Research Thesis - Understanding Gateways as an Urban Artefact by Kairavi Maniar

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified city Junagadh

GUIDED BY:

AR. YATIN PANDYA

SUBMITTED BY:

KAIRAVI MANIAR 15191015/ B.ARCH 2019-2020

SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE NAVRACHNA UNIVERSITY, VADODARA, GUJARAT

NAVRACHNA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified city Junagadh

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELORS OF ARCHITECTURE 2019-2020

Submitted to:

Prof. Pratyush Shankar Dean, SEDA

Guided by:

Submitted by:

Ar. Yatin Pandya

Kairavi Maniar 15191015

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the thesis entitled â&#x20AC;&#x153;Understanding Gateways as an Urban Artefact - Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified city Junagadhâ&#x20AC;? is a record of original work by me under the guidance of Ar. Yatin Pandya. The references taken from published or unpublished thesis and contribution of others have been clearly mentioned in the thesis. During this difficult phase of COVID-19, the work produced in the Junagadh chapter has been done from the information collected in the early phase of my site visit to Junagadh and with the help of other relevant firms who undertook the project of restoration of Junagadh gates.

KAIRAVI MANIAR

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Foremost, I would like to thank the Almighty for always guiding me to work on the right path of life. Next to him, I would like to express my gratitude towards my parents and my family who throughout these years gave an immense love and became my pillars of support. I take this opportunity to express thanks to the Dean of the Faculty of Architecture – Prof. Pratyush Shankar and other faculty members for guiding us throughout and providing will all the necessary facilities for the research and for the constant encouragement during this difficult phase of COVID-19. I wish to express my sincere gratitude to my guide Ar. Yatin Pandya for his patience, motivation and immense knowledge. By his words, ‘Shabdo na ghatako’ – he always aimed that the outcome of any learnings should add up to one’s knowledge and understanding. For their generous attitude and providing me with all the archaeological study of Junagadh city, heartly thanks to the Junagadh Collector – Dr. Saurabh Pardhi, Mr. Mitesh Paragada (The Head of the Old Record Section, Junagadh), Mr. Kiran Waria (The Curator of Junagadh Museum) and their staff members. I wish to express my sincere thanks to Mr. Ojas Hirani and his firm and Savani Heritage Conservation Pvt. Ltd. to help me with the drawings, relevant information and photographs for the Junagadh gates. Words are not enough to express my gratitude towards Dr. John Wainer who shared valuable information about Junagadh historic city. Last but not the least, I would like to thank my so called SECOND FAMILY – to all my friends who gave me constant support, believed in me and in my work and helping me throughout.

PREFACE

“Understanding Gateways as an Urban Artefact – Taking the case study of Medieval fortified city Junagadh” is a study which enlightens one with the different roles played by the gateways and connects the one by giving the glimpse of our glorious history and the great architects of that time period. In today’s time, as one perceives these gateways as an independent piece of architecture – who knew that these grand gateways behold the powers within. Throughout our history, they either came out as a defender – protecting the innumerable cities or forts, or were erected to celebrate the victory or behold the religious powers within it. Today they give us the clues of the beliefs of our great ancestors and narrates the stories of its creation; trying to make us understand how they were not an independent element but were linked with many parameters for its creation. Thus, there is a need to study these artefacts through various lens and understand its true value. The thesis aims to understand the architecture of historical Gateways as an Urban Artefact and decipher their role from time to time. The theory is established by studying various gateways on the basis of their different roles and time period and gets into its depth of it. The inferences taken out from the study reflects the values of the gateways and helps one understand various parameters linked with it. The thesis explores the possibility of understanding gateways as an urban artefact through the analytical study of various gates and then taking the main case study of Junagadh city.

“The frontier crossings between outside and inside, between social and personal, between public and private, between them and us, doors mark out our moments of truth, our points of contact; on their hinges swing our fates, through them we go from one passage of our lives to another, retreating, arriving, returning…..” - Val Clery in ‘Doors’

STRUCTURE OF STUDY

AIM: • To study the architecture of historical gateways as a typology on the basis of their different roles. • To understand the physical manifestation of gates with a different context – taking the case of Junagadh City.

OBJECTIVES: • • • •

Understand the concept of ‘gateways’, the forces which manifested the architecture of gateways. To understand what were the different roles of the gateways. To develop and achieve an understanding of the typology of gateways. To do detail study and decipher the physical manifestation and architecture of the gates based on different aspects with the context of Junagadh city.

METHODOLOGY: The study would be divided into four sections: • The first section would be a generic one, a brief overview of the introduction of Gateways, the forces behind its manifestation and its changing function from time to time. • The second section would briefly discuss on the evolution of the Gateways as an Urban Artefact – taking the examples around the world and will be explained through the different historical periods. • The third section will discuss briefly on the functional classification of the gateways. By breaking into the typology, the third section will also introduce the different type of gateways and its role, identifying the components/elements which came together and manifested the architecture of gateways through the representative ones of its typology. Also, various other aspects will be taken which influenced its creation and will be studied with illustrations, diagrams, sketches and supportive pictures. • From the understanding and taking inferences from the third chapter, the fourth section will include the case study, which will focus on the medieval fortified city Junagadh and will be discussed elaborately on the existing gateways. • It will be concluded by the stating the observations achieved through this entire study.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS: • What were the forces/ circumstances faced during that time period that manifested the architecture of gateways? • What was/were the component/components that manifested the typology of gateways?

