRA)

1997

105d 20h Christophe 31m 23s Auguin (FRA)

Geodis

Monohull During Vendée Globe 1996-1997, non-stop and no assistance

1990

109d 08h Titouan 48' 50" Lamazou (FRA)

Ecureuil d'Aquitaine II

Monohull During Vendée Globe 1989-1990, non-stop and no assistance

1986

150d 1h 6m

American Promise

Monohull Started 12 November 1985 in Bermuda, returned 11 April 1986, [9] non-stop

Dodge Morgan (USA)

Around the world sailing record

1969

313d

Sir Robin Knox-Johnston (UK)

Suhaili

Monohull Attempt at Sunday Times Golden Globe Race. Left Falmouth 14 June 1968 returned 22 April 1969. Achieved first non-stop single handed circumnavigation.

1967

226d

Sir Francis Chichester (UK)

Gipsy Moth IV

Monohull Solo attempt. One Stop in Sydney. Second person to achieve a true circumnavigation of the world solo, after Joshua Slocum.

The westward route This route is the more demanding one, as it faces the dominant winds and currents. There are fewer attempts and records.

Record crewed As of February 2010, no record has been homologated.

Single-handed Year

Time

Skipper

Yacht

Type

Note

2004 122d 14h 03m 49s

Jean Luc Van Den Heede (FRA) Adrien

Monohull Solo attempt non-stop. Arrived 19 March.

2000 151d 19h 54m

Philippe Monnet (FRA)

Uunet

Monohull Solo attempt non-stop. Arrived 9 June.

1994 167d 7h 42m 54s

Mike Golding (UK)

Group 4

Monohull Fastest westward journey

1971 292d

Chay Blyth (UK)

British Steel Monohull Started 18 October 1970, arrived 6 August 1971

In May 2006, Dee Caffari became the first woman to sail around the world alone non-stop and single-handed westward on the Monohull Aviva, in 178 days.[10]

Intermediate records The rules for intermediate records are set by the WSSRC.[11] Four official records are listed.:[12] • • • •

Equator to Equator Indian Ocean Pacific Ocean South Atlantic Ocean

From Equator to Equator From the Atlantic Ocean: Equator => Cape Agulhas (South Africa) => Around Antarctica => Cape Horn => Equator Date

Time

Skipper

Yacht

Type

Crew

30 December 2011 32d 11h 51m[13]

Loïck Peyron (FRA) Banque Populaire V Multihull Crewed

6 March 2005

33d 16h 06m

Bruno Peyron (FRA) Orange II

Multihull Crewed

10 January 2008

41d 08h 19m

Francis Joyon (FRA) Trimaran IDEC

Multihull Single-handed

19 January 2005

61d 22h 46m

Vincent Riou (FRA)

[14]

PRB

Monohull Single-handed

Around the world sailing record

Indian Ocean from Cape Agulhas, South Africa (longitude 20°E) to Tasmania south point, (longitude : 146°49'E) Date

Time

Skipper

12 December 2011 08d 7h 22m[15] [16]

Yacht

Loïck Peyron (FRA)

Type

Crew

Banque Populaire V Multihull Crewed

25 February 2010

08d 17h 39m

Franck Cammas (FRA) Groupama 3

Multihull Crewed

17 February 2005

09d 11h 04m

Bruno Peyron (FRA)

Orange II

Multihull Crewed

18 December 2007 09d 12h 03m

Francis Joyon (FRA)

Trimaran IDEC

Multihull Single-handed

18 December 2004 14d 21h 01m

Mike Golding (UK)

Ecover

Monohull Single-handed

Pacific ocean Tasmania south point, (longitude : 146°49'E) to Cape Horn (longitude 67°16'W) Date

Time

Skipper

25 February 2005

08d 18h 08m

Yacht

Bruno Peyron (FRA) Orange II

Type

Crew

Multihull Crewed

29 December 2007 10d 14h 30m

Francis Joyon (FRA) Trimaran IDEC Multihull Single-handed

4 January 2005

Mike Golding (UK)

16d 05h 26m

Ecover

Monohull Single-handed

South Atlantic ocean From Cape Horn (longitude 67°16'W) to Cape Agulhas, South Africa (longitude 20°E) Date

Time

Skipper

17 March 2005 11d 10h 22m 13s

Yacht

Tony Bullimore (UK) Doha

Type

Crew

Multihull Crewed

From Jules Verne Trophy starting line (Ushant) to Equator (out of WSSRC rule) Date

Time

Skipper

Yacht

Type

Crew

27 November 2011 5d 14h 55m[17]

Loïck Peyron (FRA)

Banque Populaire V Multihull Crewed

11 November 2009 5d 15h 23m[18]

Franck Cammas (FRA)

Groupama 3

Multihull Crewed

[19]

Franck Cammas (FRA)

Groupama 3

Multihull Crewed

Groupama 3

Multihull Crewed

6 February 2010

5d 19h 07m

30 January 2008

6d 6h 24m

Franck Cammas (FRA)

2003

6d 11h 26m

Olivier de Kersauson (FRA) Geronimo

[20]

Multihull Crewed

30 November 2007 6d 16h 58m[21]

Francis Joyon (FRA)

Trimaran IDEC

Multihull Single-handed

31 January 2005

Bruno Peyron (FRA)

Orange II

Multihull Crewed

7d 02h 56m

Around the world sailing record

From Equator to Cape of Good Hope (out of WSSRC rules) Date

Time

Skipper

Yacht

Type

Crew

4 December 2011

6d 06h [22] 53m

Loïck Peyron (FRA)

Banque Populaire V

Multihull Crewed. Also beats the record Ushant - Cape of Good Hope in 11d 21h and 48m

6 February 2008

7d 02h [23] 23m

Franck Cammas (FRA)

Groupama 3

Multihull Crewed

7 February 2005

7d 05h [24] 23m

Bruno Peyron (FRA)

Orange II

Multihull Crewed

15 February 2010

8d 20h [25] 40m

Franck Cammas (FRA)

Multihull Crewed

From Cape Horn to Equator (out of WSSRC rules) From the cape Horn, cutting the longitude 67°16'W, up to the Equator Date

Time

Skipper

Yacht

Type

Crew

30 December 2011 07d 5h and 0m [26]

Loïck Peyron (FRA)

Banque Populaire V Multihull Crewed

26 February 2005

08d 5h and 36m

Bruno Peyron (FRA)

Orange II

Multihull Crewed

2004

10d 10h and 47m

Steve Fossett (USA)

Cheyenne

Multihull Crewed

2002

11d 1h and 57m

Bruno Peyron (FRA)

Orange

Multihull Crewed

2004

12d 10h and 25m

Olivier de Kersauson (FRA) Geronimo

Multihull Crewed

From Equator to Jules Verne Trophy finishing line (Ushant) (out of WSSRC rules) Date

Time

Skipper

Yacht

Type

Crew

2010 06d 10h and 44m

Franck Cammas (FRA)

Groupama 3 Multihull Crewed

2004 08d 6h and 42m

Steve Fossett (USA)

Cheyenne

Multihull Crewed

2004 09d 11h and 7m

Olivier de Kersauson (FRA) Geronimo

Multihull Crewed

2005 09d 11h and 15m

Bruno Peyron (FRA)

Orange II

Multihull Crewed

2002 11d 3h and 48m

Bruno Peyron (FRA)

Orange

Multihull Crewed

Notes and references [1] round the world records (http:/ / www. sailspeedrecords. com/ round-the-world-non-stop. html) [2] ISAF/World Sailing Speed Record Rules for individually attempted Passage Records or Performances Offshore (http:/ / www. sailspeedrecords. com/ the-courses-offshore. html) [3] Retrouvez toute l'actualité de l'univers Voile de Banque Populaire (http:/ / www. voile. banquepopulaire. fr/ ) [4] COURSE - Groupama dans la Volvo Ocean Race : Groupama sailing team (http:/ / www. cammas-groupama. com/ en) [5] Site WSSRC Historical List of Offshore World Records (http:/ / www. sailspeedrecords. com/ content/ view/ 73/ 30/ ) [6] http:/ / www. cammas-groupama. com/ en/ franck_cammas/ equipe/ equipage_g3/ [7] Cheyenne circumnavigation record, Solarnavigator.net (http:/ / www. solarnavigator. net/ steve_fossett. htm) [8] Press Releases Maxi Trimaran Banque Populaire V (http:/ / www. voile. banquepopulaire. fr/ press/ Maxi-Trimaran-Banque-Populaire-V/ NEWS-FLASH-OF-ARRIVAL-the-Maxi-trimaran-Banque-Populaire-V-takes-possession-of-the-Jules-Verne-Trophy-7075. html) [9] Swift, E. M. "Feat Of Global Dimensions: Dodge Morgan sailed his 60-foot cutter, American Promise, around the world non-stop in a record-shattering 150 days" (http:/ / sportsillustrated. cnn. com/ vault/ article/ magazine/ MAG1064751/ index. htm), Sports Illustrated, April 21, 1986. Accessed September 19, 2010.

Around the world sailing record [10] WSSRC ratified passage records (http:/ / www. sailspeedrecords. com/ wssrc-ratified-passage-records. html) [11] Site WSSRC "Rules The Courses Offshore" (http:/ / sailingsource. com/ speedsail07/ content/ view/ 55/ 4/ ) [12] Site WSSRC "Intermediate Round The World Records" (http:/ / www. sailspeedrecords. com/ content/ view/ 20/ 22/ / ) [13] Equator-Equator by Loick Peyron (http:/ / www. voile. banquepopulaire. fr/ Maxi-Trimaran-Banque-Populaire-V/ Flash-Le-Maxi-Banque-Populaire-V-a-franchi-l-Equateur-et-s-octroie-un-nouveau-record-6792. html#suite) [14] Trimaran IDEC website: 10 Jan 15h13 (http:/ / www. trimaran-idec. com/ actualite_depeches. asp) [15] Indian ocean record, by [[Banque Populaire V (http:/ / www. voile. banquepopulaire. fr/ Maxi-Trimaran-Banque-Populaire-V/ Jour-20-Effets-de-houle-6285. html#suite)], 2011. Homologation pending] [16] Indian ocean record, on Franck Cammas Site (http:/ / www. cammas-groupama. com/ en/ courses/ jules_verne_trophy/ news_2009/ news_jules_verne_113. jsp) [17] Banque populaire website (http:/ / www. voile. banquepopulaire. fr/ Maxi-Trimaran-Banque-Populaire-V/ Un-record-de-plus-pour-Loick-Peyron-et-les-13-equipiers-du-Maxi-5767. html#suite) [18] Franck Cammas website (http:/ / www. cammas-groupama. com/ fr/ courses/ trophee_jules_verne/ actus_2009/ actu_jules_verne_21. jsp) [19] Franck Cammas website (http:/ / www. cammas-groupama. com/ fr/ courses/ trophee_jules_verne/ actus_2009/ actu_jules_verne_75. jsp) [20] Franck Cammas website (http:/ / www. cammas-groupama. com/ fr/ courses/ trophee_jules_verne/ actus/ actu_jules_verne_36. jsp) [21] Trimaran Idec website (http:/ / www. trimaran-idec. com/ actualite_article. asp?id=31) [22] Equator-cape of Good Hope, by Banque Populaire V (http:/ / www. voile. banquepopulaire. fr/ Maxi-Trimaran-Banque-Populaire-V/ Jour-12-Le-Maxi-Banque-Populaire-V-pulverise-le-temps-de-reference-a-Bonne-Esperance-5978. html#suite) [23] Groupama 3 website (http:/ / www. cammas-groupama. com) [24] Reference times of Orange II (http:/ / www. cammas-groupama. com/ fr/ courses/ trophee_jules_verne/ actus_2009/ actu_jules_verne_75. jsp) [25] Groupama 3 website (http:/ / www. cammas-groupama. com/ fr/ courses/ trophee_jules_verne/ actus_2009/ actu_jules_verne_95. jsp) [26] Jules Verne intermediate records (http:/ / www. fralo. info/ jv03. html)

Juan Sebastián Elcano

Juan Sebastián Elcano For ships with the name, see Juan Sebastián Elcano (Spanish ship) and USS Elcano (PG-38).

Juan Sebastián Elcano

Born

Juan Sebastián Elcano 1476 Getaria, Gipuzkoa, Spain

Died

August 4, 1526 (aged 49–50) Pacific Ocean

Cause of death Malnutrition Nationality

Spanish

Occupation

explorer, navigator and mariner

Known for

first circumnavigation of the world.

Religion

Roman Catholic

Partner(s)

María Hernández Dernialde

Children

Domingo Elcano III

Parents

Domingo Sebastián Elcano I, and Catalina del Puerto

Relatives

Domingo Elcano II, Martín Pérez Elcano and Antón Martín Elcano

Juan Sebastián Elcano[1] (1476, Getaria, Gipuzkoa, Spain – 4 August 1526, Pacific Ocean) was a Spanish Basque explorer who completed the first circumnavigation. After Magellan's death in the Philippines, Elcano took command of the nau Victoria from the Moluccas to Sanlúcar de Barrameda in Spain.

Early life Elcano was born in 1476 to Domingo Sebastián Elcano I and Catalina del Puerto. He had three brothers: Domingo Elcano II, a Catholic priest, Martín Pérez Elcano, and Antón Martín Elcano.

Military life Elcano fought in the Italian Wars under orders of Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba in Italy, and in 1509 he joined the Spanish expedition organized by Cardinal Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros against Algiers.

Merchant shipping Elcano settled in Seville and became a merchant ship captain. After violating Spanish laws by surrendering a ship to Genoan bankers in repayment of a debt, he sought a pardon from the Spanish king Charles I, by signing on as a

Juan Sebastiรกn Elcano

subordinate officer for the Magellan expedition to the East Indies.

Voyage of circumnavigation

The Magellan-Elcano expedition.

Nao Victoria, Elcano ship Replica in Punta Arenas

Elcano served as a naval commander of Charles I of Spain and took part in the expedition to the Philippines. They set sail with five ships, the Concepciรณn, San Antonio, Santiago, Trinidad and Victoria with a fleet of 241 men from Spain in 1519. Elcano participated in a fierce mutiny against Magellan before the armada discovered the passage through South America, the Strait of Magellan. He was spared by Magellan and after five months of hard labour in chains was made captain of the galleon.The Santiago was later destroyed by a storm. The fleet sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to the eastern coast of Brazil and into Puerto San Juliรกn in Argentina. Several days later they discovered a passage now known as the Strait of Magellan located in the southern tip of South America and sailed through the strait. The crew of the San Antonio mutinied and returned to Spain. On 28 November 1520, three ships set sail for the Pacific Ocean and about 19 men died before they reached Guam on 6 March 1521. Conflicts with the nearby island of Rota prevented Magellan and Elcano from resupplying their ships with food and water. They eventually gathered enough supplies and continued on with their journey to the Philippines and remained there for several weeks. Close relationship developed between the Spaniards and the islanders. They took part on converting the Cebuano tribes into Christianity and became involved in tribal warfare between rival Filipino groups in Mactan Island.

Juan Sebastián Elcano

65 On 27 April 1521, Magellan was killed and the Spaniards defeated in the Battle of Mactan. The surviving members of the expedition could not decide who should succeed Magellan. The men finally voted on a joint command with the leadership divided between Duarte Barbosa and João Serrão. Within four days these two were also dead having died by being betrayed by a massacre at a feast at the hands of Rajah Humabon. The mission teetering on disaster, João Lopes de Carvalho took command of the fleet and led it on a meandering journey through the Philippine archipelago.

During this six-month listless journey after Magellan died, and before reaching the Moluccas, Elcano's stature grew as the men became disillusioned with the weak leadership of Carvalho. The two ships, Route of the Spanish expedition through the Victoria and Trinidad finally reached the destination of their mission, Spice Islands. The red cross shows the location of the Moluccas, on 6 November. They rested and re-supplied in this Mactan Island in the Philippines where Magellan was killed in 1521. haven, and filled their holds with the precious cargo of cloves and spice. On 18 December, the ships were ready to leave. Trinidad sprung a leak, and was unable to be repaired. Carvalho stayed with the ship along with 52 others hoping to return later.[2] The Victoria, commanded by Elcano along with 17 other European survivors of the 240 man expedition and 4 (survivors out of 13) Timorese Asians continued its westward voyage to Spain crossing the Indian and Atlantic Ocean. They eventually reached Sanlúcar de Barrameda on 6 September 1522.[3] Antonio Pigafetta, an Italian scholar, was a crew member of the Magellan and Elcano expedition. He wrote several documents about the events of the expedition. According to Pigafetta the voyage covered 14,460 leagues about 81,449 kilometers.

Honours Elcano was awarded a coat of arms by Charles I of Spain, featuring a globe with the motto: Primus circumdedisti me (in Latin, "You went around me first"), and an annual pension.

Loaísa expedition In 1525, Elcano went back to sea, and became a member of the Loaísa Expedition. He was appointed leader along with García Jofre de Loaísa as captains, who commanded seven ships and sent to claim the East Indies for King Charles I of Spain. Both Elcano and Loaísa and many other sailors died of malnutrition in the Pacific Ocean, but the survivors reached their destination and a few of them managed to return to Spain.

Juan Sebastián Elcano

Family life Elcano never married but he had a son by María Hernández Dernialde named Domingo Elcano, whom he legitimized in his last will and testament. In 1572 to mark the 50th anniversary of the voyage King Philip II of Spain awarded the male heirs of Elcano the hereditary title of Marques de Buglas.

References [1] Elcano y no Cano (http:/ / www. euskomedia. org/ PDFAnlt/ riev/ 11194213. pdf) [2] The Seafarers- The Explorers. Richard Humble. Time-Life Books. Alexandria, Virginia. 1978 [3] Perspectivas Culturales De Espana. Juan Kattan-Ibarra. 1995. Page 71.

External links • Juan Sebastián de Elcano (http://coloquio.com/famosos/elcano.htm) • Auñamendi Encyclopedia: Elcano, Juan Sebastián de (http://www.euskomedia.org/aunamendi/37680?idi=eu& primR=111&op=9&f2=07$04&fclick=2&pos=118) (Spanish) • Last will and testament of Sebastian Elcano (http://www.filipiniana.net/ArtifactView. do?artifactID=GVH000000034&page=1&epage=1)

Ferdinand Magellan

Ferdinand Magellan For the railcar named Ferdinand Magellan, see Ferdinand Magellan Railcar.

Ferdinand Magellan

Born

Fernão de Magalhães 1480 Sabrosa, Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal

Died

April 27, 1521 (aged 40–41) Mactan, Philippines

Nationality

Portuguese

Known for

The first periplus around the world (for east and west) and captaining the first circumnavigation, across the Atlantic Ocean to the Strait of Magellan and across the Pacific Ocean

Signature

Ferdinand Magellan (Portuguese: Fernão de Magalhães, IPA: [fɨɾˈnɐ̃w ðɨ mɐɣɐˈʎɐ̃jʃ]; Spanish: Fernando de Magallanes, IPA: [ferˈnando ðe maɣaˈʎanes]; c. 1480 – 27 April 1521) was a Portuguese explorer who became known for having organised the expedition that resulted in the first circumnavigation of the Earth completed by Juan Sebastián Elcano. He was born in a still disputed location in northern Portugal, and served King Charles I of Spain in search of a westward route to the "Spice Islands" (modern Maluku Islands in Indonesia). Magellan's expedition of 1519–1522 became the first expedition to sail from the Atlantic Ocean into the Pacific Ocean (then named "peaceful sea" by Magellan; the passage being made via the Strait of Magellan), and the first to cross the Pacific. His expedition completed the first circumnavigation of the Earth. Magellan did not complete the entire voyage, as he was killed during the Battle of Mactan in the Philippines. (For background see Exploration of the Pacific.) The Magellanic Penguin was named for him, as he was the first European to note it; other memorials are the Magellanic clouds, now known to be nearby dwarf galaxies; the twin lunar craters of Magelhaens and Magelhaens A; and the Martian crater of Magelhaens.[1]

Ferdinand Magellan

Early life and travels Magellan was born around 1480 either at Vila Nova de Gaia, near Porto, in Douro Litoral Province, or at Sabrosa, near Vila Real, in Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro Province, in Portugal. He was the son of Rodrigo de Magalhães, alcaide-mór of Aveiro (1433–1500) (son of Pedro Afonso de Magalhães and wife Quinta de Sousa) and wife Alda de Mesquita and brother of Leonor or Genebra de Magalhães, wife with issue of João Fernandes Barbosa.[2] After the death of his parents during his tenth year, he became a page to Queen Leonor at the Portuguese royal court because of his family's heritage. In March 1505 at the age of 25, Magellan enlisted in the fleet of 22 ships sent to host D. Francisco de Almeida as the first viceroy of Portuguese India. Although his name does not appear in the chronicles, it is known that he remained there eight years, in Goa, Cochin and Quilon. He participated in several battles, including the battle of Cannanore in 1506, where he was wounded. In 1509 he fought in the battle of Diu.[3] He later sailed under Diogo Lopes de Sequeira in the first Portuguese embassy to Malacca, with Francisco Serrão, his friend and possibly cousin.[4] In September, after arriving at Malacca, the expedition fell victim to a conspiracy ending in retreat. Magellan had a crucial role, warning Sequeira and saving Francisco Serrão, who had landed.[5] These actions earned him honors and a promotion. In 1511, under the new governor Afonso de Albuquerque, Magellan and Serrão participated in the conquest of Malacca. After the conquest their ways parted: Magellan was promoted, with a rich plunder and, in the company of a Malay he had indentured and baptized Enrique of Malacca, he returned to Portugal in 1512. Serrão departed in the first expedition sent to find the "Spice Islands" in the Moluccas, where he remained. He married a woman from Amboina and became a military advisor to the Sultan of Ternate, Bayan Sirrullah. His letters to Magellan would prove decisive, giving information about the spice-producing territories.[6][7] After taking a leave without permission, Magellan fell out of favour. Serving in Morocco, he was wounded, resulting in a permanent limp. He was accused of trading illegally with the Moors. The accusations were proved false, but he received no further offers of employment after 15 May 1514. Later on in 1515, he got an employment offer as a crew member on a Portuguese ship, but rejected this. In 1517 after a quarrel with King Manuel I, who denied his persistent demands to lead an expedition to reach the spice islands from the east (i.e., while sailing westwards, seeking to avoid the need to sail around the tip of Africa), he left for Spain. In Seville he befriended his countryman Diogo Barbosa and soon married his daughter by his second wife María Caldera Beatriz Barbosa.[8] They had two children: Rodrigo de Magalhães and Carlos de Magalhães, both of whom died at a young age. His wife died in Seville around 1521. Meanwhile Magellan devoted himself to studying the most recent charts, investigating, in partnership with cosmographer Rui Faleiro, a gateway from the Atlantic to the South Pacific and the possibility of the Moluccas being Spanish according to the demarcation of the Treaty of Tordesillas.

Voyage of circumnavigation See also: Timeline of Magellan-Elcano's circumnavigation

Background: Spanish search for a westward route to Asia Christopher Columbus's voyages to the West (1492–1503) had the goal of reaching the Indies and to establish direct commercial relations between Spain and the Asian kingdoms. The Spanish soon realized that the lands of the Americas were not a part of Asia, but a new continent. The 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas reserved for Portugal the eastern routes that went around Africa, and Vasco da Gama and the Portuguese arrived in India in 1498. Spain urgently needed to find a new commercial route to Asia. After the Junta de Toro conference of 1505, the Spanish Crown commissioned expeditions to discover a route to the west. Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa reached the Pacific Ocean in 1513 after crossing the Isthmus of Panama, and Juan Díaz de Solís died in Río de la Plata in 1516 while exploring South America in the service of Spain.

Ferdinand Magellan

Funding and preparation In October 1517 in Seville, Magellan contacted Juan de Aranda, Factor of the Casa de Contratación. Following the arrival of his partner Rui Faleiro, and with the support of Aranda, they presented their project to the Spanish king, Charles I, future Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Magellan's project, if successful, would realize Columbus' plan of a spice route by sailing west without damaging relations with the Portuguese. The idea was in tune with the times and had already been discussed after Balboa's discovery of the Pacific. On 22 March 1518 the king named Magellan and Faleiro captains so that they could travel in search of the Spice Islands in July. He raised them to the rank of Commander of the Order of Santiago. The king granted them: • • • • •

Monopoly of the discovered route for a period of ten years. Their appointment as governors of the lands and islands found, with 5% of the resulting net gains. A fifth of the gains of the travel. The right to levy one thousand ducats on upcoming trips, paying only 5% on the remainder. Granting of an island for each one, apart from the six richest, from which they would receive a fifteenth.

The expedition was funded largely by the Spanish Crown, which provided ships carrying supplies for two years of travel. Expert cartographer Jorge Reinel and Diogo Ribeiro, a Portuguese who had started working for Charles V in 1518[9] as a cartographer at the Casa de Contratación, took part in the development of the maps to be used in the travel. Several problems arose during the preparation of the trip, including lack of money, the king of Portugal trying to stop them, Magellan and other Portuguese incurring suspicion from the Spanish, and the difficult nature of Faleiro. Finally, thanks to the tenacity of Magellan, the expedition was ready. Through the bishop Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca they obtained the participation of merchant Christopher de Haro, who provided a quarter of the funds and goods to barter.

The fleet The fleet provided by King Charles V included five ships: the flagship Trinidad (110 tons, crew 55), under Magellan's command; San Antonio (120 tons; crew 60) commanded by Juan de Cartagena; Concepcion (90 tons, crew 45) commanded by Gaspar de Quesada; Santiago (75 tons, crew 32) commanded by Juan Serrano; and Victoria (85 tons, crew 43), commanded by Luis Mendoza. (The last ship was named after the church of Santa Maria de la Victoria de Triana, where Magellan took an oath of allegiance to Charles V.) Trinidad was a caravel, and all others rated as carracks (Spanish carraca or nao; Portuguese nau).

The crew The crew of about 270 included men from several nations: including Portugal, Spain, Italy, Germany, Belgium, Greece, England and France. Spanish authorities were wary of Magellan, so that they almost mostly Portuguese crew to mostly men of Spain. It included about brother-in-law Duarte Barbosa, João Serrão, a relative of Francisco indentured servant Enrique of Malacca. Faleiro, who

Victoria, the sole ship of Magellan's fleet to complete the circumnavigation. Detail from a map by Ortelius, 1590.

prevented him from sailing, switching his 40 Portuguese, among them Magellan's Serrão, Estêvão Gomes and Magellan's had planned to accompany the

Ferdinand Magellan

voyage, withdrew prior to boarding. Juan Sebastián Elcano, a Spanish merchant ship captain settled at Seville, embarked seeking the king's pardon for previous misdeeds, and Antonio Pigafetta, a Venetian scholar and traveller, asked to be on the voyage, accepting the title of "supernumerary" and a modest salary. He became a strict assistant of Magellan and kept an accurate journal. The only other sailor to report the voyage would be Francisco Albo, who kept a formal logbook. Juan de Cartageña was named Inspector General of the expedition, responsible for its financial and trading operations.

The Nao Victoria Replica in the Nao Victoria Museum, Punta Arenas, Chile

Departure and crossing of the Atlantic On 10 August 1519, the five ships under Magellan's command left Seville and descended the Guadalquivir River to Sanlúcar de Barrameda, at the mouth of the river. There they remained more than five weeks. Finally they set sail on 20 September. King Manuel I ordered a Portuguese naval detachment to pursue Magellan, but the explorer evaded them. After stopping at the Canary Islands, Magellan arrived at Cape Verde, where he set course for Cape St. Augustine in Brazil. On 27 November the expedition crossed the equator; on 6 December the crew sighted South America. As Brazil was Portuguese territory, Magellan avoided it and on 13 December anchored near present-day Rio de Janeiro. There the crew was resupplied, but bad conditions caused them to delay. Afterwards, they continued to sail south along South America's east coast, looking for the strait that Magellan believed would lead to the Spice Islands. The fleet reached Río de la Plata on 10 January 1520. For overwintering, Magellan established a temporary settlement called Puerto San Julian on March 30, 1520. On Easter (April 1 and 2), a mutiny broke out involving three of the five ship captains. Magellan took quick and decisive action. Luis de Mendoza, the captain of Victoria, was killed by a party sent by Magellan, and the ship was recovered. After Concepcion's anchor cable had been secretly cut by his forces, the ship drifted towards the well-armed Trinidad, and Concepcion's captain de Quesada and his inner circle surrendered. Juan de Cartagena, the head of the mutineers on the San Antonio, subsequently gave up. Antonio Pigafetta reported that Gaspar Quesada, the captain of Concepcion, and other mutineers were executed, while Juan de Cartagena, the captain of San Antonio, and a priest named Padre Sanchez de la Reina were marooned on the coast. Most of the men, including Juan Sebastián Elcano, were needed and forgiven. Reportedly those killed were drawn and quartered and impaled on the coast; years later, their bones were found by Sir Francis Drake. A replica of the Victoria can be visited in Puerto San Julian.

Passage into the Pacific The journey resumed. The help of Duarte Barbosa was crucial in facing the riot in Puerto San Julian; Magellan appointed him as captain of the Victoria. The Santiago was sent down the coast on a scouting expedition and was wrecked in a sudden storm. All of its crew survived and made it safely to shore. Two of them returned overland to inform Magellan of what had happened, and to bring rescue to their comrades. After this experience, Magellan decided to wait for a few weeks more before resuming the voyage. The Strait of Magellan cuts through the southern tip of South America connecting the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean.

At 52°S latitude on 21 October, the fleet reached Cape Virgenes and concluded they had found the passage, because the waters were brine

Ferdinand Magellan

and deep inland. Four ships began an arduous trip through the 373-mile (600 km) long passage that Magellan called the Estrecho (Canal) de Todos los Santos, ("All Saints' Channel"), because the fleet travelled through it on 1 November or All Saints' Day. The strait is now named the Strait of Magellan. He first assigned Concepcion and San Antonio to explore the strait, but the latter, commanded by Gómez, deserted and returned to Spain on 20 November. On 28 November, the three remaining ships entered the South Pacific. Magellan named the waters the Mar Pacifico (Pacific Ocean) because of its apparent stillness. Magellan and his crew were the first Europeans to reach Tierra del Fuego just east of the Pacific side of the strait.

Death in the Philippines Heading northwest, the crew reached the equator on 13 February 1521. On 6 March they reached the Marianas and Guam. Pigafetta described the "lateen sail" used by the inhabitants of Guam, hence the name "Island of Sails", but he also writes the inhabitants "entered the ships and stole whatever they could lay their hands on", including "the small boat that was fastened to the poop of the flagship."[10]:129 "Those people are poor, but ingenious and very thievish, on account of which we called those three islands the islands of Ladroni.":131 On 17 March Magellan reached the island of Homonhon in the Philippines, with 150 crew left. Members of his expedition became the first Spaniards to reach the Philippine archipelago, but they were not the first Europeans. Magellan relied on Enrique, his Malay servant and interpreter, to communicate with the native tribes. He had been indentured by Magellan in 1511 after the colonization of Malacca, and had accompanied him through later adventures. They traded gifts with Rajah Siaiu of Mazaua[11] who guided them to Cebu on 7 April.

Monument in Lapu-Lapu City, Cebu in the Philippines.

Rajah Humabon of Cebu was friendly towards Magellan and the Spaniards; both he and his queen Hara Amihan were baptized as Christians and were given the image of the Santo Nino which along with a cross (Magellan's Cross) symbolizes the Christianization of the Philippines. Afterward, Rajah Humabon and his ally Datu Zula convinced Magellan to kill their enemy, Datu Lapu-Lapu, on Mactan. Magellan wanted to convert Lapu-Lapu to Christianity, as he had Humabon, but Lapu-Lapu rejected that. On the morning of 27 April 1521, Magellan sailed to Mactan with a small attack force. During the resulting battle against Lapu-Lapu's troops, Magellan was struck by a bamboo spear, and later surrounded and finished off with other weapons. Pigafetta and Ginés de Mafra provided written documents of the events culminating in Magellan's death:

Magellan's voyage led to Limasawa, Cebu, Mactan, Palawan, Brunei, Celebes and finally to the Spice Islands.

When morning came, forty-nine of us leaped into the water up to our thighs, and walked through water for more than two cross-bow flights before we could reach the shore. The boats could not approach nearer because of certain rocks in the water. The other eleven men remained behind to guard the boats. When we reached land, [the natives] had formed in three divisions to the number of more than one thousand five hundred people. When they saw us, they charged down upon us with exceeding loud cries... The musketeers and crossbow-men shot from a distance for about a half-hour, but uselessly... Recognizing the

captain, so many turned upon him that they knocked his helmet off his head twice... A native hurled a bamboo spear into the captain's face, but the latter immediately killed him with his lance, which he left in the native's

Ferdinand Magellan body. Then, trying to lay hand on sword, he could draw it out but halfway, because he had been wounded in the arm with a bamboo spear. When the natives saw that, they all hurled themselves upon him. One of them wounded him on the left leg with a large cutlass, which resembles a scimitar, only being larger. That caused the captain to fall face downward, when immediately they rushed upon him with iron and bamboo spears and with their cutlasses, until they killed our mirror, our light, our comfort, and our true guide. When they wounded him, he turned back many times to see whether we were all in the boats. Thereupon, beholding him dead, we, wounded, retreated, as best we could, to the boats, which were already pulling off. Magellan provided in his will that Enrique, his interpreter, was to be freed upon his death. But after the battle, the remaining ships' masters refused to free the Malay. Enrique escaped his indenture on 1 May with the aid of Rajah Humabon, amid the deaths of almost 30 crewmen. Pigafetta had been jotting down words in both Butuanon and Cebuano languages – which he started at Mazaua on 29 March and his list grew to a total of 145 words. He continued communications with indigenous peoples during the rest of the voyage. "Nothing of Magellan's body survived, that afternoon the grieving rajah-king, hoping to recover his remains, offered Mactan's victorious chief a handsome ransom of copper and iron for them but Datu Lapulapu refused. He intended to keep the body as a war trophy. Since his wife and child died in Seville before any member of the expedition could return to Spain, it seemed that every evidence of Ferdinand Magellan's existence had vanished from the earth."

Return

The Magellan–Elcano voyage. Victoria (ship)Victoria, one of the original five ships, circumnavigated the globe, finishing 16 months after the explorer's death.

The casualties suffered in the Philippines left the expedition with too few men to sail all three of the remaining ships. Consequently, on 2 May they abandoned and burned Concepción. Reduced to Trinidad and Victoria, the expedition fled westward to Palawan. They left that island on 21 June and were guided to Brunei, Borneo, by Moro pilots, who could navigate the shallow seas. They anchored off the Brunei breakwater for 35 days, where Pigafetta, an Italian from Vicenza, recorded the splendour of Rajah Siripada's court (gold, two pearls the size of hens' eggs, porcelain from China, eyeglasses from Europe etc.). In addition, Brunei boasted tame elephants and an armament of 62 cannons, more than five times the armament of Magellan's ships. Brunei people were not interested in the Spanish

Ferdinand Magellan cargo of cloves, but these proved more valuable than gold upon the return to Spain. When reaching the Maluku Islands (the Spice Islands) on 6 November, the total crew numbered 115. They traded with the Sultan of Tidore, a rival of the Sultan of Ternate, who was the ally of the Portuguese. The two remaining ships, laden with valuable spices, tried to return to Spain by sailing westwards. However, as they left the Spice Islands, the Trinidad began to take on water. The crew tried to discover and repair the leak, but failed. They concluded that Trinidad would need to spend considerable time being overhauled, but the small Victoria was not large enough to accommodate all the surviving crew. As a result, Victoria with some of the crew sailed west for Spain. Several weeks later, Trinidad departed and tried to return to Spain via the Pacific route. This attempt failed. Trinidad was captured by the Portuguese and was eventually wrecked in a storm while at anchor under Portuguese control. Victoria set sail via the Indian Ocean route home on 21 December, commanded by Juan Sebastián Elcano. By 6 May the Victoria rounded the Cape of Good Hope, with only rice for rations. Twenty crewmen died of starvation before Elcano put into Cape Verde, a Portuguese holding, where he abandoned 13 more crew on 9 July in fear of losing his cargo of 26 tons of spices (cloves and cinnamon). On 6 September 1522, Elcano and the remaining crew of Magellan's voyage arrived in Spain aboard the Victoria, almost exactly three years after the fleet of five ships had departed. Magellan had not intended to circumnavigate the world, but rather had intended only to find a secure route through which the Spanish ships could navigate to the Spice Islands. After Magellan's death, Elcano decided to push westward, thereby completing the first known voyage around the entire Earth. Maximilianus Transylvanus interviewed some of the surviving members of the expedition when they presented themselves to the Spanish court at Valladolid in the autumn of 1522. He wrote the first account of the voyage, which was published in 1523. Pigafetta's account was not published until 1525, and was not published in its entirety until 1800. This was the Italian transcription by Carlo Amoretti of what is now called the "Ambrosiana codex." The expedition eked out a small profit, but the crew was not paid full wages. Four crewmen of the original 55 on Trinidad finally returned to Spain in 1522; 51 had died in war or from disease. In total, approximately 232 sailors of assorted nationalities died on the expedition around the world with Magellan.

Survivors When Victoria, the one surviving ship, returned to the harbor of departure after completing the first circumnavigation of the Earth, only 18 men out of the original 237 men were on board. Among the survivors were two Italians, Antonio Pigafetta and Martino de Judicibus. Martino de Judicibus (Spanish: Martín de Judicibus) was a Genoese or Savonese[12] Chief Steward.[13] His history is preserved in the nominative registers at the Archivo General de Indias in Seville, Spain. The family name is referred to with the exact Latin patronymic, "de Judicibus". Martino de Judicibus, initially assigned to the caravel Concepción, one of five ships of the Spanish fleet of Magellan, had embarked on the expedition with the rank of captain.

Ferdinand Magellan

18 men returned to Seville aboard Victoria in 1522: Name

Rating

Juan Sebastián Elcano, from Getaria (Spain)

Master

Francisco Albo, from Rodas (in Tui, Galicia)

Pilot

Miguel de Rodas (in Tui, Galicia)

Pilot

Juan de Acurio, from Bermeo

Pilot

Antonio Lombardo (Pigafetta), from Vicenza

Supernumerary

Martín de Judicibus, from Genoa

Chief Steward

Hernándo de Bustamante, from Alcántara

Mariner

Nicholas the Greek, from Nafplion

Mariner

Miguel Sánchez, from Rodas (in Tui, Galicia) Mariner Antonio Hernández Colmenero, from Huelva

Mariner

Francisco Rodrigues, Portuguese from Seville Mariner Juan Rodríguez, from Huelva

Mariner

Diego Carmena, from Baiona (Galicia)

Mariner

Hans of Aachen, (Holy Roman Empire)

Gunner

Juan de Arratia, from Bilbao

Able Seaman

Vasco Gómez Gallego, from Baiona (Galicia) Able Seaman Juan de Santandrés, from Cueto (Cantabria)

Apprentice Seaman

Juan de Zubileta, from Barakaldo

Page

Aftermath and legacy Antonio Pigafetta's journal is the main source for much of what is known about Magellan and Elcano's voyage. The other direct report of the voyage was that of Francisco Albo, the last Victoria's pilot, who kept a formal logbook. Europeans first learned of the circumnavigation through an account written by Maximilianus Transylvanus, a relative of sponsor Christopher de Haro, who interviewed survivors in 1522 and published his account in 1523. In 1525, soon after the return of Magellan's expedition, Charles V sent an expedition led by García Jofre de Loaísa to occupy the Moluccas, claiming that they were in his zone of the Treaty of Tordesillas. This expedition included the most notable Spanish navigators: Juan Sebastián Elcano, who, along with many other sailors, died of malnutrition during the voyage, and the young Andrés de Urdaneta. They had difficulty reaching the Moluccas, docking at Tidore. The Portuguese were already established in nearby Ternate and the two nations had nearly a decade of skirmishing over the "possession." (occupied by indigenous peoples.)

Monument of Ferdinand Magellan in Punta Arenas in Chile. The statue looks towards the Strait of Magellan.