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS: • As the study includes the evolution of the Gateways as an Urban Artefact, the study would cover the principal gateways through their relevant cultures. • The research, by breaking into the typology, briefly discusses each case study taking the important factors to decipher the role of Gateways during that time period. • The case studies in the third section taken to understand are representative of their typology and do not include all the gateways of Indian subcontinent, also does not focus on any specific historical period or religion. • Due to the Covid - 19, lockdown was implemented since March 2020 across the State and could not further access library for the research or visit to the Junagadh site for further detail study. Hence, the inferences which have been obtained are through various online resources, and the drawings.

CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION ON GATEWAYS:

1.1 Introduction 1.2 Brief Overview on Gateways through various notions associated

2.0 GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: EVOLUTION THROUGH THE DIFFERENT HISTORICAL PERIODS: 9 2.1 Following are the historical periods which are taken into the consideration to give a glimpse of the diversified gateways through ages: 2.11 GATEWAYS DURING PRE â&#x20AC;&#x201C; CIVILIZATIONS: 2.111 An Idea of a collective defense 2.12 GATEWAYS DURING FIRST CIVILIZATIONS: 2.121 An Idea of a Citizenship 2.13 GATEWAYS DURING MEDIEVAL AGES: 2.131 An Idea of Fortification and Defense 2.132 An Idea of playing its role as a Landmark 2.14 GATEWAYS DURING RENAISSANCE AGES: 2.141 An Idea of Freedom of Expression 2.15 GATEWAYS DURING THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT: 2.151 An Idea of revival of Classical Architecture 2.16 GATEWAYS DURING MODERN AGES: 2.161 An Idea of Minimalism 2.17 SUMMARY

3.0 GATEWAYS AS A TYPOLOGY: GENERIC STUDY OF GATEWAYS TAKING THE EXAMPLES OF INDIAN SUBCONTINENT: 45 3.1 Evolution of Gateways in India with its history in brief 3.2 GATEWAY TO RELIGIOUS PRECINCT: 3.21 GOPURA OF SOUTH INDIAN TEMPLES: The distinctive pyramidal gateway 3.3 GATEWAY TO CITY: 3.31 Introduction 3.32 The WALLED CITY OF AHMEDABAD 3.4 GATEWAY TO A ROYAL PRECINCT: 3.41 TEEN DARWAZA: Gateway reflecting the Sultanate Architecture

3.5 GATEWAY TO FORT: 3.51 Introduction 3.52 DAULATABAD FORT - Devagiri: Hills of God 3.53 AMAR SINGH GATE, AGRA FORT: In remembrance of the great Rajput warrior 3.54 DELHI GATE, AGRA FORT: Regal impression of architecture during Akbar’s reign 3.6 COMMEMORATIVE GATEWAY: 3.61 Introduction 3.62 CHAR MINAR: The center of an old city 3.63 BULAND DARWAZA: Symbolism of it’s grandness 3.64 GATEWAY OF INDIA: Gateway to country 3.65 INDIA GATE: In remembrance of our great Indian martyrs 3.7 SUMMARY

4.0 CASE STUDY – MEDIEVAL FORTIFIED CITY – JUNAGADH:

101

4.1 Introduction 4.2 History in brief 4.21 The origin of the names of the city across various empires 4.22 Junagadh and its past geography 4.3 Evolution of the city under the reign of different empires 4.4 MAHABAT CIRCLE GATE: Gateway to Royal Precinct 4.5 REAY GATE OR SARDAR PATEL GATE: Gateway to City 4.6 Summary

5.0 CONCLUSION ILLUSTRATION CREDITS BIBLIOGRAPHY

137 140 156

Introduction on Gateways

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ON GATEWAYS: Boundaries mark the end of one kind of activity, one kind of place and the beginning of another. Many times, the activities are made sharper, more vivid, more active; if the boundary which exists in peoplesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; minds is also present physically. If the point where the path crosses the boundary is invisible, then to all purposes the boundary is not felt â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the difference between the two domains is not experienced and the activities tend to get diffused and hence lose much of their impact. It is the crossing of the boundary defined by an element/elements, emphasizing and accentuating the act of transition from one domain to another, those elements could be termed as a gateway. 1

Figure 1: Gateway - An element of threshold

1. Patel, Nirali. Gateways: Artefacts of Civilizations Undergraduate Thesis, CEPT 1987 UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Introduction on Gateways

1.1 Introduction: As they are means of the access to the within, they are endowed with qualities of those within â&#x20AC;&#x201C; their culture, their state of civilization, their aspirations and their beliefs. Thus, they present a face of the inside to the outside, visible in its form, location, construction, material, ornamentation, etc. Like the Pylons of Ancient Egypt, the Propylaea of Ancient Greece, the Gate of the Sun of Bolivia, the two columns at Piazza San Marco, Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri, and many more are such examples which represents and give us the clue of their culture, and beliefs. All the gateways, despite their diversity, mark the point of entry to the within. (Fig. 3)Their presence at the edge of the plane, glorifies the Figure 2: Gateway - An element which glorifies transition, the movement from one domain to another, by highlighting the transition by creating pause in the the difference between the two. By creating a pause in the movement, movement they facilitate the sense of reorientation that occurs at the edge. (Fig. 2)

Figure 3(a,b,c,d): Various sizes and shapes of the doorway acting as a threshold

The gateway represents a wider section of populace, compare to the doorway of a house and thus, has a scale befitting its function, a monumentality, which makes it distinguishable, also differs it from the other structures which also act as a means of entry. (Fig. 4) The gateways have a depth, i.e. they enclose or create a space in the third dimension. The intermediate space, between the two domains, acts as a pause, and helps in the acclimatization of a person, as he steps into a new environment. A gateway could be either defined as a single planar element, where the surface is more important than the significant depth or gateways when extended to form a space inside, thus creating an intermediate space between two domains. Figure 4: Gateway - An element depicting its

In the former, gateway is expressed more like of as symbolic connotation, monumentality by its scale where it is more kind of an invitation and the depth is insignificant. It need not, however, always be a conventional gateway (with two posts and a beam), but could be an arch or a literal gate, or maybe two columns placed strategically marking the act of entry. Here, the arch/gateway not only encloses space, it also affords a glimpse into undefined space. They promote tension between different kinds of space, resulting into variety of interpretations and responses. For example â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The torii (Shintoist gate) gives meaning to space through the simplest design and makes someone who passes through it feel that he entered the special area of the shrine precincts, where it symbolically marks the transition from the mundane to the sacred.

Figure 5: Torii Gate - Transition from mundane to sacred

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Introduction on Gateways

In the latter, as it has a significant depth, it acts as a pause, where the person could leave his ‘street behavior’ and prepare himself for the route that takes him to his destination of which he has only a visual connection so far. The triumphal arch, for example, is a gateway torn from its original context as a part of city wall and given a monumental and symbolic character. (Fig. 6) “The origins of the great portals through which a triumphant general passed to celebrate his victory, have their roots in early retreats. It is probable that the original archway consisted of two posts with a horizontal bar, a kind of yoke; under which the army and the general passed in order to cleanse them from blood guilt. The procession Figure 6: Victory Parade passing through the of the troops forcing their way under the narrow arch has been compare Arc de Triomphe, Paris - July 14,1919 to passing through a narrow aperture. Those who have been subject to such a passage are said to have passed from one state to another.”2 The gateway represents a wider section of populace, compare to the doorway of a house and thus, has a scale befitting its function, a monumentality, which makes it distinguishable. A finite horizontal plane has boundaries which mark its limits, the end of one plane, and the beginning of another. There boundaries, between the inside and the outside, between the public and the private, between the religious and the secular, create a defined space – domain. This domain is entered through a gap, and the identity of the space would be reinforced, if the gap was marked by an element at the point of the crossing, at the boundary. This element, which marks the point of entry or exit from a domain, and constitutes a gap, in the visible or invisible boundary is a ‘Gateway’.3 (Fig. 7)

Figure 7 (a,b,c,d): Figures explaining the basic definition of Gateway

“……. you enter by a little doorway of normal human height, a quiet small vestibule produces in you, the necessary change of scale so that you may appreciate as against the dimensions of the street and the spot you come from, the dimensions with which it is intended to impress you, Then, you can feel the size of the building/space and your eyes can take is measure.” - Le Corbusier – in ‘Towards a New Architecture’

2. S. Gideon in ‘Architecture and the Phenomena of Transition.’ 3. Patel, Nirali. Gateways: Artefacts of Civilizations Undergraduate Thesis, CEPT 1987 UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Introduction on Gateways

1.2 Brief Overview on Gateways through various notions associated In the prehistoric time, when the agricultural practices were first developed, the group settlements first started to appear. To store the grains, and to protect their community from the others – the gateways started to appear. Gateway was a structural element in the village settlements of primitive communities, particularly in African countries, India and Indonesia. (Fig. 8) The settlement system was based on the central clustering of small groups with definite boundaries and entrance points. (Fig. 9) The earliest gateways were in the form of a key-hole, hole for passing the humans holding a pitcher. The sense of the gates was more inclined for the defense, for the threshold which signifies the limit Figure 8: Catawba village settlement boundary of entering to the other domain.