Since there was not a set limit to the east, in 1524 both kingdoms had tried to find the exact location of the antimeridian of Tordesillas, which would divide the world into two equal hemispheres and to resolve the "Moluccas issue". A board met several times without reaching an agreement: the knowledge at that time was insufficient for an accurate calculation of longitude, and each gave the islands to their sovereign. An agreement was reached only with

Ferdinand Magellan the Treaty of Zaragoza, signed on 1529 between Spain and Portugal. It assigned the Moluccas to Portugal and the Philippines to Spain. The course that Magellan charted was followed by other navigators, such as Sir Francis Drake. In 1565, Andrés de Urdaneta discovered the Manila-Acapulco route. Magellan's expedition was the first to circumnavigate the globe and the first to navigate the strait in South America connecting the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. Magellan's name for the Pacific was adopted by other Europeans. Magellan's crew observed several animals that were entirely new to European science, including a "camel without humps", which was probably a guanaco, whose range extends to Tierra del Fuego. The llama, vicuña and alpaca natural ranges were in the Andes mountains. A black "goose" that had to be skinned instead of plucked was a penguin. The full extent of the Earth was realized, since their voyage was 14,460 Spanish leagues (60,440 km or 37,560 mi). The expedition showed the need for an International Date Line to be established. Upon returning the expedition found its date was a day behind, although they had faithfully maintained the ship's log. They lost one day because they traveled west during their circumnavigation of the globe, opposite to Earth's daily rotation. This caused great excitement at the time, and a special delegation was sent to the Pope to explain the oddity to him. Two of the closest galaxies, the Magellanic Clouds in the southern celestial hemisphere, were named for Magellan sometime after 1800. The Magellan probe, which mapped the planet Venus from 1990 to 1994, was named after Magellan. The Ferdinand Magellan train rail car (also known as U.S. Car. No. 1) is a former Pullman Company observation car that was re-built by the U.S. Government for presidential use from 1943 until 1958. Also a starship of the TV series Andromeda was named Pax Magellanic, in reference of the Magellanic Clouds. Three craters, two located on the Moon and one on Mars, have been named after Magellan using the spelling "Magelhaens". The names were adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1935 (Magelhaens on the Moon), 1976 (Magelhaens on Mars), and 2006 (Magelhaens A on the Moon). As of 2011[14], various initiatives are being planned to celebrate the fifth centenary of the first circumnavigation of the Earth. Seville and Sanlucar de Barrameda are planning a three-year program of events from 2019-2022. [citation needed]

Notes [1] From the Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature (http:/ / planetarynames. wr. usgs. gov/ ), maintained by the USGS, in cooperation with IAU: Magelhaens on Moon (http:/ / planetarynames. wr. usgs. gov/ Feature/ 3578), Magelhaens A on Moon (http:/ / planetarynames. wr. usgs. gov/ Feature/ 11040), and Magelhaens on Mars (http:/ / planetarynames. wr. usgs. gov/ Feature/ 3579). Accessed 2012-08-27. [2] GeneAll.net – Fernão de Magalhães, o navegador (http:/ / www. geneall. net/ P/ per_page. php?id=68570) [3] James A. Patrick, Renaissance and Reformation, p. 787, Marshall Cavendish, 2007, ISBN 0-7614-7650-4 [4] William J. Bernstein, A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World, pp.183-185, Grove Press, 2009, ISBN 0-8021-4416-0 [5] Zweig, Stefan, "Conqueror of the Seas – The Story of Magellan", p.44-45, READ BOOKS, 2007, ISBN 1-4067-6006-4 [6] Zweig, Stefan, "Conqueror of the Seas – The Story of Magellan", p. 51, READ BOOKS, 2007, ISBN 1-4067-6006-4 [7] R. A. Donkin, "Between East and West: The Moluccas and the Traffic in Spices up to the Arrival of Europeans" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=B4IFMnssyqgC& lpg=PP1& pg=PP1#v=onepage& q=& f=false), p. 29, Volume 248 of Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, DIANE Publishing, 2003 ISBN 0-87169-248-1 [8] GeneAll.net – Beatriz Barbosa (http:/ / www. geneall. net/ P/ per_page. php?id=141275) [9] "Marvellous countries and lands" (Notable Maps of Florida, 1507–1846), Ralph E. Ehrenberg, 2002, webpage: BLib3 (http:/ / www. co. broward. fl. us/ library/ bienes/ lii14003. htm): notes some head mapmakers [10] Nowell, C.E., 1962, Magellan's Voyage Around the World, Antonio Pigafetta's account, Evanston: NorthwesternUniversity Press [11] Thought to be Limasawa, Southern Leyte, though this is disputed [12] Documents related to the questioning performed by the Spanish authorities after the 18 survivors of the voyage returned to Seville in 1522 report that de Judicibus was born in Savona, Italy. [13] A. Pigafetta, «Il viaggio di Magellano intorno al mondo», review by James Alexander ROBERTSON, Cleveland USA, 1906, Ed. Arthur Clark [14] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Ferdinand_Magellan& action=edit

Ferdinand Magellan

References • Castro, Xavier de; Hamon, Jocelynn; Thomaz, Luis Filipe de Castro (2007). Le voyage de Magellan (1519–1522). La relation d'Antonio Pigafetta & autres témoignages. Paris: Chandeigne, coll. « Magellane ». ISBN 2-915540-32-2. • Cliffe, Edward (1885). "The voyage of M. John Winter into the South sea by the Streight of Magellan, in consort with M. Francis Drake, begun in the yeere 1577". In Hakluyt, Richard. The principal navigations, voyages, traffiques and discoveries of the English nation (Edinburgh, Scotland: E. & G. Goldsmid). • Drake, Francis (1628), The world encompassed by Sir Francis Drake: being his next voyage to that to Nombre de Dios Elibron, Classics series, Issue 16 of Works issued by the Hakluyt Society (http://books.google.com/ ?id=kKoWqdtWZE8C&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=), Adamant Media Corporation, ISBN 1-4021-9567-2 • Hogan, C. Michael (2008). N. Stromberg, ed. Magellanic Penguin (http://www.globaltwitcher.com/ artspec_information.asp?thingid=232). GlobalTwitcher.com. • Noronha, Dom José Manoel de (1921). Imprensa da Universidade, ed. Algumas Observações sobre a Naturalidade e a Família de Fernão de Magalhães (http://www.bgl.org.pt/livro.php?&id=1383&) (in Portuguese). Coimbra: Biblioteca Genealogica de Lisboa. • Stefoff, Rebecca (1990), Ferdinand Magellan and the Discovery of the World Ocean (http://books.google.com/ ?id=YEzOHAAACAAJ), Chelsea House Publishers, ISBN 0-7910-1291-3 • Suárez, Thomas (1999). Early mapping of Southeast Asia (http://books.google.com/?id=ZG7ZMAbv_jAC). Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-962-593-470-9.

Further reading Primary sources • Pigafetta, Antonio (1906), Magellan's Voyage around the World, Arthur A. Clark (orig. Primer viaje en torno del globo (http://www.archive.org/details/primerviajeentor00piga) Retrieved on 2009-04-08) • Maximilianus Transylvanus, De Moluccis insulis, 1523, 1542 • Nowell, Charles E. ed. (1962), Magellan's Voyage around the World: Three Contemporary Accounts, Evanston: NU Press • The First Voyage Round the World, by Magellan (http://dlxs.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/ text-idx?c=sea;cc=sea;sid=424383ff2ffa1020e1afb760b0fe4109;idno=sea061;view=toc), full text, English translation by Lord Stanley of Alderley, London: Hakluyt, [1874] – six contemporary accounts of his voyage • Oliveira, Fernando (1550–1560), The Voyage of Ferdinand Magellan (http://books.google.com/ books?id=MByAAAAAMAAJ), National Historical Institute (published 2002), ISBN 978-971-538-163-5, English translation by Peter Schreurs from the original Portuguese manuscript in the University Library of Leiden, The Netherlands.

Secondary sources • Bergreen, Laurence (14 October 2003), Over the Edge of the World: Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe, William Morrow, ISBN 0-06-093638-X, lay summary (http://www.bookreporter.com/reviews/ 0066211735.asp) • Guillemard, Francis Henry Hill (1890), The life of Ferdinand Magellan, and the first circumnavigation of the globe, 1480–1521 (http://www.archive.org/details/lifeofferdinandm00guil), G. Philip, retrieved 8 April 2009 • Hildebrand, Arthur Sturges (1924), Magellan, New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co, ISBN 978-1-4179-1413-5 • Joyner, Tim (1992), Magellan, Camden, Me.: International Marine Publishing, ISBN 978-0-07-033128-0 • Nunn, George E. (1932), The Columbus and Magellan Concepts of South American Geography

Ferdinand Magellan • Parr, Charles M. (1953), So Noble a Captain: The Life and Times of Ferdinand Magellan, New York: Crowell, ISBN 0-8371-8521-1 • Parry, J. H. (1979), The Discovery of South America, New York: Taplinger • Parry, J. H. (1981), The Discovery of the Sea, Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-04236-0 • Parry, J. H. (1970), The Spanish Seaborne Empire, New York: Knopf, ISBN 978-0-520-07140-7 • Pérez-Mallaína, Pablo E. (1998), Spain's Men of the Sea: Daily Life on the Indies Fleets in the Sixteenth Century, trans. Carla Rahn Phillips, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 978-0-8018-5746-1, lay summary (http://www.marcusrediker.com/reviews/Perez_review.htm) • Roditi, Edouard (1972), Magellan of the Pacific, London: Faber & Faber, ISBN 0-571-08945-3 • Schurz, William L. (May 1922), "The Spanish Lake", Hispanic American Historical Review (Duke University Press) 5 (2): 181–194, doi: 10.2307/2506024 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2506024), JSTOR 2506024 (http:// www.jstor.org/stable/2506024). • Thatcher, Oliver J. ed. (1907), "Vol. V: 9th to 16th Centuries" (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/ 1519magellan.html), The Library of Original Sources, University Research Extension Co, pp. 41–57, retrieved 8 April 2009 • Wilford, John Noble (2000), The Mapmakers, New York: Knopf, ISBN 0-375-70850-2, lay summary (http:// www.cosmopolis.ch/english/cosmo33/history_cartography_mapmakers.htm) • Zweig, Stefan (2007), Conqueror of the Seas – The Story of Magellan (http://books.google.com/ ?id=tLoWg9mMh04C&lpg=PA37&dq=cannanore 1506&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q=cannanore 1506), Read Books, ISBN 1-4067-6006-4

Online sources • Swenson, Tait M. (2005). "First Circumnavigation of the Globe by Magellan 1519–1522" (http://www. thenagain.info/WebChron/WestEurope/Magellan.html). The Web Chronology project (November 2005). Retrieved 14 March 2006.

External links • Magellan's untimely demise on Cebu in the Philippines (http://www.historyhouse.com/in_history/magellan/) from History House. • EXPEDICIÓN MAGALLANES – JUAN SEBASTIAN ELCANO (http://www.armada15001900.net/ tripulantesmagallanes.htm) • Encyclopaedia Britannica Ferdinand Magellan (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9049979/ Ferdinand-Magellan)

Francis Drake

Francis Drake This article is about the Elizabethan naval commander. For other uses, see Francis Drake (disambiguation).

Sir Francis Drake — Pirate —

Sir Francis Drake in Buckland Abbey 16th century, oil on canvas, by Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger Nickname

El Draque (Spanish), Draco (Latin, "The Dragon")

Type

Privateer

Born

ca. 1540

Place of birth

Tavistock, Devon, England

Died

27 January 1596 (aged 55)

Place of death

Portobelo, Colón, Panama

Allegiance

England

Years active

1563 – 1596

Rank

Vice admiral

Base of operations Caribbean Sea Commands

Golden Hind (previously known as Pelican) Bonaventure Revenge

Battles/wars

Anglo–Spanish War Battle of Gravelines

Wealth

Equiv. US $126 million today;

[1]

#2 Forbes top-earning pirates

Francis Drake

Sir Francis Drake, vice admiral (c. 1540 – 27 January 1596) was an English sea captain, privateer, navigator, slaver, and politician of the Elizabethan era. Drake carried out the second circumnavigation of the world, from 1577 to 1580. Drake's signature Elizabeth I of England awarded Drake a knighthood in 1581. He was second-in-command of the English fleet against the Spanish Armada in 1588. He died of dysentery in January 1596[2] after unsuccessfully attacking San Juan, Puerto Rico.

His exploits were legendary, making him a hero to the English but a pirate to the Spaniards to whom he was known as El Draque.[3] King Philip II was said to have offered a reward of 20,000 ducats,[4] about £4 million (US$6.5M) by modern standards, for his life.

Birth and early years Francis Drake was born in Tavistock, Devon, England. Although Drake's birth is not formally recorded, it is known that he was born while the Six Articles were in force. "Drake was two and twenty when he obtained the command of the Judith"[5] (1566). This would date his birth to 1544. A date of c.1540 is suggested from two portraits: one a miniature painted by Nicholas Hilliard in 1581 when he was allegedly 42, the other painted in 1594 when he was said to be 53.[6] He was the eldest of the twelve sons[7] of Edmund Drake (1518–1585), a Protestant farmer, and his wife Mary Mylwaye. The first son was reportedly named after his godfather Francis Russell, 2nd Earl of Bedford.[8] Portrait miniature by Nicholas Hilliard, 1581,

Because of religious persecution during the Prayer Book Rebellion in reverse of "Drake Jewel", inscribed Aetatis suae 42, An(n)o D(omi)ni 1581 ("42 years of his age, 1549, the Drake family fled from Devonshire into Kent. There the 1581 AD") father obtained an appointment to minister to men in the King's Navy. He was ordained deacon and made vicar of Upnor Church on the Medway.[9] Drake's father apprenticed Francis to his neighbour, the master of a barque used for coastal trade transporting merchandise to France. The ship master was so satisfied with the young Drake's conduct that, being unmarried and childless at his death, he bequeathed the barque to Drake.

Marriage and family Francis Drake married Mary Newman in 1569. She died 12 years later, in 1581. In 1585, Drake married Elizabeth Sydenham—born circa 1562, the only child of Sir George Sydenham, of Combe Sydenham, who was the High Sheriff of Somerset. After Drake's death, the widow Elizabeth eventually married Sir William Courtenay of Powderham. As Sir Francis Drake had no children, his estate and titles passed on to his nephew (also named Francis).

Sailing career At age 23, Drake made his first voyage to the Americas, sailing with his second cousin, Sir John Hawkins, on one of a fleet of ships owned by his relatives, the Hawkins family of Plymouth. In 1568 Drake was again with the Hawkins fleet when it was trapped by the Spaniards in the Mexican port of San Juan de Ulúa. He escaped along with Hawkins.

Francis Drake Following the defeat at San Juan de UlĂşa, Drake vowed revenge.[citation needed] He made two voyages to the West Indies, in 1570 and 1571, of which little is known. In 1572, he embarked on his first major independent enterprise. He planned an attack on the Isthmus of Panama, known to the Spanish as Tierra Firme and the English as the Spanish Main. This was the point at which the silver and gold treasure of Peru had to be landed and sent overland to the Caribbean Sea, where galleons from Spain would pick it up at the town of Nombre de Dios. Drake left Plymouth on 24 May 1572, with a crew of 73 men in two small vessels, the Pascha (70 tons) and the Swan (25 tons), to capture Nombre de Dios. His first raid was late in July 1572. Drake and his men captured the town and its treasure. When his men noticed that Drake was bleeding profusely from a wound, they insisted on withdrawing to save his life and left the treasure. Drake stayed in the area for almost a year, raiding Spanish shipping and attempting to capture a treasure shipment. In 1573, he joined Guillaume Le Testu, a French buccaneer, in an attack on a richly laden mule train. Drake and his party found that they had captured around 20 tons of silver and gold. They buried much of the treasure, as it was too much for their party to carry. (An account of this may have given rise to subsequent stories of pirates and buried treasure.) Wounded, Le Testu was captured and later beheaded. The small band of adventurers dragged as much gold and silver as they could carry back across some 18 miles of jungle-covered mountains to where they had left the raiding boats. When they got to the coast, the boats were gone. Drake and his men, downhearted, exhausted and hungry, had nowhere to go and the Spanish were not far behind. At this point Drake rallied his men, buried the treasure on the beach, and built a raft to sail with two volunteers ten miles along the surf-lashed coast to where they had left the flagship. When Drake finally reached its deck, his men were alarmed at his bedraggled appearance. Fearing the worst, they asked him how the raid had gone. Drake could not resist a joke and teased them by looking downhearted. Then he laughed, pulled a necklace of Spanish gold from around his neck and said "Our voyage is made, lads!" By 9 August 1573, he had returned to Plymouth.

Circumnavigation of the earth (1577â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1580) With the success of the Panama isthmus raid, in 1577 Elizabeth I of England sent Drake to start an expedition against the Spanish along the Pacific coast of the Americas. Drake used the Plans that Sir Richard Greynvile had received the Patent for in 1574 from Elizabeth, which was rescinded a year later after protests A map of Drake's route around the world from Philip of Spain. He set out from Plymouth on 15 November 1577, but bad weather threatened him and his fleet. They were forced to take refuge in Falmouth, Cornwall, from where they returned to Plymouth for repair. After this major setback, he set sail again on 13 December, aboard Pelican, with four other ships and 164 men. He soon added a sixth ship, Mary (formerly Santa Maria), a Portuguese merchant ship that had been captured off the coast of Africa near the Cape Verde Islands. He also added its captain, Nuno da Silva, a man with considerable experience navigating in South American waters.

Francis Drake

Drake's fleet suffered great attrition; he scuttled both Christopher and the flyboat Swan due to loss of men on the Atlantic crossing. He made landfall at the gloomy bay of San Julian, in what is now Argentina. Ferdinand Magellan had called here half a century earlier, where he put to death some mutineers. Drake's men saw weathered and bleached skeletons on the grim Spanish gibbets. They discovered that Mary had rotting timbers, so they burned the ship. Following Magellan's example, Drake tried and executed his own 'mutineer' Thomas Doughty. Drake decided to remain the winter in San Julian before attempting the Strait of Magellan.

Entering the Pacific (1578) The three remaining ships of his convoy departed for the Magellan Strait at the southern tip of South America. A few weeks later (September 1578) Drake made it to the Pacific, but violent storms destroyed one of the three ships in the strait and caused another to return to England, leaving only the Pelican. After this passage, the Pelican was pushed south and discovered an island which Drake A replica of the Golden Hind called Elizabeth Island. Drake, like navigators before him, probably reached a latitude of 55°S (according to astronomical data quoted in Hakluyt's The Principall Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation of 1589) along the Chilean coast.[10] Despite popular lore, it seems unlikely that he reached Cape Horn or the eponymous Drake Passage, because his descriptions do not fit the first and his shipmates denied having seen an open sea. The first report of his discovery of an open channel south of Tierra del Fuego was written after the 1618 publication of the voyage of Willem Schouten and Jacob le Maire around Cape Horn in 1616.[11] He pushed onwards in his lone flagship, now renamed the Golden Hind in honour of Sir Christopher Hatton (after his coat of arms). The Golden Hind sailed north along the Pacific coast of South America, attacking Spanish ports and pillaging towns. Some Spanish ships were captured, and Drake used their more accurate charts. Before reaching the coast of Peru, Drake visited Mocha Island, where he was seriously injured by hostile Mapuche. Later he sacked the port of Valparaíso further north in Chile where he also captured a ship full of Chilean wine.

Capture of Spanish treasure ships Near Lima, Drake captured a Spanish ship laden with 25,000 pesos of Peruvian gold, amounting in value to 37,000 ducats of Spanish money (about £7m by modern standards). Drake also discovered news of another ship, Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, which was sailing west towards Manila. It would come to be called the Cacafuego. Drake gave chase and eventually captured the treasure ship, which proved their most profitable capture. Aboard Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, Drake found 80 lb (36 kg) of gold, a golden crucifix, jewels, 13 chests full of royals of plate and 26 tons of silver. Drake was naturally pleased at his good luck in capturing the galleon and he showed it by dining with the captured ship's officers and gentleman passengers. He offloaded his captives a short time later, and gave each one gifts appropriate to their rank, as well as a letter of safe conduct.

Francis Drake

Coast of California: Nova Albion (1579) Main article: New Albion On 17 June 1579, Drake landed somewhere north of Spain's northern-most claim at Point Loma, in Alta California. He found a good port, landed, repaired and restocked his vessels, then stayed for a time, keeping friendly relations with the natives. He claimed the land in the name of the Holy Trinity for the English Crown as called Nova Albion—Latin for "New Britain". Assertions that he left some of his men behind as an embryo "colony" are founded on the reduced number who were with him in the Moluccas.[12] The precise location of the port was carefully guarded to keep it secret from the Spaniards, and several of Drake's maps may have been altered to this end. All first-hand records from the voyage, including logs, paintings and charts, were lost when Whitehall Palace burned in 1698. A bronze plaque inscribed with Drake's claim to the new lands – Drake's Plate of Brass – fitting the description in his account, was discovered in Marin County, California but was later declared a hoax. Now a National Historic Landmark, the officially recognised location of Drake's New Albion is Drakes Bay, California.

The journey of Francis Drake up the Pacific Coast in 1579.

Across the Pacific and around Africa Drake's landing in California, engraving published 1590 by Theodor Drake headed westward across the Pacific, and a few de Bry. months later reached the Moluccas, a group of islands in the south west Pacific, in eastern modern-day Indonesia. While there, Golden Hind became caught on a reef and was almost lost. After the sailors waited three days for expedient tides and dumped cargo, they freed the barque. Befriending a sultan king of the Moluccas, Drake and his men became involved in some intrigues with the Portuguese there. He made multiple stops on his way toward the tip of Africa, eventually rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and reached Sierra Leone by 22 July 1580.

Return to Plymouth (1580) On 26 September, Golden Hind sailed into Plymouth with Drake and 59 remaining crew aboard, along with a rich cargo of spices and captured Spanish treasures. The Queen's half-share of the cargo surpassed the rest of the crown's income for that entire year. Drake was hailed as the first Englishman to circumnavigate the Earth (and the second such voyage arriving with at least one ship intact, after Elcano's in 1520). The Queen declared that all written accounts of Drake's voyages were to become the Queen's secrets of the Realm, and Drake and the other participants of his voyages on the pain of death sworn to their secrecy; she intended to keep Drake's activities away from the eyes of rival Spain. Drake presented the Queen with a jewel token commemorating the circumnavigation. Taken as a prize off the Pacific coast of Mexico, it was made of enamelled gold and bore an African diamond and a ship with an ebony hull.

Francis Drake

For her part, the Queen gave Drake a jewel with her portrait, an unusual gift to bestow upon a commoner, and one that Drake sported proudly in his 1591 portrait by Marcus Gheeraerts now at the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. On one side is a state portrait of Elizabeth by the miniaturist Nicholas Hilliard, on the other a sardonyx cameo of double portrait busts, a regal woman and an African male. The "Drake Jewel", as it is known today, is a rare documented survivor among sixteenth-century jewels; it is conserved at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.

Award of knighthood Queen Elizabeth awarded Drake a knighthood aboard Golden Hind in Deptford on 4 April 1581; the dubbing being performed by a French diplomat, Monsieur de Marchaumont, who was negotiating for Elizabeth to marry the King of France's brother, Francis, Duke of Anjou.[13] By getting the French diplomat involved in the knighting, Elizabeth was gaining the implicit political support of the French for Drake's actions.[14][15] During the Victorian era, in a spirit of nationalism, the story was promoted that Elizabeth I had done the knighting.[16] Drake receives knighthood from Queen Elizabeth. Bronze plaque by Joseph Boehm, 1883, base of Drake statue, Tavistock.

Award of arms After receiving his knighthood Drake unilaterally adopted the armorials of the ancient Devon family of Drake of Ash, near Musbury, to whom he claimed a distant but unspecified kinship. These arms were: Argent, a wyvern wings displayed and tail nowed gules, and the crest, a dexter arm Proper grasping a battle axe Sable, headed Argent. The head of that family, also a distinguished sailor, Sir Bernard Drake (d.1586), angrily refuted Sir Francis's claimed kinship and his right to bear his family's arms. That dispute led to "a box in the ear" being given to Sir Francis by Sir Bernard at court, as recorded by John Prince in his "Worthies of Devon" (1697). Queen Elizabeth, to assuage matters, awarded Sir Francis his own coat of arms, blazoned as follows: Sable a fess wavy between two pole-stars [Arctic and Antarctic] argent; and for his crest, a ship on a globe under ruff, held by a cable with a hand out of the clouds; over it this motto, Auxilio

Arms of Sir Francis Drake: Sable, a fess wavy between two pole-stars Arctic and Antarctic argent

Francis Drake

Divino; underneath, Sic Parvis Magna; in the rigging whereof is hung up by the heels a wivern, gules, which was the arms of Sir Bernard Drake." â&#x20AC;&#x201D;Prince, "Worthies of Devon" (1697)

Sir Francis Drake with his new heraldic achievement, with motto: Sic Parvis Magna, translated literally: "Thus great things from small things (come)". The hand out of the clouds is labelled Auxilio Divino, or "With Divine Help"

Arms of Drake of Ash: Argent, a wyvern wings [17] displayed and tail nowed gules. The Drake family of Crowndale and Buckland Abbey used the same arms [18] but the tail of the wyvern is not nowed (knotted)

The above is considered by students of heraldry to be an early example of "debased arms" due to their over-complexity, particularly as regards the crest. The motto, Sic Parvis Magna, translated literally, is: "Thus great things from small things (come)". The hand out of the clouds, labelled Auxilio Divino, means "With Divine Help". The full achievement is depicted in the form of a large coloured plaster overmantel in the Lifetimes Gallery at Buckland Abbey Nevertheless, Drake continued to quarter his new arms with the wyvern gules.[19] The arms adopted by his nephew Sir Francis Drake, 1st Baronet (1588â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1637) of Buckland were the arms of Drake of Ash, but the wyvern without a "nowed" (knotted) tail.

Map of Drakes Great Expedition in 1585 by Giovanni Battista Boazio

Francis Drake

Political career In September 1581, Drake became the Mayor of Plymouth, and was a member of parliament in 1581, for an unknown constituency (possibly Camelford), and again in 1584 for Bossiney and Plymouth in 1593.

Purchase of Buckland Abbey In 1580 Drake purchased Buckland Abbey via intermediaries from Sir Richard Greynvile, hiding who was actually purchasing the Abbey, a large manor house near Yelverton in Devon, from Sir Richard. He lived there for fifteen years, until his final voyage, and it remained in his family for several generations. Buckland Abbey is now in the care of the National Trust and a number of mementos of his life are displayed there.

Great Expedition War had already been declared by Phillip II after the Treaty of Nonsuch, so the Queen through Francis Walsingham ordered Sir Francis Drake to lead an expedition to attack the Spanish colonies in a kind of preemptive strike. An expedition left Plymouth in September 1585 with Drake in command of twenty one ships with 1,800 soldiers under Christopher Carleill. He first attacked Vigo in Spain and held the place for two weeks ransoming supplies. He then plundered Santiago in the Cape Verde islands after which the fleet then sailed across the Atlantic, sacked the port of Santo Domingo and captured the city of Cartagena de Indias in present-day Colombia. On 6 June 1586, during the return leg of the voyage, he raided the Spanish fort of San Augustín in Spanish Florida. After the raids he then went on to find Sir Walter Raleigh's settlement much further North at Roanoke which he replenished and also took back with him all of the original colonists before Sir Richard Greynvile arrived w/ supplies & more colonists. He finally reached England on 22 July, when he sailed into Portsmouth, England to heroes welcome.

Spanish Armada Main article: Spanish Armada Encouraged by these acts Philip II ordered a planned invasion of England.

Cadiz raid Main article: Singeing the King of Spain's Beard In an another pre-emptive strike, Drake "singed the beard of the King of Spain" in 1587 by sailing a fleet into Cadiz and also Corunna, two of Spain's main ports, and occupied the harbours. He destroyed 37 naval and merchant ships. The attack delayed the Spanish invasion by a year.[20] Over the next month, Drake patrolled the Iberian coasts between Lisbon and Cape St. Vincent, intercepting and destroying ships on the Spanish supply lines. Drake estimated that he captured around 1600–1700 tons of barrel staves, enough to make 25,000 to 30,000 barrels (4,800 m3) for containing provisions.

Francis Drake

Defeat of the Spanish Armada Drake was vice admiral in command of the English fleet (under Lord Howard of Effingham) when it overcame the Spanish Armada that was attempting to invade England in 1588. As the English fleet pursued the Armada up the English Channel in closing darkness, Drake broke off and captured the Spanish galleon Rosario, along with Admiral Pedro de ValdĂŠs and all his crew. The Spanish ship was known to be carrying substantial funds to pay the Spanish Army in the Low Countries. Drake's ship had been leading the English pursuit of the Armada by means of a lantern. By extinguishing this for the capture, Drake put the fleet into disarray overnight. On the night of 29 July, along with Howard, Drake organised fire-ships, causing the majority of the Spanish captains to break formation and sail out of Calais into the open sea. The next day, Drake was present at the Battle of Gravelines. He wrote as follows to Admiral Henry Seymour after coming upon part of the Spanish Armada, whilst aboard Revenge on 31 July 1588 (21 July 1588 O.S.):[21]

Sir Francis Drake whilst playing bowls on Plymouth Hoe is informed of the approach of the Spanish Armada. Bronze plaque by Joseph Boehm, 1883, base of Drake statue, Tavistock

Coming up to them, there has passed some common shot between some of our fleet and some of them; and as far as we perceive, they are determined to sell their lives with blows. The most famous (but probably apocryphal) anecdote The Spanish Armada. about Drake relates that, prior to the battle, he was playing a game of bowls on Plymouth Hoe. On being warned of the approach of the Spanish fleet, Drake is said to have remarked that there was plenty of time to finish the game and still beat the Spaniards. There is no known eyewitness account of this incident and the earliest retelling of it was printed 37 years later. Adverse winds and currents caused some delay in the launching of the English fleet as the Spanish drew nearer, perhaps prompting a popular myth of Drake's cavalier attitude to the Spanish threat.

Drake-Norris Expedition Main article: English Armada In 1589, the year after defeating the Armada, Drake and Sir John Norreys were given three tasks. They were ordered to first seek out and destroy the remaining ships, second they were to support the rebels in Lisbon, Portugal against King Philip II (then king of Spain and Portugal), and third they were to take the Azores if possible. Drake and Norreys destroyed a few ships in the harbour of A CoruĂąa in Spain but lost more than 12,000 lives and 20 ships.[citation needed] This delayed Drake, and he was forced to forgo hunting the rest of the surviving ships and head on to Lisbon.

Francis Drake

Final years "The people of quality dislike him for having risen so high from such a lowely family; the rest say he is the main cause of wars." â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Gonzalo GonzĂĄlez del Castillo, letter to King Philip II, 1592 Drake's seafaring career continued into his mid-fifties. In 1595, he failed to conquer the port of Las Palmas, and following a disastrous campaign against Spanish America, where he suffered a number of defeats, he unsuccessfully attacked San Juan de Puerto Rico, eventually losing the Battle of San Juan.

1591 portrait, also by Gheeraerts the Younger, wearing the "Drake Jewel" suspended from a strap, and [22] displaying new arms

The Spanish gunners from El Morro Castle shot a cannonball through the cabin of Drake's flagship, and he survived; but a few weeks later, in January 1596, he died of dysentery when he was about 55, while anchored off the coast of Portobelo, Panama, where some Spanish treasure ships had sought shelter. Following his death, the English fleet withdrew. Before dying, he asked to be dressed in his full armour. He was buried at sea in a lead coffin, near Portobelo. Divers continue to search for the coffin.

Drake's burial at sea off Portobello. Bronze plaque by Joseph Boehm, 1883, base of Drake statue, Tavistock.

Francis Drake

Cultural impact In the UK there are various places named after him, especially in Plymouth, Devon, where various places carry his name, including the naval base (HMS Drake), Drake's Island and a roundabout named Drake Circus, along with a shopping mall named after the roundabout. Plymouth Hoe is also home to a statue of Drake. In the United States Drakes Bay and Sir Francis Drake Boulevard of Marin County, California are both named after him, as well as the high school in San Anselmo, California. The boulevard runs between Drakes Bay at Point Reyes to Point San Quentin on San Francisco Bay. A large hotel in Union Square, San Francisco also bears his name. Additionally, the Sir Francis Drake Channel in the British Virgin Islands bears his name. Drake's will was the focus of a vast confidence scheme which Oscar Hartzell perpetrated in the 1920s and 1930s. He convinced thousands of people, mostly in the American Midwest, that Drake's fortune was being held by the British government, and had compounded to a huge amount. If their last name was Drake they might be eligible for a share if they paid Hartzell to be their agent. The swindle continued until a copy of Drake's will was brought to Hartzell's mail fraud trial and he was convicted and imprisoned.[23] Modern workings of stories involving Drake include the 1961 British television series Sir Francis Drake, and the 2009 US television movie The Immortal Voyage of Captain Drake.

This portrait, circa 1581, may have been copied from Hilliard's miniatureâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;note the similar shirtâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;and the somewhat oddly-proportioned body, added by an artist who did not have access to Drake. National Portrait Gallery, London.

In 2003, he was the namesake of the Drake Tribe in Survivor: Pearl Islands. Drake's execution of Thomas Doughty is the subject of Robert E. Howard's Solomon Kane poem, "The One Black Stain." Nathan Drake, a fictional descendant of Sir Francis Drake, searches for lost treasure supposedly found by Sir Francis during his circumnavigation in the video game Uncharted: Drake's Fortune, and again in Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception.

Controversies Slave trading Drake accompanied his second cousin Sir John Hawkins in making the third English slave-trading expeditions, making fortunes through the abduction and transportation of West African people, and then exchanging them for high-value goods. The first Englishman recorded to have taken slaves from Africa was John Lok, a London trader who, in 1555, brought to England five slaves from Guinea. A second London trader taking slaves at that time was William Towerson whose fleet sailed into Plymouth following his 1556 voyage to Africa and from Plymouth on his 1557 voyage. Despite the exploits of Lok and Towerson, John Hawkins of Plymouth is widely acknowledged to be an early pioneer of the English slave trade. While Hawkins made only three such trips, ultimately the English were to dominate the trade. Around 1563 Drake first sailed west to the Spanish Main, on a ship owned and commanded by John Hawkins, with a cargo of people forcibly removed from the coast of West Africa. The Englishmen sold their African captives into slavery in Spanish plantations. In general, the kidnapping and forced transportation of people was considered to be a criminal offence under English law at the time, although legal protection did not extend to slaves, non-Protestants or

Francis Drake criminals. Hawkins' own account of his actions (in which Drake took part) cites two sources for their victims. One was military attacks on African towns and villages (with the assistance of rival African warlords), the other was attacking Portuguese slave ships.[24]

Conflict in the Caribbean During his early days as a slave-trader, Drake took an immediate dislike to the Spanish, at least in part due to their Catholicism and inherent distrust of non-Spanish. His hostility is said to have increased over an incident at San Juan de Ulúa in 1568, when Drake was sailing with the fleet of his second cousin John Hawkins. Whilst negotiating to resupply and repair at the Spanish port, the fleet were attacked by Spanish warships, with all but two of the English ships lost. Drake survived the attack by swimming.[citation needed] The most celebrated of Drake's adventures along the Spanish Main was his capture of the Spanish Silver Train at Nombre de Dios in March 1573. With a crew including many French privateers and Maroons—African slaves who had escaped the Spanish—Drake raided the waters around Darien (in modern Panama) and tracked the Silver Train to the nearby port of Nombre de Dios. He made off with a fortune in gold, but had to leave behind another fortune in silver, because it was too heavy to carry back to England. It was during this expedition that he climbed a high tree in the central mountains of the Isthmus of Panama and thus became the first Englishman to see the Pacific Ocean. He remarked as he saw it that he hoped one day an Englishman would be able to sail it—which he would do years later as part of his circumnavigation of the world. When Drake returned to Plymouth after the raids, the government signed a temporary truce with King Philip II of Spain and so was unable to acknowledge Drake's accomplishment officially. Drake was considered a hero in England and a pirate in Spain for his raids.[25]

Ireland In 1575, Drake was present at the Rathlin Island Massacre, which was a part of the English plantation effort in Ulster, where 600 men, women, and children were massacred after surrendering. Francis Drake was in charge of the ships which transported John Norreys' troops to Rathlin Island, commanding a small frigate called Falcon, with a total complement of 25. At the time of the massacre, he was charged with the task of keeping Scottish vessels from bringing reinforcements to Rathlin Island. The people who were massacred were, in fact, the families of Sorley Boy MacDonnell's followers.[26]

Francis Drake

Execution of Thomas Doughty Main article: Thomas Doughty (explorer) On his voyage to interfere with Spanish treasure fleets, Drake had several quarrels with his co-commander Thomas Doughty and on 3 June 1578, accused him of witchcraft and charged him with mutiny and treason in a shipboard trial. Drake claimed to have a (never presented) commission from the Queen to carry out such acts and denied Doughty a trial in England. The main pieces of evidence against Doughty were the testimony of the ship's carpenter, Edward Bright, who after the trial was promoted to master of the ship Marigold, and Doughty's admission of telling Lord William Burghley, a vocal opponent of agitating the Spanish, of the intent of the voyage. Drake consented to his request of Communion and dined with him, of which Francis Fletcher had this strange account: "And after this holy repast, they dined also at the same table together, as cheerfully, in sobriety, as ever in their lives they had done aforetime, each cheering up the other, and taking their leave, by drinking each to other, as if some journey only had been in hand."

Bronze statue in Tavistock, in the parish of which he was born, by Joseph Boehm, 1883.

Drake had Thomas Doughty beheaded on 2 July 1578. When the ship's chaplain Francis Fletcher in a sermon suggested that the woes of the voyage in January 1580 were connected to the unjust demise of Doughty, Drake chained the clergyman to a hatch cover and pronounced him excommunicated.

References [1] Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–2014 (http:/ / www. minneapolisfed. org/ community_education/ teacher/ calc/ hist1800. cfm). Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved February 27, 2014. [2] According to the English calendar then in use, Drake's date of death was 27 January 1595, as the new year began on 25 March. [3] His name in Latinised form was Franciscus Draco (Francis the Dragon). See Theodor de Bry (http:/ / bancroft. berkeley. edu/ Exhibits/ nativeamericans/ 13. html). [4] Cummins, John, Francis Drake: The Lives of a Hero, 1996, Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-16365-7 [5] Direct quote is followed by "this carries back his birth to 1544, at which time the six articles were in force, and Francis Russell was seventeen years of age." [6] 1921/22 edition of the Dictionary of National Biography, which quotes Barrow's Life of Drake (1843) p. 5. [7] Thomson,George Malcolm(1972), 'Sir Francis Drake', William Morrow & Company Inc. ISBN 978-0-436-52049-5 [8] Froude, James Anthony, English Seamen in the Sixteenth Century, London, 1896. Quote: "He told Camden that he was of mean extraction. He meant merely that he was proud of his parents and made no idle pretensions to noble birth. His father was a tenant of the Earl of Bedford, and must have stood well with him, for Francis Russell, the heir of the earldom, was the boy's godfather." [9] Southey, Robert. (1897). English Seamen — Howard Clifford Hawkins Drake Cavendish, Methuen and Co. 36 Essex Street WC London [10] Wagner, Henry R., Sir Francis Drake's Voyage Around the World: Its Aims and Achievements, Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2006, ISBN 1-4286-2255-1. [11] Kelsey, Harry, Sir Francis Drake; The Queen's Pirate, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1998, ISBN 0-300-07182-5. [12] Dismissed by John Cummins, Francis Drake: The Lives of a Hero 1997:118: "In view of the prominence given in different versions to the crowning of Drake it would be odd if the establishment of a colony had gone unrecorded." [13] John Cummins, [14] Mary E. Hazard, [15] Maria Perry, [16] Coote, Stephen, Drake: The Life and Legend of an Elizabethan Hero, Saint Martin's Press, New York, 2003. ISBN 0-312-34165-2. [17] Vivian, Lt.Col. J.L., (Ed.) The Visitation of the County of Devon: Comprising the Heralds' Visitations of 1531, 1564 & 1620, Exeter, 1895, p.292, pedigree of Drake of Ash [18] Vivian, p.299, pedigree of Drake of Crowndale and Buckland Abbey [19] Drake, Charles E.F., The Arms of Sir Francis Drake (http:/ / www. wyverngules. com/ Documents/ ArmsofSFD/ arms_of_sir_francis_drake. htm), Quebec, 2008; Article by str8thinker (http:/ / projectavalon. net/ forum4/ showthread. php?9157-Sir-Francis-Drake-and-dragons), Project Avalon Forum, Dec 2010, based on article of Charles Drake, 2008, op. cit. [20] Thompson, E. and Freeman, E. A. History of England, p. 188.

Francis Drake [21] Letter to Admiral Henry Seymour written aboard Revenge on 31 July 1588 (21 July 1588 O.S.) Turner, Sharon. The History of England from the Earliest Period to the Death of Elizabeth, 1835. [22] Prince's Worthies, op.cit. [23] Rayner, Richard. The Admiral and the Con Man The New Yorker, 22 April 2002, p. 150 [24] Hazlewood, Nick. The Queen's Slave Trader: John Hawkyns, Elizabeth I, and the Trafficking in Human Souls. HarperCollins Books, New York, 2004. ISBN 0-06-621089-5. [25] See especially Drake's Spanish nickname and its mythic power to frighten naughty children. John Cummins, Francis Drake: The Lives of a Hero, page 273. ISBN 0-312-16365-7. [26] John Sugden, Sir Francis Drake, Simon Schuster New York, ISBN 0-671-75863-2

Bibliography • Bawlf, Samuel (2003) The Secret Voyage of Sir Francis Drake, 1577–1580 Walker & Company ISBN 0-8027-1405-6 • Corbett, Julian Stafford 1890. Sir Francis Drake (http://www.archive.org/details/sirfrancisdrake00corbiala) • Hughes-Hallett, Lucy (2004) Heroes: A History of Hero Worship Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 1-4000-4399-9 • Kelsey, Harry (1998) Sir Francis Drake, the Queen's Pirate New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07182-5 • Kelsey, Harry (2004). "Drake, Sir Francis (1540–1596)" (http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8022). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. doi: 10.1093/ref:odnb/8022 (http://dx.doi. org/10.1093/ref:odnb/8022). Retrieved 20 May 2011. (subscription or UK public library membership (http://www. oup.com/oxforddnb/info/freeodnb/libraries/) required) • Mattingly, Garett (1959) The Defeat of the Spanish Armada ISBN 0-395-08366-4 – a detailed account of the defeat of the Spanish Armada which received a special citation from the Pulitzer Prize committee in 1960 • Merideth, Mrs Charles, Notes and Sketches of New South Wales, during a residence in that colony from 1839 to 1844; Bound With: "Life of Drake" by John Barrow (1st ed, 1844) [xi, 164; and xii, 187 pp. respectively] • Payne, Edward John, Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen to America (vol. 1, 1893; vol. 2, 1900) • Rodger, N. A. M. The Safeguard of the Sea; A Naval History of Britain 660–1649 (London, 1997) • Wilson, Derek (1977) The World Encompassed: Drake's Great Voyage, 1577–80. Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-014679-6

External links • The Circumnavigation • Google Earth Tour of Drake's Circumnavigation (http://www.activehistory.co.uk/Miscellaneous/ free_stuff/google_earth/drake/index.htm) • Lesson plans for classroom use (http://tre.ngfl.gov.uk/server. php?request=cmVzb3VyY2UuZnVsbHZpZXc=&resourceId=10330) • General sites • Francis Drake (http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/TUDdrakeF.htm) • Hand-coloured map depicting Sir Francis Drake's attack on Saint Augustine (http://floridamemory.com/ exhibits/floridahighlights/mapstaug/) from the State Archives of Florida • In Drake's Wake (http://www.indrakeswake.co.uk) – "The world's best Drake resource" • Kraus Collection of Sir Francis Drake at the Library of Congress (http://international.loc.gov/intldl/ drakehtml/rbdkhome.html) • Sir Francis Drake: A Pictorial Biography by Hans P. Kraus (http://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/catalog/ drake/) From the Collections at the Library of Congress • Mission to rescue Drake's body (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/england/1650689.stm) • Oliver Seeler's website "Sir Francis Drake" (http://www.mcn.org/2/oseeler/drake.htm)

Francis Drake • Drake's methods of Navigation (http://www.longcamp.com/nav.html) • Encyclopedias • •

"Drake, Francis". New International Encyclopedia. 1905. "Drake, Sir Francis". Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921.

Martín Ignacio de Loyola Martín Ignacio Martínez de Mallea, known as Martín Ignacio de Loyola, (Eibar, Spain, c.1550 – Buenos Aires 1606[1][2][3][4]) was a Franciscan friar, best known for his two travels around the world in 1580-1584 and 1585-1589, being the first person to complete the world circumnavigation twice, and for his missionary effort in China. Taking in account his two world circumnavigations and his two trips from Europe to South America, Loyola was probably the most widely traveled man in History up to the 17th century. He was a grandnephew of Ignatius of Loyola, and was ordained a priest in Alaejos in 1572.

Circumnavigations of the world In both of his travels Loyola took advantage of Spain and Portugal being united under the crown of Philip II of Spain.

First circumnavigation: 1582-1584 Loyola's first circumnavigation was made in a westerly direction. Departing Cadiz on 21 June 1582, he sailed for the Canary Islands, then crossed the Atlantic to La Désirade, Puerto Rico, and Santo Domingo, to arrive in San Juan de Lúa (modern Veracruz), in México. After crossing to the Pacific Ocean coast of Mexico at Acapulco he sailed once again in a westerly direction, visiting the Mariana Islands, and the Philippines, before eventually reaching the Empire of China, where he landed in Fujian province. There he and his companions were considered to be spies and were sent to Guangzhou. After a year they were set free and sent to Macau. After travelling on to Japan, he departed once again in a westerly direction to return to Europe at Lisbon via the Straits of Malacca, Portuguese India, the Cape of Good Hope and Saint Helena. Loyola's account of his first journey around the world was first published in Rome in 1586, included in Juan González de Mendoza's Historia de las cosas más notables, ritos y costumbres del gran reyno de la China.