Figure 9: Diagram showing formation of cluster and its settlement system

In most of the early civilizations, the positioning of the gates and entering through them was considered as a sacred religious practice. In Roman times, the process of defining a settlement boundary and gates by ploughing was a sacred ritualistic experience, “a holy marriage by which earth and sky were united.” The pomerium strip of land built within the wall ensured the location of the gate whenever the ploughing was raised. Entering through the gate was a religious practice, representing a contract with those inside the walls through which the gate led. For this reason, a gate was a complex structure, with a vault, hinges, panels and threshold under the protection of divinity.4 Also, the city gates were positioned in accordance with the religious beliefs of the people. For instance, the principal gateways of ancient Egypt and India were oriented towards east, so that every morning, the Sun God could purify the city, by passing through the gateways. In China, the most principal gateways to the cities, faced south to prevent the entry of evil spirits, believed to reside in the north. Early man worshiped nature, such as the ‘five elements of nature’ and started relating themselves with the higher order. The Egyptians and the Indians worshiped the Sun, and thus their temples were oriented towards the east, and the first rays of the sun, penetrated to the inner cells, and humanized the God. The ancient Tiwanaku gate is also believed to be “Gate of the Sun” as the central figure represents the “Sun God” and others have linked it with the Inca god Viracocha (Fig.10). It was believed to provide rain, lightning, and thunder to the Titicaca Basin. Figure 10: ‘Gate of the Sun’ at Tiwanaku 4. Article: Urban Gateway: Just a symbol, or More? (Reappraising an Old Idea in the Case of Ankara) 4

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Introduction on Gateways

Numerous myths and beliefs, images-divine and human were associated with the gateways. Though they vary from culture to culture, they were all meant to express the philosophical thoughts of the creator. The pair of obelisks placed before the pylons of Egypt (Fig. 11), were built to celebrate the Sun God Ra, who was contained within the obelisk. In India, the gateways are flanked by Yakshas â&#x20AC;&#x201C; divine guards. Since remote times, the gateway, has been an important symbolic element in architecture, and a means to study the thoughts of a culture, for time to come. The earliest gateways built had insignificant depth, where the facade Figure 11: Pylons of Egypt was more important, where the idea of transition â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a sense of inviting one to its domain was more significant than its other function. The facade was heavily ornamented which usually depicted the philosophies and beliefs of the culture. For instance, toranas at Sanchi Stupa (Fig. 12) are made of stone where the relief sculptures illustrate episodes from the life and worship of the Buddha along with the inscriptions of the donors and thereby provide a glimpse onto the life, belief and structure of the period. These inscriptions inform us that traders, householders, craftsmen, guilds, queens, ministers, nuns and monks ordinary and great men and women contributed to the construction of this monument. In the early Chinese settlements, a person passed through the gateway of his house, then his district, then his settlement, thus moving through three elements of transition, all gateways, but each differing from the other in its scale. In pre-modern human settlements, city gates were part of the fortification walls that shaped the city. Closed/ fortified spatiality helped to meet the need for proximity among independent artisans, thereby improving their ability to serve dispersed rural settlements. (Fig. 13) This tendency, which derived from defense and power incentives, reflects the emergence of the soul of centrality that has traditionally characterized urban settlements, which were connected to their surrounding environments through their city gates.5 These gates were an elementary factor in the form of the city. Each gate served as a marker of entry to and departure from the city, and it was mentioned along with the connecting roads from other cities as a destination point.

Figure 12: Torana at Sanchi - the gateway which is more kind of inviting you to the sacred precinct.

The most prominent function of the city gate was to facilitate military and economic protection. City gates served as checkpoints for access to the city and as instruments for customs collection at financial borders. In the ancient Middle East, a gate formed a type of center at the periphery. Judicial authorities or governors would meet at the gates and markets were often located near them. Because of their central value at the periphery, city gates have always been a point of architectural interest.

5. Article: Urban Gateway: Just a symbol, or More? (Reappraising an Old Idea in the Case of Ankara)

Figure 13: Painting showing the activities that happen at City gate

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Introduction on Gateways

Apart from its spatial-political role in modern society, the gateway concept in urban space finds its collective meaning in history. According to Gobel, despite differences in its functionality through time, the gate has always represented symbolic power, from the pre-industrial era through all the political, demographic and technological changes of nation states: “The city gate stood for and before the city, confronting that which was outside itself, from monarchs and prelates to foreigners and peasants. It served as an instrument of war, justice, commerce, and ceremony. It was a place of political and economic negotiation, a nexus of worlds – as any port must be. Frequented by elders, judges, officials, vendors, pilgrims, refugees and charlatans, city gates were often centers of residential neighborhoods as well. The gate was both edge and center.” 6 The gateway remains closely related to the notion of territoriality because of its categorical positioning at the boundary. (Fig. 14)

Figure 14: Diagram showing how the positioning of gates signify its function

On the increasing firepower of canons (Fig, 15), the introduction of mobile war machines, the solidity of the fortified wall and the boundaries started to losing its meaning. In the early 19th century, the western societies represented the initial stage of dependency on the automobile. The automobile allowed the flexible mobilization of the masses in all directions of the state. This resulted into the favor of ‘open urbanization’, losing its legible boundaries at the edges. The invention and widespread use of steam engines on rails and waterways contributed to the quicker pace. In this condition, the limits and distinctions between the city and the periphery became unclear. When the city walls were demolished, the gates were preserved and became monuments within the extended Figure 15: Firepower from canon urban fabric.