Second circumnavigation: 1585-1589 Loyola's second circumnavigation was made in an easterly direction. It is not clear how or when Loyola made his eastward journey to China. In 1587, from Macau, China, Loyola continued eastward across the Pacific Ocean to Acapulco, Mexico.,[5] in a ship commanded by Pedro de Unamuno. From there he crossed Mexico to Veracruz, from where he finally set sail across the Atlantic to Spain.

Martín Ignacio de Loyola

Other journeys In 1595, six years after his second return to Spain, he went to Paraguay, that he reached via Panama, Peru, Chile, whose Spanish governor by then, Martín García de Loyola, was his cousin, and Río de la Plata. He went back to Spain again in 1600 and returned to Paraguay in 1603, this time as bishop of Asunción. He had been consecrated as such in Valladolid the year before.

Other comparable early globe-spanning journeys and travelers • 1551-(d.1557) - Bernardo, the Japanese; the first Japanese to visit Europe; travelled westward from Japan, via India and Portugal, to Rome and other European destinations; died in Portugal, at the start of his return to Japan. • 1582-1590 - Tenshō embassy; Japanese embassy to Europe; travelled westward, from Japan, via India and Portugal, to Rome and other European destinations; and eastward, back to Japan. • (b.1564)-(d.1620) - William Adams; an Englishman who, after journeying to Japan via the Straits of Magellan and the Pacific Ocean, spent the last 20 years of his life living in Japan and trading extensively in the Far East. • 1600-(d.1624) - Luis Sotelo Spanish priest; travelled to the Philippines and Japan, then travelled with the Keichō embassy to Europe, and back to Japan; murdered in Japan. • 1614-1620 - the Keichō Embassy led by Hasekura Tsunenaga in the Japanese warship Date Maru, known to the Spanish as San Juan Bautista; Pacific Ocean, Mexico, Atlantic Ocean, Europe, and back to Japan by a similar route. • 1670-1679 - Pedro Cubero; Spanish priest; eastward circumnavigation of the world; travelled by both land and sea from Europe via Russia, Iran, India, China, and Mexico, back to Europe.

Notes [1] Raúl A. Molina: Fray Martín Ignacio de Loyola: cuatro obispo del Paraguay y Río de la Plata (1603-1606). Ediciones Jura, 1953 (). [2] Charles E. O'Neill, Joaquín María Domínguez (eds.): Diccionario histórico de la Compañía de Jesús. Band 1: AA-Costa Rica. Univ. Pontifica de Comillas, 2001, ISBN 84-8468-037-1, p. 109 (). [3] Iglesia del Paraguay: 1er. Período de 1547 a 1620 (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20081031234658/ http:/ / www. episcopal. org. py/ 1er-periodo. html) [4] William Shurtleff, Akiko Aoyagi: History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Southeast Asia. Soyinfo Center, 2010, ISBN 978-1-928914-30-3, S. 17 (). [5] The characters on the galleon Esperanza (http:/ / www. bibingka. com/ sst/ esperanza/ chars. htm)

References • (Spanish) J. Ignacio Tellechea Idígoras (ed.), Martín Ignacio de Loyola. Viaje alrdedor del mundo, Madrid, 1989. ISBN 84-7679-154-2 • (Spanish) "Iglesia en el Paraguay, Período de 1547 a 1620" (http://web.archive.org/web/20081031234658/ http://www.episcopal.org.py/1er-periodo.html) (in Spanish). Archived from the original (http://www. episcopal.org.py/1er-periodo.html) on 2008-10-31. Retrieved 2011-06-12. • Martin Ignacio de Loyola, "VIAJE ALREDEDOR DEL MUNDO" (http://archive.is/vQik). Archived from the original (http://kuprienko.info/martin-ignacio-de-loyola-viaje-alrededor/) on 2012-12-08.

External links • Santos, Hector. "The characters on the galleon Esperanza" in Sulat sa Tansô. US, April 3, 1997. (http://www. bibingka.com/sst/esperanza/chars.htm)

Thomas Cavendish

Thomas Cavendish For the fictional character, see Tom Cavendish. Sir Thomas Cavendish (19 September 1560[1] â&#x20AC;&#x201C; May 1592) was an English explorer and a privateer known as "The Navigator" because he was the first who deliberately tried to emulate Sir Francis Drake and raid the Spanish towns and ships in the Pacific and return by circumnavigating the globe. While members of Magellan's, Loaisa's, Drake's, and Loyola's expeditions had preceded Cavendish in circumnavigating the globe, it had not been their intent at the outset. His first trip and successful circumnavigation made him rich from captured Spanish gold, silk and treasure from the Pacific and the Philippines. His richest prize was the captured 600 ton sailing ship the Manila Galleon Santa Ana (also called Santa Anna). He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth I of England after his return. He later set out for a second raiding and circumnavigation trip but was not as fortunate and died at sea at the age of 31.

Early life

An engraving from Holland's Hweerologia. Animum fortuna sequatur is Latin for "Fortune follows the spirited."

Cavendish was born in 1560 at Trimley St Martin near Ipswich, Suffolk, England. His father was William Cavendish, a descendant of Roger Cavendish, brother to Sir John Cavendish from whom the Dukes of Devonshire and the Dukes of Newcastle derive their family name of Cavendish. When Thomas Cavendish was 12 he inherited a fortune from his father's estate. After leaving school at age 17, he spent most of the next 8 years or so in luxurious living. At the age of 15 he entered Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, remaining for two years, but did not take a degree. He was a Member of the Parliament for Shaftesbury, Dorset, in 1584. In 1585 he sailed with Sir Richard Grenville to Virginia, gaining much valuable experience but losing money on his investments. He was a member of Parliament for Wilton, 1586.

First voyage: a successful westbound circumnavigation By July 1586 Spain and England were in a war which would culminate with the Spanish Armada and its threatened invasion of England in 1588. Cavendish determined to follow Sir Francis Drake by raiding the Spanish ports and ships in the Pacific and circumnavigating the globe. After getting permission for his proposed raids, Cavendish built a 120 ton sailing ship, with 18 cannons, named the Desire. He was joined by the 60 ton, 10 cannon, ship Content, and the 40 ton ship Hugh Gallant.

Thomas Cavendish

Departure and Atlantic crossing With his three ships and 123 men he set out from Plymouth, England on 21 July 1586 and reached the Strait of Magellan on 6 January 1587. He anchored first at the island of Santa Magdalena near present day Punta Arenas, Chile. There, in two hours, they killed and salted two barrelfuls of penguins for food. After extensive exploration of the many inlets, labyrinths, and intricate channels of the islands and broken lands of Tierra del Fuego and its environs they emerged from the strait into the Pacific on 24 February and sailed up the coast of South America.

Exploring and raiding off the west coast of South America There on the Pacific coast he sank or captured 9 Spanish ships and looted several towns of quantities of fresh food, supplies and treasure while intentionally sinking the ship Hugh Gallant to use her crew to replace crew members lost on his other ships.

Capturing a Manila galleon A pilot from one of the captured Spanish ships revealed that a Manila galleon was expected in October or November 1587 and usually stopped at Cape San Lucas on the Baja California peninsula before going on to Acapulco. The Manila galleons were restricted by the Spanish Monarch to one or two ships/year and typically carried all the goods accumulated in the Philippines in a year's worth of trading silver, from the Mints in Peru and Mexico, with the Chinese and others, for spices, silk, gold and other expensive goods. In 1587 there were two Manila galleons: the San Francisco and the Santa Ana. Unfortunately both encountered a typhoon on leaving the Philippines and were wrecked on the coast of Japan. Only the Santa Ana was salvageable and after repairs resumed her voyage. Upon reaching the Gulf of California in October 1587 Cavendish and his two ships put in at an island above Mazatlan where they careened their ships to clean their bottoms and made general repairs. They had to dig wells for water. They sailed for Cape San Lucas on the Baja Peninsula and set up patrols to see if they could spot the Manila galleon. Early on 4 November 1587 one of Cavendish's lookouts spotted the 600 ton galleon manned with over 200 men. After a several hour chase the English ships overhauled the Santa Ana—which conveniently had no cannons on board, in order to carry the added cargo. After several hours of battle during which Cavendish used his cannon to fire ball and grape shot into the galleon while the Spanish tried to fight back with small arms, the Santa Ana, now starting to sink, finally struck her colours and surrendered.

The North Pacific currents and winds used by both the Manila Galleon and Cavendish to get to Guam and the Philippines--the North Pacific Gyre

Because of the great disparity in size the Content and Desire had to pick and choose what rich cargo they wanted to transfer to their ships from the much larger Santa Ana. One hundred and ninety Spaniards (including Sebastián Vizcaíno (1548–1624), later explorer of the California coast), and Filipino crewmen, were set ashore with food and some weapons in a location where they had water and food available. Cavendish kept with him two Japanese sailors, three boys from Manila, a Portuguese traveler familiar with China, and a Spanish pilot (navigator). They loaded all the gold (about 100 troy pounds or 122,000 pesos worth) and then picked through the silks, damasks, musks (used in perfume manufacture), spices, wines, and ship's supplies for what they could carry. Some in Mexico claimed that the total value of the cargo was about 2,000,000 pesos. After setting fire to the Santa Ana, the Desire and Content sailed

Thomas Cavendish away on 17 November 1587 to begin their voyage across the Pacific Ocean. While burning, the Santa Ana drifted onto the coast where the Spanish survivors extinguished the flames, re-floated the ship and limped into Acapulco. The Content was never heard from again. The Desire tried to avoid conflict for the rest of her voyage.

Crossing the Pacific Ocean and exploring the islands of South-east Asia After crossing the Pacific Ocean, Cavendish and the Desire arrived at the island of Guam on 3 January 1588. There he traded iron tools for fresh supplies, water and wood, supplied by the natives. On further landings in the Philippines, Java and other islands, he traded some of his captured linen and other goods for fresh supplies, water and wood, and collected information about the Chinese and Japanese coasts. He hoped to use this information to augment existing English knowledge of the area and for a possible second voyage. His crew of about 48 men replaced their worn out clothing and bedding with uniforms made out of silken damask.

Return to England By 14 May 1588 Cavendish reached the coast of Africa and returned to England by way of the Cape of Good Hope, stopping at the island of Saint Helena for supplies. On 9 September 1588 the Desire sailed into the harbor at Plymouth, England. Later she paraded up the River Thames through London, displaying her new sails of blue damask. Cavendish's first voyage was a huge success both financially and otherwise; Cavendish was not yet 28 at his return. The circumnavigation of the globe had been completed in two years and 49 days, nine months faster than Drake, although, like Drake, Cavendish returned with only one of his ships—the Desire with a crew of about 48 men. He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth I of England, who was invited to a dinner aboard the Desire. England celebrated both the return of the Desire and the defeat of the Spanish Armada earlier that year.[2]

Second voyage Cavendish sailed on a second expedition in August 1591, accompanied by the navigator John Davis. They went further south to the Strait of Magellan and then returned to Brazil, where they lost most of the crew in a battle against the Portuguese at the Village of Vitória. One abandoned sailor, Anthony Knivet, later wrote about his adventures in Brazil. Cavendish set off across the Atlantic towards Saint Helena with the remainder of the crew, but died of unknown causes at age 31, possibly off Ascension Island in the South Atlantic in 1592. The last letter of Cavendish, written to his executor a few days before his death, accuses John Davis of being a "villain" who caused the "decay of the whole action".[3] John Davis continued on with Cavendish's crew and ships and discovered the Falkland Islands, before returning to England with most of his crew lost to starvation and illness.

Notes [1] Judkins, 2003 [2] Shurtz, William Lytle; "The Manila Galleon"; p. 303-314; E. P. Dutton & Company, New York, 1939 [3] Geoffrey Treasure, Ian Dawson, Who's who in British history: beginnings to 1901. A-H, Volume 1 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Czq-f-9cLSsC& lpg=PA224& ots=UVRt_iGmzK& dq=cavendish last letter& pg=PA224#v=onepage& q=cavendish last letter& f=false), Thomas Cavendish

References • David Judkins (2003), "Cavendish, Thomas (1560-1592)" in Literature of Travel and Exploration: An Encyclopedia, volume 1

Thomas Cavendish • Peter Edwards, editor (1988). Last Voyages: Cavendish, Judson, Ralegh: The Original Narratives. Oxford. ISBN 0-19-812894-0 • Richard Hakluyt. Chapter: "The prosperous voyage of the worshipful Thomas Candish..", in Voyages and Discoveries: Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques & Discoveries of the English Nation. Found in volume 8 of the 1907 Everyman's Library edition. Also found in Penguin edition ISBN 0-14-043073-3 • Shurtz, William Lytle; "The Manila Galleon"; pp. 303–314; E. P. Dutton & Company, New York, 1939—one of the more complete references

External links • John D. Neville. "Thomas Cavendish" (http://www.nps.gov/fora/forteachers/thomas-cavendish.htm), Heritage Education Program, US National Park Service • Christian Isobel Johnstone (1831). Lives and Voyages of Drake, Cavendish, and Dampier (http://books.google. com/books?vid=05dRzDU3-jxJUcJJ&id=JtkDAAAAQAAJ). Oliver & Boyd. From Google Books • Christian Isobel Johnstone (1892). Early English voyagers : or, The adventures and discoveries of Drake, Cavendish, and Dampier (http://www.archive.org/details/earlyenglishvoya00johniala). London : Nelson. From Internet Archive •

Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cavendish, Thomas". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Jacques Mahu Jacob (Jacques) Mahu (died 23 September 1598) was a Dutch Explorer and leader of an expedition of five ships to India. The first expedition, which was organised by Pieter van der Hagen and Johan van der Veeken, consisted of a fleet of five ships and about 500 men. The ships with their initial captains were: • • • • •

The Hoop, captained by Jacques Mahu The Liefde, captained by Simón de Cordes The Geloof, captained by Gerrit van Beuningen The Trouwe, captained by Van Boekhout The Blijde Boodschap, captained by Sebald de Weert

The expedition left from Rotterdam on 27 June 1598, but suffered from misfortune from the start. Many men died from sickness off the coast of Africa, amongst them Mahu himself. The leadership of the expedition was taken over by Simon de Cordes.

References

Olivier van Noort

Olivier van Noort Olivier van Noort

Dutchman, maritime explorer Born

1558 Utrecht, Netherlands

Died

22 February 1627

KnownÂ for First Dutchman to circumnavigate the world.

Olivier van Noort (1558 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 22 February 1627) was the first Dutchman to circumnavigate the world. Olivier van Noort was born in 1558 in Utrecht. He left Rotterdam on 2 July 1598 with four ships and a plan to attack Spanish possessions in the Pacific and to trade with China and the Spice Islands. His ships were poorly equipped, especially in the way of armament and the crews were unruly. Nonetheless, Van Noort sailed through the Magellan Strait, and captured a number of ships (Spanish and otherwise) in the Pacific. He lost two ships on the way due to a storm, one was lost in an engagement with the Spanish near the Manila Bay in the Philippines. The Spanish lost their flagship, the galleon San Diego, the wreck of which was found in 1992 and yielded a treasure in porcelain and gold pieces. Van Noort returned to Rotterdam via the Dutch East Indies and the Cape of Good Hope on 26 August 1601 with his last ship, the Mauritius, and 45 of originally 248 men. The venture barely broke even, but was the inspiration for more such expeditions. The united Dutch East India Company was formed a few months later.

Olivier van Noort

References Further reading • Gerhard, Peter. Pirates of the Pacific 1575-1742. Glendale, Ca: A.H. Clark Co., 1990. ISBN 0-8032-7030-5 • Gerhard, Peter. Pirates of New Spain, 1575-1742. Mineola, Ny: Courier Dover Publications, 2003. ISBN 0-486-42611-4 • Lane, Kris E. Pillaging the Empire: Piracy in the Americas, 1500-1750. Armunk, New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1998. ISBN 0-7656-0257-1 • Schmidt, Benjamin. Innocence Abroad: The Dutch Imagination and the New World, 1570-1670. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-521-80408-6 • Silverberg, Robert. The Longest Voyage: Circumnavigation in the Age Of Discovery (1972) 1997 Ohio University Press, ISBN 0-8214-1192

External links •

"Noort, Olivier Van". Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. 1900.

Joris van Spilbergen Joris van Spilbergen (Antwerp, 1568 – Bergen op Zoom, 1620) was a Dutch naval officer. His first major expedition was in 1596, when he sailed to Africa. He then left for Asia on 5 May 1601, commanding the fleet of the company of the Moucheron (a trading company before the esablishement of the VOC). His ships were the Ram, Schaap, and Lam. Spilbergen met the king of Kandy (Sri Lanka) Vimala Dharma Suriya in 1602, and discussed the possibility of trade in cinnamon.

Spilbergen meeting king Vimaladharmasuriya in 1602.

In 1607, Spilbergen, onboard Aeolus, was with Jacob van Heemskerk at the Battle of Gibraltar. In 1614, he sailed beyond the Strait of Magellan and raided the Spanish settlements of the coast of California.[citation needed] From 1578, El Quisco together with the neighbor Algarrobo and El Canelo were a hiding place of pirates such as the Englishmen Francis Drake, Thomas Cavendish, Richard Hawkins and the Dutchmen Olivier van Noort and Joris van Spilbergen. He had some fights with Sebastián Vizcaíno and Nicolás de Cardona. He circumnavigated the earth, and returned to Holland in 1617. He died a poor man in Bergen op Zoom in 1620.

Willem Schouten

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Willem Schouten Willem Schouten

Willem Schouten by Mattheus Merian in 1631 Born

c. 1567 Hoorn, Holland, Seventeen Provinces

Died

1625 Antongil Bay

Nationality

Dutch

Occupation

Navigator

Willem Cornelisz Schouten (c. 1567â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1625) was a Dutch navigator for the Dutch East India Company. He was the first to sail the Cape Horn route to the Pacific Ocean.

Biography Willem Cornelisz Schouten was born in c. 1567 in Hoorn, Holland, Seventeen Provinces. In 1615 Willem Cornelisz Schouten and Jacob le Maire sailed from Texel in the Netherlands, in command of an expedition sponsored by Isaac Le Maire and his Australische Compagnie in equal shares with Schouten. A main purpose of the voyage was to search for Terra Route of the 1615â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1616 voyage Australis, which eluded them. A further objective was to evade the trade restrictions of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) by finding a new route to the Pacific and the Spice Islands. In 1616 Schouten rounded Cape Horn, which he named for his birthplace, the Dutch city of Hoorn. He followed the north coasts of New Ireland and New Guinea and visited adjacent islands, including what became known as the Schouten Islands. Although he had opened an unknown route, the VOC claimed infringement of its monopoly of trade to the Spice Islands. Schouten was arrested (and later released) and his ship confiscated in Java. On his return he would sail again for the VOC, and on one of these trips he died off the coast of Madagascar in 1625.

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First publications Schouten described his travels in the Journal, published in a Dutch edition at Amsterdam in 1618 and soon translated into several other languages. • Dutch edition: Journal Ofte Beschryvinghe van de wonderlicke reyse, ghaedaen door Willem Cornelisz Schouten van Hoorn, inde Jaren 1615, 1616, en 1617. Hoe hy bezuyden de Strate van Magekkanes een nieuwe Passagie tot inde groote Zuyzee onteckt en voort den gheheelen Aerdkloot angheseylt, heeft. Wat Eylanden, vreemde volcken en wonderlicke avontueren hem ontmoet zijn. Amsterdam: Willem Jansz. 1618.

The ship De Eendraght finds a catamaran in 1618

• French edition: Journal ou Description du marveilleux voyage de Guilliaume Schouten ... Amsterdam: Willem Jansz. 1618. • English edition: THE RELATION OF a Wonderfull Voiage made by Willem Cornelison Schouten of Horne. Shewing how South from the Straights of Magelan in Terra Delfuego: he found and discovered a newe passage through the great South Seaes, and that way sayled round about the world. London: Imprinted by T.D. for Nathanaell Newbery. 1619. • German edition: Journal, oder Beschreibung der wunderbaren Reise W. Schouten auss Hollandt, im Jahr 1615-17 ... Frankfurt am Main. 1619. • Latin edition: Novi Freti, a parte meridionali freti Magellanici in Magnum Mare Australe Detectio. Diarium vel descriptio laboriosissimi et molestissimi itineris, facti a Guilielmo Cornelii Schoutenio annis 1615-17... Amsterdam: Janson. 1619. Among historians (A. L. Rowse included) there is no consensus about the authorship of this Journal. Schouten has got the credit for it, and thus the voyage has come down to us under his name. The Dutch, French, German and Latin texts all have nine engraved maps and plates which are not present in the English version, THE RELATION.

Notes References • Barreveld, Dirk J. Tegen De Heeren Van De VOC - Isaac Le Maire En De Ontdekking Van Kaap Hoorn. The Hague: Sdu Publishers. Uitgeverij 2002. • Bolyanatz, Alexander H. "Where Is Claes Pietersz Bay? An Episode in the History of the Sursurunga of New Ireland", in Ethnohistory 45:2 (1998), p. 319-347. • Edward Duyker (ed.) Mirror of the Australian Navigation by Jacob Le Maire: A Facsimile of the ‘Spieghel der Australische Navigatie . . .’ Being an Account of the Voyage of Jacob Le Maire and Willem Schouten 1615-1616 published in Amsterdam in 1622, Hordern House for the Australian National Maritime Museum, Sydney, 1999, pp. 202, ISBN 1-875567-25-9.

Willem Schouten

External links • Bartelds, Schouten, Willem Cornelisz. (http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/molh003nieu07_01/ molh003nieu07_01_1859.htm), in Nieuw Nederlandsch biografisch woordenboek, vol. 7, A.W. Sijthoff, Leiden 1927. pp. 1117–8. (in Dutch) • "Schouten, Willem Cornelis". Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. 1900.

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Jacques l'Hermite

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Jacques l'Hermite Jacques l'Hermite Born

Jacques de Clerk c. 1582 Antwerp, Dutch Republic

Died

June 2, 1624 Callao, Viceroyalty of Peru

Cause of death Dysentery, Scurvy Resting place

San Lorenzo Island

Residence

Rotterdam, Amsterdam

Nationality

Dutch

Other names

Jacques l'Heremite

Occupation

Merchant, Admiral, Explorer

Spouse(s)

Theodora van Wely

Jacques l'Hermite (c. 1582 – June 2, 1624), sometimes also known as Jacques le Clerq [citation needed], was a Dutch merchant, explorer and admiral known for his journey around the globe with the Nassau Fleet (1623–1626) and for his blockade and raid on Callao in 1624 during that same voyage in which he also died. He served the Dutch East India Company as chief merchant in Bantam and Ambon Island in the Dutch East Indies. The Chilean Hermite Islands near Cape Horn which his fleet charted in February 1624 are named after him.

Personal life L'Hermite was born in Antwerp, Dutch Republic (present-day Belgium) around the year 1582. After the fall of Antwerp in 1585 in a battle with the Spanish Empire, the family moved north to Amsterdam and later settled in Rotterdam. He left the Republic in 1606 and spent the next six years working in the Dutch East Indies.

Professional life In 1606 l'Hermite set sail to the Dutch East Indies as a secretary on the fleet commanded by Admiral Cornelis Matelief Jr. where in 1607 he was appointed chief merchant on the Black Lion (Dutch: Swarte Leeuw). From 1607–1611 l'Hermite was chief merchant (Dutch: opperkoopman) for the Dutch East India Company in Bantam, Dutch East Indies. After six years working abroad he returned to Amsterdam in the Dutch Republic. There he married Theodora van Wely in March 1613.[1] In April 1623 l'Hermite was commissioned by Prince Maurice of Nassau and the Dutch State General to lead a fleet of eleven ships known as the Nassau Fleet (Dutch: Nassausche vloot) with its flagship Amsterdam. The fleet set sail on a circumnavigational voyage westwards from Amsterdam to the western coast of South America with the objective to hunt down Spanish silver ships leaving Peru and to establish a Dutch colony in either Peru or Chile, at that time known as the Viceroyalty of Peru. Although commanded by Admiral l'Hermite, the fleet was de facto led by his Vice-Admiral Gheen Huygen Schapenham and Rear-Admiral Julius Wilhelm Van Verschoor after l'Hermite like most of its crew suffered from dysentery[2] during the journey. Early 1624 the fleet passed Cape Horn through Lemaire Channel and explored and charted the Hermite Islands. In May 1624 the fleet blocked the port of Callao and raided the cities of Pisco and Guayaquil, but they were unsuccessful in establishing a colony and the fleet was forced to continue its voyage

Jacques l'Hermite westwards towards the Dutch East Indies.

Death L'Hermite died on June 2, 1624 during the blockade of Callao after suffering from dysentery and scurvy for months. He was buried on San Lorenzo Island off the coast of Callao, Peru.

References [1] New Dutch Biographic Dictionary, Hermite, Jr. Jacques l' (http:/ / www. dbnl. org/ tekst/ molh003nieu05_01/ molh003nieu05_01_0316. htm), retrieved May 19, 2009. [2] Trouw newspaper archive, Had Hermite gewonnen, dan sprak Peru nu Nederlands (http:/ / www. trouw. nl/ krantenarchief/ 1994/ 10/ 08/ 2651188/ HAD_HERMITE_GEWONNEN__DAN_SPRAK_PERU_NU_NEDERLANDS. html), retrieved May 19, 2009.

Bibliography • Lane, Kris E. (1998). Pillaging the empire, piracy in the Americas 1500–1750. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0-7656-0257-1. • Gerhard, Peter (2003). Pirates of New Spain 1575–1742. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-42611-4. • Iournael vande Nassausche vloot (English: Journal of the Nassau Fleet). Amsterdam: Jacob Pietersz Wachter. 1643. (Dutch) • Brederode, van, Willem; A. Doedens; H. Looijesteijn (2008). Op jacht naar Spaans zilver, het scheepsjournaal van Willem van Brederode (English: The hunt for Spanish silver). Uitgeverij Verloren. ISBN 978-90-8704-047-5. (Dutch)

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Pedro Cubero

105

Pedro Cubero Pedro Cubero Sebastián (El Frasno, Spain, 1645 – c.1697) was a Spanish priest, best known for his travel around the world from 1670 to 1679. Pedro Cubero was born in the village of El Frasno, near to Calatayud, in the Spanish region of Aragón. He studied in Zaragoza and Salamanca, up to his ordination as a priest in Zaragoza, and soon afterwards went to Rome, where he joined the Propaganda Fide congregation. In accordance with his missionary work, he undertook in 1670 a journey to East Asia, that eventually led him to complete an eastwards around the world trip. The journey is specially memorable as for the first time in History a considerable part of the way was done overland, through Western and Eastern Europe, Western and Central Asia and North America. Actually, he visited Paris, Venice, Warsaw, Moscow, Istanbul, Astrakhan, Isfahan, Bandar Abbass, Surat, Goa, Colombo, Mylapore, Malacca, Philippines, Pekin, Moluccas, Acapulco, Veracruz, Havana and eventually Cádiz, among many other places. He reached Madrid in January, 1680, just in time to attend the celebrations of the arrival of Maria Luisa of Orléans, recently married to King Charles II of Spain.

Title page of the second edition of Peregrinación del mundo (1682)

He wrote the account of his adventures around the world in a very objective, detailed and interesting book, Peregrinación del mundo (World's peregrination), first published in Madrid in 1680. An extended second edition was brought out in 1682 in Naples, by then a Spanish possession.

References • (Spanish) Pedro Cubero Sebastián, Peregrinación del mundo, Madrid, 1993. ISBN 84-7813-114-0 • (Spanish). "Peregrinación del mundo" de Pedro Cubero Sebastián, Colección Cisneros, dirigida por Don Ciriaco Pérez Bustamante, Catedrático de la Universidad Central. Madrid, (1943). Ediciones Atlas, 174 pages.

External links • (Spanish) University web about Spanish travellers in the East [1] (Web page Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain)

References [1] http:/ / www. uam. es/ otroscentros/ asiriologiayegipto/ asiriologia/ asirio_art01. html

William Dampier

106

William Dampier This article is about the explorer. For the scientist, see William Cecil Dampier.

William Dampier

Portrait of Dampier holding his book, a painting by Thomas Murray (c. 1697–1698) Born

Baptised 5 September 1651 East Coker, Somerset, England

Died

March 1715 (aged 63) London, England

Nationality

British

Occupation

Privateer and explorer

Known for

Exploring and mapping Australia, Circumnavigation

William Dampier (baptised 5 September 1651 – March 1715) was the first Englishman to explore parts of what is today Australia, and the first person to circumnavigate the world three times. He has also been described as Australia's first natural historian,[1] as well as one of the most important British explorers of the period between Sir Walter Raleigh and James Cook.[2] After impressing the British Admiralty with his book, A New Voyage Round the World, Dampier was given command of a Royal Navy ship and made important discoveries in western Australia, but was court-martialled for cruelty. On a later voyage, he rescued Alexander Selkirk, a former crewmate who may have inspired Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe. Others influenced by Dampier include James Cook, Lord Nelson, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.

William Dampier

107

Early life William Dampier was born at Hymerford House in East Coker, Somerset, in 1651. He was baptised on 5 September, but his precise date of birth is not recorded. He was educated at King's School, Bruton.[3] Dampier sailed on two merchant voyages to Newfoundland and Java before joining the Royal Navy in 1673. He took part in the two Battles of Schooneveld in June of that year. His service was cut short by a catastrophic illness, and he returned to England for several months of recuperation. For the next several years he tried his hand at various careers, including plantation management in Jamaica and logging in Mexico, before he eventually joined another sailing expedition.

First circumnavigation In 1679 Dampier crewed with buccaneer Captain Bartholomew Sharp on the Spanish Main of Central America, twice visiting the Bay of Campeche, or "Campeachy" as it was then known, on the north coast of Mexico. This led to his first circumnavigation, during which he accompanied a raid across the Isthmus of Darién in Panama and captured Spanish ships on the Pacific coast of that isthmus. The pirates then raided Spanish settlements in Peru before returning to the Caribbean. Dampier made his way to Virginia, where in 1683 he was engaged by the privateer John Cooke. Cooke entered the Pacific via Cape Horn and spent a year raiding Spanish possessions in Peru, the Galápagos Islands, and Mexico. This expedition collected buccaneers and ships as it went along, at one time having a fleet of ten vessels. Cooke died in Mexico, and a new leader, Edward Davis, was elected captain by the crew. Map from Dampier's A New Voyage Round the World of 1697, with a star marking the "Miskito" coast

Dampier transferred to Captain Charles Swan's ship, the privateer Cygnet, and on 31 March 1686 they set out across the Pacific to raid the East Indies, calling at Guam and Mindanao. Spanish witnesses saw the predominately English crew as not only pirates and heretics but also cannibals. Leaving Swan and 36 others behind on Mindanao, the rest of the privateers sailed to Manila, Poulo Condor, China, the Spice Islands, and New Holland (Australia). Contrary to Dampier's later claim that he had not actively Map of the East Indies from Dampier's A New Voyage Round the participated in actual piratical attacks during this World, published in 1697 voyage, he was in fact selected in 1687 to command one of the Spanish ships captured by the Cygnet's crew off Manila.[4] On 5 January 1688 Cygnet was beached on the northwest coast of Australia, near King Sound. While the ship was being careened Dampier made notes on the fauna and flora and the indigenous peoples he found there. Among his fellows were a significant number of Spanish sailors, most notably Alonso Ramírez, a native of San Juan, Puerto Rico. Later that year, by agreement, Dampier and two shipmates were marooned on one of the Nicobar Islands. They obtained a small canoe which they modified after first capsizing and then, after surviving a great storm at sea, called at "Acheen" (Aceh) in Sumatra.

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Dampier returned to England in 1691 via the Cape of Good Hope, penniless but in possession of his journals. He also had as a source of income the famous painted (tattooed) Prince Jeoly and his mother, whom he had purchased as slaves and subsequently exhibited in London; thereby generating publicity while a book based on his diaries was being printed.[5][6]

The Roebuck expedition See also: HMS Roebuck (1690) The publication of the book, A New Voyage Round the World, in 1697 was a popular sensation, creating interest at the Admiralty. In 1699 Dampier was given command of the 26-gun warship HMS Roebuck, with a commission from King William III (who had ruled jointly with Queen Mary II until her death in 1694). His mission was to explore the east coast of New Holland, the name given by the Dutch to what is now Australia, and Dampier's intention was to travel there via Cape Horn. The expedition set out on 14 January 1699, too late in the season to attempt the Horn, so it headed to New Holland via the Cape of Good Hope instead. Following the Dutch route to the Indies, Dampier passed between Dirk Hartog Island and the Western Australian mainland into what he called Shark Bay on 6 August 1699. He landed and began producing the first known detailed record of Australian flora and fauna. The botanical drawings that were made are believed to be by his clerk, James Brand. Dampier then followed the coast north-east, reaching the Dampier Archipelago and Lagrange Bay, just south of what is now called Roebuck Bay, all the while recording and collecting specimens, including many Australian plant life from Dampier’s A shells.[7] From there he bore northward for Timor. Then he sailed east and Voyage to New Holland, published in 1703 on 3 December 1699 rounded New Guinea, which he passed to the north. He traced the south-eastern coasts of New Hanover, New Ireland and New Britain, charting the Dampier Strait between these islands (now the Bismarck Archipelago) and New Guinea. En route, he paused to collect specimens such as giant clams. By this time Roebuck was in such bad condition that Dampier was forced to abandon his plan to examine the east coast of New Holland while less than a hundred miles from it. In danger of sinking, he attempted to make the return voyage to England, but the ship foundered at Ascension Island on 21 February 1701. While anchored offshore the ship began to take on additional water and the carpenter could do nothing with the worm-eaten planking. As a result, the vessel had to be run aground. Dampier's crew was marooned there for five weeks before being picked up on 3 April by an East Indiaman and returned home in August 1701. Although many papers were lost with the Roebuck, Dampier was able to save some new charts of coastlines, and his record of trade winds and currents in the seas around Australia and New Guinea. He also preserved a few of his specimens. In 2001 the wreck of the Roebuck was located in Clarence Bay, Ascension Island, by a team from the Western Australian Maritime Museum.[8] Because of his widespread influence, and also because so little exists that can now be linked to him, it has been argued that the remains of his ship and the objects still at the site on Ascension Island—while the property of Britain and subject to the island government's management—are actually the shared maritime heritage of those parts of the world first visited or described by him.[9] His account of the expedition was published as A Voyage to New Holland in 1703.

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Court martial On his return from the Roebuck expedition, Dampier was court-martialled for cruelty. On the outward voyage Dampier had his lieutenant, George Fisher, removed from the ship and jailed in Brazil. Fisher returned to England and complained about his treatment to the Admiralty. Dampier wrote an angry vindication of his conduct, but he was found guilty, docked his pay for the voyage, and dismissed from the Royal Navy. According to records held at the National Archives,[10] the Royal Navy court martial held on 8 June 1702 involved the following three charges: 1. William Dampier, Captain, HMS Roebuck. Crime: Death of John Norwood, boatswain. Verdict: Acquitted. 2. William Dampier, Captain, HMS Roebuck. Crime: Hard and cruel usage of the lieutenant. Verdict: Guilty. Sentence: Forfeit all pay due and deemed unfit to command any of His Majesty's ships. 3. George Fisher, Lieutenant, HMS Roebuck Crime: Dispute between the captain and the lieutenant. Verdict: Acquitted.

Second circumnavigation The War of the Spanish Succession had broken out in 1701, and English privateers were being readied to act against French and Spanish interests. Dampier was appointed commander of the 26-gun ship St George, with a crew of 120 men. They were joined by the 16-gun Cinque Ports with 63 men, and sailed on 11 September 1703 from Kinsale, Ireland. The two ships made a storm-tossed passage round Cape Horn, arriving at the Juan Fernández Islands off the coast of Chile in February 1704.[11] While watering and provisioning there, they sighted a heavily armed French merchantman, which they engaged in a seven-hour battle but were driven off.[12]

An Ecuadorian stamp issued in 2006 commemorates Dampier's piracy in the South Pacific

Dampier succeeded in capturing a number of small Spanish ships along the coast of Peru, but released them after removing only a fraction of their cargoes because he believed they "would be a hindrance to his greater designs."[13] The greater design he had in mind was a raid on Santa María, a town on the Gulf of Panama rumoured to hold stockpiles of gold from nearby mines. When the force of seamen he led against the town met with unexpectedly strong resistance, however, he withdrew.[14] In May 1704 the Cinque Ports separated from St George and, after putting Alexander Selkirk ashore alone on an island for complaining about the vessel's seaworthiness, sank off the coast of what is today Colombia. Some of its crew survived being shipwrecked but were made prisoners of the Spanish. It was now left to the St George to make an attempt on the Manila galleon, the main object of the expedition. The ship was sighted on 6 December 1704, probably the Nuestra Señora del Rosario. It was caught unprepared and had not run out its guns. But while Dampier and his officers argued over the best way to mount an attack, the galleon got its guns loaded and the battle was joined. St George soon found itself out-sized by the galleon's 18- and 24-pounders, and, suffering serious damage, they were forced to break off the attack.[15]

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The failure to capture the Spanish galleon completed the break-up of the expedition. Dampier, with about thirty men, was left in St George, the rest going on board a captured barque and crossing the Pacific to Amboyna in the Dutch settlements. The undermanned and worm-damaged St George had to be abandoned on the coast of Peru. Dampier and his remaining men embarked in a Spanish prize across the Pacific, where they were thrown into prison as pirates by their supposed allies the Dutch but later released. Now without a ship, he eventually made his way back to England at the end of 1707.

Third circumnavigation and death See also: Woodes Rogers expedition In 1708 Dampier was engaged to serve on the privateer Duke, not as captain but as sailing master. The Duke beat its way into the South Pacific Ocean round Cape Horn in consort with a second ship, the Duchess.[16] Commanded by Woodes Rogers, this voyage was more successful: Selkirk was rescued on 2 February 1709,[17] and the expedition amassed £147,975 (equivalent to £18.7 million today)[18] worth of plundered goods. Most of that came from the capture of a Spanish galleon, the Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación y Desengaño, along the coast of Mexico in December 1709.[19] Dampier completed his third circumnavigation by way of the East Indies and the Cape of Good Hope as the sailing master of the Encarnación, dropping anchor at the Thames in London on 14 October 1711.[20] He may not have lived to receive all of his share of the expedition's gains. He died in the Parish of St Stephen Coleman Street, London. The exact date and circumstances of his death, and his final resting place, are all unknown. His will was proven on 23 March 1715, and it is generally assumed he died earlier that month, but this is not known with any certainty. His estate was £2,000 in debt.[21]

Legacy Dampier influenced several figures better known than he: • He made important contributions to navigation, collecting for the first time data on currents, winds and tides across all the world’s oceans that was used by James Cook and Horatio Nelson.[22] • His travel journals depicting Panama may have influenced the undertaking of the ill-fated Darien Scheme, leading to the Act of Union of 1707.[23] • Daniel Defoe, author of Robinson Crusoe, was likely inspired by accounts of real-life castaway Alexander Selkirk, a crew member on Dampier's voyages. • Jonathan Swift explicitly mentions Dampier in his Gulliver's Travels as a mariner comparable to Lemuel Gulliver.[24] • His notes on the fauna and flora of north-western Australia were studied by naturalist and scientist Joseph Banks, who made further studies during the first voyage with Captain James Cook. This helped lead to the naming of and colonisation of Botany Bay and the founding of modern Australia.

Sailors in the South Sea gape at an albatross perched on the icy deck, in The Rime of the Ancient Mariner

• His reports on breadfruit led to William Bligh's ill-fated voyage in HMS Bounty.[25] • Another storied crew mate of Dampier's, Simon Hatley, who is best remembered for shooting an albatross while his ship battled storms off Cape Horn, influenced the writing of Samuel Taylor Coleridge's poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner.[26]

William Dampier • His observations and analysis of natural history helped Alexander von Humboldt and Charles Darwin develop their scientific theories. • His observations (and those of Mr William Funnell) during his expeditions are mentioned several times by Alfred Russel Wallace in his book The Malay Archipelago, and compared to his own observations made on his 19th-century voyages.[27] • He is cited over 80 times in the Oxford English Dictionary, notably on words such as "barbecue", "avocado", "chopsticks" and "sub-species". That is not to say he coined the words, but his use of them in his writings is the first known example in English.

Honours The following geographical places/features are named after William Dampier: • • • •

Dampier, a town and major port of Western Australia; Dampier Archipelago, Western Australia; Dampier County, a cadastral division of New South Wales; Dampier Island, an island of the Dampier Archipelago, Western Australia, renamed Burrup Peninsula in the 1960s when it was connected to the mainland by a causeway; • Dampier Land District, a cadastral division of Western Australia; • • • • • •

Dampier Peninsula, Western Australia; Dampier Ridge, part of the submerged continent of Zealandia; Dampier Seamount, off the island of Saint Helena; Dampier Strait (Indonesia); Dampier Strait (Papua New Guinea); and the Division of Dampier, an electorate of the Australian House of Representatives from 1913 to 1922.