6. Article: Urban Gateway: Just a symbol, or More? (Reappraising an Old Idea in the Case of Ankara) 6

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Introduction on Gateways

In the past, they were the checkpoints - the point of entry to the city, but with the conquest of the city gates, and their integration to form the nation, they lost their significance. Today, they are the visual pointers of the checkpoints that used to be of the old city, and the remnants of its side walls if existing give us the clue of the boundaries which defined the old city. These monumental gateways have been often declared as national monuments and have been conserved from time to time. In China, the principal gateway to the Imperial Palace within the Forbidden City is now, a National Museum (Fig. 16). The Halle Gate which was supposed to be the medieval fortified city gate of Brussels is now a museum, part of the Royal Museums of Art and History (Fig. 17). Some of the gateways built Figure 16: Principal gateway to Imperial Palace after the nineteenth century, like the Eiffel Tower in Paris (Fig.18), and the Gateway to the West in St. Louis (Fig. 19), have an exceptional height, and their topmost level is used as an observation deck. In the beginning of the 20th century, when the city frontier began to disappear and urban planning emerged which directly pointed to – “If contemporary city does not radiate from the city (center) but is formed from the boundary (periphery), then the planners must define the new border conditions and structure of flow channels in contemporary city regions. In such a condition, today, airport terminals represent the emerging dynamic notion of urban gateways as they are “the last gateway to the State”.7 Figure 17: Halle Gate at Brussels, Belgium

Figure 18: Eiffel Tower at Paris, France

7. Article: Urban Gateway: Just a symbol, or More? (Reappraising an Old Idea in the Case of Ankara)

Figure 19: The Gateway Arch at St. Louis, United States

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Introduction on Gateways

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

CHAPTER 2: GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Evolution through the different historical periods: Across diverse cultures, the door’s mediating role gives symbolic charge as site of beginnings and endings, passages through, but never back; “The door is the boundary between the foreign and domestic worlds in the case of an ordinary dwelling, between the profane and sacred worlds. Therefore, to cross the threshold is to unite oneself with a new world.” - Marsilio in “DOOR”, Rites of Passage

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

In the above discussion, there were various attributes associated with the gateways– the sense of the threshold, its scale which depicts its monumentality, transition and movement, its function, its location and so on. These attributes whether physical or spatial, were generated by the conscious decisions taken in order to fulfil some values for which the gateways were created and their different roles manifested as per the beliefs of the people or the circumstances. BELIEFS OF PEOPLE

FORCES OR CIRCUMSTANCES

VALUE

TYPOLOGY OF GATEWAYS To understand the architecture of gateways and its role as an Urban Artefact, it is necessary to go through the historical phases, for one to understand what were the forces of that phase which led to the manifestation of this gateways. By the word ‘Urban Artefact’, it means that this is the part of an Urbanism and so it is necessary to look into the context and the history. Below are the different historical phases across the globe chosen to understand the above parameters: 2.11 GATEWAYS DURING PRE CIVILIZATION 2.12 GATEWAYS DURING FIRST CIVILIZATION 2.13 GATEWAYS DURING MEDIEVAL AGE 2.14 GATEWAYS DURING RENAISSANCE AGE 2.15 GATEWAYS DURING AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT 2.16 GATEWAYS DURING MODERN AGE

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

2.11 GATEWAYS DURING PRE – CIVILIZATIONS: 2.111 An Idea of a collective defense Pre-civilization period was the period when the civilization had not yet emerged; where the people were pre-civilized. Their life was just based on the food supply. “Three meals a day a highly advanced institution. Savages gorge themselves on fast.” Their life was based on extremes, either I was a feast or famine. There was a little thought of preserving food for the next day. They got inspired from the animals, how to preserve the food by digging it and thus from that point the concept of hunting and gathering started. Nature taught man to finally save for tomorrow. Their style of living was based on: 1) Limited population group 2 )No permanent settlement 3) Social equality: No social hierarchies, no gender division Slowly, with the ability to acquire food on daily basis, the stability and order in their lifestyle emerged. They started to observe change in seasons, they worshiped the nature. From there, the aspect of nomadic culture left and new system was adapted by them which were: 1) Formation of small groups 2) That led to the division of duties amongst them and gathering of food to one place 3) Building up settlement boundary to protect the food from outside This led them to learn new ways of producing and storing food supplies resulting into the surplus of food. The idea of defense of protecting their food grains and their community from the other community evolved. For the defense, a definite boundary usually in a circular manner and entrance point to enter that community appeared. With that, the idea of threshold – the limit of one to enter that domain came up. The person from other community cannot enter without permission – that was the basic system even observed in the primitive settlements of African, Indonesian and Indian communities (Fig. 20,21).