In addition, a British frigate/survey ship, HMS Dampier, saw service with the Royal Navy between 1948 and 1968, and postage stamps bearing his portrait were issued by Australia Post in 1966 and 1985.[28]

Books • • • • • • •

A New Voyage Round the World (1697) Voyages and Descriptions (1699) A Voyage to New Holland (1703) A Supplement of the Voyage Round the World (1705) The Campeachy Voyages (1705) A Discourse of Winds (1705) A Continuation of a Voyage to New Holland (1709)

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References [1] [2] [3] [4]

George, Alexander S. (1999). William Dampier in New Holland: Australia's First Natural Historian. Hawthorn, Vic.: Bloomings Books. Preston, Diana & Preston, Michael (2005). A Pirate of Exquisite Mind: The Life of William Dampier. New York: Walker and Company. p. 5. Somerset Archives (http:/ / www1. somerset. gov. uk/ archives/ ). Records of King's School, Bruton. López-Lázaro, Fabio (2011). The Misfortunes of Alonso Ramírez: The True Adventures of a Spanish American with 17th-Century Pirates. Austin: University of Texas. pp. 29–30. [5] Barnes, Geraldine (2006). "Curiosity, Wonder, and William Dampier's Painted Prince". Journal for Early Modern Cultural Studies 6 (1): 31–50. [6] Savage, John (c. 1692). "Etching of Prince Giolo" (http:/ / acms. sl. nsw. gov. au/ item/ itemDetailPaged. aspx?itemID=153334). State Library of New South Wales. [7] Marchant, Leslie R. (1988). An Island Unto Itself: William Dampier and New Holland. Victoria Park, W.A.: Hesperian Press. [8] McCarthy, Michael (2002). Report No. 159: His Majesty’s Ship Roebuck (1690–1701) (http:/ / www. museum. wa. gov. au/ sites/ default/ files/ No. 159 HMS Roebuck. pdf). Fremantle, W.A.: Western Australian Maritime Museum. [9] McCarthy, Michael (2004). '"HM Ship Roebuck (1690–1701): Global Maritime Heritage?" The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 33 (2): 330–337. [10] The National Archives (http:/ / www. nationalarchives. gov. uk/ ). Records of the Navy Board and the Board of Admiralty. Item reference ADM 1/5262/287. [11] Funnell (1707), pp. 16–17. [12] Funnell (1707), pp. 25–26. [13] Funnell (1707), pp. 31–32, 36. [14] Funnell (1707), pp. 39, 45–46. [15] Funnell (1707), pp. 83–84. [16] Funnell (1707), pp. 12–13. [17] Rogers (1712), pp. 124–125. [18] UK CPI inflation numbers based on data available from Gregory Clark (2013), " What Were the British Earnings and Prices Then? (New Series) (http:/ / www. measuringworth. org/ ukearncpi/ )" MeasuringWorth. [19] Rogers (1712), pp. 293–294. [20] Rogers (1712), p. 428. [21] Preston & Preston (2005), p. 447. [22] "William Dampier, Pirate and Travel Writer" (http:/ / museum. wa. gov. au/ about/ latest-news/ william-dampier-pirate-and-travel-writer). Western Australian Museum. Retrieved 29 September 2013 [23] "William Patterson and the Darien Scheme" (http:/ / www. futuremuseum. co. uk/ collections/ people/ key-people/ trade,-commerce-industry/ william-paterson-the-darien-scheme. aspx). Future Museum of Southwest Scotland. Retrieved 29 September 2013. [24] "The Pirate Who Collected Plants: Famous People Dampier Influenced" (http:/ / ocean. si. edu/ ocean-news/ pirate-who-collected-plants/ famous-people-dampier-influenced). Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 29 September 2013. [25] "Captain Bligh Introduced Breadfruit to the West Indies" (http:/ / www. lookandlearn. com/ blog/ 21798/ captain-bligh-introduced-breadfruit-to-the-west-indies/ ). Look and Learn. Retrieved 29 September 2013. [26] Holmes, Richard (1989). Coleridge: Early Visions, 1772–1804. New York: Pantheon Books. pp. 171–172. [27] Wallace, Alfred R. (1869). The Malay Archipelago: The Land of the Orangutan, and the Bird of Paradise—A Narrative of Travel, with Sketches of Man and Nature. London: Macmillan. pp. 196, 205, 300. [28] Australia SG 974 33 cent, Bicentenary of Australian Settlement, Navigators, "William Dampier" (1988) (http:/ / www. australianstamp. com/ images/ large/ 0015390. jpg). Australian Stamp and Coin. Retrieved 13 September 2011.

External links • Wreck of the Roebuck, 1701–2001 (http://wamuseum.com.au/collections/maritime/march/treasures/ damp_main.html) exhibition at the Western Australian Maritime Museum (2001) • "A Singular Man: William Dampier—Adventurer, Author, Survivor" (http://books.google.com/ books?isbn=0395911508) by Edward E. Leslie (1988) in Desperate Journeys, Abandoned Souls: True Stories of Castaways and Other Survivors (pp. 47–60) • Works by William Dampier (http://www.gutenberg.org/author/William_Dampier) at Project Gutenberg • A Voyage to New Holland (http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15675) • A Continuation of a Voyage to New Holland (http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15685) • Works by William Dampier: facsimile scans at Early Canadiana Online (http://www.canadiana.org), originals held by the National Library of Canada.

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• A New Voyage Round the World (http://www.canadiana.org/ECO/mtq?doc=34672) • Voyages and Descriptions (http://www.canadiana.org/ECO/mtq?doc=34673) • A Voyage to New Holland (http://www.canadiana.org/ECO/mtq?doc=34674) • A Continuation of a Voyage to New Holland (http://www.canadiana.org/ECO/mtq?doc=34675) • Dampier Bibliography (http://www.galapagos.to/BOOKS.HTM#DampierR) from the Human and Cartographic History of the Galápagos Islands (http://www.galapagos.to/) • A New Voyage Round the World (http://www.galapagos.to/TEXTS/DAMPIER-0.HTM) (HTML version) • This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Dampier, William". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Gemelli Careri Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri (1651–1725) was a seventeenth-century Italian adventurer and traveler. He was among the first Europeans to tour the world by securing passage on ships involved in the carrying trade; his travels, undertaken for pleasure rather than profit, may have inspired Around the World in Eighty Days. Some suspected him of spying for the Vatican on his journey.

Biographic Information Gemelli Careri was born in Taurianova, 1651, and died in Naples, 1725. He obtained a doctorate in law at the College of Jesuits in Naples. After completing his studies he briefly entered the judiciary. In 1685 he took time off to travel around Europe (France, Spain, Germany, and Hungary). In Hungary he was wounded when an army of Turks besieged Buda. In 1687 he returned to Naples and re-entered the judiciary. He also began work on his first two books: "Relazione delle Campagne d'Ungheria" (1689) with co-author Matteo Egizio, and "Viaggi in Europa" (1693). At this time Gemelli encountered frustrations with his legal profession. He was denied certain opportunities because he did not have an established aristocratic origin. Eventually, he decided to suspend his career for a round-the-world trip. This five-year trip would lead to his best known six-volume book, Giro Del Mondo (1699).[1]

Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri at age 48 in the year 1699. This image is taken from his book: "Giro Del Mondo"

Gemelli Careri

114

World voyage Gemelli Careri realized that he could finance his trip by carefully purchasing goods at each stage that would have enhanced value at the next stage: at Bandar-Abbas on the Persian Gulf, he asserts, the traveler should pick up "dates, wine, spirits, and all the fruits of Persia, which one carries to India either dried or pickled in vinegar, on which one makes a good profit"[2]

Map of the area around Mexico City, centered on the large Lagune de Mexico. Many villages are located including Pachuca, Tacoma, Atlapilco, Tolodyuca, Tetlapanaloya, and Apazco.

Gemelli Careri started his world trip in 1693, with a visit to Egypt, Constantinople, and the Holy Land. At the time, this Middle Eastern route was already becoming a standard ingredient of any excursion into foreign lands, a hike that was almost not worth writing home about. However, from there the Italian 'tourist' would take less traveled paths. After crossing Armenia and Persia, he visited Southern India and entered China, where the Jesuit missionaries assumed that such an unusual Italian visitor could be a spy working for the pope. This fortuitous misunderstanding opened for Gemelli many of the most tightly closed doors of the country. He got to visit the emperor at Beijing, attended the Lantern Festival celebrations and toured the Great Wall.

"Almost all the structure, as has been said, is of brick, so well built that it does not only last but looks new after several ages. It is above 1800 years since the Emperor Xi-hoam-ti caused it to be built against the incursions of the Tartars. This was one of the greatest, Title image taken from a French translation of the and most extravagant works that ever book: "Voyage du Tour du Monde" was undertaken. In prudence the Chinese should have secured the most dangerous passes: But what I thought most ridiculous was to see the wall run up to the top of a vast high and steep mountain, where the Birds would hardly build much less the Tartar horses climb... And if they conceited those people could make their way climbing the clefts and rocks it was certainly a great folly to believe their fury could be stopped by so low a wall." [3]

Gemelli Careri

115

From Macau, Gemelli Careri sailed to the Philippines, where he stayed two months while waiting for the departure of the Manila galleon, for which he carried quicksilver, for a 300% profit in Mexico. In the meantime, as Gemelli described it in his journal, the half-year-long transoceanic trip to Acapulco was a nightmare plagued with bad food, epidemic outbursts, and the occasional storm. In Mexico, the Italian traveler became a celebrity by the simple expedient of telling his anecdotes over and over to the local aristocrats. His insatiable curiosity would take him beyond the capital, visiting several mine towns and the ancient ruins of Teotihuacan. After five years of wandering around the world, Gemelli was finally on his way back to Europe when he joined the Spanish treasure fleet in Cuba.[4]

Publications • Relazione delle Campagne d'Ungheria (1689) • Viaggi in Europa [5] (1693) • Giro Del Mondo (1699) • Part 1 (Turkey and Middle East) [6] • 2 (Persia) [7] • Part 3 (Hindustan) [8] • Part 4 (China) [9]

Additional artwork from the Italian version of the book "Giro Del Mondo".

• Part 5 (Philippines) [10] • Part 6 (New Spain) [11]

• Voyage Round the World (1704, London: English Translation - a.k.a. John Francis Gemelli Careri) [12] • Voyage du Tour du Monde (1719, Paris: French Translation - a.k.a. Jean Francois Gemelli Careri)

Literary Significance and Criticism The aim of Giro Del Mondo - a faithful description of the countries visited was emphasized by Giosef-Antonio Guerrieri in his preface. While pointing out the difference between the account of a journey and "an imaginary journey", Guerrieri praised Gemelli Careri for the reliability of his experiences, and criticized those who were prone to fantasize over geographic maps. For many years scholars and experts did not consider Gemelli Careri's adventurous journey authentic. With time, however, its truthfulness was proved, and it was also ascertained that he collected important historical documents in

Gemelli Careri's Map of the Aztec Migration from Aztlan to Chapultapec from "Voyage Round the World", 1704

order

know

those

Gemelli Careri

Crest image taken from the Italian version of the book "Giro Del Mondo".

116 exotic realities in greater detail. Indeed, the sixth volume of Giro Del Mondo, which covers only Mexico, contains information gathered from codices that existed prior to the Conquest; it also contains several illustrations of Aztec warriors gathered from these codices. In New Spain, Gemelli Careri had the opportunity to study the pyramids carefully (their affinity to the Egyptian pyramids led him to believe that the ancient Egyptians and the Amerindians both descended from the inhabitants of Atlantis).[13]

An 1849 release of The Calcutta Review (a periodical now published by the University of Calcutta), stated the following about Gemelli's writings concerning India: "In a previous number of this Review we made an attempt to describe something of the Court and Camp of the best and wisest prince Muhainmedan India had ever beheld (Aurungzebe, Mogul emperor of Hindustan)... To this we are urged by two main considerations, the character of the age, and the materials at our command.... Sir H. M. Elliot's work has... met with, to a certain extent, Additional artwork from the French version of the book Voyage du Tour du Monde adverse criticism, and some doubts have (1719, Paris: French Translation of "Giro Del Mondo". been raised as to the soundness, or the justice, of its conclusions. It is therefore (possible that readers may be willing) to peruse a description of the Government of Aurungzebe, taken not from native historians, but from the accounts of men who saw with the eyes of travelers. From three men, who all visited India during the reign of Aurungzebe, the most valuable and the most curious information is attainable... The second of the triumvirate, on whom we mainly rely, is the Doctor John Francis Gemelli Careri. Natural curiosity and domestic misfortunes were, he tells us, his motives for traveling. Of the three (sources this paper is based), he is the most discursive in his narration, the most piquant in his anecdotes, the most amusing in his simplicity. As he traveled for no one particular aim, but to see and to hear, there are few Indian topics, on which he does not give us something. Natural productions, the beasts and the birds, manners, Hindu theology, state maxims, the causes of Portuguese supremacy and degradation, anecdotes of the camp, the convent, and the Harem, accidents by water and land, complaints of personal inconvenience, and remarks on the tendency of Eastern despotism, are scattered plentifully throughout a narrative, which owes very much to the author's own liveliness and observation, but occasionally something, we are compelled to say, to the labours of others who had gone before. His plagiarism is, however, confined to specifications of caste or creed. Where he saw or suffered personally, his narrative is clear, picturesque, and beyond suspicion." [14]

Gemelli Careri

External links • • • • • • •

www.common-place.org [15] Baroque Cycle related website [16] "Giro Del Mondo" (Italian Version) [17] English translation from 1704 [12] (also at the Internet Archive [18]) "Voyage du Tour du Monde": French translations of the first [19] and fifth [20] parts "The Americas in Italian Literature and Culture, 1700-1825" [21] "The Calcutta Review" Volumes 11-12, 1849 [22]

References [1] Source Article: http:/ / it. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Giovanni_Francesco_Gemelli_Careri; Angela Amuso Maccarrone, Gianfrancesco Gemelli-Careri. L'Ulisse del XVII secolo, 2000 [2] Quoted in Fernand Braudel. The Wheels of Commerce: Civilisation and Capitalism 15th-18th Century 1979 p. 169. [3] "Voyage Round the World", 1704, London: Vol. 4, p. 323-324 [4] Source Article: Denis, Adrian L. "Early Cities of the Americas, Treasure City: Havana", University of California, 2003 [5] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=lLlRAAAAcAAJ& printsec=frontcover& dq=Gemelli+ Careri& source=bl& ots=Y_K8i4wTaR& sig=MEMPOz0sWa-4Xi_hvmkjX1WdF9Y& hl=en& sa=X& ei=KVZoUJXoN4TvygHl94CADA& ved=0CFMQ6AEwBjgK#v=onepage& q=Gemelli%20Careri& f=false [6] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=k9srVb7yfq8C& printsec=frontcover& dq=Giro+ del+ Mondo& source=bl& ots=PiCqaa5OSy& sig=KlAsfg6_fcxqQl3VPXJqb4qBzbw& hl=en& sa=X& ei=ScVnUOrrB-SFywHDrICgBw& ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=Giro%20del%20Mondo& f=false [7] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=wrlRAAAAcAAJ& pg=PA4& lpg=PA4& dq=Giro+ del+ Mondo+ Persia& source=bl& ots=GXlu_W_Z3x& sig=ma1Vx5oZM2HqNXN_H4QPdmVPmxQ& hl=en& sa=X& ei=-lBoUP2hEOjkywGg54GwDA& ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=Giro%20del%20Mondo%20Persia& f=false''Part [8] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=pVxWAAAAYAAJ& printsec=frontcover& dq=Giro+ del+ Mondo& source=bl& ots=PVPQWeOQLK& sig=glZTdi6PUaIMQNSn-KoYYaJ_ec8& hl=en& sa=X& ei=rk9oUKW5JIvyyAGEmoDACQ& ved=0CEYQ6AEwBA#v=onepage& q=Giro%20del%20Mondo& f=false [9] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zrlRAAAAcAAJ& printsec=frontcover& dq=Gemelli+ Careri+ Europa& source=bl& ots=1cPRSxx4lN& sig=FLUWSEXLtp_o1ZbkhGt3MXSmWSg& hl=en& sa=X& ei=vlJoUL-fNOi3ywHo3YGIBg& ved=0CDYQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q=Gemelli%20Careri%20Europa& f=false [10] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=-LpRAAAAcAAJ& pg=PA159& lpg=PA159& dq=Gemelli+ Careri+ Parte+ Nuova& source=bl& ots=rmPWKaFGDk& sig=nfJhwcxnVPqP7PHaRosqw5S4QG8& hl=en& sa=X& ei=I7BoUOOdPJT9yAHhu4DIAQ& ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=Gemelli%20Careri%20Parte%20Nuova& f=false [11] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=D7tRAAAAcAAJ& pg=PA278& lpg=PA278& dq=Gemelli+ Careri+ Napoli& source=bl& ots=wPKrCN7Ke5& sig=Ayvc2ksSXju55SXOv2dd9zMssNM& hl=en& sa=X& ei=-VhoUIu8GsegyAHmwIDACw& ved=0CGUQ6AEwCA#v=onepage& q=Gemelli%20Careri%20Napoli& f=false [12] http:/ / books. google. bg/ books?id=1-kCbJr5ImEC& dq=%22Gemelli+ Careri+ %22& source=gbs_navlinks_s [13] Quoted by Stefania Buccini: The Americas in Italian literature and culture, 1700-1825 Penn State Press, 1997 p.19 [14] Quoted by: The Calcutta Review Volumes 11-12, University of Calcutta, 1849, p.303 [15] http:/ / www. historycooperative. org/ journals/ cp/ vol-03/ no-04/ havana/ [16] http:/ / www. metaweb. com/ wiki/ wiki. phtml?title=Gemelli_Careri [17] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=k9srVb7yfq8C [18] http:/ / archive. org/ details/ cihm_33300 [19] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?hl=en& id=K1AGAAAAQAAJ [20] http:/ / books. google. bg/ books?id=e8ISnOzx8psC& dq=inauthor:%22Giovanni+ Francesco+ Gemelli+ Careri%22& hl=sv& source=gbs_navlinks_s [21] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=upo1LOm5564C [22] http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?pg=RA1-PA303& dq=The%20Calcutta%20review%20gemelli%20Gemelli%20Carreri& ei=VLvhTOf2H4f3nAfRyYS-Dw& ct=result& id=CORXAAAAIAAJ

117

Woodes Rogers

118

Woodes Rogers Woodes Rogers

Rogers (right) receives a map of New Providence Island from his son, in a painting by William Hogarth (1729) Royal Governor of the Bahama Islands In office 6 January 1718 – June 1721 Appointed by

George I

Preceded by

New creation

Succeeded by

George Phenney In office 22 October 1728 – 15 July 1732

Appointed by

George II

Preceded by

George Phenney

Succeeded by

Richard Thompson (acting governor) Personal details

Born

ca. 1679 most likely Poole, Dorset, England

Died

15 July 1732 (aged around 53) Nassau, Bahamas

Resting place

Nassau, Bahamas

Woodes Rogers (ca. 1679 – 15 July 1732) was an English sea captain, privateer, and, later, the first Royal Governor of the Bahamas. He is known as the captain of the vessel that rescued the marooned Alexander Selkirk, whose plight is generally believed to have inspired Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe. Rogers came from an affluent seafaring family, grew up in Poole and Bristol, and served a marine apprenticeship to a Bristol sea captain. His father, who held shares in many ships, died when Rogers was in his mid-twenties, leaving Rogers in control of the family shipping business. In 1707, Rogers was approached by Captain William Dampier, who sought support for a privateering voyage against the Spanish, with whom the British were at war. Rogers led the expedition, which consisted of two well-armed ships, the Duke and the Duchess, and was the captain of the Duke. In three years, Rogers and his men went around the world, capturing several ships in the Pacific Ocean. En route, the expedition rescued Selkirk, finding him on Juan Fernandez Island on 1 February 1709. When the expedition returned to England in October 1711, Rogers had circumnavigated the globe, while retaining his original ships and most of his men, and the investors in the expedition doubled their money.

Woodes Rogers

119

While the expedition made Rogers a national hero, his brother was killed and Rogers was badly wounded in fights in the Pacific. On his return, he was successfully sued by his crew on the ground they had not received their fair share of the expedition profits, and Rogers was forced into bankruptcy. He wrote of his maritime experiences in a book A Cruising Voyage Round the World, which sold well, in part due to public fascination at Selkirk's rescue. Rogers was twice appointed Governor of the Bahamas, where he succeeded in warding off threats from the Spanish, and in ridding the colony of pirates. However, his first term as governor was financially ruinous, and on his return to England, he was imprisoned for debt. During his second term as governor, Rogers died in Nassau at the age of about 53.

Early life Woodes Rogers was the eldest son and heir of Woods Rogers, a successful merchant captain. Woodes Rogers spent part of his childhood in Poole, England, where he likely attended the local school; his father, who owned shares in many ships, was often away nine months of the year with the Newfoundland fishing fleet. Sometime between 1690 and 1696, Captain Rogers moved his family to Bristol.[1] In November 1697, Woodes Rogers was apprenticed to Bristol mariner John Yeamans, to learn the profession of a sailor. At 18, Rogers was somewhat old to be starting a seven-year apprenticeship. His biographer, Brian Little, suggests that this might have been a way for the newcomers to become part of Bristol maritime society, as well as making it possible for Woodes Rogers to become a freeman, or voting citizen, of the city. Little also suggests that it is likely that Rogers gained his maritime experience with Yeamans' ship on the Newfoundland fleet.[2] Rogers completed his apprenticeship in November 1704.

Marriage and family The following January Rogers married Sarah Whetstone, daughter of Rear Admiral Sir William Whetstone, who was a neighbour and close family friend. Rogers became a freeman of Bristol because of his marriage into the prominent Whetstone family. In 1706, Captain Rogers died at sea, leaving his ships and business to his son Woodes.[3] Between 1706 and the end of 1708, Woodes and Sarah Rogers had a son and two daughters.[4]

Privateering expedition Preparation and the early voyage The War of the Spanish Succession started in 1702, during which England's main maritime foes were France and Spain, and a number of Bristol ships were given letters of marque, allowing them to strike against enemy shipping. At least four vessels in which Rogers had an ownership interest were granted the letters. One, the Whetstone Galley, named for Rogers' father in law, received the letters before being sent to Africa to begin a voyage in the slave trade. It did not reach Africa, but was captured by the French.[5] Rogers suffered other losses against the French, although he does not record their extent in his book. He turned to privateering as a means of recouping these losses.[4] In late 1707, Rogers was approached by William Dampier, a navigator and friend of Rogers' father, who proposed a privateering expedition against the Spanish.[6] This was a desperate move on the part of

William Dampier

Woodes Rogers Captain Dampier to save his career.[6] Dampier had recently returned from leading a two-ship privateering expedition into the Pacific, which culminated in a series of mutinies before both ships finally sank due to Dampier's error in not having the hulls properly cleaned of worms before leaving port. Unaware of this, Rogers agreed. Financing was provided by many in the Bristol community, including Thomas Dover who would become president of the voyage council, and Rogers' father in law.[7] Commanding two frigates, the Duke and the Duchess, and captaining the first, Rogers spent three years circumnavigating the globe.[8] The ships departed Bristol on 1 August 1708.[9] Dampier was aboard as Rogers' sailing master.[10] Rogers encountered various problems along the way. Forty of the Bristol crew deserted or were dismissed, and he spent a month in Ireland recruiting replacements and having the vessels prepared for sea. Many crew members were Dutch, Danish, or other foreigners.[11] Some of the crew mutinied after Rogers refused to let them plunder a neutral Swedish vessel. When the mutiny was put down, he had the leader flogged, put in irons, and sent to England aboard another ship. The less culpable mutineers were given lighter punishments, such as reduced rations.[12] The ships intended to force the chilly Drake Passage off the tip of South America, but expedition leaders soon realised that they were short of warm clothing and alcohol, which was then believed to warm those exposed to cold. Considering the latter the more important problem, the expedition made a stop at Tenerife to stock up on the local wine, and later sewed the ships' blankets into cold weather gear.[13] The ships experienced a difficult inter-oceanic passage; they were forced to almost 62Â° South latitude,[14] which, according to Rogers, "for ought we know is the furthest that any one has yet been to the southward".[15] At their furthest south, they were closer to as-yet-undiscovered Antarctica than to South America.[16]

Rescue of Selkirk and raids on the Spanish Rogers stocked his ships with limes to fend off scurvy, a practice not universally accepted at that time.[17] After reaching the Pacific Ocean, the ships' provisions of limes were exhausted and seven men died of the vitamin deficiency disease. Dampier was able to guide the ships to little-known Juan Fernandez Island to replenish supplies of fresh produce.[17] On 1 February 1709, as they neared the island, the sailors spotted a fire ashore and feared that it might be a shore party from a Spanish vessel. The next morning Rogers sent a party ashore and Rogers' men search Spanish ladies for their discovered that the fire was from Scottish sailor Alexander Selkirk, jewels in Guayaquil who had been stranded there four years previously.[18] Selkirk was to become the inspiration for the classic novel Robinson Crusoe, written by Rogers' friend, Daniel Defoe.[8] According to Rogers' journal, Rogers found Selkirk to be "wild-looking" and "wearing goatskins", noting, "He had with him his clothes and bedding, with a firelock, some powder, bullets and tobacco, a hatchet, a knife, a kettle, a Bible and books."[8] If Selkirk, who had been part of the ship's crew that abandoned Dampier after losing confidence in his leadership, was reluctant to join the expedition because of the presence of his old commodore, he showed no sign of it.[19] Selkirk served as a mate aboard the Duke, and was later given command of one of the prize ships taken by the expedition.[20] After leaving Juan Fernandez on 14 February 1709, the expedition captured and looted a number of small vessels, and launched an attack on the town of Guayaquil, today located in Ecuador. When Rogers attempted to negotiate with the governor, the townsfolk secreted their valuables. Rogers was able to get a modest ransom for the town, but some crew members were so dissatisfied that they dug up the recently dead hoping to find items of value. This led to sickness on board ship, of which six men died.[21] The expedition lost contact with one of the captured ships, which was under the command of Simon Hatley. The other vessels searched for Hatley's ship, but to no availâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;Hatley and his men were captured by the Spanish. On a subsequent voyage to the Pacific, Hatley would emulate Selkirk by becoming the centre of an event which would be immortalised in literature. His ship beset by storms, Hatley shot an

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Woodes Rogers albatross in the hope of better winds, an episode memorialised by Samuel Taylor Coleridge.[22] The crew of the vessels became increasingly discontented, and Rogers and his officers feared another mutiny. This tension was dispelled by the expedition's capture of a rich prize off the coast of Mexico: the Spanish vessel Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación y Desengaño. Rogers sustained a wound to the face in the battle.[21] While the Duke and Duchess were successful in capturing that vessel, they failed to capture the Encarnación's companion, a well-armed galleon named the Nuestra Señora de Begoña, which made its escape after damaging both vessels. Rogers only reluctantly agreed to giving the inexperienced Captain Dover command of the Encarnación, a decision that may have been eased by naming Selkirk as its sailing master.[23] The privateers, accompanied by their two prizes, limped across the Pacific Ocean.[24] The expedition was able to resupply at Guam, which, though governed by the Spanish, extended a cordial welcome to the privateers.[25]

Homeward voyage The ships then went to the Dutch port of Batavia in what is now Indonesia, where Rogers underwent surgery to remove a musket ball from the roof of his mouth, and the expedition disposed of the less seaworthy of the two Spanish prizes. Dealing with the Dutch there constituted a violation of the British East India Company's monopoly.[26] When the ships finally dropped anchor in the Thames River on 14 October 1711,[22] a legal battle ensued, with the investors paying the East India Company £6,000 (about £757,000 at today's values)[27] as settlement for their claim for breach of monopoly, about four percent of what Rogers brought back. The investors approximately doubled their money, while Rogers gained £1,600 (now worth perhaps £201,700)[27] from a voyage which disfigured him and cost him his brother, who was killed in a battle in the Pacific.[24] The money was probably less than he could have made at home, and was entirely absorbed by the debts his family had incurred in his absence.[28] However, the long voyage and the capture of the Spanish ship made Rogers a national hero.[24] Rogers was the first Englishman, in circumnavigating the globe, to have his original ships and most of his crew survive.[28] After his voyage, he wrote an account of it, titled A Cruising Voyage Round the World.[29] While Edward Cooke, an officer aboard the Duchess, also wrote a book, and beat Rogers to print by several months, Rogers' book was much more successful, with many readers fascinated by the account of Selkirk's rescue, which Cooke had slighted. Among those interested in Selkirk's adventure was Daniel Defoe, who appears to have read about it, and fictionalised the story as Robinson Crusoe.[30] While Rogers' book enjoyed financial success, it had a practical purpose—to aid British navigators and possible colonists. Much of Rogers' introduction is devoted to advocacy for the South Seas trade. Rogers notes that had there been a British colony in the South Seas, he would not have had to worry about food supplies for his crew. A third of Rogers' book is devoted to detailed descriptions of the places that he explored, with special emphasis on "such [places] as may be of most use for enlarging our trade".[31] He describes the area of the River Plate in detail because it lay "within the limits of the South Sea Company",[31] whose schemes had not yet burst into financial scandal. Rogers' book was carried by such South Pacific navigators as Admiral George Anson and privateering captains John Clipperton and George Shelvocke.[32]

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Governor and later life Financial difficulties and the Bahamas proposal Rogers encountered financial problems on his return. Sir William Whetstone had died, and Rogers, having failed to recoup his business losses through privateering, was forced to sell his Bristol home to support his family. He was successfully sued by a group of over 200 of his crew, who stated that they had not received their fair share of the expedition profits. The profits from his book were not enough to overcome these setbacks, and he was forced into bankruptcy.[33][34] His wife gave birth to their fourth child a year after his returnâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;a boy who died in infancyâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;and Woodes and Sarah Rogers soon permanently separated.[33] Rogers decided the way out of his financial difficulty was to lead another expedition, this time against pirates. In 1713, Rogers led what was ostensibly an expedition to purchase slaves in Madagascar and take them to the Dutch East Indies, this time with the permission of the British East India Company. However, Rogers' secondary purpose was to gather details on the pirates of Madagascar, hoping to destroy or reform them, and colonise Madagascar on a future trip. Rogers collected information regarding pirates and their vessels near the island.[35] Finding that a large number of the pirates had gone native, he persuaded many of them to sign a petition to Queen Anne asking her for clemency.[36] While Rogers' expedition was profitable, when it returned to London in 1715, the British East India Statue of Woodes Rogers outside the Hilton British Colonial Hotel, Nassau Company vetoed the idea of a colonial expedition to Madagascar, believing a colony was a greater threat to its monopoly than a few pirates. Accordingly, Rogers turned his sights from Madagascar to the West Indies. His connections included several of the advisers to the new king, George I, who had succeeded Queen Anne in 1714, and Rogers was able to forge an agreement for a company to manage the Bahamas, which were infested with pirates, in exchange for a share of the colony's profits.[37] At the time, according to the Governor of Bermuda, the Bahamas were "without any face or form of Government" and the colony was a "sink or nest of infamous rascals".[38] Until Rogers obtained his commission, the islands had been nominally governed by absentee Lords Proprietor, who did little except appoint a new, powerless governor when the position fell vacant.[38] Under the agreement that underlaid Rogers' commission, the Lords Proprietor leased their rights for a token sum to Rogers' company for twenty-one years.[39] On 5 January 1718, a proclamation was issued announcing clemency for all piratical offences, provided that those seeking what became known as the "King's Pardon" surrendered not later than 5 September 1718. Colonial governors and deputy governors were authorised to grant the pardon.[40] Rogers was officially appointed "Captain General and Governor in Chief" by George I on 6 January 1718.[41] He did not leave immediately for his new bailiwick, but spent several months preparing the expedition, which included seven ships, 100 soldiers, 130 colonists, and supplies ranging from food for the expedition members and ships' crews to religious pamphlets to give to the pirates, whom Rogers believed would respond to spiritual teachings. On 22 April 1718, the expedition, accompanied by three Royal Navy vessels, sailed out of the Thames.[42]

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First term The expedition arrived on 22 July 1718, surprising and trapping a ship commanded by pirate Charles Vane. After negotiations failed, Vane used a captured French vessel as a fireship in an attempt to ram the naval vessels. The attempt failed, but the naval vessels were forced out of the west end of Nassau harbour, giving Vane's crew an opportunity to raid the town and secure the best local pilot. Vane and his men then escaped in a small sloop via the harbour's narrow east entrance. The pirates had evaded the trap, but Nassau and New Providence Island were in Rogers' hands.[43] At the time, the island's population consisted of about two hundred former pirates and several hundred fugitives who had escaped from nearby Spanish colonies. Rogers organised a government, granted the King's Pardon to those former pirates on the island who had not yet accepted it, and started to rebuild the island's fortifications, which had fallen into decrepitude under pirate domination. However, less than a month into his residence on New Providence, Rogers was faced with a double threat: Vane wrote, threatening to join with Edward Teach (better known as Blackbeard) to retake the island, and Rogers learned that the Spanish also planned to drive the British out of the Bahamas.[44] Rogers' expedition suffered further setbacks. An unidentified disease killed almost a hundred of his expedition members, while leaving the long-term residents nearly untouched. Two of the three navy vessels, having no orders to remain, left for New York. Ships sent to Havana to conciliate the Spanish governor there never arrived, their crew revolting and becoming pirates mid-voyage. Finally, the third naval Charles Vane vessel left in mid-September, its commander promising to return in three weeksâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;a promise he had no intention of keeping. Work on rebuilding the island's fortifications proceeded slowly, with the locals showing a disinclination to work.[45] On 14 September 1718, Rogers received word that Vane was at Green Turtle Cay near Abaco, about 120 miles (190Â km) north of Nassau.[46][47] Some of the pardoned pirates on New Providence took boats to join Vane, and Rogers decided to send two ex-pirate captains, Benjamin Hornigold and John Cockram, with a crew to gather intelligence, and, if possible, to bring Vane to battle. As the weeks passed, and hopes of their return dimmed, Rogers declared martial law and set all inhabitants to work on rebuilding the island's fortifications. Finally, the former pirates returned. They had failed to find an opportunity to kill Vane or bring him to battle, but had captured one ship and a number of pirate captives. Captain Hornigold was then sent to recapture the ships and crews who had gone pirate en route to Havana. He returned with ten prisoners and three corpses.[48] On 9 December 1718, Rogers brought the ten men captured by Hornigold to trial. Nine were convicted, and Rogers had eight hanged three days later, reprieving the ninth on hearing he was of good family. One of the condemned, Thomas Morris, quipped as he climbed the gallows, "We have a good governor, but a harsh one."[46] The executions so cowed the populace that when, shortly after Christmas, several residents plotted to overthrow Rogers and restore the island to piracy, the conspirators attracted little support. Rogers had them flogged, then released as harmless.[49] On 16 March 1719 Rogers learned that Spain and Britain were at war again. He redoubled his efforts to repair the island's fortifications, buying vital supplies on credit in the hope of later being reimbursed by the expedition's investors. The Spanish sent an invasion fleet against Nassau in May, but when the fleet's commodore learned that the French (now Britain's ally) had captured Pensacola, he directed the fleet there instead. This gave Rogers time to continue to fortify and supply New Providence, and it was not until 24 February 1720 that a Spanish fleet arrived. Wary of Rogers' defences, the Spanish landed troops on Paradise Island (then known as Hog Island), which shelters

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Nassau's harbour. They were driven off by Rogers' troops.[50] The year 1720 brought an end to external threats to Rogers' rule. With Spain and Britain at peace again, the Spanish made no further move against the Bahamas. Vane never returned, having been shipwrecked and captured in the Bay Islandsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;a year later, he was hanged in Jamaica.[51] This did not end Rogers' problems as governor. Overextended from financing New Providence's defences, he received no assistance from Britain, and merchants refused to give him further credit. His health suffered, and he spent six weeks in Charleston, South Carolina, hoping to recuperate. Instead, he was wounded in a duel with Captain John Hildesley of HMS Flamborough (1707), a duel caused by disputes between the two on New Providence.[52] Troubled by the lack of support and communication from London, Rogers set sail for Britain in March 1721. He arrived three months later to find that a new governor had been appointed, and his company had been liquidated. Personally liable for the obligations he had contracted at Nassau, he was imprisoned for debt.[53]

Activities in England, second term and death With both the government and his former partners refusing to honour his debts, Rogers was released from debtor's prison only when his creditors took pity on him and absolved him of his debts. Even so, Rogers wrote that he was "perplexed with the melancholy prospect of [his] affairs".[54] In 1722 or 1723, Rogers was approached by a man writing a history of piracy, and supplied him with information. The resulting work, A General History of the Robberies and Murders of the Most Notorious Pyrates, published under the pseudonym Captain Charles Johnson, was an enormous hit on both sides of the Atlantic, and catapulted Rogers for the second time to the status of a national hero. With public attention focused on him again, Rogers was successful in 1726 in petitioning the king for financial redress. Not only did King George I grant him a pension, retroactive to 1721,[43] but the king's son and successor, George II, reappointed him as governor on 22 October 1728.[55] Plaque on the site of Rogers' Bristol residence, 35

The Bahamas did not come under external threat during Rogers' second Queen Square term, but the reappointed governor had difficulties. Still seeking to bolster the island's defences, Rogers sought imposition of a local tax. The assembly, which had been instituted in Rogers' absence, objected, and Rogers responded by dissolving it. The governmental battle exhausted Rogers, who again went to Charleston in early 1731 in an attempt to recover his health. Though he returned in July 1731, he never truly regained his health, and died in Nassau on 15 July 1732.[56] A harbour-side street in Nassau is named for Rogers.[57] "Piracy expelled, commerce restored" remained the motto of the Bahamas until the islands gained independence in 1973.[8]

Woodes Rogers

Notes [1] Woodard, pp. 44–45. [2] Little, p. 19. [3] Woodard, pp. 47–48. [4] Little, p. 41. [5] Woodard, p. 65. [6] Woodard, pp. 67, 70. [7] Woodard, pp. 70–71. [8] The Daily Telegraph, 5 January 2009. [9] Little, p. 51. [10] Konstam, p. 151. [11] Woodard, pp. 51, 54. [12] Woodard, pp. 56–57. [13] Woodard, p. 72. [14] Woodard, pp. 70–72. [15] Bradley, p. 504. [16] Little, p. 64. [17] Woodard, p. 75. [18] Rogers, pp. 123–24. [19] Rogers, p. 125. [20] Little, pp. 73, 83. [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] [54]

Woodard, pp. 79–81. Leslie, p. 82. Rogers, pp. 311–312. Woodard, pp. 82–84. Little, pp. 131–32. Little, p. 135. MeasuringWorth. Leslie, p. 83. Little, p. 154. Woodard, pp. 114–16. Little, pp. 154–55. Little, pp. 158–59. Woodard, pp. 112–17. London Gazette 14 February 1712. Woodard, pp. 118–21. Little, p. 172. Woodard, pp. 163–66. Little, p. 178. Woodard, p. 167. Pringle, p. 184. Woodard, p. 168. Woodard, pp. 247–48. Woodard, pp. 263–66. Woodard, pp. 267–69. Woodard, pp. 269–72. Woodard, pp. 301–04. Hedlam. Woodard, pp. 284–86. Woodard, p. 304. Little, pp. 192–94. Woodard, pp. 308–11. Woodard, p. 313. Woodard, pp. 312–14. Woodard, p. 325.

[55] London Gazette 19 October 1728. [56] Woodard, pp. 327–28. [57] Woodard, p. 328.

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References • Bradley, Peter (1999). British Maritime Enterprise in the New World: From the Late Fifteenth to the Mid-eighteenth Century. Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 978-0-7734-7866-4. • Cooke, Edward (1712). A Voyage to the South Sea and Round the World (3 vols). London: Lintot. • Konstam, Angus (2007). Pirates—Predators of the Seas. Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60239-035-5. • Leslie, Edward (1988). Desperate Journeys, Abandoned Souls. Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 978-0-395-91150-1. • Little, Brian (1960). Crusoe's Captain. Odhams Press. • Pringle, Peter (2001) [1953]. Jolly Roger: The Story of the Great Age of Piracy. Dover Publishing. • Rogers, Woodes (1712). A Cruising Voyage Round the World. London: Andrew Bell. • Woodard, Colin (2007). The Republic of Pirates. Harcourt Trade. ISBN 978-0-15-101302-9. Other • Britten, Nick (5 January 2009). "Diaries of swashbuckling hero who rescued Robinson Crusoe unearthed" (http:// www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/4125577/ Diaries-of-swashbuckling-hero-who-rescued-Robinson-Crusoe-unearthed.html). The Daily Telegraph (UK). Retrieved 5 January 2009. • The London Gazette: no. 5095. p. 2 (http://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/5095/page/2). 14 February 1712. Retrieved 7 January 2009. Note that for dates before 1752, the London Gazette give dates Old Style with the new year beginning on 25 March. By modern reckoning, this issue was published on 14 February 1713. • The London Gazette: no. 6719. p. 3 (http://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/6719/page/3). 19 October 1728. Retrieved 7 January 2009. • "Purchasing Power of British Pounds 1264–2007" (http://www.measuringworth.com/ppoweruk/). MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 20 January 2009. (RPI equivalents) • Hedlam, Cecil, ed. (1930). "Letter of Woodes Rogers to the Council of Trade and Plantations, 31 October 1718" (http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=74047). Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series: America and the West Indies (London) 30: 376.

External links • Rogers, Woodes (1712). A Cruising Voyage Round the World (http://books.google.com/ books?id=e1GmdIw7fpgC&printsec=frontcover&hl=en&sa=X&ei=lsUKUcuPE-30iwKWl4DACw& ved=0CD0QuwUwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false). A. Bell and B. Lintot. Retrieved 31 January 2013. • "Woodes Rogers" (http://www.republicofpirates.net/Rogers.html). Republic of pirates.net. Retrieved 23 January 2009. • Woodard, Colin (9 April 2007). The Republic of Pirates (preview) (http://books.google.com/ ?id=J50kpuaPlNkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=woodard+pirates). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-15-101302-9. Retrieved 23 January 2009. • Desperate Journeys, Abandoned Souls (extracts) (http://books.google.com/?id=X0_S5AtHuY0C& dq=Desperate+journeys+abandoned&printsec=frontcover). Google books. 15 February 1998. ISBN 978-0-395-91150-1. Retrieved 23 January 2009.

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George Anson, 1st Baron Anson

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George Anson, 1st Baron Anson Admiral of the Fleet

The Lord Anson PC, FRS, RN

First Lord of the Admiralty In office 1757–1762 Prime Minister

The Duke of Newcastle The Earl of Bute

Preceded by

The Earl of Winchilsea and Nottingham

Succeeded by

The Earl of Halifax In office 1751–1756

Prime Minister

Henry Pelham The Duke of Newcastle

Preceded by

The Earl of Sandwich

Succeeded by

The Earl Temple Personal details

Born

23 April 1697 Staffordshire, England

Died

6 June 1762 (aged 65) Moor Park, Hertfordshire, England Military service

Allegiance

Kingdom of Great Britain

Service/branch

Royal Navy

Years of service 1712-1762 Rank

Admiral

Commands

Admiral of the Fleet

George Anson, 1st Baron Anson

128 Battles/wars

War of the Austrian Succession War of Jenkins' Ear Seven Years' War

Admiral of the Fleet George Anson, 1st Baron Anson PC, FRS, RN (23 April 1697 – 6 June 1762)[1] was a British admiral and a wealthy aristocrat, noted for his circumnavigation of the globe and his role overseeing the Royal Navy during the Seven Years' War. During his time in office Anson instituted a series of reforms to the Royal Navy.

Family and early career George's father was William Anson of Shugborough in Staffordshire and his mother was Isabella Carrier,[2] who was the sister-in-law of Thomas Parker, 1st Earl of Macclesfield, the Lord Chancellor, a relationship that proved very useful to the future admiral. George Anson entered the navy in February 1712, and by rapid steps became lieutenant in 1716, commander in 1722, and post-captain in 1724. In this rank, he served twice on the North American station as captain of Scarborough and of Squirrel from 1724 to 1730 and from 1733 to 1735. In 1737 he gained the command of the 60-gun ship of the line, Centurion. In 1740, on the eve of the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748), he became commander (with the rank of commodore) of the squadron sent to attack Spanish possessions in South America in the War of Jenkins' Ear.