Figure 20: Early village settlement boundary

Figure 21: Timucua village settlement boundary and its gateway

ATTRIBUTES ASSOCIATED: LOCATION: One gate only for the entry or exit attached with the compound wall GATE TYPE: The wall extension itself became the entry which was indirect - one is forced to pass turning sideways and not striding straight in.

Figure 22: Different type of placement of gateways to the village settlement

SUB - ELEMENTS: Compound wall MATERIAL AND TECHNIQUE: Bamboo, wooden post Wattle and daub technique ROLE OF THE GATE: Threshold of a specific domain SCALE: It was of a human scale as it was used to pass through.

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

2.12 GATEWAYS DURING FIRST CIVILIZATIONS: 2.121 An Idea of a Citizenship With the invention of metal, it led to many discoveries and improved the lifestyle of humans: 1) Farming: Food production drastically increased. This led to the surplus economy which brought the barter system; where there was some exchange between the people regarding some goods, where everybody has to perform their duties. 2) People have not to move around further and built permanent houses which led to the larger communities. The communities started coming together, built cities which led to urbanization. 3) Metals led to the discovery of weapons which they made for their security. 4) To sustain the system, central administration which hold the powers to take decisions came into the picture. 5) Social hierarchies started coming up. The earliest cities have the notion of being an individual state holding history and the power of decisions. Citizenship was a bond between a person and the city-state. There the identity of the city was looked as one entity. To protect the city from the outer forces, the boundaries became more strong. The walls were now constructed out of huge stone and the walls were made high. Tapered fortified walls with great heights were built to protect the state from adversities and the gates – being the punctures, became the points of access from the ‘outside world’. The gates became more kind of ‘checkpoints’ – where the markets were present, judicial authorities met. It became one threshold – a limit where one was asked for their identity – whether they were part of that city system. With the developments of the larger settlements, the hierarchy amongst the settlement started to appear. Various classes were divided and ruling class was appointed and the citadels of rulers appeared. The settlements became complex and along with that the gateways within the settlements evolved. A series started to appear – gateway to the settlement, gateway to the citadel of the ruler and so on. Also, on the facade of the gateways, reliefs or carvings started to appear which usually were of animal figures or something other which symbolized the power, or some almighty protecting them and so on.

COMMON ATTRIBUTES ASSOCIATED: ELEMENTS: Gate and fortified wall ROLE OF THE GATE: Threshold, Checkpoint SCALE: Monumental scale, Human scale 12

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

ISHTAR GATE, BABYLON: Ishtar gate originally had double gates and had a courtyard in between. The gates had pylons at the ends which was the main structure of the gate. The parapet of the from gate was used to attack on the enemies. As this gate was built to dedicate to the god Ishtar, it was built monumental in scale. The height of the front gate was itself 10 times higher than that of human height (Fig. 26).

LOCATION OF THE CITY: The Euphrates river connected the two halves of the city of Babylon. As the city was built along the left and right banks of the Euphrates river thick fortified walls with steep embankments were built to contain the river’s seasonal floods.

Figure 26: Section through Ishtar gate

Figure 23: Pathway showing that the processional route

Figure 24: Figure showing eight gates to access to the inner city of Babylon

The wall of the inner city was surrounded by the water channel and thick fortified walls were built up surrounding it. To get access to the inner city, eight gates were positioned on the fort walls - two on the southern walls, one each on eastern and western walls and three on the northern wall (Fig. 24). The position of all the gates expect Ishtar Gate fall on the similar axis as they were routes of the connectivity. Ishtar Gate being the central gate on the northern wall was the gate to enter to the inner precinct. A processional way went through Ishtar Gate (Fig. 23) that included the king, members of his court, priests and statues of the gods travelled to the “Akitu” temple to celebrate the New Year’s festival (Fig. 28). The gate was made of bricks with blue stone on which wonderful bulls and dragons were depicted (Fig. 24,25). Dragon called ‘Marduk’ was seen as the divine champion of good against evil, and the incantations of the Babylonians often sought his protection. These were also seen on the gateways and were adorned with luxurious splendour so that Mankind might gaze on them in wonder. From the Archaeological evidences, Asphalt, Bitumen and Bricks are the construction materials observed to be used in its construction. The gate, being part of the Walls of Babylon, was considered one of the original Seven Wonders of the World.