Voyage around the world See also: George Anson's voyage around the world The expedition failed to carry out its original ambitious scheme. Anson's ill-equipped squadron sailed later than intended, with only six warships: HMS Centurion (flagship), Gloucester, Severn, Pearl, Wager, and the sloop Tryal, plus the two store ships Anna and Industry. Successive disasters eventually reduced his force to just Centurion. Two of his vessels, Pearl and Severn, failed to round the Horn and returned home. HMS Wager was wrecked off the coast of Chile, where the crew subsequently mutinied (see the Wager Mutiny). The lateness of the season forced him to round Cape Horn in very stormy weather, and the navigating instruments of the time did not allow for exact observations. By the time Anson reached the island of Juan George Anson's capture of the Manila Galleon by Fernández in June 1741, only three of his six ships remained, while Samuel Scott. the strength of his crews had fallen from 961 to 335. In the absence of any effective Spanish force on the coast, he was able to harass the enemy and to sack the small port city of Paita in Peru (13 – 15 November 1741). The steady decrease of his crew by scurvy, and the worn-out state of his remaining consorts, compelled him to collect all the remaining survivors in Centurion. He rested at the island of Tinian, and then made his way to Macau in November 1742. After considerable difficulties with the Chinese, he sailed again with his one remaining vessel to cruise in search of one of the richly laden Manila galleons that conducted the trade between Mexico and the Philippines. The indomitable perseverance he had shown during one of the most arduous voyages in the history of sea adventure gained the reward of the capture of an immensely rich prize, Nuestra Señora de Covadonga, possessing 1,313,843 pieces of eight, which he encountered off Cape Espiritu Santo on 20 June 1743. Anson took his prize back to Macau, sold her cargo to the Chinese, and sailed for England, which he reached via the Cape of Good Hope on 15 June 1744.

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The prize money earned by the capture of the galleon had made him a rich man for life, and it enabled his heirs to rebuild Shugborough Hall, the family estate. Anson's chaplain, Richard Walter, recorded the circumnavigation, which he included in A Voyage Round the World published in 1748. It is, "written in brief, perspicuous terms", wrote Thomas Carlyle in his History of Friedrich II, "a real poem in its kind, or romance all fact; one of the pleasantest little books in the world's library at this time".

Battle of Cape Finisterre Anson was Member of Parliament (MP) for Hedon in Yorkshire from 1744 to 1747. He took command of the Channel Fleet in July 1746 in succession to Admiral Martin. In May 1747, he commanded the fleet that defeated the French Admiral de la JonquiĂ¨re at the First Battle of Cape Finisterre, capturing four ships of the line, two frigates and seven merchantmen. In consequence, Anson became very popular, and was promoted to Vice Admiral and elevated to the peerage as Lord Anson, Baron of Soberton, in the County of Southampton.

First Lord of the Admiralty Anson subsequently continued his naval career with distinction as an administrator, joining the Admiralty Board in December 1744, then becoming First Lord of the Admiralty from June 1751 to November 1756, and again from June 1757 until his death. Among his reforms were the transfer of the Marines from Army to Navy authority, uniforms for commissioned officers, devising a way to effectively get superannuated Captains and Admirals to retire on half-pay and submitting a revision of the Articles of War to Parliament which tightened discipline throughout the Navy. During Anson's period at the Admiralty they maintained a much larger peacetime fleet than had previously been allowed, largely due to the likelihood of imminent war Portrait of George Anson by Joshua Reynolds, 1755

Seven Years War Further information: Great Britain in the Seven Years War

Loss of Minorca Main article: Siege of Fort St Philip (1756) He oversaw the Navy for much of the Seven Years War, and established a permanent squadron at Devonport which could patrol the western approaches to both Britain and France. He was particularly concerned at the prospect of a French invasion of the British Isles[3] which led him to keep a large force in the English Channel. In 1756 he was criticised for not sending enough ships with Admiral Byng to relieve Minorca because he wanted to protect Britain from a threatened invasion, only to see Byng fail to save Minorca while no invasion attempt materialised. This led to him briefly leaving the Admiralty, but he returned to the post within a few months following the creation of the Second Newcastle Ministry.[4] Anson instituted a massive expansion of the Royal Navy, resulting in record numbers of ships and of men.

George Anson, 1st Baron Anson

French Invasion plans Main article: Planned French Invasion of Britain (1759) Anson oversaw Britain's naval response to a more serious French invasion attempt in 1759. He instituted a close blockade of the French coast, which proved crippling to the French economy and ensured no invasion fleet could slip out undetected. The British victories at the Battle of Lagos and the Battle of Quiberon Bay destroyed any realistic hope of a major invasion of the British Isles,[5] although a small force landed on the Irish coast.

Global expeditions As well as securing home defence, Anson co-ordinated with Pitt a series of British attacks on French colonies around the globe. By 1760 the British had captured Canada, Senegal and Guadeloupe from the French, and followed it up by capturing Belle Île and Dominica in 1761. In 1762 the entry of Spain into the war offered further chances for British expeditions. Anson was the architect of a plan to capture Havana and seize Manila in the Philippines. Anson had been concerned that the combined strength of the French and Spanish navies would overpower Britain, but he still threw himself into the task of directing these expeditions. The British also captured Martinique and Grenada in the French West Indies.[6] In June 1761 he was advanced to the post of Admiral of the Fleet. By this stage, Anson had grown very ill. He retired to Bath where he died.[7] He is buried at St Michael and All Angels Church in Colwich, a short distance from Shugborough Hall, where he is also commemorated by a wall tablet next to the altar.

Legacy Seven British warships have borne the name HMS Anson in his honour, as well as the Avro Anson aircraft of the RAF. Anson, Maine; Anson County, North Carolina; and the Ansonborough neighborhood in Charleston, South Carolina are named in Anson's honour, as well as a school house named at The Royal Hospital School.

In literature • Anson's circumnavigation of the globe is the subject of the novels The Golden Ocean and The Unknown Shore by Patrick O'Brian. • Anson's accomplishments and "wasted opportunities" discussed by fictional characters Capt. Jack Aubrey and Dr Stephen Maturin late in the novel "Post Captain" by Patrick O'Brian. • He is also mentioned in Thomas Pynchon's novel, Mason and Dixon. • An incident on the round the world voyage is the subject of William Cowper's famed poem The Castaway. • George Anson is mentioned in J.-J. Rousseau's Julie ou la Nouvelle Héloïse (1761) as leading an expedition around the world which the novel's protagonist, St. Preux, is urged to join by his friend, Mylord Edouard (himself a friend of Anson's), so as to separate him from Julie, who is married to Mr de Wolmar. (vol. 3, letter xxv). St-Preux, a neo-romantic hero, will come back (he who wanted to die) after "having much suffered, and having seen even more suffering ..." This tale of thwarted love ("Héloïse" refers to the history of Héloïse and Abélard) was a best-seller at the time, Rousseau's book so scrambled after that it was rented by the hour in the book-shops. So Commodore Anson became known to a multitude of francophone readers, who possibly were enticed to read Walter's account afterwards, enhancing their love for nature and the "mythe du bon sauvage" who lies hidden in its pages. A full-length novel by F. Van Wyck Mason, Manila Galleon, (1961) recounts the entire voyage of George Anson's expedition, including his flotilla's harrowing efforts to round the Horn, and the eventual success of Centurion in capturing the Manila Galleon.

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References [1] Record for Admiral George Anson, 1st and last Lord Anson on thepeerage.com (http:/ / www. thepeerage. com/ p1692. htm#i16918) [2] G. E. Cokayne; with Vicary Gibbs, H. A. Doubleday, Geoffrey H. White, Duncan Warrand and Lord Howard de Walden, editors. The Complete Peerage of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom, Extant, Extinct or Dormant, new ed., 13 volumes in 14 (1910-1959; reprint in 6 volumes, Gloucester, U.K.: Alan Sutton Publishing, 2000), volume I, page 173. [3] Lambert p.149 [4] Lambert p.143-45 [5] Anderson p.381-83 [6] Corbett p.209-27 [7] Corbett p.297-98

•

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. • Leigh Rayment's Peerage Pages (http://www.leighrayment.com/)WP:V#SELF WP:NOTRS

Bibliography • Corbett, Julian Stafford. England in the Seven Years War: A study in combined operations, Volume II. London, 1907. • Knight, Frank. Captain Anson and the Treasure of Spain. MacMillan, 1959. • Anderson, Fred. Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754-1766. Faber and Faber, 2001 • Lambert, Andrew. Admirals: The Naval Commander Who Made Britain Great. Faber and Faber, 2009.

External links • Anson's Voyage Round the World (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/16611), by Richard Walter, 1901, from Project Gutenberg • Portrait by Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1755 (http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/portrait.asp?search=ss& sText=George+Anson&LinkID=mp00115&rNo=0&role=sit) • Archival material relating to George Anson, 1st Baron Anson (http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/nra/ searches/subjectView.asp?ID=P659) listed at the UK National Archives Parliament of Great Britain Preceded by Earl of Mountrath George Berkeley

Member of Parliament for Hedon 1744 – 1747 With: George Berkeley 1742–46 Samuel Gumley 1746 – Feb 47 Luke Robinson from Feb 1747

Succeeded by Sir John Savile Luke Robinson

Political offices Preceded by The Earl of Sandwich

First Lord of the Admiralty 1751–1756

Succeeded by The Earl Temple

Preceded by The Earl of Winchilsea and Nottingham

First Lord of the Admiralty 1757–1762

Succeeded by The Earl of Halifax

Military offices Preceded by Sir George Clinton

Admiral of the Fleet 1761–1762 Honorary titles

Succeeded by Sir William Rowley

George Anson, 1st Baron Anson

Preceded by Sir John Norris

132 Vice-Admiral of Great Britain 1749–1762

Succeeded by Henry Osborn

Peerage of Great Britain New creation

Baron Anson 1747–1762

Extinct

John Byron

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John Byron For other people named John Byron, see John Byron (disambiguation). John Byron

John Byron, by Joshua Reynolds, 1758 Born

8 November 1723

Died

10 April 1786

Allegiance

Kingdom of Great Britain

Service/branch

Royal Navy

Rank

Vice Admiral

Commands held HMS Siren HMS Dolphin Battles/wars

Seven Years' War •

Battle of Restigouche

American War of Independence •

Battle of Grenada

Vice Admiral The Hon. John Byron, RN (8 November 1723 – 10 April 1786) was a Royal Navy officer. He was known as Foul-weather Jack because of his frequent encounters with bad weather at sea.

Early career Byron was the son of William Byron, 4th Baron Byron and Frances Berkeley. He joined the navy in 1731, accompanying George Anson on his circumnavigation of the globe as a midshipman. On 14 May 1741, Byron's ship, HMS Wager, was shipwrecked on the coast of Chile. The survivors decided to split in two teams, one to make its way by boat to Rio de Janeiro on the Atlantic coast; the other, John Byron's, to sail North and meet Spaniards. He later wrote about his adventures and the Wager Mutiny in The Narrative of the Honourable John Byron (1768). His book sold well enough to be printed in several editions. His experiences form the basis of the novel The Unknown Shore by Patrick O'Brian, which closely follows Byron's account. Byron was appointed captain of HMS Siren in December 1746.

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Seven Years War Main article: Great Britain in the Seven Years War In 1760 during the Seven Years' War, Byron commanded a squadron sent to destroy the fortifications at Louisbourg, Quebec, which had been captured by the British two years before. They wanted to ensure it could not be used by the French in Canada. In July of that year he defeated the French flotilla sent to relieve New France at the Battle of Restigouche. Between June 1764 and May 1766, Byron completed his own circumnavigation of the globe as captain of HMS Dolphin. This was the first such circumnavigation that was accomplished in less than 2 years. During this voyage, in 1765 he took possession of the Falkland Islands on behalf of Britain on the grounds of prior discovery. [citation needed] His action nearly caused a war between Great Britain and Spain, as both countries had armed fleets ready to contest the sovereignty of the barren islands. Later Byron discovered islands of the Tuamotus, Tokelau and the Gilbert Islands, and visited Tinian in the Northern Marianas Islands. In 1769 he was appointed governor of Newfoundland off the mainland of Canada, an office he held for the next three years. He was promoted to rear admiral on 31 March 1775, and vice admiral on 29 January 1778.

John Byron Death Notice

In 1778 and 1779, he served as Commander-in-chief of the British fleet in the West Indies during the American War of Independence. He unsuccessfully attacked a French fleet under the Comte d'Estaing at the Battle of Grenada in July 1779. Byron was briefly Commander-in-Chief, North American Station from 1 October 1779.[1]

Family On 8 September 1748 he married Sophia Trevanion, daughter of John Trevanion of Caerhays in Cornwall, by whom he had two sons and seven daughters, three of whom died in infancy. Their eldest son, John "Mad Jack" Byron, in turn fathered the poet George Gordon Byron, the future 6th Baron Byron. John Byron was also the grandfather of George Anson Byron, another admiral and explorer and later the 7th Baron Byron. He was the brother of Hon. George Byron, married to Frances Levett, daughter of Elton Levett of Nottingham, a descendant of Ambrose Elton, Esq., High Sheriff of Herefordshire in 1618 and a surgeon in Nottingham.

Death John Byron died on 10 April 1786. His remains were buried in the Berkeley family vault situated beneath the chancel of the Church of St Mary the Virgin, Twickenham.[2]

References [1] James Gambier, "John Byron" (http:/ / www. oxforddnb. com/ view/ article/ 10320?docPos=1), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography [2] http:/ / www. twickenham-museum. org. uk/ detail. asp?ContentID=86

External links â&#x20AC;˘ Biography of John Byron at thePeerage.com (http://www.thepeerage.com/p2745.htm#i27448) â&#x20AC;˘ Biography at Government House The Governorship of Newfoundland and Labrador (http://www.heritage.nf. ca/govhouse/governors/g23.html)

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• Ships of the World: An Historical Encyclopedia - HMS Dolphin (http://college.hmco.com/history/ readerscomp/ships/html/sh_027600_hmsdolphin.htm) • "Byron, John". Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. 1900. Political offices Preceded by Sir Hugh Palliser

Commodore Governor of Newfoundland 1769–1771

Succeeded by Molyneux Shuldham

Military offices Preceded by James Gambier

Commander-in-Chief, North American Station 1779

Succeeded by Mariot Arbuthnot

Samuel Wallis Samuel Wallis (23 April 1728 – London 21 January 1795) was an English navigator who circumnavigated the world. Wallis was born near Camelford, Cornwall. In 1766 he was given the command of HMS Dolphin to circumnavigate the world, accompanied by the Swallow under the command of Philip Carteret. The two ships were parted shortly after sailing through the Strait of Magellan, Wallis continuing to Tahiti, which he named "King George the Third's Island" in honour of the King (June 1767). Wallis himself was ill and remained in his cabin: lieutenant Tobias Furneaux was the first to set foot, hoisting a pennant and turning a turf, taking possession in the name of His Majesty. He continued to Batavia, where many of the crew died from dysentery, then via the Cape of Good Hope to England, arriving in May 1768. He was able to pass on useful information to James Cook who was due to depart shortly for the Pacific, and some of the crew from the Dolphin sailed with Cook. In 1780 Wallis was appointed Commissioner of the Admiralty. The Polynesian island of Wallis is named after Samuel Wallis.

Portrait of Samuel Wallis by Henry Stubble, c. 1785

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References • South Seas Companion Biographical entry [1]

Captain Wallis facing Tahitians hostility.

• Glyndwr Williams, ‘Wallis, Samuel (1728–1795)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, May 2005 accessed 10 Dec 2007 [2]

References [1] http:/ / southseas. nla. gov. au/ biogs/ P000407b. htm [2] http:/ / www. oxforddnb. com/ view/ article/ 28578

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Louis Antoine de Bougainville Louis Antoine de Bougainville

Louis-Antoine de Bougainville, by Jean-Pierre Franquel Born

12 November 1729 Paris, France

Died

31 August 1811 (aged 81) Paris, France

Nationality France Known for Being the first French man to circumnavigate the world, during the 18th century.

Louis-Antoine, Comte de Bougainville (12 November 1729 – 31 August 1811) was a French admiral and explorer. A contemporary of James Cook, he took part in the French and Indian War against Britain. He later gained fame for his expeditions, the first recorded settlement on the Falkland Islands and his voyages into the Pacific Ocean.

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Early career Bougainville was born in Paris, the son of a notary, on either 11 or 12 November 1729. In early life, he studied law, but soon abandoned the profession, and in 1753 entered the army in the corps of musketeers. At the age of twenty-five he published a treatise on integral calculus, as a supplement to De l'Hôpital's treatise, Des infiniment petits. In 1755 he was sent to London as secretary to the French embassy, and was made a member of the Royal Society.

Seven Years' War (French and Indian War) Further information: France in the Seven Years War In 1756 he went to Canada as captain of dragoons and aide-de-camp to the Marquis de Montcalm. He took an active part in the capture of Fort Oswego in 1756 and in 1757 at the Battle of Fort William Henry. He was wounded in 1758 at the successful defence of Fort Carillon. He sailed back to France the following winter, under orders from the marquis to obtain additional military resources for the colony; during this crossing, he continued familiarising himself with the ways of the sea, skills that would later serve him well. Having distinguished himself in the war against Britain, he was rewarded with the cross of St Louis and returned to Canada the following year with the rank of colonel, but with little supplies to show for his trip - the metropolitan authorities having decided that "When the house is on fire, one does not worry about the stables".[citation needed] Young portrait of Louis Antoine de Bougainville.

During the pivotal year of 1759 (see Seven Years' War and French and Indian War), he participated in the defence of the capital of New France, the fortified Quebec City. With a small elite troop under his command, among which the Grenadiers and the Volontaires à cheval, he patrolled the north shore of the St. Lawrence River, upstream from the city, all summer long stopping the British several times from landing and thus cutting communications with Montreal. He was not given sufficient time, however, to rally his troops and attack the British rear when they successfully climbed up to the Plains of Abraham and attacked Quebec on September 13. Following the death of the Marquis de Montcalm and the fall of Québec on 18 September - after the colonel's aborted attempt to resupply the besieged city - Bougainville was dispatched to the western front by his new commanding officer, the Chevalier de Lévis and attempted to stop the British advance from his entrenchments at Louis-Antoine de Bougainville Île-aux-Noix. He was among the officers who accompanied Lévis to Saint Helen's Island off Montreal for the last French stand in North America before the general capitulation of 1761. Of the war, Bougainville wrote in his journal: "It is an abominable kind of war. The very air we breathe is contagious of insensibility and hardness".[1]

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Shipped back to Europe along with the other French officers, all deprived of military honours by the victors, Bougainville was prohibited from taking up any further active duty against the British under the terms of surrender. He spent the remaining years of the Seven Years' War (1761 to 1763) as a diplomat and helped negotiate the Treaty of Paris that eventually conceded most of New France to the British Empire.

The first French circumnavigation ﾃ四es Malouines settlement After the peace, the French decided to colonise the "Isles Malouines" (Falkland Islands). These islands were at that time almost unknown. He undertook the task at his own expense.

Port St. Louis as established by Bougainville (Dom Pernety, 1769).

On 15 September 1763, Bougainville set out from France with the frigate L'Aigle (Eagle) (captained by Nicolas Pierre Duclos-Guyot ) and the sloop Le Sphinz (Sphinx) (captained by Franﾃｧois Chenard de la Giraudais). This expedition included the naturalist and writer Antoine-Joseph Pernety (known as Dom Pernety), the priest and chronicler accompanying the expedition, together with the engineer and geographer Lhuillier de la Serre.[2] Port St. Louis (Federico Lacroix, 1841).

The expedition arrived in late January 1764 in French Bay (later renamed Berkeley Sound). They landed at Port Louis named after King Louis XV. A formal ceremony of possession of the Islands was held on 5 April 1764, after which Bougainville and Pernety returned to France. Louis XV formally ratified possession on 12 September 1764. Even if the French colony was no more than 150 people, for financial motivations (Bougainville having paid for the expeditions) and diplomatic reasons (Spain feared that the Falklands would become a rear base to attack her Peruvian gold), Bougainville was ordered by the French government to dismantle his colony and sell it to the Spanish. Bougainville received 200,000 francs in Paris and a further 500,000 francs in Buenos Aires. Spain agreed to maintain the colony in Port Port St. Louis (Dom Pernety, 1769). Louis, thus preventing Britain from claiming title to the islands. although the territory was a rightful Spanish dominion even before the French settlement. On 31 January 1767 at Rﾃｭo de la Plata, Bougainville met Don Felipe Ruiz Puente, commanding the frigate La Esmeralda and La Liebre ("the Hare") and future governor of Islas Malvinas, to take possession and evacuate the French population.

Louis Antoine de Bougainville Bougainville wrote: It was not before 1766, that the English sent a colony to settle in Port de la Croisade, which they had named Port Egmont; and captain Macbride, of the Jason frigate, came to our settlement the same year, in the beginning of December. He pretended that these parts belonged to his Britannic majesty, threatened to land by force, if he should be any longer refused that liberty, visited the governor, and sailed away again the same day.[3]

Circumnavigation In 1766 Bougainville received from Louis XV permission to circumnavigate the globe. He would become the 14th navigator in western history, and the first Frenchman, to sail around the world, and the completion of his mission would bolster the prestige of France following its defeats during the Seven Years' War. This was the first expedition circumnavigating the globe with professional naturalists and geographers aboard. Bougainville left Nantes on 15 November 1766 with two ships: La The Boudeuse, of Louis Antoine de Bougainville Boudeuse (captain : Nicolas Pierre Duclos-Guyot ) and the Étoile (commanded by François Chenard de la Giraudais). This was a large expedition with a crew of 214 aboard La Boudeuse and 116 aboard the Étoile. On board was the botanist Philibert Commerçon, who named the flower Bougainvillea, and his valet, later unmasked by the ship's surgeon as Jeanne Baré, possibly Commerçon's mistress; she would become the first woman known to circumnavigate the globe. Other notable people on this expedition were Count Jean-François de Galaup de la Pérouse (member of the crew), the astronomer Pierre-Antoine Veron, the surgeon of La Boudeuse Dr. Louis-Claude Laporte, the surgeon of the Étoile Dr. François Vives, the engineer and cartographer abourd the Étoile Charles Routier de Romainville, the writer and historian Louis-Antoine Starot de Saint-Germain.

Tahiti He saw islands of the Tuamotu group on the following 22 March, on 2 April saw the peak of Mehetia and famously visited the island of Otaheite shortly after and narrowly missed becoming their discoverer, unaware of a previous visit, and claim, by Samuel Wallis in HMS Dolphin less than a year previously. He claimed the island for France and named it New Cythera. They left Tahiti and sailed westward to southern Samoa and the New Hebrides, then on sighting Espiritu Santo turned west still looking for Bougainville reaching Tahiti the Southern Continent. On June 4 he almost ran into heavy breakers and had to change course to the north and east. He had almost found the Great Barrier Reef. He sailed through what is now known as the Solomon Islands that, due of the hostility of the people there, he avoided. He named Bougainville Island for himself.[citation needed] The expedition was attacked by people from New Ireland so they made for the Moluccas. At Batavia they received news of Wallis and Carteret who had preceded Bougainville.

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141

Return to France On 16 March 1769 the expedition completed its circumnavigation and arrived at St Malo, with the loss of only seven out of 330 men, an extremely low level of casualties, and a credit to the enlightened management of the expedition by Bougainville.

The legend begins: Voyage autour du monde In 1771, Bougainville published his travel log from the expedition under the title Le voyage autour du monde, par la frégate La Boudeuse, et la flûte L'Étoile (a.k.a. Voyage autour du monde and A Voyage Around the World). The book describes the geography, biology and anthropology of Argentina (then a Spanish colony), Patagonia, Tahiti and Indonesia (then a Dutch colony). The book was a sensation, especially the description of Tahitian society, which Bougainville depicted as an earthly paradise where men and women lived in blissful innocence, far from the corruption of civilisation.

Cover page of the English edition of Bougainville's travelogue (1772).

Bougainville's descriptions powerfully illustrated the concept of the noble savage and influenced the utopian thoughts of philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau before the advent of the French Revolution. Denis Diderot's book Supplément au voyage de Bougainville retells the story of Bougainville's landing on Tahiti, narrated by an anonymous reader to one of his friends; this fictional approach to Bougainville's expedition, along with Diderot's description of the Tahitians as noble savages, was meant to criticise Western ways of living and thinking.

American War of Independence After an interval of several years, Bougainville again accepted a naval command and saw much active service between 1779 and 1782, including participating and playing a crucial part in the French victory at the Battle of the Chesapeake, which led to the eventual defeat of Great Britain in the American War of Independence.

Battle of the Saintes In the memorable engagement of the Battle of the Saintes, in which Admiral George Rodney defeated the Comte de Grasse, Bougainville, who commanded the Auguste, succeeded in rallying eight ships of his own division, and bringing them safely into Saint Eustace. He was promoted to chef d'escadre and, on reentering the army, was given the rank of maréchal de camp. After the peace of 1783 he returned to Paris, and obtained the place of associate of the Academy. He projected a voyage of discovery towards the North Pole but this did not meet with support from the French government.

Hyacinthe de Bougainville, also a sailor and circumnavigator, was the son of Louis Antoine de Bougainville.

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Promotion and retirement In 1787, he became a member of the French Academy of Sciences. He obtained the rank of vice-admiral in 1791; and in 1794, having escaped from the Reign of Terror, he retired to his estate in Normandy. Returning to Paris, he was one of the founding members of the Bureau des Longitudes. In 1799, the Consul Napoleon made him a senator. He was made a Grand Officier de la Légion d'honneur in 1804. And, in 1808, Napoleon conferred upon him the title of count (the Comte de Bougainville). He died in Paris on the August 31, 1811. He was married since 1781, and had four sons, including Hyacinthe de Bougainville, who all served in the French army or navy.

Tomb of Louis Antoine de Bougainville, at the Panthéon.

Legacy Bougainville's name is given to the largest eastern island of Papua New Guinea; and to the strait which divides it from the island of Choiseul. It is also applied to the strait between Mallicollo and Espiritu Santo islands of the New Hebrides group. In the Falklands, Port Louis, and "Isla Bougainville" (Lively Island's Spanish name) commemorate him. The genus of South American climbing shrubs with colorful bracts, Bougainvillea, is named after him. Thirteen ships of the French Navy have been named in his honour, see French ship Bougainville.

Notes [1] Cave, p.11 [2] Essential Oceanic Expeditions from the beginning of Zoological binominal nomenclature until the 1950s. (http:/ / www. tmbl. gu. se/ libdb/ taxon/ personetymol/ exped. html); accessed : 1 November 2010 [3] http:/ / ia600706. us. archive. org/ 31/ items/ VoyageAroundTheWorldByLewisDeBougainvilleIn1766-9/ Bougainville_Voyage_Eng_Transcr_JFF. pdf |Voyage Around The World By Lewis De Bougainville In 1766-9

References • Waggaman, Beatrice Elisabeth. Le Voyage autour du monde de Bougainville: droit et imaginaire. (Nancy: Presses universitaires de Nancy, 1992). • Alfred A. Cave. The French and Indian War (New York, Greenwood Press, 2004). • John Dunmore, Storms and Dreams: The Life of Louis de Bougainville (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007).

External links • Works by Louis Antoine de Bougainville (http://archive.org/search.php?query=creator:"Bougainville, Louis Antoine de, comte, 1729-1811") on Internet Archive. • Louis Antoine de Bougainville: "Voyage around the world 1766-1769", London 1772 (A transcription of the translation of "Le voyage autour du monde, par la frégate La Boudeuse, et la flûte L'Étoile" into English by John Reinhold Forster) (http://archive.org/download/VoyageAroundTheWorldByLewisDeBougainville1766-9/ Bougainville_Voyage_Eng_Transcr_JFF.pdf) • Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online (http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e. php?&id_nbr=2284)

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• From the Warpath to the Plains of Abraham (Virtual exhibition) (http://1759.ccbn-nbc.gc.ca/) • Louis-Antoine de Bougainville: Eighteenth Century French Sailor, Soldier, Statesman, Mathematician and leader of a Voyage around the world (http://pages.quicksilver.net.nz/jcr/~boug1.html) • Gallica (http://gallica.bnf.fr/) Digital Version Plates • (French) Voyage autour du monde, audio version (http://www.litteratureaudio.com/livre-audio-gratuit-mp3/ louis-antoine-de-bougainville-voyage-autour-du-monde.html/)

James Cook This article is about the British explorer. For other uses, see James Cook (disambiguation). "Captain Cook" redirects here. For other uses, see Captain Cook (disambiguation).

Captain James Cook

James Cook, portrait by Nathaniel Dance-Holland, c. 1775, National Maritime Museum, Greenwich Born

7 November [O.S. 27 October] 1728 Marton, (in present-day Middlesbrough) Yorkshire, England

Died

14 February 1779 (aged 50) Kealakekua Bay, Hawaii

Nationality British Education

Postgate School, Great Ayton

Occupation Explorer, navigator, cartographer Title

Captain

Spouse(s)

Elizabeth Batts

Children

James Cook, Nathaniel Cook, Elizabeth Cook, Joseph Cook, George Cook, Hugh Cook

Parents

James Cook, Grace Pace

Signature

Captain James Cook, FRS, RN (7 November 1728[1] – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the Royal Navy. Cook made detailed maps of Newfoundland prior to making three

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voyages to the Pacific Ocean, during which he achieved the first recorded European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands, and the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand. Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755. He saw action in the Seven Years' War, and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec. This helped bring Cook to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society. This notice came at a crucial moment in both Cook's career and the direction of British overseas exploration, and led to his commission in 1766 as commander of HM Bark Endeavour for the first of three Pacific voyages. In three voyages Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail and on a scale not previously achieved. As he progressed on his voyages of discovery he surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage and an ability to lead men in adverse conditions. Cook was killed in Hawaii in a fight with Hawaiians during his third exploratory voyage in the Pacific in 1779. He left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge which was to influence his successors well into the 20th century and numerous memoria worldwide have been dedicated to him.

Early life and family James Cook was born on 27 October 1728 in the village of Marton in Yorkshire and baptised on 3 November in the local church of St. Cuthbert, where his name can be seen in the church register. He was the second of eight children of James Cook, a Scottish farm labourer from Ednam near Kelso, and his locally born wife, Grace Pace, from Thornaby-on-Tees. In 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at Great Ayton, where his father's employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for him to attend the local school. In 1741, after five years schooling, he began work for his father, who had by now been promoted to farm manager. For leisure, he would climb a nearby hill, Roseberry Topping, enjoying the opportunity for solitude. Cooks' Cottage, his parents' last home, which he is likely to have visited, is now in Melbourne, having been moved from England and reassembled, brick by brick, in 1934. In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved 20 miles (32 km) to the fishing village of Staithes, to be apprenticed as a shop boy to grocer and haberdasher William Sanderson. Historians have speculated that this is where Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window.

Portrait of Mrs. Elizabeth Cook by William Henderson, dated 1830.

After 18 months, not proving suitable for shop work, Cook travelled to the nearby port town of Whitby to be introduced to friends of Sanderson's, John and Henry Walker. The Walkers were prominent local ship-owners and Quakers, and were in the coal trade. Their house is now the Captain Cook Memorial Museum. Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their small fleet of vessels, plying coal along the English coast. His first assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years on this and various other coasters, sailing between the Tyne and London. As part of his apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and astronomy—all skills he would need one day to command his own ship.

His three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading ships in the Baltic Sea. After passing his examinations in 1752, he soon progressed through the merchant navy ranks, starting with his promotion in that year to mate aboard the collier brig Friendship. In 1755, within a month of being offered command of this vessel, he volunteered for service in the Royal Navy, when Britain was re-arming for what was to become the Seven Years' War. Despite the need to start back at the bottom of the naval hierarchy, Cook realised his career would advance more quickly in military service and entered the Navy at Wapping on 17 June 1755.

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Cook married Elizabeth Batts (1742–1835), the daughter of Samuel Batts, keeper of the Bell Inn, Wapping and one of his mentors, on 21 December 1762 at St. Margaret's Church in Barking, Essex. The couple had six children: James (1763–94), Nathaniel (1764–80, lost aboard HMS Thunderer which foundered with all hands in a hurricane in the West Indies), Elizabeth (1767–71), Joseph (1768–68), George (1772–72) and Hugh (1776–93), the last of whom died of scarlet fever while a student at Christ's College, Cambridge. When not at sea, Cook lived in the East End of London. He attended St Paul's Church, Shadwell, where his son James was baptised. Cook has no known direct descendants—all his recorded children either pre-deceased him or died without issue.

Start of Royal Navy career Further information: Great Britain in the Seven Years' War Cook's first posting was with HMS Eagle, sailing with the rank of master's mate. In October and November 1755 he took part in Eagle's capture of one French warship and the sinking of another, following which he was promoted to boatswain in addition to his other duties. His first temporary command was in March 1756 when he was briefly the master of the Cruizer, a small cutter attached to the Eagle while on patrol. In June 1757 Cook passed his master's examinations at Trinity House, Deptford, which qualified him to navigate and handle a ship of the King's fleet. He then joined the frigate HMS Solebay as master under Captain Robert Craig.

Conquest of Canada (1758–63)

James Cook's 1775 chart of Newfoundland

During the Seven Years' War, Cook served in North America as master of Pembroke. In 1758 he took part in the major amphibious assault that captured the Fortress of Louisbourg from the French, after which he participated in the siege of Quebec City and then the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in 1759. He showed a talent for surveying and cartography, and was responsible for mapping much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege, thus allowing General Wolfe to make his famous stealth attack on the Plains of Abraham. Cook's surveying ability was put to good use mapping the jagged coast of Newfoundland in the 1760s, aboard HMS Grenville. He surveyed the north-west stretch in 1763 and 1764, the south coast between the Burin Peninsula and Cape Ray in 1765 and 1766, and the west coast in 1767. At this time Cook employed local pilots to point out the "rocks and hidden dangers" along the south and west coasts. During the 1765 season, four pilots were engaged at a daily pay of 4 shillings each: John Beck for the coast west of "Great St. Lawrence", Morgan Snook for Fortune Bay, John Dawson for Connaigre and Hermitage Bay, and John Peck for the "Bay of Despair." His five seasons in Newfoundland produced the first large-scale and accurate maps of the island's coasts and were the first scientific, large scale, hydrographic surveys to use precise triangulation to establish land outlines. They also gave Cook his mastery of practical surveying, achieved under often adverse conditions, and brought him to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society at a crucial moment both in his career and in the direction of British overseas discovery. Cook's map would be used into the 20th century—copies of it being referenced by those sailing Newfoundland's waters for 200 years. Following on from his exertions in Newfoundland, it was at this time that Cook wrote that he intended to go not only "farther than any man has been before me, but as far as I think it is possible for a man to go."

James Cook

Voyages of exploration First voyage (1768–71) Main article: First voyage of James Cook In 1766 the Royal Society engaged Cook to travel to the Pacific Ocean to observe and record the transit of Venus across the Sun. Cook, at the age of 39, was promoted to lieutenant and named as commander of the expedition. The expedition sailed from England on 26 August 1768, rounded Cape Horn and continued westward across the Pacific to arrive at Tahiti on 13 April 1769, where the observations of the Venus Transit were made. However, the result of the observations was not as conclusive or accurate as had been hoped. Once the observations were completed, Cook opened the sealed orders which were additional Endeavour replica in Cooktown, Queensland instructions from the Admiralty for the second part of his voyage: to harbour — anchored where the original search the south Pacific for signs of the postulated rich southern Endeavour was beached for seven weeks in 1770. continent of Terra Australis. Cook then sailed to New Zealand and mapped the complete coastline, making only some minor errors. He then voyaged west, reaching the south-eastern coast of Australia on 19 April 1770, and in doing so his expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline.[2] On 23 April he made his first recorded direct observation of indigenous Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point, noting in his journal: "…and were so near the Shore as to distinguish several people upon the Sea beach they appear'd to be of a very dark or black Colour but whether this was the real colour of their skins or the C[l]othes they might have on I know not." On 29 April Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a place now known as the Kurnell Peninsula. Cook originally christened the area as "Stingray Bay", but he later crossed it out and named it Botany Bay after the unique specimens retrieved by the botanists Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander. It is here that James Cook made first contact with an aboriginal tribe known as the Gweagal. After his departure from Botany Bay he continued northwards. On 11 June a mishap occurred when the Endeavour ran aground on a shoal of the Great Barrier Reef, and then "nursed into a river mouth on 18 June 1770". The ship was badly damaged and his voyage was delayed almost seven weeks while repairs were carried out on the beach (near the docks of modern Cooktown, Queensland, at the mouth of the Endeavour River). The voyage then continued, sailing through Torres Strait and on 22 August Cook landed on Possession Island, where he claimed the entire coastline that he had just explored as British territory. He returned to England via Batavia (modern Jakarta, Indonesia where many in his crew succumbed to malaria), the Cape of Good Hope, and arriving on the island of Saint Helena on 12 July 1771.

Interlude Cook's journals were published upon his return, and he became something of a hero among the scientific community. Among the general public, however, the aristocratic botanist Joseph Banks was a greater hero. Banks even attempted to take command of Cook's second voyage, but removed himself from the voyage before it began, and Johann Reinhold Forster and his son Georg Forster were taken on as scientists for the voyage. Cook's son George was born five days before he left for his second voyage.

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The routes of Captain James Cook's voyages. The first voyage is shown in red, second voyage in green, and third voyage in blue. The route of Cook's crew following his death is shown as a dashed blue line.

Second voyage (1772–75) Main article: Second voyage of James Cook Shortly after his return from the first voyage, Cook was promoted in August 1771, to the rank of commander. In 1772 the Royal Society commissioned him to search for the hypothetical Terra Australis. On his first voyage, Cook had demonstrated by circumnavigating New Zealand that it was not attached to a larger landmass to the south. Although he charted almost the entire eastern coastline of Australia, showing it to be continental in size, the Terra Australis was believed to lie further south. Despite this evidence to the contrary, Alexander Dalrymple and others of the Royal Society still believed that a massive southern continent should exist.

James Cook's 1777 South-Up map of South Georgia

Cook commanded HMS Resolution on this voyage, while Tobias Furneaux commanded its companion ship, HMS Adventure. Cook's expedition circumnavigated the globe at an extreme southern latitude, becoming one of the first to cross the Antarctic Circle (17 January 1773). In the Antarctic fog, Resolution and Adventure became separated. Furneaux made his way to New Zealand, where he lost some of his men during an encounter with Māori, and eventually sailed back to Britain, while Cook continued to explore the Antarctic, reaching 71°10'S on 31 January 1774.

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James Cook witnessing human sacrifice in Tahiti c. 1773

Cook almost encountered the mainland of Antarctica, but turned towards Tahiti to resupply his ship. He then resumed his southward course in a second fruitless attempt to find the supposed continent. On this leg of the voyage he brought a young Tahitian named Omai, who proved to be somewhat less knowledgeable about the Pacific than Tupaia had been on the first voyage. On his return voyage to New Zealand in 1774, Cook landed at the Friendly Islands, Easter Island, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, and Vanuatu.

Before returning to England, Cook made a final sweep across the South Atlantic from Cape Horn and surveyed, mapped and took possession for Britain of South Georgia, which had been explored by Anthony de la RochĂŠ in 1675. Cook also discovered and named Clerke Rocks and the South Sandwich Islands ("Sandwich Land"). He then turned north to South Africa, and from there continued back to England. His reports upon his return home put to rest the popular myth of Terra Australis. Cook's second voyage marked a successful employment of Larcum Kendall's K1 copy of John Harrison's H4 marine chronometer, which enabled Cook to calculate his longitudinal position with much greater accuracy. Cook's log was full of praise for this time-piece which he used to make charts of the southern Pacific Ocean that were so remarkably accurate that copies of them were still in use in the mid-20thÂ century. Upon his return, Cook was promoted to the rank of post-captain and given an honorary retirement from the Royal Navy, with a posting as an officer of the Greenwich Hospital. He reluctantly accepted, insisting that he be allowed to quit the post if an opportunity for active duty should arise. His fame now extended beyond the Admiralty; he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society, and awarded the Copley Gold Medal for completing his second voyage without losing a man to scurvy. Nathaniel Dance-Holland painted his portrait; he dined with James Boswell; he was described in the House of Lords as "the first navigator in Europe". But he could not be kept away from the sea. A third voyage was planned and Cook volunteered to find the Northwest Passage. He travelled to the Pacific and hoped to travel east to the Atlantic, while a simultaneous voyage travelled the opposite route.

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Third voyage (1776–79) Main article: Third voyage of James Cook On his last voyage, Cook again commanded HMS Resolution, while Captain Charles Clerke commanded HMS Discovery. The voyage was ostensibly planned to return the Pacific Islander, Omai to Tahiti, or so the public were led to believe. The trip's principal goal was to locate a Northwest Passage around the American continent. After dropping Omai at Tahiti, Cook travelled north and in 1778 became the first European to visit the Hawaiian Islands.Wikipedia:Please clarify After his initial landfall in January 1778 at Waimea harbour, Kauai, Cook named the archipelago the "Sandwich Islands" after the fourth Earl of Sandwich—the acting First Lord of the Admiralty. From the Sandwich Islands Cook sailed north and then north-east to explore the west coast of North America north of the Spanish settlements in Alta California. He made landfall on the Oregon coast at approximately 44°30′ north latitude, naming his landing point Cape Foulweather. Bad weather forced his ships south to about 43° north before they could begin their exploration of the coast northward. He unknowingly sailed past the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and soon after entered Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island. He anchored near the First Nations village of Yuquot. Cook's two ships remained in Nootka Sound from 29 March to 26 April 1778, in what Cook called Ship Cove, now Resolution Cove, at the A statue of James Cook stands in south end of Bligh Island, about 5 miles (8 km) east across Nootka Sound from Waimea, Kauai commemorating his first contact with the Hawaiian Yuquot, lay a Nuu-chah-nulth village (whose chief Cook did not identify but Islands at the town's harbour in may have been Maquinna). Relations between Cook's crew and the people of January 1778 Yuquot were cordial if sometimes strained. In trading, the people of Yuquot demanded much more valuable items than the usual trinkets that had worked in Hawaii. Metal objects were much desired, but the lead, pewter, and tin traded at first soon fell into disrepute. The most valuable items which the British received in trade were sea otter pelts. During the stay, the Yuquot "hosts" essentially controlled the trade with the British vessels; the natives usually visited the British vessels at Resolution Cove instead of the British visiting the village of Yuquot at Friendly Cove. After leaving Nootka Sound, Cook explored and mapped the coast all the way to the Bering Strait, on the way identifying what came to be known as Cook Inlet in Alaska. In a single visit, Cook charted the majority of the North American north-west coastline on world maps for the first time, determined the extent of Alaska, and closed the gaps in Russian (from the West) and Spanish (from the South) exploratory probes of the Northern limits of the Pacific.

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The Bering Strait proved to be impassable, although he made several attempts to sail through it. He became increasingly frustrated on this voyage, and perhaps began to suffer from a stomach ailment; it has been speculated that this led to irrational behaviour towards his crew, such as forcing them to eat walrus meat, which they had pronounced inedible.

Return to Hawaii Cook returned to Hawaii in 1779. After sailing around the archipelago for some eight weeks, he made landfall HMS Resolution and Discovery in Tahiti at Kealakekua Bay, on 'Hawaii Island', largest island in the Hawaiian Archipelago. Cook's arrival coincided with the Makahiki, a Hawaiian harvest festival of worship for the Polynesian god Lono. Coincidentally the form of Cook's ship, HMS Resolution, or more particularly the mast formation, sails and rigging, resembled certain significant artefacts that formed part of the season of worship. Similarly, Cook's clockwise route around the island of Hawaii before making landfall resembled the processions that took place in a clockwise direction around the island during the Lono festivals. It has been argued (most extensively by Marshall Sahlins) that such coincidences were the reasons for Cook's (and to a limited extent, his crew's) initial deification by some Hawaiians who treated Cook as an incarnation of Lono. Though this view was first suggested by members of Cook's expedition, the idea that any Hawaiians understood Cook to be Lono, and the evidence presented in support of it, were challenged in 1992.