Figure 28: Procession at Ishtar gate conceptual sketch

Figure 27: Ishtar gate conceptual sketch

ATTRIBUTES ASSOCIATED: LOCATION: At centre of the northern wall of inner city Figure 24: Figure showing sirrush depicted on the facade of the gate

GATE TYPE: Double gate SUB - ELEMENTS: Pylons, Fort wall MATERIAL AND TECHNIQUE: Bricks, bitumen and bricks

Figure 25: Figure showing bull depicted on the facade of the gate

ROLE OF THE GATE: Main city gate, processional gateway SCALE: Monumental in terms of human scale

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

LION GATE, MYCENAE: The whole citadel elevates from north-west to south-east. The position of the citadel was selected strategically which resulted to good farmlands and adequate water supply. Thick fortified wall with bastions and battlement parapet suggests the defensive purpose of it. To enter into the citadel, there were two gates: 1) Lion Gate - located at north - west of fortification (Fig. 30) 2) Postern Gate - located at north - east of fortification (Fig. 30) Figure 29: Lion Gate at Mycenae, southern Greece Lion Gate

Figure 30: Plan of Mycenae citadel

Lion Gate was the main entrance to the citadel of Mycenae, southern Greece (Fig. 30). Its approach was by a natural, partly engineered ramp on a northwest-southeast axis. Bastion at the right side of gate is placed strategically to attack the right hand side of the enemies which would normally be vulnerable as they would carry their shields on their left arms. Also, the approach narrows to a small open courtyard possibly serving to limit the numbers of attackers on the gate. The construction of gate consists of two great monoliths capped with the huge lintel and above it masonary courses form corbelled arch leaving an opening that lightens the weight carried by the lintel. It was named after the sculpture of two confronted lionesses or lions carved in high relief which stand on either sides of a central pillar, sits above which was an emblem of the Mycenaean kings and a symbol of their power and it also has been said that its symbolized Goddess Hera (Fig. 32). It has been suggested that lions were not present in Greece at the time showing some sort of hierarchy in power with them fashioned on this monumental gate.

Figure 31: Diagram showing the Mycenae citadel

Figure 32: Emblem of Mycenaean kings

ATTRIBUTES ASSOCIATED: LOCATION: At north - western wall of fortification SUB - ELEMENTS: Bastion, fort wall, courtyard MATERIAL AND TECHNIQUE: Stone and limestone Ashlar masonary ROLE OF THE GATE: Gateway to citadel SCALE: That of human scale

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

2.122 An Idea of Religious pride: Early man worshiped the forces of Nature, such as the Sun, the fire, the wind, the rain and related themselves with the higher order. They believed that these ‘intermediary objects’ will enlist their support and enhance his power. So, with the development of the city, religious complexes started to appear. The gateways were also erected at the edge of such complexes, which hold the philosophical meaning behind it. Also, they believed in the cardinal directions had good and evil powers associated with it and so they even positioned the gateways according to the cardinal directions. ATTRIBUTES ASSOCIATED: ROLE OF THE GATE: Threshold, Transition from mundane to sacred SCALE: Monumental scale PROPYLAEA OF ANCIENT GREECE: In Ancient Greece, Propylaea were the monumental gateways to a temple or the religious complex, where they acted as a symbolic partition between the secular and religious parts of a city (Fig. 32). One approached it in ancient times through an inclining ramp that led visitors straight through the steps in front of the Propylaea. The steps were more kind of a buffer between ‘both the worlds’ and prepares one to get ready for it.

Figure 33: Plan of the Propylaea

Figure 34: Propylaea of Ancient Greece

ATTRIBUTES ASSOCIATED: SUB - ELEMENTS: Flight of steps acting as a buffer between the two worlds ROLE OF THE GATE: Threshold to the religious precinct SCALE: Monumental in terms of human scale 16

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

PYLONS OF KARNAK TEMPLE, EGYPT: Karnak was an ancient temple precinct, whose centre was dedicated to Amun-Ra, a male god associated with Thebes. Rulers gradually created a series of 10 pylons at Karnak (Fig. 33). For many Egyptians believed that this could only have been the place of Gods. The temples were regarded as a symbol of the world, the outside walls near the entrance, the transitional area between the ‘chaotic outside world’ and ‘the created world,’ were the most suitable place for a representation showing victory over the dark powers of chaos. The shape of the pylon was associated with the two hills of the horizon between which the sun rose every day. It is also known that the temple was interpreted as an image of the primeval hill, on which the creator God appeared to begin his work (Fig. 34). The gateway attached to the pylons is half if its height, still monumental in scale while the scale of pylons symbolise its authority and guarding the whole precinct. Pylons were connected to each other through a network of walls and were often decorated with scenes depicting the ruler who built them and many of them also had flag-staffs from which colourful banners would be flown (Fig. 34).

Figure 35: Pylons at Karnak temple, Egypt

Figure 36: Conceptual ceremonial view at temple

Figure 39: Plan showing the positioning of gateways and pylons in one axis, the shadow of the pylons not disturbing the first rays of the Sun to fall on the main sanctuary

From the positioning of the pylons and gateways, It can be observed that they believed in the power of cardinal directions As they were massive, tall structures they were positioned such that the first rays of the sun falls on the main shrine, with their shadows not disturbing the inner sanctum (Fig. 37). The positioning of the principal gateways were such that it restricted the movement, directing one to take straight path which leads one to the main sanctuary (Fig. 37). Obelisks are observed in front of the Pylon of the Temple (Fig. 38). They are tall, four-sided, narrow tapering monument which ends in a pyramidlike shape at the top and symbolized the sun god Ra and were to believe to act as a magical protection to the temples.