Death After a month's stay, Cook attempted to resume his exploration of the Northern Pacific. Shortly after leaving Hawaii Island, however, the Resolution's foremast broke, so the ships returned to Kealakekua Bay for repairs. Tensions rose, and a number of quarrels broke out between the Europeans and Hawaiians at Kealakekua Bay. An unknown group of Hawaiians took one of Cook's small boats. The evening when the cutter was taken, the people had become "insolent" even with threats to fire upon them. Cook was forced into a wild goose chase that ended with his return to the ship frustrated. He would attempt to take as hostage the King of Hawaiʻi, Kalaniʻōpuʻu.

The Death of Captain James Cook, 14 February 1779, an unfinished painting by Johann Zoffany, circa 1795.

That following day, 14 February 1779, Cook marched through the village to retrieve the King. Cook took the aliʻi ʻaimoku by his own hand and led him willingly away. One of Kalaniʻōpuʻu's favorite wives, Kanekapolei and two chiefs approached the group as they were heading to boats. They pleaded with the king not to go until he stopped and sat where he stood. An old Kahuna (priest), chanting rapidly while holding out a coconut attempted to distract Cook and his men as a large crowd began to form at the shore. The king began to understand that Cook was his enemy. As Cook turned his back to help launch the boats, he was struck on the head by the villagers and then stabbed to death as he fell on his face in the surf. He was first struck on the head with a club by a chief named Kalaimanokahoowaha or Kanaʻina (namesake of Charles Kana'ina) and then stabbed by one of the king's attendants, Nuaa. The Hawaiians

James Cook carried his body away towards the back of the town, still visible to the ship through their spyglass. Several marines were also killed and two others were wounded in the confrontation.

Aftermath The esteem which the islanders nevertheless held for Cook caused them to retain his body. Following their practice of the time, they prepared his body with funerary rituals usually reserved for the chiefs and highest elders of the society. The body was disembowelled, baked to facilitate removal of the flesh, and the bones were carefully cleaned for preservation as religious icons in a fashion somewhat reminiscent of the treatment of European saints in the Middle Ages. Some of Cook's remains, thus preserved, were eventually returned to his crew for a formal burial at sea. Clerke assumed leadership of the expedition, and made a final attempt to pass through the Bering Strait. Following the death of Clerke, Resolution and Discovery returned home in October 1780 commanded by John Gore, a veteran of Cook's first voyage, and Captain James King. After their arrival in England, King completed Cook's account of the voyage. David Samwell, who sailed with Cook on the Resolution, wrote of him: "He was a modest man, and rather bashful; of an agreeable lively conversation, sensible and intelligent. In temper he was somewhat hasty, but of a disposition the most friendly, benevolent and humane. His person was above six feet high: and, though a good looking man, he was plain both in dress and appearance. His face was full of expression: his nose extremely well shaped: his eyes which were small and of a brown cast, were quick and piercing; his eyebrows prominent, which gave his countenance altogether an air of austerity."

Legacy Ethnographic Collections Main article: James Cook Collection: Australian Museum The Australian Museum acquired its Cook Collection in 1894 from the Government of New South Wales. At that time the collection consisted of 115 artefacts collected on Cook's three voyages throughout the Pacific Ocean, during the period 1768â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1780, along with documents and memorabilia related to these Hawaiian Feather Cloak held by the Australian Museum voyages. Many of the ethnographic artifacts were collected at a time of first contact between Pacific Peoples and Europeans. In 1935 most of the documents and memorabilia were transferred to the Mitchell Library in the State Library of New South Wales. The provenance of the collection shows that the objects remained in the hands of Cook's widow Elizabeth Cook, and her descendants, until 1886. In this year John Mackrell, the great-nephew of Isaac Smith, Elizabeth Cook's cousin, organised the display of this collection at the request of the NSW Government at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition in London. In 1887 the London-based Agent-General for the New South Wales Government, Saul Samuel, bought John Mackrell's items and also acquired items belonging to the other relatives Reverend Canon Frederick Bennett, Mrs Thomas Langton, H. M. C. Alexander, and William Adams. The collection remained with the Colonial Secretary of NSW until 1894, when it was transferred to the Australian Museum.

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Navigation and science Cook's 12 years sailing around the Pacific Ocean contributed much to European knowledge of the area. Several islands such as Sandwich Islands (Hawaii) were encountered for the first time by Europeans, and his more accurate navigational charting of large areas of the Pacific was a major achievement. To create accurate maps, latitude and longitude must be accurately determined. Navigators had been able to work out latitude accurately for centuries by measuring the angle of the sun or a star above the horizon with an instrument such as a backstaff or quadrant. Longitude was more difficult to measure accurately because it requires precise knowledge of the time difference between points on the surface of the earth. The Earth turns a full 360 degrees relative to the sun each day. Thus longitude corresponds to time: 15 degrees every hour, or 1 degree every 4 minutes. Cook gathered accurate longitude measurements during his first voyage due to his navigational skills, the help of astronomer Charles Green and by using the newly published Nautical Almanac tables, via the lunar distance methodâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;measuring the angular distance from the moon to either the sun during daytime or one of eight bright stars during night-time to determine the time at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, and comparing that to his local time determined via the altitude of the sun, moon, or stars. On his second voyage Cook used the K1 chronometer made by Larcum Kendall, which was the shape of a large pocket watch, 5 inches (13Â cm) in diameter. It was a copy of the H4 clock made by John Harrison, which proved to be the first to keep accurate time at sea when used on the ship Deptford's journey to Jamaica, 1761â&#x20AC;&#x201C;62. Cook succeeded in circumnavigating the world on his first voyage without losing a single man to scurvy, an unusual accomplishment at the time. He tested several preventive measures but the most important was frequent replenishment of fresh food. It was for presenting a paper on this aspect of the voyage to the Royal Society that he was presented with the Copley Medal in 1776. Ever the observer, Cook was the first European to have extensive contact with various people of the Pacific. He correctly postulated a link among all the Pacific peoples, despite their being separated by great ocean stretches (see Malayo-Polynesian languages). Cook theorised that Polynesians originated from Asia, which scientist Bryan Sykes later verified. In New Zealand the coming of Cook is often used to signify the onset of colonisation.

A statue of James Cook in Greenwich, London

John Webber's Captain Cook, oil on canvas, 1776

Cook carried several scientists on his voyages; they made several significant observations and discoveries. Two botanists, Joseph Banks, and Swede Daniel Solander, were on the first Cook voyage. The two collected over 3,000 plant species. Banks subsequently strongly promoted British settlement of Australia. Several artists also sailed on Cook's first voyage. Sydney Parkinson was heavily involved in documenting the botanists' findings, completing 264 drawings before his death near the end of the voyage. They were of immense scientific value to British botanists. Cook's second expedition included William Hodges, who produced notable landscape paintings of Tahiti, Easter Island, and other locations.

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Several officers who served under Cook went on to distinctive accomplishments. William Bligh, Cook's sailing master, was given command of HMS Bounty in 1787 to sail to Tahiti and return with breadfruit. Bligh is most known for the mutiny of his crew which resulted in his being set adrift in 1789. He later became governor of New South Wales, where he was subject of another mutinyâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the only successful armed takeover of an Australian government. George Vancouver, one of Cook's midshipmen, later led a voyage of exploration to the Pacific Coast of North America from 1791 to 1794. In honour of his former commander, Vancouver's new ship was also christened Discovery. George Dixon sailed under Cook on his third expedition, and later commanded his own expedition. A lieutenant under Cook, Henry Roberts, spent many years after that voyage preparing the detailed charts that went into Cook's posthumous Atlas, published around 1784. Cook's contributions to knowledge were internationally recognised during his lifetime. In 1779, while the American colonies were fighting Britain for their independence, Benjamin Franklin wrote to captains of colonial warships at sea, recommending that if they came into contact with Cook's vessel, they were to "not consider her an enemy, nor suffer any plunder to be made of the effects contained in her, nor obstruct her immediate return to England by detaining her or sending her into any other part of Europe or to America; but that you treat the said Captain Cook and his people with all civility and kindness, [...] as common friends to mankind." Unknown to Franklin, Cook had met his death a month before this "passport" was written. Cook's voyages were involved in another unusual first: The first female to circumnavigate the globe was a goat ("The Goat"), who made that memorable journey twice; the first time on HMS Dolphin, under Samuel Wallis. She was then pressed into service as the personal milk provider for Cook, aboard HMS Endeavor. When they returned to England, Cook presented her with a silver collar engraved with lines from Samuel Johnson: "Perpetui, ambita bis terra, praemia lactis Haec habet altrici Capra secunda Jovis.". She was put to pasture on Cook's farm outside London, and also was reportedly admitted to the privileges of the Royal Naval hospital at Greenwich. Cook's journal recorded the date of The Goat's death: 28 March 1772.

Memorials A US coin, the 1928 Hawaiian Sesquicentennial half dollar carries Cook's image. Minted for the 150th anniversary of his discovery of the islands, its low mintage (10,008) has made this example of Early United States commemorative coins both scarce and expensive. The site where he was killed in Hawaii was marked in 1874 by a white obelisk set on 25 square feet (2.3Â m2) of chained-off beach. This land, although in Hawaii, was deeded to the United Kingdom. A nearby town is named Captain Cook, Hawaii; several Hawaiian businesses also carry his name. The Apollo 15 Command/Service Module Endeavour was named after Cook's ship, HMS Endeavour, as was the space shuttle Endeavour. Another shuttle, Discovery, was named after Cook's HMS Discovery. The first institution of higher education in North Queensland, Australia was named after him, with James Cook University opening in Townsville in 1970. In Australian rhyming slang the expression "Captain Cook" means "look". Numerous institutions, landmarks and place names reflect the importance of Cook's contributions, including the Cook Islands, the Cook Strait, Cook Inlet, and the Cook crater on the Moon. Aoraki/Mount Cook, the highest summit in New Zealand, is

The coat of arms of James Cook granted by King George III to Cook's widow in 1785, to be borne by his descendants and 'placed on any monument or otherwise to his memory'

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154 named for him. Another Mount Cook is on the border between the US state of Alaska and the Canadian Yukon Territory, and is designated Boundary Peak 182 as one of the official Boundary Peaks of the Hay–Herbert Treaty.

Captain Cook memorial statue at the Catani Gardens in St Kilda, Victoria, Australia

One of the earliest monuments to Cook in the United Kingdom is located at The Vache, erected in 1780 by Admiral Hugh Palliser, a contemporary of Cook and one-time owner of the estate. A huge obelisk was built in 1827 as a monument to Cook on Easby Moor overlooking his boyhood village of Great Ayton, along with a smaller monument at the former location of Cook's cottage. There is also a monument to Cook in the church of St Andrew the Great, St Andrew's Street, Cambridge, where his son Hugh, a student at Christ's College, was buried. Cook’s widow Elizabeth was also buried in the church and in her will left money for the memorial's upkeep. The 250th anniversary of Cook's birth was marked at the site of his birthplace in Marton, by the opening of the Captain Cook Birthplace Museum, Blue plaque for Captain James Cook, at 326 The Highway in Shadwell, East London, England located within Stewart Park (1978). A granite vase just to the south of the museum marks the approximate spot where he was born. Tributes also abound in post-industrial Middlesbrough, including a primary school, shopping square and the Bottle 'O Notes, a public artwork by Claes Oldenburg, that was erected in the town's Central Gardens in 1993. Also named after Cook is the James Cook University Hospital, a major teaching hospital which opened in 2003. The Royal Research Ship RRS James Cook was built in 2006 to replace the RRS Charles Darwin in the UK's Royal Research Fleet, and Stepney Historical Trust placed a plaque on Free Trade Wharf in the Highway, Shadwell to commemorate his life in the East End of London. In 2002 Cook was placed at number 12 in the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.

Further reading • Aughton, Peter (2002). Endeavour: The Story of Captain Cook's First Great Epic Voyage. London: Cassell & Co. ISBN 978-0-304-36236-3. • Edwards, Philip, ed. (2003). James Cook: The Journals. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-043647-2. "Prepared from the original manuscripts by J. C. Beaglehole 1955–67" • Forster, Georg, ed. (1986). A Voyage Round the World. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-05-000180-7. "Published first 1777 as: A Voyage round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years, 1772, 3, 4, and 5" • Kippis, Andrew (1904). The Life and Voyages of Captain James Cook. George Newnes, London & Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. • Richardson, Brian. (2005) Longitude and Empire: How Captain Cook's Voyages Changed the World University of British Columbia Press. ISBN 0-7748-1190-0.

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• Sydney Daily Telegraph (1970) Captain Cook: His Artists — His Voyages The Sydney Daily Telegraph Portfolio of Original Works by Artists who sailed with Captain Cook. Australian Consolidated Press, Sydney • Thomas, Nicholas The Extraordinary Voyages of Captain James Cook. Walker & Co., New York. ISBN 0-8027-1412-9 (2003) • Villiers, Alan (Summer 1956–57). "James Cook, Seaman". Quadrant 1 (1): 7–16. • Villiers, Alan John, Captain James Cook Newport Beach, CA: Books on Tape (1983) • Williams, Glyndwr, ed. (1997). Captain Cook's Voyages: 1768–1779. London: The Folio Society.

External links Library resources about James Cook • •

[3]

Resources in your library [4] Resources in other libraries

• Captain Cook Society [5] • Captain Cook historic plaque, Halifax [6]

Biographical dictionaries • 'Cook, James (1728–1779)', [[Australian Dictionary of Biography [7]], Volume 1, Melbourne University Press, 1966, pp. 243–4] • Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online [8] • James Cook biography [9] from the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography

Journals • The Endeavour journal (1) [10] and The Endeavour journal (2) [11], as kept by James Cook – digitised and held by the National Library of Australia • The South Seas Project [12]: maps and online editions of the Journals of James Cook's First Pacific Voyage, 1768–1771. Includes full text of journals kept by Cook, Joseph Banks and Sydney Parkinson, as well as the complete text of John Hawkesworth's 1773 Account of Cook's first voyage. • Digitised copies of log books from James Cook's voyages [13] at the British Atmospheric Data Centre [14] • Works by James Cook [15] at Project Gutenberg • Works by James Cook [16] at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) • Log book of Cook's second voyage [17]: high-resolution digitised version in Cambridge Digital Library

Collections and museums • Cook's Pacific Encounters: Cook-Forster Collection online [18] Images and descriptions of more than 300 artefacts collected during the three Pacific voyages of James Cook. • Images and descriptions of items associated with James Cook at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa [19] • Archival material relating to James Cook [20] listed at the UK National Archives • James Cook Birthplace Museum [21] • Cook's manuscript maps [22] of the south-east coast of Australia, held at the American Geographical Society Library at UW Milwaukee.

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References [1] Old style date: 27 October [2] At this time, the International Date Line had yet to be established, so the dates in Cook's journal are a day earlier than those accepted today. [3] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ ftl/ cgi-bin/ ftl?st=& su=Cook%2C+ James%2C+ 1728%E2%80%931779 [4] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ ftl/ cgi-bin/ ftl?st=& su=Cook%2C+ James%2C+ 1728%E2%80%931779& library=0CHOOSE0 [5] http:/ / www. captaincooksociety. com/ [6] http:/ / ns1763. ca/ hfxrm/ cookjmon. html [7] http:/ / www. adb. online. anu. edu. au/ biogs/ A010231b. htm [8] http:/ / www. biographi. ca/ 009004-119. 01-e. php?& id_nbr=1817 [9] http:/ / www. teara. govt. nz/ en/ biographies/ 1C25 [10] http:/ / nla. gov. au/ nla. ms-ms1 [11] http:/ / www. nla. gov. au/ pub/ endeavour/ [12] http:/ / southseas. nla. gov. au/ [13] http:/ / badc. nerc. ac. uk/ data/ corral/ adm55/ adm55_index. html [14] http:/ / badc. nerc. ac. uk [15] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ author/ James+ Cook [16] http:/ / librivox. org/ search?q=James+ Cook& search_form=advanced [17] http:/ / cudl. lib. cam. ac. uk/ view/ MS-RGO-00014-00058/ 1 [18] http:/ / www. nma. gov. au/ cook/ [19] http:/ / collections. tepapa. govt. nz/ search. aspx?advanced=colAssParty%3a%22Captain+ James+ Cook%22 [20] http:/ / www. nationalarchives. gov. uk/ nra/ searches/ subjectView. asp?ID=P6407 [21] http:/ / www. captcook-ne. co. uk/ ccbm/ index. htm [22] http:/ / www4. uwm. edu/ libraries/ AGSL/ cook. cfm

Tobias Furneaux Captain Tobias Furneaux (21 August 1735 – 18 September 1781) was an English navigator and Royal Navy officer, who accompanied James Cook on his second voyage of exploration. He was the first man to circumnavigate the world in both directions, and later commanded a British vessel during the American Revolutionary War.

Early life Furneaux was born at Swilly House near Stoke Damerel, Plymouth-Dock, son of William Furneaux (1696-1748) of Swilly, and Susanna Wilcocks (1698-1775).[1] Tobias Furneaux He entered the Royal Navy and was employed on the French and African coasts and in the West Indies during the latter part of the Seven Years' War (1760–1763). He served as second lieutenant of HMS Dolphin under Captain Samuel Wallis on the latter's voyage round the globe (August 1766 – May 1768) and due to Wallis being ill and confined to his cabin, Furneaux was the first to set foot on Tahiti, hoisting a pennant, turning a turf, and taking possession of the land in the name of His Majesty (25th. June 1767)

Service with Cook In November 1771, Furneaux was given command of Adventure, which accompanied James Cook (in Resolution) on his second voyage. On this expedition Furneaux was twice separated from his leader (8 February 1773 to 19 May 1773; and 22 October 1773 to 14 July 1774, the date of his return to England). On the former occasion he explored a great part of the south and east coasts of Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania), and made the earliest British chart of the same. Most of his names here survive; Cook, visiting the shore-line on his third voyage, confirmed Furneaux's

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Tobias Furneaux account and delineation of it, with certain minor criticisms and emendations, and named after him the Furneaux Group at the eastern entrance to Bass Strait, and the group now known as the Low Archipelago. After Adventure was finally separated from Resolution off New Zealand in October 1773, Furneaux returned home alone, bringing with him Omai of Ulaietea (Raiatea). This first South Sea Islander to travel to the Great Britain returned to Tahiti with Cook in 1776–1777.

Later commands Furneaux was made a captain in 1775. During the American Revolutionary War, he commanded Syren in the British attack of 28 June 1776 upon Charleston, South Carolina. Syren, with Furneaux in command, was wrecked near Point Judith, Rhode Island on 6 November 1777.[2][3] but the court martial records and other official documents show 6 November.</ref> The Rhode Island Marine Archaeology Project (RIMAP) has published a detailed history of the Syren's activities in the American Revolution, as well as some of the original documents related to her loss, confirming November 6 as the correct date. By November 10 Furneaux and his crew were prisoners in Providence, awaiting later exchange. RIMAP has also noted that the Syren is one of at least five ships associated with Captain Cook and his circumnavigating men with an historical connection to the State of Rhode Island.

Notes Footnotes [1] Hough (1995), pages 228-229 [2] Winfield (2007) [3] Some sources have 10 November,<ref name="Marx1987">Marx (1987), page 152

Citations References • Hough, Richard (1995). Captain James Cook. Hodder and Stoughton. ISBN 9780340825563. • Marx, Robert F. (1 December 1987). Shipwrecks in the Americas (http://books.google.com/ books?id=i0WjWPAvV4YC&pg=PA152). Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-25514-9. Retrieved 16 October 2011. • Winfield, Rif (2007). British Warships in the Age of Sail, 1714 to 1792. Seaforth Publishing. ISBN 9781844157006.</ref> •

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Furneaux, Tobias". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

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Alessandro Malaspina

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Alessandro Malaspina Alessandro Malaspina

Born

November 5, 1754 Mulazzo, Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Holy Roman Empire

Died

April 9, 1810 Pontremoli, French Empire

Allegiance Service/branch

Spain Navy of Spain

Years of service 1774–1795 Rank

Brigadier

Commands held Malaspina Expedition Battles/wars

Great Siege of Gibraltar

Alessandro Malaspina (November 5, 1754 – April 9, 1810) was an Italian nobleman who spent most of his life as a Spanish naval officer and explorer. Under a Spanish royal commission, he undertook a voyage around the world from 1786 to 1788, then, from 1789 to 1794, a scientific expedition (the Malaspina Expedition) throughout the Pacific Ocean, exploring and mapping much of the west coast of the Americas from Cape Horn to the Gulf of Alaska, crossing to Guam and the Philippines, and stopping in New Zealand, Australia, and Tonga. Malaspina was christened "Alessandro". He signed his letters in Spanish "Alexandro", which is usually modernized to "Alejandro" by Spanish scholars.[1]

Early life Malaspina was born in Mulazzo, a small principality ruled by his family. Today part of Tuscany, it was then part of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, a fiefdom of the Holy Roman Empire. Alessandro's parents were the Marquis Carlo Morello and Caterina Meli Lupi di Soragna. During 1762–1765, his family lived in Palermo with Alessandro's great-uncle, Giovanni Fogliani Sforza d'Aragona, the viceroy of Sicily. From 1765 to 1773 he studied at the Clementine College in Rome. In 1773 he was accepted into the Order of Malta and spent about a year living on the island of Malta where he learned the basics of sailing.

Alessandro Malaspina

Naval service Malaspina entered the Royal Navy of Spain in 1774 and received the rank of Guardiamarina. Between 1774 and 1786 he took part in a number of naval battles and received many promotions. In January 1775, aboard the frigate Santa Teresa, Malaspina took part of the expedition to relieve Melilla, which was under siege by Moroccans. Shortly after he was promoted to frigate-ensign (alférez de fragata). In July 1775 he participated the siege of Algiers and in 1776 was promoted to ship's ensign (alférez de navío). From 1777 to 1779, aboard the frigate Astrea, Malaspina made a round-trip voyage to the Philippines, rounding the Cape of Good Hope in both directions. During the voyage he was promoted to frigate-lieutenant (teniente de fragata). In January 1780 he was in the Battle of Cape Santa Maria and shortly thereafter was promoted to ship's lieutenant (teniente de navío). During the Great Siege of Gibraltar, Malaspina served on a "floating battery", in September 1782. In December of the same year, aboard the San Justo, Malaspina participated in the fighting at Cape Espartel. He was soon promoted once again, to frigate-captain (capitán de fragata). In 1782 he was suspected of heresy and denounced to the Spanish Inquisition, but was not apprehended. From March 1783, to July 1784, Malaspina was second-in-command of the frigate Asunción during a trip to the Philippines. As with his first trip to the Philippines the route went by the Cape of Good Hope in both directions. In 1785, back in Spain, Malaspina, on board the brigantine Vivo, took part in hydrographic surveys and mapping of parts of the coast of Spain. During the same year he was named Lieutenant of the Company of the Guardiamarinas of Cádiz.

Circumnavigation From September 1786 to May 1788 Malaspina made a commercial circumnavigation of the world on behalf of the Royal Philippines Company. During this voyage he was in command of the frigate Astrea.[2] His route went via the Cape of Good Hope and, returning, Cape Horn. Astrea called at Concepcion in Chile in February 1787, whose military governor, the Irish-born Ambrosio O'Higgins, had six months before recommended that Spain organize an expedition to the Pacific similar to those led by Lapérouse and Cook.[3] Higgins had made this recommendation following the visit of the Lapérouse expedition to Concepcion in March 1786, and presumably discussed it with Malaspina while the Astrea was at Concepcion. Following the Astrea's return to Spain, Malaspina produced, in partnership with José de Bustamante, a proposal for an expedition along the lines set out in Higgins' memorandum. A short time later, on 14 October 1788, Malaspina was informed of the government's acceptance of his plan. José de Espinoza y Tello, one of the officers of the Malaspina Spanish Landing Site, Bauza Island New Zealand expedition, subsequently confirmed the importance of the information sent by Higgins in stimulating the Government to initiate an extensive program of exploration in the Pacific.[4] The prompt acceptance of Malaspina's proposal was also stimulated by news from St. Petersburg of preparations for a Russian expedition (the Mulovsky expedition) to the North Pacific under the command of Grigori I. Mulovsky that had as one of its objectives the claiming of territory on the North West Coast of America around Nootka Sound that was also claimed at the time by Spain.[5]

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Expedition of 1789–1794 Main article: Malaspina Expedition In September 1788 Alessandro Malaspina and José de Bustamante y Guerra approached the Spanish government. The explorers proposed a scientific-political expedition that would visit nearly all the Spanish possessions in America and Asia. The Spanish king, Charles III, a promoter of science in the Spanish Empire, approved. Two frigates (a type of ship similar to the British sloop-of-war), were built under Malaspina's direction specifically for the expedition, Descubierta and Atrevida (meaning "Discovery" and "Daring" or "Bold"). Malaspina commanded Descubierta and Bustamante Atrevida. The names were chosen by Malaspina to honor James Cook's Discovery and Resolution. The two corvettes were constructed by the shipbuilder Tómas Muñoz at the La Carraca shipyard. They were both 306 tons burden and 36 metres long, with a normal load displacement of 4.2 metres. They were launched together on April 8, 1789. The expedition was under the "dual command" of Malaspina and Bustamante. Although in time the expedition became known as the Malaspina's, Bustamante was never considered subordinate. Malaspina insisted on their equality, yet Bustamante early acknowledged Malaspina as the "chief of the expedition". The expedition sailed from Cádiz on July 30, 1789. Thaddäus Haenke missed the boat, but joined in 1790 in Santiago de Chile after crossing South America by land from Montevideo. The expedition had explicitly scientific goals, similar to the recent voyages of James Cook and Jean-François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse. Some of the leading scientists of the day accompanied Malaspina. The scientific data collected during the expedition surpassed that of Cook, but due to changed political circumstances in Spain Malaspina was jailed upon This map shows the route of Malaspina's ship Descubierta with the return to Spain from return and the reports and collections Tonga omitted. The route of Bustamante's Atrevida was mostly the same, but deviated in locked up and prohibited from some places. publication. The expedition and its findings remained obscure and nearly unstudied by historians until the late 20th century. Malaspina stopped at Montevideo and Buenos Aires, investigating the political situation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. After rounding Cape Horn the expedition stopped at Talcahuano, the port of Concepción in present-day Chile, and again at Valparaíso, the port of Santiago. Continuing north, Bustamante mapped the coast while Malaspina sailed to the Juan Fernández Islands in order to resolve conflicting data on their location. The two captains reunited at Callao, the port of Lima. There investigations were made into the political situation of the Viceroyalty of Peru. The expedition then continued north, mapping the coast, to Acapulco, Mexico. A team of officers was sent to Mexico City to investigate the archives and political situation of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. By the time Malaspina reached Mexico it was 1791, and there he received a dispatch from the king of Spain, ordering Malaspina to search for a Northwest Passage recently rumored to have been discovered. Malaspina had been planning to sail to Hawaii and Kamchatka, as well as the Pacific Northwest.[6] Instead, he sailed from Acapulco directly to Yakutat Bay, Alaska (then known as Port Mulgrave), where the rumored passage was said to exist. Finding only an inlet, he carefully surveyed the Alaskan coast west to Prince William Sound.

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Alessandro Malaspina At Yakutat Bay, the expedition made contact with the Tlingit. Spanish scholars made a study of the tribe, recording information on social mores, language, economy, warfare methods, and burial practices. Artists with the expedition, Tomas de Suria and José Cardero, produced portraits of tribal members and scenes of Tlingit daily life. A glacier between Yakutat Bay and Icy Bay was subsequently named after Malaspina. The botanist Luis Née also accompanied the expedition, on which he collected and described numerous new plants. Knowing that Cook had previously surveyed the coast west of Prince William Sound and found no passage, Malaspina ceased his search at that point and sailed to the Spanish outpost at Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island. Malaspina's expedition spent a month at Nootka Sound. While at Nootka, the expedition's scientists made a study of the Nuu-chah-nulth (Nootka peoples). The relationship between the Spanish and the Nootkas was at its lowest point when Malaspina arrived. Malaspina and his crew were able to greatly improve the relationship, which was one of their objectives and reasons for stopping in the first place. Due in part to Malaspina's ability to bequeath generous gifts from his well-supplied ships about to return to Mexico, the friendship between the Spanish and the Nootkas was strengthened. The gaining of the Nootka chief Maquinna's trust was particularly significant, as he was one of the most powerful chiefs of the region and had been very wary of the Spanish when Malaspina arrived. His friendship strengthened the Spanish claim to Nootka Sound, which was in question after the Nootka Crisis and resolved in the subsequent Nootka Conventions. The Spanish government was eager for the Nootka to formally agree that the land upon which the Spanish outpost stood had been ceded freely and legally. This desire had to do with Spain's negotiations with Britain than over Nootka Sound and the Pacific Northwest. Malaspina was able to acquire exactly what the government wanted. After weeks of negotiations the principal Nootka chief, Maquinna, agreed that the Spanish would always remain owners of the land they then occupied, and that they had acquired it with all due properness. The outcome of the Nootka Convention depended in part on this pact. In addition to the expedition's work with the Nootkas, astronomical observations were made to fix the location of Nootka Sound and calibrate the expedition's chronometers. Nootka Sound was surveyed and mapped with an accuracy far greater than had previously been available. Unexplored channels were investigated. The maps were also linked to the baseline established by Captain Cook, allowing calibration between Spanish and British charts. Botanical studies were carried out, including an attempt to make a type of beer out of conifer needles that was hoped to have anti-scorbutic properties for combating scurvy. The expedition ships took on water and wood, and provided the Spanish outpost with many useful goods, including medicines, food, various tools and utensils, and a Réaumur scale thermometer. After departing Nootka Sound the two ships sailed south, stopping at the Spanish settlement and mission at Monterey, California, before returning to Mexico. In 1792, back in Mexico, Malaspina dispatched two schooners (or "goletas") to conduct more detailed explorations of the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Strait of Georgia. These were Sutíl, commanded by Dionisio Alcalá Galiano, and Mexicana, under Cayetano Valdés y Flores. Both were officers of Malaspina's. The ships were to have been commanded by two pilots of San Blas, Mexico, but Malaspina arranged for his own officers to replace them. In 1792, Malaspina's expedition sailed from Mexico across the Pacific Ocean. They stopped briefly at Guam before arriving at the Philippines, where they spent several months, mostly at Manila. During this period Malaspina sent Bustamante in the Atrevida to Macau, China. After Bustamante's return the expedition left the Philippines and sailed to New Zealand. They explored Doubtful Sound at the southern end of New Zealand's South Island, mapping and carrying out gravity experiments.[7] Then Malaspina sailed to Port Jackson (Sydney). on the coast of New South Wales Australia, which had been established by the British in 1788.[8] During the expedition’s stay at Sydney Cove, New South Wales, in March–April 1793, Thaddäus Haenke carried out observations and made collections relating to the natural history of the place, as he reported to the colony’s patron, Sir Joseph Banks, saying: "I here express the public testimony of a grateful soul for the very extraordinary humanity and kindness with which the English in their new Colony welcomed us wandering vagabonds, Ulysses' companions. A Nation renowned throughout the world, which has left nothing untried, will also

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Alessandro Malaspina overcome with the happiest omens, by the most assiduous labour and by its own determined spirit the great obstacles opposing it in the foundation of what may one day become another Rome".[9] During its visit to Port Jackson, twelve drawings were done by members of the expedition, which are a valuable record of the settlement in its early years, especially as among them are the only depictions of the convict settlers from this period.[10] The recently founded English colony had been included in the expedition’s itinerary in response to a memorandum drawn up in September 1788 by one of Malaspina’s fellow naval officers, Francisco Muñoz y San Clemente, who warned of the dangers it posed to the Spanish possessions in the Pacific in peace time from the development of a contraband commerce and in war time as a base for British naval operations. Muñoz said: “The colonists will be able to fit out lucrative privateers so as to cut all communication between the Philippines and both Americas.... These possessions will have a navy of their own, obtaining from the Southern region whatever is necessary to establish it, and when they have it ready formed they will be able to invade our nearby possessions...”[11] In the confidential report he wrote following his visit, Malaspina echoed the warning from Muñoz, writing of the “terrible” future danger for Spain from the English colony at Port Jackson, from whence with the greatest ease a crossing of two or three months through healthy climates, and a secure navigation, could bring to our defenceless coasts two or three thousand castaway bandits to serve interpolated with an excellent body of regular troops. It would not be surprising that in this case—the women also sharing the risks as well as the sensual pleasures of the men—the history of the invasions of the Huns and Alans in the most fertile provinces of Europe would be revived in our surprised colonies.…The pen trembles to record the image, however distant, of such disorders. While recognizing the strategic threat it posed to Spain's Pacific possessions in time of war, Malaspina wrote: “It is not the concern of these paragraphs to demonstrate in detail the many schemes for these projected plunderings, so much as the easiest ways of preventing them”. He preferred the peaceable approach of drawing attention to the commercial opportunity the new colony offered for a trade in food and livestock from Chile and the development of a viable trade route linking that country with the Philippines. Having seen carts and even ploughs being drawn by convicts for want of draught animals in the colony, and having eaten meals with the colonists at which beef and mutton were regarded as rare luxuries, Malaspina saw the trade in Chilean livestock as the key to a profitable commerce. He proposed that an agreement be signed with London for an Association of Traders, and for an agent of the colony to be resident in Chile. Conscious that the policy he was proposing was a bold and imaginative one in the face of Spain's traditional insistence on a national monopoly of trade and other relations within her empire, Malaspina declared that "this affair is exceedingly favourable to the commercial balance of our Colonies", and it would have the advantage of calming and tranquilizing "a lively, turbulent and even insolent neighbour....not with sacrifices on our part but rather with many and very considerable profits".[12] Returning east across the Pacific Ocean the expedition spent a month at Vava'u, the northern archipelago of Tonga. From there they sailed to Callao, Peru, then Talcahuanco, Chile. The fjords of southern Chile were carefully mapped before the expedition rounded Cape Horn. Then they surveyed the Malvinas Islands ("Falkland Islands," in English) and the coast of Patagonia before stopping at Montevideo again. From Montevideo Malaspina took a long route through the central Atlantic Ocean to Spain, reaching Cádiz on September 21, 1794. He had spent 62 months at sea.[13] During the five years of this expedition Malaspina fixed the measurements of America's western coast with a precision never before achieved. He measured the height of Mount Saint Elias in Alaska and explored gigantic glaciers, including Malaspina Glacier, later named after him. He demonstrated the feasibility of a possible Panama Canal and outlined plans for its construction.[14] In addition, Malaspina's expedition was the first major long distance sea voyage that experienced virtually no scurvy. Malaspina's medical officer, Pedro González, was convinced that fresh oranges and lemons were essential for preventing scurvy. Only one outbreak occurred, during a 56-day trip across the open sea. Five sailors came down with symptoms, one seriously. After three days at Guam all five were

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Alessandro Malaspina healthy again. James Cook had made great progress against the disease, but other British captains, such as George Vancouver, found his accomplishment difficult to replicate. It had been known since the mid-18th century that citrus fruit was effective, but for decades it was impractical to store fruit or fruit juice for long periods on ships without losing the necessary ascorbic acid. Spain's large empire and many ports of call made it easier to acquire fresh fruit.

Political controversy and exile In December 1794 Malaspina met with King Charles IV and Prime Minister Manuel de Godoy. At first all was well and Malaspina was promoted to fleet-brigadier in March 1795. In his examination of the political situation in the Spanish colonies Malaspina had decided that Spain should free its colonies and form a confederation of states bound by international trade. In September 1795 he began trying to influence the Spanish government with such proposals. Unfortunately Malaspina had lost the support he used to have at the royal court before his voyage and the political situation had changed radically, due in part to the French Revolution. He formed part of a conspiracy to overthrow Prime Minister Godoy, so Malaspina arrested on November 23 on charges of plotting against the state. After an inconclusive trial on April 20, 1796, Charles IV decreed that Malaspina be stripped of rank and imprisoned in the isolated fortress of San Antón in La Coruña, Galicia (Spain). Malaspina remained in the prison from 1796 to 1802. During his incarceration he wrote a variety of essays on topics such as aesthetics, economics, and literary criticism. Francesco Melzi d'Eril and Napoleon campaigned for Malaspina's release. He was finally freed at the end of 1802 but was exiled from Spain. He left for his hometown of Mulazzo via the port of Genoa, and settled in nearby Pontremoli. Because of his political conflict with Spain, his seven-volume account of the 1789–94 expeditions was suppressed and remained unpublished until the late 19th century.[15] A large portion of the documents meant to be used as source material for the publication of Malaspina's expedition remained scattered in archives to the present day. A significant number of documents are lost, and those that survive are often in a rough, semi-edited form. Alexander von Humboldt, an admirer of Malaspina, wrote, "this able navigator is more famous for his misfortunes than for his discoveries." There was some contemporary publication, but it took two hundred years for the bulk of the records of the expedition to be published. The notes made by the expedition’s botanist, Luis Neé, while he was at Port Jackson in 1793 were published in 1800.[16] Dionisio Alcalá Galiano’s journal of his survey of the straits between Vancouver Island and the mainland, carried out as part of the Malaspina expedition, was published in 1802 with all mention of Malaspina’s name excised.[17] In 1809, José Espinosa y Tello published the astronomical and geodesic observations made during the expedition in a two-volume work that also contained an abbreviated narrative of the voyage.[18] This narrative was translated into Russian and published by Admiral Adam von Krusenstern in St. Petersburg in 1815.[19] The journal of Malaspina’s voyage was first published in Russian translation by Krusenstern in successive issues of the official journal of the Russian Admiralty between 1824 and 1827 (a copy of the manuscript had been obtained by the Russian ambassador in Madrid in 1806).[20] The journal of Francisco Xavier de Viana, second-in-command of the Atrevida was published in Montevideo in 1849.[21] Bustamante’s journal was published in 1868 in the official journal of the Directorate of Hydrography.[22] An abbreviated account of the Malaspina expedition, consisting mostly of his journal, "Diario de Viaje", was published in Madrid in 1885 by Pedro de Novo y Colson.[23] Malaspina’s journal was published in another edition in Madrid in 1984.[24] The definitive version of the expedition was finally published in Spain by the Museo Naval and Ministerio de Defensa in nine volumes from 1987 to 1999.[25] The second volume of this series, Malaspina's journal, was published in an annotated English translation by the Hakluyt Society in association with the Museo Naval between 2001 and 2005.[26] The drawings and paintings done by members of the expedition were described by Carmen Sotos Serrano in 1982.[27] The 4,000-odd manuscripts relating to the expedition were catalogued by Maria Dolores Higueras Rodriguez between 1989 and 1994.[28]

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Later life In Pontremoli Malaspina concerned himself with local politics. In December 1803 he organized a quarantine between the Napoleonic Italian Republic and the Kingdom of Etruria during a yellow fever epidemic in Livorno. In 1805 he received the title of Advising Auditor of the Council of State of the Kingdom of Italy. The queen of Etruria received him at court in December 1806. Shortly afterwards he was admitted to the Columban Society in Florence with the title of Addomesticato. The first appearance of an incurable illness occurred in 1807. Alessandro Malaspina died in Pontremoli on April 9, 1810, at the age of 55. His death was noted in the Gazzetta di Genova, 18 April 1810: Pontremoli, 9 April 1810: Today at 10 o'clock in the evening the learned and famous navigator Signore Alexandro Malaspina of Mulazzo passed from this life. Such a loss cannot fail to be felt far and wide by all those who, placing high value on the importance of the nautical and travel accounts of this most talented Italian, have known his equanimity in both good and bad fortune; it is without doubt most bitter for those who witnessed the end from close by and who, moreover, had to admire his fortitude in suffering patiently to the very last the most severe pains of a long intestinal illness.

Legacy Malaspina University-College and Malaspina International High School [29] in the Canadian city of Nanaimo, British Columbia takes its name indirectly from the explorer (although this name has been recently changed to Vancouver Island University), by way of Malaspina Strait, between Texada Island and the mainland, and the Malaspina Peninsula and adjoining Malaspina Inlet nearby, which are the location of Malaspina Provincial Park and are part of the Sunshine Coast region. Vancouver Island University is home to the Alexandro Malaspina Research Centre [30]. There is also a Malaspina Peak and Malaspina Lake near Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island, just southeast of the town of Gold River; and the well-known Malaspina Glacier in southern Alaska. In New Zealand, Malaspina Reach of Doubtful Sound in Fiordland, explored by him in 1793, has his name.

Notes [1] ; online at Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=qVmxMSH7ayYC) [2] Dario Manfredi, Il Viaggio Attorno al Mondo di Malaspina con la Fregata di S.M.C.«Astrea», 1786–1788, Memorie della Accademia Lunigianese di Scienze, La Spezia, 1988. [3] Archivo Histórico Nacional (Madrid), Estado, legajo 4289. Also at Archivo Nacional de Chile, Fondo Vicuña Mackenna, vol.304, D, ff.5–26. Published in Revista chilena de historia y geografía, no.107, 1946, pp.387–401. [4] "Noticia de las principales expediciones hechas por nuestras pilotos del Departamiento de San Blas al reconocimiento de la costa noroeste de America, desde el año de 1774 hasta el 1791, extractada de los diarios originales de aquellos navegantes", Novo y Colson, Viaje, p.428; cited in Warren L. Cook, Flood Tide of Empire, New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1973, p.115, and in Robert J. King, "Ambrose Higgins and the Malaspina Expedition", presented at the International Conference of the Association of Iberian and Latin American Studies of Australasia (AILASA 99), La Trobe University, Melbourne, July 1999. At: http:/ / web. viu. ca/ black/ amrc/ index. htm [5] Pedro Normande to Floridablanca, St. Petersburg, 16 February 1787, Archivo Histórico Nacional (Madrid), Estado, legajo 4289; copy held at Library of Congress Manuscripts Division, Foreign Copying Project Reproductions; quoted in Anthony H. Hull, Spanish and Russian Rivalry in the North Pacific Regions of the New World, University of Alabama PhD thesis, UMI microfilm, pp.113–7; and in Warren L. Cook, Flood Tide of Empire: Spain and the Pacific Northwest, 1543 1819, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1973, p.116. [6] ; online at Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=qVmxMSH7ayYC) [7] Robert J. King, “Puerto del Pendulo, Doubtful Sound: The Malaspina Expedition’s Visit to New Zealand in Quest of the True Figure of the Earth”, The Globe, no.65, 2010, pp.1–18. Downloadable at: http:/ / search. informit. com. au. [8] Robert J. King, The Secret History of the Convict Colony: Alexandro Malaspina's report on the British settlement of New South Wales, Sydney, Allen & Unwin Australia, 1990. ISBN 0-04-610020-2 [9] Robert J. King and Victoria Ibáñez, "A Letter from Thaddaeus Haenke to Sir Joseph Banks, Sydney Cove, 15 April 1793", Archives of Natural History, vol.23, no.2, 1996, pp.255–259. [10] Robert Langdon, “They Came to Spy on Sydney”, The Sydney Morning Herald, 7 April 1962; Carmen Sotos Serrano, "Nuevas obras de Fernando Brambila en Londres", Homenaje al Profesor Hernández Perera, Madrid, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 1992, pp.453–8. Peter Barber, "Malaspina and George III, Brambila, and Watling: Three discovered drawings of Sydney and Parramatta by Fernando

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Alessandro Malaspina Brambila", Australian Journal of Art, Vol.XI, 1993, pp.31–55. [11] Robert J. King, "Francisco Muñoz y San Clemente and his Reflexions on the English Settlements of New Holland", British Library Journal, vol. 25, no.1, 1999, pp.55–76. [12] Robert J. King“Science and Spycraft: The Malaspina Expedition in New Zealand and New South Wales, 1793”, Mains’l Haul, A Journal of Pacific Maritime History, vols.41 no.4 & 42, no.1, Fall/Winter 2006, pp.76–87. Also at: http:/ / web. viu. ca/ black/ amrc/ index. htm [13] Lorenzo Sanfeliú Ortiz, 62 Meses A Bordo: La expedición Malaspina según el diario del Teniente de Navío Don Antonio de Tova Arredondo, 2.o Comandante de la “Atrevida” 1789–1794, Madrid, Biblioteca de Camarote «Revista General de Marina», 1943 y Editorial Naval, 1988. [14] ; online at Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=7q3WTS1IREkC) [15] Pedro de Novo y Colson, Viaje politico cientifico alrededor del mundo por las corbetas Descubierta y Atrevida, al mando de los capitanes de navio, don Alejandro Malaspina y don José de Bustamante y Guerra, desde 1789 a 1794, Madrid, 1885. [16] Antonio Joseph Cavanilles, "Observaciones sobre el suelo, naturales y plantas de Puerto Jackson y Bahia Botanica", Anales de Historia Natural, No.3, 1800; translated into German by Christian Augustus Fischer, "Die Spanier in Neu Sud Wallis", Spanische Miszellen, Berlin, 1803 and Dresden, 1804, pp.3 25, and by Fischer into French, "Visite des Espagnols à la Nouvelle Galles Meridionale: Fragment d'un Voyage inédit de Malaspina", Annales des Voyages, de la Géographie et de l'Histoire, Paris, Tome IX X, 1809, pp.340 355. [17] Dionisio Alcalá Galiano, Relación del Viage, hecho por las Goletas Sutil y Mexicana, en el año 1792 para reconocer el Estrecho de Juan de Fuca, Madrid, 1802. [18] Josef Espinosa y Tello, Memorias sobre las Obervaciones Astronomicas, hechas por los Navegantes Españoles en Distintos Lugares del Globo, Madrid, Imprenta Real, Tomos I & II, 1809. [19] «Извѣстіе о Испанской Экспедиціи Предпринятой лдя Откытіи въ 1791, 1792 и 1793 годахъ подъ командою Капитана Малеспине», Записки, издаваемыя Государственнымъ Адмиралтейскимъ Департментомъ, относящiяся къ Мореплаванію, Наукамъ и Словесности (‘News on the Spanish Discovery Expedition of 1791, 1792 and 1793 commanded by Captain Malespina’, Notices issued by the State Admiralty Department relating to Navigation, Science and Literature), II, 1815, pp.256–260. During his own voyage to the North Pacific of 1803 to 1806, Krusenstern surveyed the west coast of Japan in May 1805 and on his resulting chart made the generous gesture of naming a prominent cape on the coast of Hokkaido “after the unfortunate Spanish navigator Malespina [sic]” (A.J. von Krusenstern, Voyage round the World, translated by Richard Belgrave Hoppner, London, John Murray, 1813, Vol.II, p.38). This cape already bore the Japanese name, Tampake Misaki (now Ofuyu Misaki, the northern point of Ishikari Bay) and Krusenstern’s “Cape Malespina” failed to replace the Japanese name on the charts. [20] «Путешествіе въ Южно море, къ Западнимъ берегамъ Америки и островамъ Маріанскимъ и Фнлипинскимъ, совершенное подъ командою Каролевско-Испанского Флота Капитановъ Малеспини и Бустаманте», (‘Voyage to the South Sea, West coast of America and the Mariana and Philippine islands, under the overall command of Spanish Royal Navy Captains Malaspina and Bustamante’), Записки, издаваемыя Государственнымъ Адмиралтейскимъ Департментомъ, относящiяся къ Мореплаванію, Наукамъ и Словесности (Zapiski, izdavayemiya Gosudarstvennim Admiralteiskim Departmentom, otnosyashchiyasya k' Moryeplavaniyu, Naukam i Slovesnosti / Notices issued by the State Admiralty Department relating to Navigation, Science and Literature), VI, 1824, pp.188–276; VII, 1824, pp.121–223; VIII, 1825, pp.176–272; IX, 1825, pp.1–292; XII, 1827, pp.29–191 Записки, XII (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=2qMKAAAAIAAJ& printsec=frontcover& dq=editions:ZTSeZP14E9MC& hl=en& sa=X& ei=GHGcUa_iIKWdiAf2zoGABw& redir_esc=y#v=onepage& q=Ð Ð°Ð»ÐµÑ Ð¿Ð¸Ð½Ð¸ & f=false); XIII, 1827, pp.10–178 Записки, XIII (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=HaQKAAAAIAAJ& printsec=frontcover& dq=editions:ZTSeZP14E9MC& hl=en& sa=X& ei=GHGcUa_iIKWdiAf2zoGABw& redir_esc=y#v=onepage& q& f=false). Dario Manfredi, «Sulla Prima Edizione del Viaggio di Malaspina, S. Pietroburgo, 1824–1827», Giovanni Caboto e le Vie dell’Atlantico settentrionale, Genova, Centro italiano per gli Studi storico-geografici, 1999, pp.485–159. [21] Francisco Xavier de Viana, Diario del viage explorador de las corbetas expañolas “Descubierta” y “Atrevida”, Montevideo, Cerrito de la Victoria, 1849. [22] J. Bustamante y Guerra, “Relación…”, Anuario de la Dirrección de Hidrografía, Madrid, vol.VI, 1868, pp.240–364. [23] Museo Naval MS 753; Pedro de Novo y Colson (ed.), Viaje politico cientifico alrededor del mundo por las corbetas Descubierta y Atrevida, al mando de los capitanes de navio, don Alejandro Malaspina y don José de Bustamante y Guerra, desde 1789 a 1794, Madrid, 1885. The section of this work relating to the visit to Dusky Sound was published in Robert McNab, Murihiku and the Southern Islands, Invercargill, William South, 1907, pp.49–56; and in Historical Records of New Zealand, 1908, Vol.I, pp.417 29. [24] Mercedes Palau, Aránzazu Zabala and Blanca Sáiz (eds.), Viaje politico y cientifico a la América Meridional, a las costas del mar Pacífico y a las Islas Marianas y Filipinas, Ediciones El Museo Universal, Madrid, 1984. [25] Museo Naval y Ministerio de Defensa, La Expedición Malaspina, 1789–1794, Barcelona, Lunwerg, tomos 1–9, 1987–1999. [26] The Malaspina Expedition, 1789–1794: the Journal of the Voyage by Alejandro Malaspina, Andrew David, Felipe Fernandez-Armesto, Carlos Novi and Glyndwr Williams (eds.), translated by Sylvia Jamieson, London and Madrid, Hakluyt Society in association with the Museo Naval, 3rd series, no.8, Volume I, 2001, no.11, Volume II, 2003 and no.13, Volume III, 2005. [27] Carmen Sotos Serrano, Los Pintores de la Expedicion de Alejandro Malaspina, Madrid, Real Academia de la Historia, 1982. [28] Mª Dolores Higueras Rodriguez, Catálogo crítico de los documentos de la Expedición Malaspina en el Museo Naval, three volumes, Madrid, Museo Naval, 1989–1994. [29] http:/ / www. viuh. ca [30] http:/ / web. viu. ca/ black/ amrc/

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References • Mariana Cuesta Domingo, "Espinosa y Tello y su viaje complementario al de Malaspina," in Paz Martin Ferrero (ed.), Actas del simposium CCL aniversario nacimiento de Joseph Celestino Mutis, Cádiz, Diputación Provincial de Cádiz, 1986, pp. 197–204. • Iris H.W. Engstrand, Spanish Scientists in the New World: the Eighteenth Century Expeditions, Seattle, Univ. Washington Press, 1981. • Edith C. Galbraith, "Malaspina's Voyage around the World", California Historical Society Quarterly, vol.3, no.3, October 1924, pp. 215 37. • Mª Dolores Higueras Rodriguez, Diario General del Viaje Corbeta Atrevida por José Bustamante y Guerra, Museo Naval Ministerio de Defensa La Expedición Malaspina, 1789–1794, Tomo IX, Madrid y Barcelona, Lunwerg Editores, 1999. • Victoria Ibáñez, Trabajos Cientificos y Correspondencia de Tadeo Haenke, Museo Naval y Ministerio de Defensa, La Expedición Malaspina, 1789–1794, Tomo IV, Madrid y Barcelona, Lunwerg Editores, 1992. • Robin Inglis (ed.), Spain and the North Pacific Coast, Vancouver Maritime Museum Society, 1992. • Robin Inglis, “Successors and rivals to Cook: the French and the Spaniards”, in Glyndwr Williams (ed.), Captain Cook: Explorations and Assessments, Woodbridge, The Boydell Press, 2004, pp. 161–178. • John Kendrick, Alejandro Malaspina: Portrait of a Visionary, Montreal and Kingston, McGill-Queen's University Press, 1999. • Dario Manfredi, “Adam J. Krusenstern y la primera edición del viaje de Malaspina. San Petersburgo (1824–1827)”, Derroteros de la Mar del Sur, (Lima), Año 8, núm.8, 2000, pp. 65–82. • Dario Manfredi, Italiano in Spagna, Spagnolo in Italia: Alessandro Malaspina (1754–1810) e la più importante spedizione scientifica marittima del Secolo dei Luni, Torino, Nuova Eri Edizioni Rai, 1992. • Dario Manfredi, "Sulla Prima Edizione del Viaggio di Malaspina S. Pietroburgo, 1824–1827", Giovanni Caboto e le Vie dell’Atlantico settentrionale, Atti del Convegno Internazionale de Studi, Roma, 29 settembre-1 ottobre 1997, Genova-Brigati, Centro italiano per gli Studi storico-geografici, 1999, pp. 485–159. • Dario Manfredi, Alessandro Malaspina e Fabio Ala Ponzone: Lettere dal Vecchio e Nuovo Mondo (1788–1803), Bologna, il Mulino, 1999. • Dario Manfredi, "Sugli Studi e sulle Navigazioni ‘minori’di Alessandro Malaspina", Cronaca e Storia di Val di Magra, XVI-XVII, 1987–1988, p. 159. • Dario Manfredi, Il Viaggio Attorno al Mondo di Malaspina con la Fregata di S.M.C.«Astrea», 1786–1788, La Spezia, Memorie della Accademia Lunigianese di Scienze, 1988. • Luis Rafael Martínez-Cañavate, Trabajos Astronomicos, Geodesicos e Hidrograficos,Museo Naval y Ministerio de Defensa, La Expedición Malaspina, 1789–1794, Tomo VI, Madrid y Barcelona, Lunwerg Editores, 1994. • Felix Muñoz Garmendia, Diario y Trabajos Botánicos de Luis Neé, Museo Naval y Ministerio de Defensa, La Expedición Malaspina, 1789–1794, Tomo III, Madrid y Barcelona, Lunwerg Editores, 1992. • Antonio Orozco Acuaviva (ed.), La Expedición Malaspina (1789–1794), Bicentenario de la Salida de Cádiz, Cádiz, Real Academia Hispano-Americana, 1989. In the contribution to this work by Pablo Anton Sole, "Los Padrones de Cumplimiento Pascual de la Expedición Malaspina: 1790–1794", pp. 173–238, the names of all of the 450 personnel who took part in the several stages of the expedition are listed. • Antonio Orozco Acuaviva et al. (eds.), Malaspina y Bustamante '94: II Jornadas Internacionales Conmemorativas del regreso de la Expedición a Cádiz, 1794–1994, Madrid, Rustica, 1996. • Mercedes Palau Baquero & Antonio Orozco Acuaviva (eds.), Malaspina '92: I Jornadas Internacionales – Madrid, Cádiz, La Coruña. 17–25 de Septiembre de 1992, Cádiz, Real Academia Hispano-Americana, 1994.

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Alessandro Malaspina • Juan Pimentel Igea, Examines Politicos, Museo Naval y Ministerio de Defensa, La Expedición Malaspina, 1789–1794, Tomo VII, Barcelona, Lunwerg Editores, 1996. • Blanca Saiz, Bibliografia sobre Alejandro Malaspina y acerca de la expedicion Malaspina y de los marinos y cientificos que en ella participaron, Ediciones El Museo Universal, Madrid, 1992. • Blanca Sáiz (ed.), Malaspina '93: Alessandro Malaspina e la sua spedizione scientifica (1789–1794). Atti del Congresso Internazionale, nel bicentenario della massima impresa di Alessandro Malaspina, tenutosi a Mulazzo, Castiglione del Terziere e Lerici dal 24 al 26 settembre 1993, Mulazzo, Centro di Studi Malaspiniani, 1995. • Emilio Soler Pascual, La Conspiración Malaspina, 1795–1796, Alicante, Instituto de Cultural"Juan Gil Albert", 1965 (Diputación Provincial, Col. Ensayo y Investigación: 32). • Emilio Soler Pascual y Asociación Cultural Dionisio Alcalá-Galiano, Trafalgar y Alcalá Galiano: jornadas internacionales, Cabra, 17 al 23 de octubre de 2005, Madrid, Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional, 2006, Series: Ciencias y humanismo. • Carlo Ferrari / Dario Manfredi, Dallo "Zibaldone Ferrari" nuovi elementi sulle letture di Alessandro Malaspina (1796-1810) Estratto dall'"Archivio Storico per le Province Parmensi". Quarta serie, vol. XL - Anno 1988.

External links • Biography by Dario Mandfredi (http://web.viu.ca/black/amrc/Biographies/biography.htm) • Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online (http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e. php?&id_nbr=2526) • http://web.viu.ca/black/amrc/index.htm • Circunnavegation expedition Malaspina. Global change and exploration of the ocean's biodiversity (http://www. expedicionmalaspina.es)

167

George Dixon (Royal Navy officer)

168

George Dixon (Royal Navy officer) George Dixon Born

1748 Kirkoswald, Cumbria

Died

11 November 1795 (age c.47) Bermuda

Allegiance

United Kingdom

Service/branch

Royal Navy

Years of service

c.1776 – 1791

Commands held •

Queen Charlotte

George Dixon (1748–1795) was an English sea captain, explorer, and maritime fur trader. George Dixon was "born in Leath Ward, a native of Kirkoswald". The son of Thomas Dixon, he was baptised in Kirkoswald on 8 July 1748. He served under Captain Cook in his third voyage, on HMS Resolution, as armourer. In the course of the voyage he learned about the commercial possibilities along the North West Coast of America. History has not served Dixon well; for he is the least known of those who served and or were taught by Captain Cook and is only rarely mentioned in history books and when he is, he is relegated to a minor figure who is overshadowed by Cook and William Bligh, another officer on Cook's ill-fated third trip. In 1782, George Dixon was engaged by William Bolts. The Wiener Zeitung newspaper of 29 June 1782 carried a report from Fiume that, “in the early days of this month, Mr. von Bolts, Director of the Triestine East India Company, together with the English captain, Mr. Digson, arrived in this city”.[1] George Dixon wrote in the introduction to his account of the voyage he made for the Etches Company to the North West Coast in 1785-1788: So early as 1781, William Bolts, Esq; fitted out the Cobenzell, an armed ship of 700 tons, for the North-West Coast of America. She was to have sailed from Trieste (accompanied by a tender of forty-five tons) under Imperial colours, and was equally fitted out for trade or discovery: men of eminence in every department of science were engaged on board; all the maritime Courts of Europe were written to, in order to secure a good reception for these vessels, at their respective ports, and favourable answers were returned; yet, after all, this expedition, so exceedingly promising in every point of view, was overcome by a set of interested men, then in power in Vienna.[2] The Triestine Society sent the Cobenzell in September 1783 on a commercial voyage to the Malabar Coast and China by way of the Cape of Good Hope. After leaving Trieste, she proceeded to Marseilles, where she took in the principal part of her cargo and departed that port in December. Apparently, Bolts still wished to carry out his North West Coast venture in connection with this voyage, and asked George Dixon to participate.[3] However, Dixon went back to England, where he attempted to interest Sir Joseph Banks and English merchants in the North West Coast fur trade. This resulted in the formation of the Etches consortium, of which Dixon became a member with appointment as captain of the Queen Charlotte. The similarity is notable between the plan of the consortium and that elaborated by Bolts, which was apparently communicated to them by Dixon.[4] In 1785, Dixon became a partner in Richard Cadman Etches and Company, commonly called the King George's Sound Company to develop fur trade in present day British Columbia and Alaska. In September 1785 Dixon and fellow trader Nathaniel Portlock sailed from England. Portlock was in command of the larger vessel, the 320 bm King George, with a crew of 59. Dixon's was in command of the 200 bm Queen Charlotte, with a crew of 33. Dixon and Portlock sailed together for most of their three year voyage.

George Dixon (Royal Navy officer)

In the summers of 1786 and 1787, Dixon explored the shores of present-day British Columbia and southeastern Alaska. He spent the intervening winter in the Hawaiian Islands, where he became the first European to visit the island of Molokaʻi. He anchored in Kealakekua Bay, where Cook had been killed, but did not come ashore. His chief areas of exploration were the Queen Charlotte Islands and Queen Charlotte Sound, Yakutat Bay (Port Mulgrave), Sitka Sound (Norfolk Bay), and the Dixon Entrance. While not the first European to explore the region of the Queen Charlotte Islands, he was the first to realize they were islands and not part of the mainland. After visiting China and selling his cargo, he returned to England in Illustration of Oahu, from the French translation 1788 and published, in 1789, A Voyage Round the World, but More of Dixon's book A Voyage Round the World Particularly to the North-West Coast of America.[5] The book was a collection of descriptive letters by William Beresford, his cargo officer, and valuable charts and appendices by Dixon. There was a controversy between Dixon and John Meares, another explorer who had published a book claiming credit for discoveries Dixon thought were made by others. This controversy resulted in three pamphlets by Dixon and Meares denouncing each other. In retrospect, history seems to support Dixon's view that Meares was dishonest. In 1789 Dixon met with Alexander Dalrymple, the Examiner of Sea Journals for the East India Company and an influential advocate of maritime exploration, and the Under-Secretary of the Home and Colonial Office, Evan Nepean. He urged on Nepean the need to take up Dalrymple’s plan for a settlement on the North West Coast to prevent the Russians, Americans or Spanish from establishing themselves there. Dixon was afraid that if nothing was done the coast and its trade would be lost to Britain.[6] On 20 October 1789, he wrote to Sir Joseph Banks regarding the expedition being fitted out under the command of his former Discovery shipmate, Henry Roberts, for discovery in the South Seas. He offered suggestions on the type of vessels that would be suitable and proposed the Queen Charlotte Islands as the best place to form a settlement on the North West Coast.[7] There was a George Dixon who taught navigation at Gosport, England and wrote a treatise entitled The Navigator's Assistant in 1791. This may or may not be the same George Dixon. Dixon arrived in Bermuda with his wife, Ann, via New York in February 1794. His intention was to revert to his original training and work as a silversmith/jeweller. This is borne out by an advertisement in The Bermuda Gazette in April 1794 announcing his intentions: “George Dixon, jeweller from London”. The Bermuda Gazette soon reported that Dixon's wife Ann, "lately from England", died in childbirth in May 1794: she was buried at St George, Bermuda on 20 May 1794. Dixon was left with his only child, Marianna. He himself died shortly afterwards on 11 November 1795, as confirmed by a notice in the Cumberland Pacquet in February 1796: “[died] November 11 at Bermuda, Capt Dixon, the circumnavigator, a native of Kirkoswald in this county”. The orphaned Marianna Dixon married a Bermudian merchant, Charles Bryan Hayward, in 1814.[8]

169

George Dixon (Royal Navy officer)

Notes [1] see also Augsburgisches Extra-Blatt, No. 159, Thursday July 4, 1782 (http:/ / web. viu. ca/ black/ amrc/ index. htm?home. htm& 2) [2] George Dixon, A Voyage Round the World, London, 1789, p.xx [3] Robert J. King, "Heinrich Zimmermann and the Proposed Voyage of the Royal and Imperial Ship Cobenzell to the North West Coast in 1782-1783", The Northern Mariner/Le Marin du Nord, vol.21, no.3, July 2011, pp.235-262. [4] Robert J. King, "William Bolts and the Austrian Origins of the Lapérouse Expedition", Terrae Incognitae, vol.40, 2008, pp.1-28 [5] Dixon, (1789) [6] Dixon to Evan Nepean, 14 July 1789, National Archives, Kew, CO 42/72, ff.24-31 and at Public Archives of Canada, Ottawa, Q series, vol.49, p.354, printed in Report on Canadian Archives 1889 (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ reportoncanadian1889publuoft), Ottawa, 1890, p. 29; cited in Barry M. Gough, “The Northwest Coast in Late 18th Century British Expansion”, in Thomas Vaughan (ed.), The Western Shore, Portland, Oregon Historical Society and American Revolution Bicentennial Commission of Oregon, 1975, pp.48-80, p.67. [7] Dixon to Sir Joseph Banks, 20 October 1789, reproduced in Richard H. Dillon, “Letters of Captain George Dixon in the Banks Collection”, British Columbia Historical Quarterly, vol.XIV, no.3, 1950, pp.167-171. [8] Duncan L. McDowall, "Captain Dixon's Last Port of Call: The Mystery of George Dixon's Last Years", Bermuda Journal of Archaeology and Maritime History, no.14, 2003, pp.7-21.; John Robson, The Men who sailed with Captain James Cook, John Robson's homepage http:/ / pages. quicksilver. net. nz/ jcr/ ~cookmen3. html#George%20Dixon

References • Wiener Zeitung, 15 and 18 January 1783 • Dixon, George (1789), A voyage round the world but more particularly to the north-west coast of America: performed in 1785, 1786, 1787, and 1788, in the King George and Queen Charlotte, Captains Portlock and Dixon, London: G. Goulding, OCLC 243542399 (http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/243542399), OL 22121376M (http://openlibrary.org/books/OL22121376M) • Portlock, Nathaniel (1789), A voyage round the world but more particularly to the north-west coast of America: performed in 1785, 1786, 1787, and 1788, in the King George and Queen Charlotte, Captains Portlock and Dixon, London: J. Stockdale, and G. Goulding, OCLC 221899194 (http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/ 221899194), OL 6961184M (http://openlibrary.org/books/OL6961184M) • Temple, Sir Richard, "Austria’s Commercial Venture in India in the Eighteenth Century" (http://www.archive. org/details/indianantiquary035099mbp), Indian Antiquary, XLVII (April 1918): 85–92 • Fulvio Babudieri, Trieste e gli Interessi austriaci in Asia nei Secoli XVIII e XIX, Padova, CEDAM, 1966, doc.26, “Certificato azionario della Société Triestine”. The Universal Daily Register, 10 October 1785 • Dixon to Banks, 27 August 1784 and Banks to Dixon, 29 August 1784, British Museum (Natural History), Dawson Turner Transcripts of Banks Correspondence, vol. IV, ff.47-49; cited in David Mackay, In the Wake of Cook: Exploration, Science & Empire, 1780 1801, Wellington (NZ), Victoria UP, 1985, pp. 60–61 • George Dixon, Letter and Memorandum from Capt. George Dixon to Sir Joseph Banks regarding the Fur Trade on the Northwest Coast, 1789, San Francisco, The White Knight Press, 1941. • George Dixon (Johann Reinhold Forster übersetzt), Der Kapitaine Portlock’s und Dixon’s Reise um die Welt, Berlin, Voss, 1790, Vorrede des Uebersetzers, p. 11; V.T. Harlow, The Founding of the Second British Empire, Vol.2, London, Longmans, 1964, p. 420 • Instructions to Portlock and Dixon, September 1785; quoted in [John Etches], A Continuation of an Authentic Statement of All the Facts Relative to Nootka Sound, London, Fores, 1790, pp. 18–29, OL 23759290M (http:// openlibrary.org/books/OL23759290M) • The Etches consortium scheme is discussed in Robert J. King, "'A regular and reciprocal System of Commerce'—Botany Bay, Nootka Sound, and the isles of Japan", The Great Circle (Journal of the Australian Association for Maritime History) vol.19, no.1, 1997, pp. 1–29.

170

George Dixon (Royal Navy officer)

External links • Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online (http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e. php?&id_nbr=1855) • John Robson. "The Men who sailed with Captain James Cook" (http://web.archive.org/web/20081015062014/ http://pages.quicksilver.net.nz/jcr/~cookmen3.html#George Dixon). Archived from the original (http:// pages.quicksilver.net.nz/jcr/~cookmen3.html#George Dixon) on 15 October 2008.

171

Nathaniel Portlock

172

Nathaniel Portlock Nathaniel Portlock

Nathaniel Portlock Born

c1749

Died

12 September 1817 Greenwich

Buried at

Greenwich

Service/branch

Royal Navy

Rank

Captain

Nathaniel Portlock (c1748–12 September 1817) was a British ship’s captain, maritime fur trader, and author. He entered the Royal Navy in 1772 as an able seaman, serving in HMS St Albans. In 1776 he joined HMS Discovery as master’s mate and served on the third Pacific voyage of James Cook. During the expedition, in August 1779, he was transferred to the HMS Resolution. He passed his lieutenant’s examination on 7 September 1780, then served on HMS Firebrand in the Channel fleet. On Cook's third voyage, furs obtained in present day British Columbia and Alaska sold for good prices when the expedition called at Macao.[1] In 1785 Richard Cadman Etches and partners, including Portlock and George Dixon formed a partnership, commonly called the King George's Sound Company, to develop the fur trade. Dixon had also served on Resolution in the Pacific Ocean under Cook. In September 1785 Portlock and Dixon sailed from England. Portlock was in command of the larger vessel, the 320 ton (BOM) King George, with a crew of 59. Dixon's was in command of the 200 ton (BOM) Queen Charlotte, with a crew of 33. Dixon and Portlock sailed together for most of their three year voyage.[2] They crossed the Atlantic Ocean, reaching the Falkland Islands in January 1786, and transited Cape Horn to enter the Pacific Ocean. They reached the Hawaiian islands on 24 May and anchored in Kealakekua Bay (where Cook had been killed in 1779), but did not go ashore.[3] They took on fresh food at other Hawaiian islands and proceeded on to what is now Alaska. After two years of plying the waters, Portlock and Dixon departed North America, reaching Macao in November 1788. On their return Portlock and Dixon published an account of the voyage, based in part on letters written by William Beresford, the trader on the expedition.[]

Nathaniel Portlock Returning to the Royal Navy in 1791, Portlock was appointed to command the brig HMS Assistant, which accompanied Bligh on his second voyage to transport breadfruit plants from Tahiti to the West Indies. Following his return to England in 1793, Portlock was promoted to commander and later commanded the sloop HMS Arrow. In 1799 he was promoted to captain, but does not appear to have had further employment at sea. He died on 12 September 1817 in Greenwich Hospital. His son Major-General Joseph Ellison Portlock (30 September 1794 – 14 February 1864) was a British geologist and soldier.

Citations [1] Hīroa (1953), p 35 [2] Pethick (1976), pp 97–100 [3] Restarick (1928)

References • "Portlock, Nathaniel". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi: 10.1093/ref:odnb/22586 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/22586). (Subscription or UK public library membership (http://www.oup.com/oxforddnb/info/freeodnb/libraries/) required.) • Hīroa, Te Rangi (Peter. H. Buck) (1953). "Explorers of the Pacific: European and American Discoveries in Polynesia" (http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-BucExpl.html). Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publication 43 (Honolulu, Hawaii: Bernice P. Bishop Museum). p. 35. OCLC 646912113 (http://www. worldcat.org/oclc/646912113)., has background on the voyage of King George and the Queen Charlotte • Laughton, John Knox (1896). "Portlock, Nathaniel". In Lee, Sidney. Dictionary of National Biography 46. London: Smith, Elder & Co. • Pethick, Derek (1976). First Approaches to the Northwest Coast. Vancouver: J.J. Douglas. pp. 97–100. ISBN 0-88894-056-4. • Portlock, Nathaniel (1789). A voyage round the world but more particularly to the north-west coast of America: performed in 1785, 1786, 1787, and 1788, in the King George and Queen Charlotte, Captains Portlock and Dixon. London: J. Stockdale and G. Goulding. OCLC 221899194 (http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/ 221899194). OL 6961184M (http://openlibrary.org/books/OL6961184M). • Dixon, George (1789). A voyage round the world but more particularly to the north-west coast of America: performed in 1785, 1786, 1787, and 1788, in the King George and Queen Charlotte, Captains Portlock and Dixon. London: G. Goulding. OCLC 243542399 (http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/243542399). OL 22121376M (http://openlibrary.org/books/OL22121376M). • Restarick, Henry B. (1928). "Historic Kealakekua Bay". Papers of the Hawaiian Historical Society (Honolulu: The Bulletin Publishing Company). hdl: 10524/964 (http://hdl.handle.net/10524/964).

External links • Lieutenant Nathaniel Portlock's Logbook of the Assistant (http://www.fatefulvoyage.com/providencePortlock/ index.html), with brief biographical notes • Will of Nathaniel Portlock (http://www.captaincooksociety.com/ccsu4522.htm) • Bligh Encyclopedia (http://library.puc.edu/pitcairn/bounty/encyclopedia.shtml), Pitcairn Islands Study Centre, retrieved 16 February 2012, text from Sven Wahlroos (2001), Mutiny and Romance in the South Seas: A Companion to the Bounty Adventure, ISBN 978-0-595-13807-4, OCLC 150457732 (http://www.worldcat.org/ oclc/150457732) • Pieter van der Merwe (2008-09-2008), Nathaniel Portlock's origins - sources? (http://www.swmaritime.org. uk/forums/thread.php?threadid=1199) , information from National Maritime Museum database

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Robert Gray (sea captain)

174

Robert Gray (sea captain) For other people of the same name, see Robert Gray (disambiguation).

Captain Robert Gray

Captain Gray (not showing his lack of one eye) Born

May 10, 1755 Tiverton, Rhode Island

Died

July 1806 at sea

Occupation merchant sea-captain, explorer Spouse(s)

Martha

Robert Gray (May 10, 1755 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; c. July, 1806) was an American merchant sea-captain who is known for his achievements in connection with two trading voyages to the northern Pacific coast of North America, between 1790 and 1793, which pioneered the American maritime fur trade in that region. In the course of those voyages, Gray explored portions of that coast and, in 1790, completed the first American circumnavigation of the world. Perhaps his most remembered accomplishment from his explorations was his coming upon and then naming of the Columbia River, in 1792 while on his second voyage. Gray's earlier and later life are both comparatively obscure. He was born in Tiverton, Rhode Island, and may have served in the Continental Navy during the American Revolutionary War. After his two famous voyages, he carried on his career as a sea-captain, mainly of merchantmen in the Atlantic. This included what was meant to be a third voyage to the Northwest Coast, but was ended by the capture of his ship by French privateers, during the Franco-American Quasi-War, and command of an American privateer later in that same conflict. Gray died at sea in 1806, near Charleston, South Carolina,[1] possibly of yellow fever.[2] Many geographic features along the Oregon and Washington coasts bear Gray's name, as do numerous schools in the region.

Robert Gray (sea captain)

Early life Robert Gray was born in Tiverton, Rhode Island, on May 10, 1755, to William Gray.[3][4] Little is known of his early life. It is said, but not documented, that he served in the Continental Navy during the American Revolutionary War. He is known, however, to have served in the Triangular trade of South Carolina, aboard the Pacific.[citation needed]

Voyage to the Pacific Northwest Coast 1787-1790 On September 30, 1787, Robert Gray and Captain John Kendrick left Boston in two ships, to trade along the north Pacific coast.[5] They were sent by Boston merchants including Charles Bulfinch.[6] Bulfinch and the other financial backers came up with the idea of trading pelts from the northwest coast of North America and taking them directly to China after Bulfinch had read about Captain Cook’s success doing the same. Bulfinch had read Cook’s Journals, published in 1784, that in Medal made for Gray and Kendrick to take on the voyage. part discussed his success selling sea otter pelts in Canton, and thus the American merchants thought they could copy that success. Prior to this, other America traders, such as Robert Morris, had sent ships to trade with China, notably the Empress of China in 1784, but had had trouble finding goods for which the Chinese would trade. Bulfinch’s learning of Cook's pelt-trading solved this problem, so that New England sea merchants could trade with China profitably. Gray might have been the first American to visit the Northwest Coast, but Simon Metcalfe of the Eleanora may have arrived earlier—perhaps as much as a year earlier. On the voyage of Kendrick and Gray, the ships' cargo included blankets, knives, iron bars, and other trade goods. Both ships had official letters from Congress and passports from Massachusetts for their trading voyage. Kendrick and Gray sailed around Cape Horn at the southern tip of South America, first stopping at the Cape Verde Islands and the Falkland Islands in the Atlantic Ocean. In January after passing Cape Horn, the ships encountered a storm that separated the two vessels and damaged the Columbia Rediviva. The damage forced Kendrick to sail for the nearest port, Juan Fernandez. Juan Fernandez was a Spanish port under the control of Don Blas Gonzalez commandant of the garrison. There the Columbia was repaired before sailing for the northwest coast. Meanwhile Gray reached the coast in August. Upon reaching the coast, Gray ran aground attempting to enter a river near 46° in latitude.[7] Here the ship was attacked by natives, with the ship losing one crew member before freeing itself and proceeding north. On September 17, 1788 the Lady Washington with Gray in command reached Nootka Sound. The Columbia arrived soon after and the two ships wintered at Nootka Sound. They were still in the vicinity when Esteban José Martínez arrived in early May, 1789, to assert Spanish sovereignty. A number of British merchant ships soon arrived as well, and conflict between the Spanish and British resulted in the Nootka Crisis, which almost resulted in war between the two nations. Martínez seized a number of ships, including the Princess Royal. The two American ships were left alone, although Martínez captured a third American ship, the Fair American, when it arrived at Nootka Sound in the fall of 1789. Robert Gray witnessed much of the Nootka Incident.

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Robert Gray (sea captain)

Gray's men battling Native Americans near Tillamook Bay

176 During their trading up and down the coastlines of what is now British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California the two explored many bays and inland waters. In 1788 Gray encountered Captain John Meares of England. Meares subsequently published reports and maps of the Pacific Northwest that included a voyage by Robert Gray through a large, imaginary inland sea between the Strait of Juan de Fuca and Dixon Entrance. When George Vancouver asked Gray about this in 1792 Gray said he never made such a voyage.

In 1788 Gray had attempted to enter a large river, but was unable to due to the tides, this river being the Columbia River. At the outset of the voyage, Gray captained the Lady Washington and Kendrick captained the Columbia Rediviva, but the captains swapped vessels during the voyage, putting Gray in command of the Columbia. After the switch, Kendrick stayed on the North American coast trading for pelts and furs, while Gray sailed their existing cargo of pelts to China, stopping off at the Sandwich Islands en route. Gray arrived in Canton in early 1790 and traded his cargo for large amounts of tea. Gray then continued on west, sailing through the Indian Ocean, around the Cape of Good Hope, and across the Atlantic, arriving back in Boston on August 9, 1790. As such, the Columbia became the first American vessel to circumnavigate the globe. Although the commercial venture was disappointing, Gray was paraded through Boston for the circumnavigation accomplishment.[8] Accompanying Gray was a Hawaiian native, dressed in traditional Hawaiian dress, who had taken passage on the Columbia. Gray then attended a reception held in his honor by governor John Hancock. Also on this voyage, Kendrick and Gray were instructed to purchase as much land as they could from native Indians in the region. Kendrick did so on at least two occasions, including on August 5, 1791, when he purchased 18 square miles (47 km2) from a native tribe, near latitude 49°50′N, this purchase occurring while Gray had completed his voyage and since returned. The success in profits realized by this voyage had the most immediate effect of Gray's setting out for the north Pacific coast again, only six weeks after returning thence. The further effect was that other New England sea merchants began to send vessels of their own thither, to take part in this new trade opportunity, including the dispatch of the Hope in September 1790, under the command of Joseph Ingraham, Gray's first mate on his first voyage. Within a few years, many Yankee merchants were involved in the continuous trade of pelts to China, and by 1801 sixteen American vessels were engaged in this triangular route. These mercantile activities encroached upon territorial claims by other nations to this disputed region, notably those of Spain and of Russia, and in the coming years they would be used in support of American claims the Oregon Country, and would contribute to the limiting to California and to Alaska, respectively, the Spanish and Russian claims.

Robert Gray (sea captain)

Return to the Pacific Northwest Coast, 1790-1793 Main article: Robert Gray's Columbia River expedition Gray set sail for the northwest coast again in the Columbia on September 28, 1790, reaching his destination in 1792.[9] Gray and Kendrick rejoined each other for a time, after Gray's return to the region. On this voyage Gray, though he was still a private merchant, was sailing under papers of the United States of America signed by Winter Quarters, established by Capt.Gray and President George Washington. Gray put in at Nootka Sound on June 5, the crew of the Columbia Rediviva in Adventure Cove in Clayoquot Sound; painting ca1793, by 1791, and wintered at a stockade they built and named Fort Defiance. George Davidson Over this winter the crew built a 45-ton sloop named Adventure, which was launched in the spring with Grayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s first mate, Robert Haswell, in charge. He sailed as far north as the Queen Charlotte Islands during this voyage. Once April came Gray and the Columbia sailed south while the Adventure sailed north. After wintering on Vancouver Island, Gray set sail again on April 2, 1792 when he left the trading post of Clayoquot. As he departed Gray ordered the destruction of the Nuu-chah-nulth (Nootka) village of Opitsitah (Opitsaht).[10] The attack was a retaliation for insults he thought he had endured and in response to rumors of a plot against his men conceived by some local natives and a Sandwich Islander of his own crew. The plot may have been real, but might have been a misunderstanding. The village of Opitsaht which consisted of about 200 houses with much carved workâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;a "fine village, the Work of Ages", according to Gray's officer John Boit, which was "in a short time totally destroy'd". Fortunately, it was deserted at the time. John Boit, the keeper of his own ship's log wrote that Gray had let his passions go too far.[11] In 2005, descendants of Gray formally apologized for the destruction of Opitsaht.[12] Gray ordered several other attacks during the 1792 voyage. In May 1792 Gray ordered an attack on a Chicklisaht Nuu-chah-nulth village in Esperanza Inlet or Nasparti Inlet north of Nootka Sound, killing seven and seizing the natives' sea otter furs. The Chicklisaht took their wounded to the Spanish post at Nootka Sound and asked the commandant, Bodega y Quadra, to punish Gray. This attack came after a breakdown in trading negotiations. The price of sea otter furs had increased dramatically since the late 1780s. Gray was one of a number of captains who decided to use force to acquire furs. Later in 1792, in Grays Harbor, Captain Gray fired on a group of Chinooks, killing twenty. Still later, in Clayoquot Sound again, Gray killed or wounded at least 25 natives who were approaching his ship in a war canoe during the night. He battled a group of Kwakiutls in late 1792. During his 1792 journey aboard the Columbia Rediviva Gray noticed muddy waters flowing from shore and decided to investigate whether he might have encountered the "Great River of the West." While waiting for favorable weather, on April 29 Gray spotted a ship and exchanged greetings with her. This ship was the HMS Discovery commanded by British Naval officer Captain George Vancouver. The two captains met and discussed the geography of the coastlines: Gray told Vancouver about the large river he had attempted to enter in 1788, but Vancouver doubted there was a large river at that latitude. So Gray continued south, leaving the Strait of Juan de Fuca on April 30, 1792, trading for more pelts as the ship sailed. On May 7, he took the Columbia into the estuarine bay of Grays Harbor, Washington. (Gray himself actually named this Bullfinch Harbor, but Vancouver's after-the-fact choice was the name that stuck.)

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Robert Gray (sea captain)

Entering the Columbia Afterward, Gray carried on south to what was, he rightly suspected, the mouth of a great river, and looked further for a way into this river. On May 11 his men discovered what he sought, and he ordered a small sailboat launched to attempt to find a safe passage across the sand bars in the process known as sounding. Finally in the evening of May 11, 1792, Gray's men found a safe channel, and so ship and crew sailed into the estuary of the Columbia River.[13] Once there, they sailed upriver and Gray named this large river Columbia after his ship. After entering the Columbia, they were met by many natives in their canoes, while the crew prepared to take on fresh water. The ship and crew traveled approximately 13 miles (21 km) upriver[14] and traded items such as nails for Sketch of the Columbia on the river pelts, salmon, and animal meat over a nine-day period.[15] In addition to naming bearing her name the river, Gray also named other landmarks such as Adams Point and Cape Hancock. However, many of these places have since been renamed. The farthest point Gray explored upriver is now known as Grays Bay, and the river that flows into it Grays River. These names were not given by Gray, but by William Broughton, George Vancouver's lieutenant, who explored the Columbia in October 1792. Robert Gray had made a chart of the bay and the mouth of the river and a copy was acquired by Vancouver. Gray's success in entering the river would eventually form part of the basis for U.S. territorial claims to the Oregon Country. On May 20, Gray and crew sailed from the Columbia, heading north to rendezvous with their sloop Adventure before setting sail for China.[16]

At Nootka Sound On July 22, 1792 Gray sailed the Columbia into the Nootka Sound accompanied by the Hope under Ingraham. Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra was present as the commandant of the Spanish settlement there. Bodega was awaiting the arrival of George Vancouver so that the two could implement the first Nootka Convention. Bodega had intended to turn over the entire establishment to Vancouver, but while waiting for Vancouver he began to change his mind. Over the summer Bodega had begun to realize that John Meares had not only greatly exaggerated his losses during the Nootka Crisis, but had illegally operated British trading ships under the flag of Portugal. When Gray and Ingraham arrived at Nootka Vancouver was still en route. Bodega took the opportunity to ask the Americans if they would give him their account of the events of 1789 that led to the Nootka Crisis. Ingraham answered Bodega's letter at length. He wrote, "as I knew every circumstance, Captain Gray desired I would answer and he would sign it jointly." According to the letter signed by Ingraham and Gray, Meares had made many false claims about the events of 1789. The Portuguese ships, Ingraham said, were definitely British ships pretending to be Portuguese. The "house" that Meares said he built at Nootka Sound, and which was explicitly mentioned in the Nootka Convention, was only a "rough hut", built and torn down in 1788. By 1789, when the Spanish arrived, "there was no vestige of any house remaining". The Nootka Convention said that Spain had seized buildings and that these must be restored to Britain. Further, Ingraham wrote that Meares not purchased any land from Maquinna, as claimed. About the arrest of James Colnett by Esteban José Martínez, Ingraham and Gray wrote that Colnett had insulted and threatened Martínez, and that Colnett had drawn his sword on Martínez, justifying Colnett's arrest. The letter closed with a statement of friendship: "We sincerely hope, sir, when things are represented with truth, it will rescue our friend Don Estevan J. Martínez from censure... As to the treatment of the Americans by Don Estevan, we have ever testified to it in terms due to such hospitality, and we are again happy to have it in our power to do what we deem justice to his conduct." It should be noted that the Americans were not a neutral party. The United States had only gained its independence

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Robert Gray (sea captain) from Britain through war a few years before. Also, the Americans were in direct competition with the British, but not the Spanish, for the fur trade of the North West coast. It was in their interest to support the Spanish case. Bodega was pleased to receive Ingraham and Gray's account. Once Vancouver arrived, Bodega used the report, along with other tactics, to force Vancouver into a diplomatic deadlock once negotiations had begun. Were it not for Ingraham and Gray's letter, along with Vancouver's late arrival, and several other factors, it is likely that Bodega would have turned the entire Spanish establishment at Nootka over to the British. Instead, Bodega offered only to turn over the small cove where Meares had built his hut in 1789. Vancouver could not accept this. In the end the two agreed to let their governments work it out. As a result, the settlement at Nootka remained Spanish for several years, until under the third Nootka Convention both nations agreed to abandon the port. While Gray was at Nootka Sound, Bodega provided a small house near his own. Gray stayed there until he left Nootka Sound. In addition, Bodega had the Columbia repaired by the Spanish caulkers, blacksmiths, and carpenters. Bodega also provided fresh food, such as vegetables and hot bread, every day. When Gray and Ingraham left they were given large amounts of food, such as salmon, pork, eggs, butter, fresh bread, wine, brandy, and large amounts of cabbage and salad. Bodega refused any payment for any of his services. Ingraham wrote in his journal, "Considering the part of the world we were in, I thought this a very handsome present. Not a day passed during our stay in this port, but every ship—without respect to nation or person—received marks of Don Juan's hospitality." In September most of the ships that had visited Nootka Sound left, including the Columbia, under Gray, along with the sloop Adventure. Bodega also left, on the Activa. Bodega and Gray met shortly after leaving and agreed to sail to Neah Bay where, in the last week of September, Bodega purchased the Adventure from Gray. After this, Gray took the Columbia across the Strait of Juan de Fuca to Port San Juan (today the site of Port Renfrew, British Columbia), where the final preparations were made for the long voyage across the Pacific. Gray left North America on October 3, 1792, arriving in the Hawaiian Islands on October 29, and in Macau on December, 8.

Return to Boston In Canton, Gray again traded his cargo for tea and then sailed west towards the Atlantic Coast of the United States. Gray returned to Boston in July 1793, after again circumnavigating the globe. On February 3, 1794, he took a wife named Martha Atkins, in a marriage performed in Boston by the Reverend John Eliott. The couple had five children together.

Role in the Quasi-War Later in his career, Gray was involved in the Franco-American Quasi-War of 1798–1800, an undeclared and purely maritime conflict related to the Napoleonic Wars.[17] On September 10, 1798, Gray set sail from Salem in command of the bark Alert, on another trading voyage bound for the Northwest Coast, where he was meant to spend a season or two fur-trading, and thence for Canton and home again, as before. This voyage was cut short while yet outbound, though, by the capture of Gray's ship in the South Atlantic, by a French privateer. Alert was taken by La Republicaine on November 17, about 500 miles (800 km) east of Rio de Janeiro, then sailed by a prize crew (though under Gray's command) to the Spanish port of Montevideo, on the River Plate, arriving on December 14. There, Alert and its cargo were sold as prizes of the French ship. Alert left port on January 11, with a Spanish crew under the Spanish flag, bound for the Pacific. Gray returned to the United States and went on with his sailing career. In 1799, Gray commanded the privateer Lucy in the continuing issue with the French. The Lucy was a 12-gun ship with a crew of twenty-five.

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Robert Gray (sea captain)

180

Later voyages and death On November 21, 1800, Gray left Boston in command of the schooner James, with a cargo of iron and stone ballast, bound for Rio de Janeiro, where he arrived on April 18, 1801. He also made subsequent voyages to England and the southern United States. Gray died at sea in 1806, near Charleston, South Carolina. The cause of his death is believed to have been yellow fever. He left behind his wife and four daughters, who later petitioned the U.S. Congress for a government pension, based on his voyages and a claim that he was a naval officer for the Continental Navy during the Revolutionary War.

Legacy Gray did not publish his geographic discoveries on the Columbia River, nor those elsewhere along the Pacific coast. Captain Vancouver did publish Gray's discoveries in England, along with his own explorations, and gave Gray credit. At the time these discoveries by Gray did not gain him any renown nor were thought important. However, the trading opportunities Gray pioneered (in regard to Americans) were soon followed up by other New England merchants, with the result that the Indians of the Northwest Coast came to call Americans "Boston men". Moreover, Gray's priority in entering of the Martha Gray's petition to Congress. Columbia was later used by the United States in support of its territorial claims to what Americans called the Oregon Country. The rival British claimants called the more southerly portion of this disputed area the Columbia District, which they derived from the river-name chosen by Gray. Columbia District eventually lent itself to the name of the mid-19th century colony of British Columbia. When that colony joined Canada in 1871, it became the existing province of British Columbia.

Namesakes • Grays Harbor and Grays Harbor County, in Washington State • Grays Bay, on the north shore of the Columbia River estuary • Grays Point, at the west of Grays Bay • Grays River, a tributary of the Columbia River, flowing into Grays Bay • Grays River, Washington, a small, unincorporated rural village on the river of the same name • Robert Gray Avenue in Tiverton, Rhode Island • Robert Gray Middle School in Portland, Oregon • Robert Gray Middle School in Tacoma, Washington • Captain Robert Gray Elementary in Astoria, Oregon • Robert Gray Elementary School in Aberdeen, Washington • Robert Gray Elementary School in Longview, Washington • Robert Gray Elementary School in Pasco, Washington

Map of Grays Harbor in Washington

Robert Gray (sea captain)

Notes [1] Lockley [2] Howay, p.xiv [3] Oregon Blue Book (online) [4] Corning, Howard M. (1989) Dictionary of Oregon History. Binfords & Mort Publishing. p. 103. [5] Greely [6] Kushner [7] Hittell [8] Skinner [9] Flora [10] within territory of Tla-o-qui-aht First Nations (formerly referred to as the Clayoquot), one of the Nuu-chah-nulth First Nations [11] John Boit Describes European-Indian Violence, 1791-1792 (http:/ / www. washington. edu/ uwired/ outreach/ cspn/ Website/ Classroom Materials/ Curriculum Packets/ Indians & Europeans/ Documents/ 18. html), Center for the Study of the Pacific Northwest, University of Washington. [12] Fur trader's descendants apologize to B.C. Indians (http:/ / seattletimes. nwsource. com/ html/ localnews/ 2002388380_webdescendants18. html), The Seattle Times [13] Garibaldi Museum [14] Mussulman [15] Oldham [16] Makela [17] The American Historical Review

References Books • Greely, Adolphus Washington (1893). Explorers and Travelers. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. • Hittell, Theodore Henry (1885). History of California, v. 3-4. Occidental Publishing. • Howay, Frederic W. (1941). Voyages of the Columbia to the Northwest Coast. Boston: The Massachusetts Historical Society. • Kushner, Howard I. (1975). Conflict on the Northwest Coast: American-Russian Rivalry in the Pacific Northwest, 1790-1867. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. xii/227pp. ISBN 0-8371-7873-8. • Lockley, Fred (1929). Oregon Trail Blazers. New York, NY: The Knickerbocker Press. p. 369pp. LCCN 29030534. • Skinner, Constance Lindsay (1920). Adventurers of Oregon: A Chronicle of the Fur Trade. Yale University Press.

Journal articles • "The River Plate Voyages, 1798-1800". The American Historical Review (American Historical Association) 23 (4): 816–826. July 1918. doi: 10.2307/1836335 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1836335). JSTOR 1836335 (http:/ /www.jstor.org/stable/1836335).

Websites • Flora, Stephenie (n.d.). "Captain Robert Gray" (http://www.oregonpioneers.com/gray.htm). The Oregon Territory and its Pioneers: Northwest Explorers. OregonPioneers.com. Retrieved 2006-12-11. • Garibaldi Museum (n.d.). "Captain Robert Gray" (http://www.garibaldimuseum.com/aboutGray.htm). Garibaldi Museum: Maritime History. Garibaldi Museum. Retrieved 2006-12-11. • Makela, Virginia (n.d.). "Captain Robert Gray" (http://web.archive.org/web/20060831110207/http://www. tacoma.k12.wa.us/schools/ms/gray/historycaptaingray.htm). Gray Middle School: History Pages. Tacoma Public Schools. Archived from the original (http://www.tacoma.k12.wa.us/schools/ms/gray/ historycaptaingray.htm) on 2006-08-31. Retrieved 2006-12-26.

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• Mussulman, Joseph. "Great River of the West" (http://www.lewis-clark.org/content/content-article. asp?ArticleID=577). Discovering Lewis & Clark. VIAs Inc. Retrieved 2006-12-11. • Oldham, Kit (2003). "Captain Robert Gray becomes the first non-Indian navigator to enter the Columbia River, which he later names, on May 11, 1792" (http://www.historylink.org/essays/output.cfm?file_id=5051). HistoryLink.org: The Online Encyclopedia of Washington State History. History Ink. Retrieved 2006-12-11. • Oregon State Archives (2005). "Notable Oregonians: Robert Gray — Captain/Explorer" (http://bluebook.state. or.us/notable/notgray.htm). Oregon Blue Book. Oregon Secretary of State. Retrieved 2006-12-11.

Further reading • Munro, Wilfred Harold (1917). Tales of an Old Seaport. Princeton University Press.

External links • The Oregon History Project: Winter Quarters (http://www.ohs.org/education/oregonhistory/ historical_records/dspDocument.cfm?doc_ID=3453158D-B6D9-F652-89BB0231055431DB) • The Oregon History Project: The Coming of Robert Gray (http://www.ohs.org/education/oregonhistory/ narratives/subtopic.cfm?subtopic_ID=8)

Great White Fleet The Great White Fleet was the popular nickname for the United States Navy battle fleet that completed a circumnavigation of the globe from 16 December 1907 to 22 February 1909 by order of U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt.[1][1] It consisted of 16 battleships divided into two squadrons, along with various escorts. Roosevelt sought to demonstrate growing American military power and blue-water navy capability. Hoping to enforce treaties and protect overseas holdings, the U.S. Congress appropriated funds to build American sea power. Beginning with just 90 small ships, over one-third of them wooden, the navy quickly grew to include new modern steel fighting vessels. The hulls of these ships were painted a stark white, giving the armada the nickname "Great White Fleet".[2]

Map of the Great White Fleet's voyage (2009 political boundaries shown).

Great White Fleet

Background and purpose In the twilight of United States President Theodore Roosevelt's administration, Roosevelt dispatched sixteen U.S. Navy battleships of the Atlantic Fleet on a worldwide voyage of circumnavigation from 16 December 1907 to 22 February 1909. The hulls were painted white, the Navy's peacetime color scheme, decorated with gilded scrollwork with a red, white, and blue banner on their bows. These ships would later come to be known as the Great White Fleet. The purpose of the fleet deployment was multifaceted. Ostensibly, it Flagship Connecticut: one of a set of commemorative postcards of the ships of the served as a showpiece of American goodwill as the fleet visited Great White Fleet numerous countries and harbors. In this, the voyage was not unprecedented. Naval courtesy calls, many times in conjunction with the birthdays of various monarchs and other foreign celebrations, had become common in the 19th century. They became increasingly important with the rise of nationalism. In 1891, a large French fleet visited Kronstadt, Russia in conjunction with negotiations between the two nations. Although France and Russia had been hostile to each other for at least three decades prior, the significance of the call was not lost on Russia, and Tsar Nicholas II signed a treaty of alliance with France in 1894. As navies grew larger, naval pageants grew longer, more elaborate and more frequent. The United States began participating in these events in 1902 when Roosevelt invited Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany to send a squadron for a courtesy call to New York City. Invitations for U.S. Navy ships to participate in fleet celebrations in the United Kingdom, France and Germany followed.[3] Additionally, the voyage of the Great White Fleet demonstrated both at home and on the world stage that the U.S. had become a major sea power in the years after its triumph in the Spanish-American War, with possessions that included Guam, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico.[1] It was not the first flexing of U.S. naval muscle since that war, however; during the Algeciras Conference in 1906, which was convened to settle a diplomatic crisis between France and Germany over the fate of Morocco, Roosevelt had ordered eight battleships to maintain a presence in the Mediterranean Sea.[4] Since Japan had arisen as a major sea power with the 1905 annihilation of the Russian fleet at Tsushima, the deployment of the Great White Fleet was therefore intended, at least in part, to send a message to Tokyo that the American fleet could be deployed anywhere, even from its Atlantic ports, and would be able to defend American interests in the Philippines and the Pacific. This gesture capitalized on a war scare that had resulted from anti-Japanese riots in San Francisco. Roosevelt saw the deployment of the fleet as one that would take the American public's mind off an economic depression that had begun in 1907, encourage patriotism and give the impression that he would teach Japan "a lesson in polite behavior," as historian Robert A. Hart phrased it.[5] Roosevelt did so on the assurance from financial experts that Japan had been drained from the Russo-Japanese War and would not be ready for another conflict for at least a decade.[5] After the fleet had crossed the Pacific, Japanese statesmen realized that the balance of power in the East had changed since the Root–Takahira Agreement that defined relevant spheres of interest of the United States and Japan. The voyage also provided an opportunity to improve the sea- and battle-worthiness of the fleet. While earlier capital ship classes such as the Kearsarge, Illinois and Maine were designed primarily for coastal defense, later classes such as the Virginia and Connecticut incorporated lessons learned from the Spanish-American War and were conceived as ships with "the highest practicable speed and the greatest radius of action," in the words of the appropriation bills approved by the United States Congress for their construction. They were intended as modern warships capable of long-range operations. Nevertheless, the experience gained in the recent war with Spain had been limited.[6]

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Concerns and preparations Roosevelt's stated intent was to give the navy practice in navigation, communication, coal consumption and fleet maneuvering; navy professionals maintained, however, that such matters could be served better in home waters. In light of what had happened to the Russian Baltic Fleet, they were concerned about sending their own fleet on a long deployment, especially since part of the intent was to impress a modern, battle-tested navy that had not known defeat. The fleet was untested in making such a voyage, and Tsushima had proven that extended deployments had no place in practical strategy.[7] The Japanese navy was close to coaling and repair facilities; while American ships could coal in the Philippines, docking facilities were far from optimal. An extended stop on the West Coast of the United States during the voyage for overhaul and refurbishment in dry dock would be a necessity. Planning for the voyage, however, showed a dearth of adequate facilities there, as well. The main sea channel of the Mare Island Navy Yard near San Francisco was too shallow for battleships, which left only the Puget Sound Navy Yard in Bremerton, Washington for refit and repair. The Hunter's Point civilian yard in San Francisco could accommodate capital ships but had been closed due to lack of use and was slated for demolition. President Roosevelt ordered that Hunter's Point be reopened, facilities be brought up to date and the fleet to report there.[8] There was also the question of adequate resources for coaling. This was not an issue when the Atlantic Fleet cruised the Atlantic or Caribbean, as fuel supplies were readily available. However, the United States did not enjoy a worldwide network of coaling stations like that of Great Britain, nor did it have an adequate supply of auxiliary vessels for resupply. During the Spanish-American War, this lack had forced Admiral George Dewey to buy a collier-load of British coal in Hong Kong before the Battle of Manila Bay to ensure his squadron would not be stranded at sea. The need had been even more pressing for the Russian Baltic Fleet during its long deployment during the Russo-Japanese War, not just for the distance it was to sail but also because, as a belligerent nation in wartime, most neutral ports were closed to it due to international law. While the lack of support vessels was pointed out and a vigorous program of building such ships suggested by Rear Admiral George W. Melville, who had served as chief of the Bureau of Equipment, his words were not heeded adequately until World War II.[9] Federal regulations that restricted resupply vessels for Navy ships to those flying the United States flag, complicated by the lack of an adequate American merchant marine, proved another obstacle. Roosevelt initially offered to award Navy supply contracts to American skippers whose bids exceeded those of foreign captains by more than 50 percent. Many carriers declined this offer due to the fact that they could not obtain enough cargo to cover the cost of the return trip. Two months before the fleet sailed, Roosevelt ordered the Navy Department to contract 38 ships to supply the fleet with the 125,000 pounds of coal it would need to steam from Hampton Roads, Virginia to San Francisco. Only eight of these were American-registered; most of the other 30 were of British registry. This development was potentially awkward, since part of the mission was to impress Japan with the perception of overwhelming American naval power. Britain had become a military ally of Japan in 1905, which obligated it to aid Japan should a foreign power declare war against it. Technically, the list of potential combatants included the United States. The British government decided to play both sides of the political fence with the intent of moderating any Japanese-American friction that might arise.[10]

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Voyage As the Panama Canal was not yet complete, the fleet had to pass through the Straits of Magellan. The scope of such an operation was unprecedented in U.S. history, as ships had to sail from all points of the compass to rendezvous points and proceed according to a carefully orchestrated, well-conceived plan. It involved almost the entire operational capability of the U.S. Navy. Unlike the badly coordinated moves of the Russian fleet on its voyage from the Baltic to the Pacific, which eventually led to its destruction by the Japanese in 1905,[11] the U.S. effort benefited from a peaceful environment which aided the coordination of ship movements. The voyage itself eventually set a number of world records including sheer number of ships simultaneously circumnavigating the earth. [citation needed]

The Kansas sails ahead of the Vermont as the fleet leaves Hampton Roads, Virginia, on 16 December 1907.

In port after port, citizens in the thousands turned out to see and greet the fleet. In 1908 The Great White Fleet visited Monterey, California, from 1â&#x20AC;&#x201C;4 May. The nearby Hotel Del Monte in Del Monte, California hosted a grand ball for the officers of the fleet. Years later the Del Monte was taken over by the U.S. Navy in 1942 for use as the Del Monte Pre-Flight School for pilots and after World War II the Naval Postgraduate School was relocated there. A 1908 postcard welcoming the fleet to Australia

In Australia the arrival of the Great White Fleet on 20 August 1908 was used to encourage support for the forming of Australia's own navy. When the fleet sailed into Yokohama, the Japanese went to extraordinary lengths to show that their country desired peace with the U.S.; thousands of Japanese schoolchildren waved American flags to greet navy officials as they came ashore.[citation needed] In Sicily, the sailors helped in recovery operations after the 1908 Messina earthquake. In February 1909, Roosevelt was in Hampton Roads, Virginia, to witness the triumphant return of the fleet from its long voyage, and The Fleet Passing Through the Magellan Straits what he saw as a fitting finish for his administration. To the officers by naval artist Henry Reuterdahl, who traveled and men of the fleet Roosevelt said, "Other nations may do what you with the fleet on the USS Culgoa have done, but they'll have to follow you." This parting act of grand strategy by Roosevelt greatly expanded foreign respect for the United States, as well as its role in the international arena.[citation needed]

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Fleet composition The fourteen-month long voyage was a grand pageant of American seapower. The squadrons were manned by 14,000 sailors. They covered some 43,000 nautical miles (80,000 km) and made twenty port calls on six continents. The fleet was impressive, especially as a demonstration of American industrial prowess (all eighteen ships had been constructed since the Spanish-American War), but already the battleships represented the suddenly outdated 'pre-dreadnought' type of capital ship, as the first battleships of the revolutionary Dreadnought class had just entered service, and the U.S. Navy's first dreadnought, South Carolina, was already fitting out. The two oldest President Theodore Roosevelt (on the 12-inch (30 cm) gun turret at right) addresses officers and ships in the fleet, Kearsarge and Kentucky, were already obsolete and crewmen on Connecticut, in Hampton Roads, unfit for battle; two others, Maine and Alabama, had to be detached at Virginia, upon her return from the Fleet's cruise San Francisco, California because of mechanical troubles and were around the world, 22 February 1909. replaced by the Nebraska and the Wisconsin. (After repairs, Alabama and Maine completed their "own, more direct, circumnavigation of the globe" via Honolulu, Guam, Manila, Singapore, Colombo, Suez, Naples, Gibraltar, the Azores, and finally back to the United States, arriving on 20 October 1908 long before the remainder of the fleet, which had taken a more circuitous route.) The battleships were accompanied during the first leg of their voyage by a "Torpedo Flotilla" of six early destroyers, as well as by several auxiliary ships. The destroyers and their tender did not actually steam in company with the battleships, but followed their own itinerary from Hampton Roads, Virginia to San Francisco, California.

General fleet itinerary With the Connecticut[1] as flagship under the command of Rear Admiral Robley D. Evans, the fleet sailed from Hampton Roads on 16 December 1907 for Trinidad, British West Indies, thence to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Punta Arenas, Chile; Callao, Peru; Magdalena Bay, Mexico, and up the West Coast, arriving at San Francisco, 6 May 1908. At San Francisco, Rear Admiral Charles S. Sperry assumed command of the fleet, owing to the poor health of Admiral Evans. Also at San Francisco, the squadrons were slightly rearranged, bringing the newest and best ships in the fleet up to the First Squadron. The Glacier was detached and later became the supply ship of the Pacific Fleet. At this time also, the Nebraska, under Captain Reginald F. Nicholson, and the Wisconsin, under Captain Frank E. Beatty, were substituted for the Maine and Alabama. In San Francisco, Minnesota was brought forward into First Squadron, First Division and Louisiana took her place as flagship, Second Squadron. Leaving that port on 7 July 1908 the U.S. Atlantic Fleet visited Honolulu; Auckland, New Zealand; Sydney and Melbourne, Australia; Manila, Philippines; Yokohama, Japan; Colombo, Ceylon; arriving at Suez, Egypt, on 3 January 1909.

Connecticut leads the way for the Great White Fleet in 1907.

The Great White Fleet arriving to a crowd at the Port of Los Angeles, 1908

Great White Fleet

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As mentioned earlier, while the fleet was in Egypt, word was received of an earthquake in Sicily, thus affording an opportunity for the United States to show its friendship to Italy by offering aid to the sufferers. Connecticut, Illinois, Culgoa, and Yankton were dispatched to Messina, Italy at once. The crew of Illinois recovered the bodies of the American consul and his wife, entombed in the ruins. Scorpion, the Fleet's station ship at Constantinople, and Celtic, a refrigerator ship fitted out in New York, were hurried to Messina, relieving Connecticut and Illinois, so that they could continue on the cruise.

Fleet Week celebrations in Auckland, New [12] Zealand.

Leaving Messina on 9 January 1909 the fleet stopped at Naples, Italy, thence to Gibraltar, arriving at Hampton Roads on 22 February 1909. There President Roosevelt reviewed the fleet as it passed into the roadstead.

The first leg from Hampton Roads to San Francisco, 14,556 nautical miles (26,958 km)

Itinerary Port

Arrival

Hampton Roads, Virginia

Departure

Distance to next port

16 December 1907 1,803 nmi (3,339 km)

Port of Spain, Trinidad

23 December 1907 29 December 1907 3,399 nmi (6,295 km)

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

12 January 1908

21 January 1908

2,374 nmi (4,397 km)

Punta Arenas, Chile

1 February 1908

7 February 1908

2,838 nmi (5,256 km)

Callao, Peru

20 February 1908

29 February 1908

3,010 nmi (5,570 km)

Magdalena Bay, Mexico

12 March 1908

11 April 1908

1,132 nmi (2,096 km)

San Francisco, California 6 May 1908

Ships The Fleet, First Squadron and First Division, were commanded by Rear Admiral Robley D. Evans. First Division consisted of four ships of the 1906 Connecticut class: Connecticut, the fleet's flagship, Captain Hugo Osterhaus, Kansas, Captain Charles E. Vreeland, Vermont, Captain William P. Potter, and Louisiana, Captain Richard Wainwright. Second Division was commanded by Rear Admiral William H. Emory. Second Division consisted of four ships of the 1904 Virginia class: Georgia, the division flagship, Captain Henry McCrea, New Jersey, Captain William H. H. Southerland, Rhode Island, Captain Joseph B. Murdock, and Virginia, Captain Seaton Schroeder. Second Squadron and Third Division were commanded by Rear Admiral Charles M. Thomas. Third Division consisted of one Connecticut-class ship and the three ships of the 1902 Maine class: Minnesota, the squadron flagship, Captain John Hubbard, Maine, Captain Giles B. Harber, Missouri, Captain Greenlief A. Merriam, and Ohio, Captain Charles W. Bartlett. Fourth Division was commanded by Rear Admiral Charles S. Sperry. Fourth Division consisted of two ships of the 1901 Illinois class and the two 1900 Kearsarge-class ships: Alabama, the division flagship, Captain Ten Eyck De Witt Veeder, Illinois, Captain John M. Bowyer, Kearsarge, Captain Hamilton Hutchins, and Kentucky, Captain

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188

Walter C. Cowles. The fleet auxiliaries consisted of Culgoa (a storeship), Lieutenant Commander John B. Patton, Glacier (a storeship), Commander William S. Hogg, Panther (a repair ship), Commander Valentine S. Nelson, Yankton (a tender), Lieutenant Walter R. Gherardi, and Relief (a hospital ship). The "Torpedo Flotilla" of destroyers consisted of Hopkins, Lieutenant Alfred G. Howe, Stewart, Lieutenant Julius F. Hellweg, Hull, Lieutenant Frank McCommon, Truxton, Lieutenant Charles S. Kerrick, Lawrence, Lieutenant Ernest Friedrick, Whipple, Lieutenant Hutch I. Cone, and Arethusa (a tender), Commander Albert W. Grant.

Second leg The second leg of the voyage was from San Francisco to Puget Sound and back The Fleet, First Squadron, and First Division were commanded by Rear Admiral Charles S. Sperry. First Division consisted of Connecticut, the Fleet's flagship, Captain Hugo Osterhaus Kansas, Captain Charles E. Vreeland Minnesota, Captain John Hubbard Vermont, Captain William P. Potter Second Division was commanded by Rear Admiral Richard Wainwright. Second Division consisted of Georgia, the Division flagship, Captain Edward F. Qualtrough, Nebraska, Captain Reginald F. Nicholson, replacing her sister Virginia, New Jersey, Captain William H.H. Southerland, and Rhode Island, Captain Joseph B. Murdock.

The fleet in San Francisco: Virginia is closest to the camera, with the other ships anchored nearby.

Second Squadron and Third Division were commanded by Rear Admiral William H. Emory. Third Division consisted of Louisiana, the Squadron's flagship, Captain Kossuth Niles, Virginia, Captain Alexander Sharp, Missouri, Captain Robert M. Doyle, and Ohio, Captain Thomas B. Howard. Fourth Division was commanded by Rear Admiral Seaton Schroeder. Fourth Division consisted of Wisconsin, the Division flagship, Captain Frank E. Beatty, which replaced her sister Alabama, Illinois, Captain John M. Bowyer, Kearsarge, Captain Hamilton Hutchins, and Kentucky, Captain Walter C. Cowles. The Fleet Auxiliaries were Culgoa (a storeship), Lieutenant Commander John B. Patton, Yankton (a tender), Lieutenant Commander Charles B. McVay, Glacier (a storeship), Commander William S. Hogg, Relief (a hospital ship), Surgeon Charles F. Stokes, and Panther (a repair ship), Commander Valentine S. Nelson.

Third leg from San Francisco to Manila, 16,336 nautical miles (30,254Â km)

Itinerary

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189

Port

Arrival

San Francisco, California

Departure

Distance to next port

7 July 1908

2,126 nmi (3,937 km)

Honolulu, Hawaii

16 July 1908

22 July 1908

3,870 nmi (7,170 km)

Auckland, New Zealand

9 August 1908

15 August 1908

1,307 nmi (2,421 km)

Sydney, Australia

20 August 1908

28 August 1908

601 nmi (1,113 km)

Melbourne, Australia

29 August 1908

5 September 1908

1,368 nmi (2,534 km)

Albany, Australia

11 September 1908 18 September 1908 3,458 nmi (6,404 km)

Manila, Philippine Islands 2 October 1908

9 October 1908

1,795 nmi (3,324 km)

Yokohama, Japan

18 October 1908

25 October 1908

1,811 nmi (3,354 km)

Amoy, China (Second Squadron)

29 October 1908

5 November 1908

Manila, Philippine Islands 31 October 1908 (First Squadron) Manila, Philippine Islands 7 November 1908 (Second Squadron)

Ships The Fleet, First Squadron, and First Division were commanded by Rear Admiral Charles S. Sperry. First Division consisted of Connecticut, the Fleet's flagship, Captain Hugo Osterhaus, Kansas, Captain Charles E. Vreeland, Minnesota, Captain John Hubbard, and Vermont, Captain William P. Potter. Second Division consisted of Georgia, the Division flagship, Captain Edward F. Qualtrough, Nebraska, Captain Reginald F. Nicholson, New Jersey, Captain William H.H. Southerland, and Rhode Island, Captain Joseph B. Murdock. The Second Squadron and Third Division were commanded by Rear Admiral William H. Emory. Third Division consisted of Louisiana, the Squadron flagship, Captain Kossuth Niles, Virginia, Captain Alexander Sharp, Missouri, Captain Robert M. Doyle, and Ohio, Captain Thomas B. Howard. Fourth Division was commanded by Rear Admiral Seaton Schroeder. Fourth Division consisted of Wisconsin, the Division flagship, Captain Frank E. Beatty, Illinois, Captain John M. Bowyer, Kearsarge, Captain Hamilton Hutchins, and Kentucky, Captain Walter C. Cowles. The Fleet Auxiliaries were Culgoa (a storeship), Lieutenant Commander John B. Patton, Yankton (a tender), Lieutenant Commander Charles B. McVay, Glacier (a storeship), Commander William S. Hogg, Relief (a hospital ship), Surgeon Charles F. Stokes, and Panther (a repair ship), Commander Valentine S. Nelson.

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Final leg The final leg ran from Manila to Hampton Roads, 12,455 nautical miles (23,067 km).

Political cartoon from The New York Herald, February 22, 1909. Uncle Sam, George Washington and Theodore Roosevelt welcome the Great White Fleet home to Hampton Roads, Virginia.

Itinerary Port

Arrival

Manila, Philippine Islands

Departure

Distance to next port

1 December 1908

2,985 nmi (5,528 km)

Colombo, Ceylon

13 December 1908

20 December 1908 3,448 nmi (6,386 km)

Suez, Egypt

3 January 1909

4–6 January 1909

Gibraltar

31 January – 1 February 1909 6 February 1909

2,443 nmi (4,524 km) 3,579 nmi (6,628 km)

Hampton Roads, Virginia 22 February 1909

Experience gained The cruise of the Great White Fleet provided practical experience for US naval personnel in sea duty and ship handling. It also showed the viability of US warships for long-range operations as no major mechanical mishaps occurred. However, while the cruise uncovered design flaws, it did not test the abilities to engage in battle fleet action. In fact, the success of the deployment might have helped obscure design deficiencies that were not addressed until World War I. These included excessive draft, low armor belts, large turret openings and exposed ammunition hoists.[13]

Effects on US capital ship design While the capital ships of the Great White Fleet were already obsolescent in light of the "big gun" revolution ushered in by the construction of HMS Dreadnought, their behavior at sea furnished valuable information that affected future construction. For instance, in terms of seaworthiness, all the capital ships in the fleet proved wet in all but the calmest seas, which led to the flared bows of subsequent U.S. battleships, increased freeboard forward and such spray-reducing measures as the elimination of bill-boards for anchors and gun sponsons. Increased freeboard was needed; this and related considerations demanded increases in beam and overall size. Between the Florida-class battleships, the last American capital ships completed before data from the cruise became available, and the Wyoming class, the first designed after this data was received, displacement (and, as a result, cost) per ship increased by one third.[14]

Great White Fleet

Deficiencies in seaworthiness in turn affected the battle-worthiness of the fleet adversely. Turret heights for main armament proved too low and needed to be raised. Secondary armament was useless at speed and especially in trade-wind conditions (with the wind moving over the sea at 10 knots (19 km/h) or greater) and needed to be moved much higher in the hull. Improved placement began with the Wyoming-class battleships and was further refined in the Nevada class. Casemates for the bow 3-inch guns in the newer pre-dreadnoughts were untenable due to wetness and were removed. Another discovery was that, even when January 12, 1908 - Arrival at Rio de Janeiro fully loaded, the bottom of the battleships' side armor was visible—and Fleet enters Guanabara Bay the ships thus vulnerable to shells that might hit beneath it to reach their machinery and magazines—in smooth to moderate seas. The profile of crests and troughs in some ships contributed to this problem. Admiral Evans concluded that the standard 8-foot (2.4 m) width of belt armor to be inadequate.[15] One other necessity the cruise outlined was the need for tactical homogeneity. Before the cruise, critics such as then-Captain William Sims (to whom President Roosevelt listened) had argued that American warship design had remained too conservative and precluded the level of efficiency needed for the fleet to function as an effective unit. The cruise proved the charge true. This would eventually lead to the building of standard type battleships in the U.S. Navy and the construction of new battleship classes in groups of four instead of two. When President Roosevelt convened the 1908 Newport Conference of the Naval War College, he placed responsibility for U.S. battleship design on the General Board of the United States Navy. This gave line officers and planners direct input and control over warship design, a pattern which has persisted to the present day.[16]

Effects on fleet operations Experience gained by the cruise led to improvements in formation steaming, coal economy and morale. Gunnery exercises doubled the fleet's accuracy. However, the mission also underlined the fleet's dependence on foreign colliers and the need for coaling stations and auxiliary ships for coaling and resupply.[13]

References [1] The Cruise of the Great White Fleet (http:/ / www. history. navy. mil/ library/ online/ gwf_cruise. htm) by JO2 [Journalist Second Class] Mike McKinley [2] John Mack Faragher [et al.] Out of Many: a history of the American People. Prentice Hall, 2012. p. 574. [3] Hart 1965, pp. 15-21. [4] Hart 1965, p. 21. [5] Hart 1965, p. 24. [6] Crawford 2008, p. 12. [7] Hart, 1965, pp. 23-24. [8] Albertson 2007, pp. 30-31. [9] Albertson 2007, pp. 31-34. [10] Albertson 2007, pp. 34-35. [11] Semenov [12] The US 'Great White Fleet' arrives in Auckland (http:/ / www. nzhistory. net. nz/ timeline& new_date=9/ 8) (from the 'NZ History' website, retrieved 3 August 2007) [13] Crawford 2008, p. 6. [14] Friedman 1985, pp. 75-85. [15] Friedman 1985, pp. 75-9. [16] Friedman 1985, pp. 75, 82.

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Bibliography World Cruise of the Great White Fleet • Albertson, Mark (2007). They'll Have to Follow You Home!: The Triumph of the Great White Fleet (http:// books.google.com/books?id=1_ApYoXy6kQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=great+white+fleet&hl=en& sa=X&ei=5cmXUOe5IKm1ygG3h4CADQ&ved=0CDsQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=great white fleet&f=false). Mustang, Oklahoma: Tate Publishing & Enterprises LLC. ISBN 978-1-60462-145-7. • Crawford, M. J., The World Cruise of the Great White Fleet: Honoring 100 Years of Global Partnerships and Security. (2008) • Friedman, Norman (1985). U.S. Battleships: An Illustrated Design History (http://books.google.com/ ?id=Y41Ha_3HsrYC). Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-715-1. OCLC 12214729 (http://www. worldcat.org/oclc/12214729). • Hart, R. A., The Great White Fleet: Its Voyage Around the World, 1907–1909. (1965) • Nolte, Carl, "Great White Fleet Visited S.F. 100 Years Ago", San Francisco Chronicle, 6 May 2008 pg. B3. • Reckner, J. R., Teddy Roosevelt's Great White Fleet: The World Cruise of the American Battlefleet, 1907–1909. (1988) • Wimmel, K., Theodore Roosevelt and the Great White Fleet: American Sea Power Comes of Age. (1998)

Russo-Japanese War • Corbett, Julian, Sir. Maritime Operations in the Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905. (1994). Originally classified Secret/Confidential until the 1950s; published in two volumes. ISBN 1557501297 • Pleshakov, Constantine. The Tsar's Last Armada: The Epic Voyage to the Battle of Tsushima. (2002). ISBN 0-465-05792-6 • Semenov, Vladimir, Capt. The Battle of Tsushima. (1912). E.P. Dutton & Co.

External links • • • •

Great White Fleet Website (http://www.greatwhitefleet.info) US Navy Historical Center Site (http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/gwf_cruise.htm) Naval Auxiliary Air Station, Monterey (http://www.militarymuseum.org/NAASMonterey.html) Guide to the Theodore W. Richards Great White Fleet Scrapbook, 1908–1909; 1916; 1945 MS 219 (http://www. usna.edu/Library/sca/findingaids/greatwhite/index.html) held by Special Collection & Archives (http:// www.usna.edu/Library/sca/), Nimitz Library (http://www.usna.edu/Library/) at the United States Naval Academy (http://www.usna.edu)

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Harry Pidgeon

Harry Pidgeon Harry Clifford Pidgeon (August 31, 1869 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; November 4, 1954), was an American sailor, a noted photographer, and was the second person to sail single-handedly around the world (1921-1925), 23 years after Joshua Slocum. Pidgeon was the first person to do this via the Panama Canal, and the first person to solo circumnavigate the world twice. On both trips, he sailed a 34-foot yawl named the Islander, which Pidgeon constructed by himself. He accounts for his adventures in his book, Around the World Single-Handed: The Cruise of the "Islander" (1932). [1]

Biography Harry Clifford Pidgeon was born 31 August 1869 on a farm in Iowa. His father, Isaac Marion Pidgeon, was married 3 times and had a total of 12 children. The family were Quakers. At the age of 15, he set out for California where he found work on a ranch. Before long, he traveled north to Alaska, where he took a raft down the Yukon River and spent some time sailing among the small islands of the southeastern Alaskan coast. Later, he returned to California and traveled and worked in the Sierra Nevada mountains, taking up a career in photography.

Islander In 1917, Pidgeon started constructing the Islander from plans he copied from a book in the local library. He built it in the Port of Los Angeles. The Islander cost $1,000 in materials and took a year and a half of hard work. Upon completion, he tested the yawl with trips to Catalina Island and then to Hawaii and back.

Solo circumnavigations After he gained confidence in his boat and his abilities, Pidgeon set out for the Marquesas Islands on November 18, 1921. This began his first four-year circumnavigation. His leisurely trip included stays in the Marquesas, Samoa, Fiji, New Hebrides, New Guinea, the Torres Strait, Christmas Island, the Cocos Islands, Mauritius, Cape Town, St. Helena, Ascension Island, Trinidad Island, Cristobal, the Panama Canal, and his return to Los Angeles on October 31, 1925. This trip is accounted for in his book, Around the World Single-Handed. In 1926 he was awarded the Blue Water Medal. Starting in 1932, Pidgeon embarked on another solo circumnavigation, this one lasting five years.

Demise of the Islander In 1947, he and his wife (married 6 May 1944) and one crewman set out for yet another circumnavigation. On this trip, on January 23, 1948, the Islander was damaged by rough weather and then broken up on some rocks in the New Hebrides Islands. It was in Hog Harbour on the island of Espiritu Santo. Only some navigation equipment and the sails were salvageable.

Later life He met his wife, Margaret Dexter Gardner, in Byram, Connecticut. Gardner was the daughter of an ocean going sea captain and born aboard the "J.H. Dexter". Of his marriage, Pigeon said, "I have never been married, but now that I was 72 years old, I considered myself sufficiently ripe to give it a try." Pidgeon died of pneumonia on November 4, 1954, at the age of 85 at the San Pedro Community Hospital in San Pedro, California.

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Harry Pidgeon

Photography Pidgeon's photographs are highly valued for their ethnographic significance. He left over 1,500 negatives of his trips with the Mohle family (Commander Robert Mohle of Manhattan Beach, CA). These are now in the collection of the California Museum of Photography at the University of California, Riverside. There is also a collection of his work from the Sierras, documenting the everyday life in the logging community, at the California State University, Fresno.

Legacy Pidgeon donated items from his voyages to the Cabrillo Museum in Los Angeles. Pidgeon was somewhat unique in that his trips were not done as tests of his bravery, publicity stunts, or any reason other than interest in seeing the world. Moreover, Pidgeon had no previous experience with ocean navigation, boat-building, or long-distance sailing. At the end of his book he wrote: "My voyage was not undertaken for the joy of sailing alone. It was my way of seeing some interesting parts of the world....Just the same, any landsman who builds his own vessel and sails it alone around the world will certainly meet with some adventures, so I shall offer no apology for my own voyage. Those days were the freest and happiest of my life."

Book • Around the World Single-Handed: The Cruise of the "Islander" ISBN 978-0-486-25946-8

External links • Harry Pidgeon (1869-1954) [2] • Harry Pidgeon Collection UC Riverside [3] • Harry Pidgeon Collection CSU Fresno [4] • In Search of Harry Pidgeon, Eric Vibart, WoodenBoat 206; January/February 2009 [5]

References [1] Joshua Slocum was the first solo circumnavigator. [2] http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ query?url=http:/ / www. geocities. com/ Yosemite/ Forest/ 2137/ Pidgeon/ Pidgeon. html& date=2009-10-25+ 11:51:57 [3] http:/ / www. cmp. ucr. edu/ collections/ permanent/ projects/ survey/ PacificIslands/ PacText/ Pidgeon02. html [4] http:/ / dsc. calstate. edu/ 1226?r=col [5] http:/ / www. woodenboat. com/

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors File:Tr great white fleet tr addresses USS Connecticut Feb 1909.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tr_great_white_fleet_tr_addresses_USS_Connecticut_Feb_1909.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dobie80, Jappalang, Man vyi, PMG, SimonATL, TCY, Tm, 9 anonymous edits File:Tr great white fleet from photo nh100349 USS Connecticut 1907.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tr_great_white_fleet_from_photo_nh100349_USS_Connecticut_1907.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Underwood & Underwood File:GreatWhiteFleet-arrives-LA-Harbor-1908.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GreatWhiteFleet-arrives-LA-Harbor-1908.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:PMG File:Fleet Week In Auckland 1908.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fleet_Week_In_Auckland_1908.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: William Archer Price. Died 1948. Note NZ copyright term explained below. File:Virginia (BB13). Fleet in San Francisco Harbor, Virginia bow on, 1908 - NARA - 512999.tif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Virginia_(BB13)._Fleet_in_San_Francisco_Harbor,_Virginia_bow_on,_1908_-_NARA_-_512999.tif License: Public Domain Contributors: User:The ed17 File:Great White Fleet return2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Great_White_Fleet_return2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Rogers, W. A. (William Allen), 1854-1931, artist. File:Kosmos esquadra americana 2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kosmos_esquadra_americana_2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: FastilyClone, Halleypo, Stunteltje

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License

License Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

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