ATTRIBUTES ASSOCIATED: LOCATION: In the centre of the two pylons GATE TYPE: Series of gates

Figure 37: Sectional view showing the verticality of pylons and gateway acting as a threshold and the journey from mundane to sacred

SUB - ELEMENTS: Pylons, Obelisks

The verticality of the pylons also symbolise its connection with Gods while it acts as a threshold, separating both the ‘outer world’ and the ‘inner world’. There is series of layers overlapped in the precinct and stretched horizontally, making the journey from mundane to sacred (Fig. 35).

MATERIAL AND TECHNIQUE: For pylons, stone construction For obelisks, Single stone usually red granite Remains of the mud - brick ramps indicates how the pylons were built ROLE OF THE GATE: Threshold to the religious precinct

Figure 38: Orientation of pylons and gateways according to cardinal directions UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Figure 40: Obelisk at Karnak temple, Egypt

SCALE: Monumental in terms of human scale 17

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

2.13 GATEWAYS DURING MEDIEVAL AGES: 2.131 An Idea of Fortification and Defense In the European history, Middle Ages fall somewhere between 500 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 1400 or 1500 CE. When the cities emerged from the collapse of Roman Empire, economy was in tatters and many of the towns were abandoned. After a century or so, again the new cultures began to emerge, new kingdoms were built competed for power. This gave rise to new forms of political leadership where feudalism was one of the approaches practiced by rulers. Some rulers began to term themselves kings and started invading other provinces in order to expand their kingdom and power. There were tumultuous invasions and so to defend their city, rulers started building up huge fortified walls and built up other massive structures so that attackers do not penetrate through it. This gave rise to military architecture where the new forms of the gates appeared and its role emerged. Town gates acted as a guard entrance into the medieval towns and were constructed as a part of fortification. It was built as a sophisticated separate structure within the passage. They were inserted into the ramparts as defense towers or in between the blocks of houses. As the town emerged into the various layers because of the hierarchies which existed in the society, the series of gateways to pass through each layer emerged along with the walls. It acted mainly as a defender and a threshold. The gates were placed strategically and were never in alignment to one another. Thus, the movement meanders when approaching the gates. A small wicket gate usually inserted into one of the layer doors allowing the movement of people in and out of the gates without the need to open the pair of main doors fully. Originally, they were closed either by trap lattice or a drawbridge. If the town was not surrounded by a moat, the gate was closed by the trap lattice that moved up and down within the stone grooves inside the gate. Otherwise, the gate had drawbridge over a moat which was lifted by means of pulleys hidden inside the gate as well. Drawbridge as a part of the fortification wall when closed, isolated the fort from its surroundings.

ATTRIBUTES ASSOCIATED: LOCATION: Part of fortification wall

GATE TYPE: Series of gates : Gate with two leaved As the gate was considered to be the vulnerable point, it was strongly doors, Trap - lattice gate, Drawbridge defended by its sub elements like - machicolations, barbicans, bastions, gate battlement parapet and so on and together they worked as a system. SUB - ELEMENTS: The gateways were made of oak, with double layer of timber forming Wicket gate, bastion, machicolations, outer and inner boards, often set in opposite direction for strength or other defensive elements

decorative effect. Iron nails often decoratively finished or within metal MATERIAL AND TECHNIQUE: strap-work, were applied to hold and strength the boards together. Doors made of oak and timber, gate structure usually made of stone ROLE OF THE GATE: Defender and also as a threshold SCALE: Varies from human to elephant scale UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

Figure 41: Old Fortified city London with its gates, map North aligned - not to scale

Aldgate, London The etymology of this gate is not correctly known

Moorgate, London • Its name derived from the surrounding ‘moorfields’, which was one of the last pieces of open land left in the city. • It was added in Medieval times.

Cripplegate, London The etymology of this gate is not correctly known

Newgate, London The etymology of this gate is not correctly known

20 UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

OLD CITY LONDON: Since Roman times, London had thick strong fortified walls that encompassed the city. In facilitation of access and trade, the wall was penetrated by seven fortified gates, going clockwise from Ludgate in the west to Aldgate in the east: Ludgate, Newgate, Aldersgate, Cripplegate, Bishopsgate and Aldgate (Fig. 40). A seventh, Moorgate, was added in Medieval times between Cripplegate and Bishopsgate. Each gate was flanked for defensive purposes by gatehouse turrets, or towers. These towers were built to enhance the security of the city, and defended the gates by the enemies and were secure points that commanded the approaches, arrow and gun slits, and rooms for the storage of weaponry and, when necessary, accommodation of watchmen or soldiers. The connecting space between the towers was normally devoted to the operations of the portcullis—the latticed metal or wood grille raised at daybreak and lowered at nightfall that permitted a degree of oversight and control over who and what entered or left the city. The rooms above the gates were used as prisoners or were given rent to the officials. ALDGATE: Aldgate served its military and strategic purposes well. From the time of its reconstruction in the early thirteenth century until its replacement in a more classical and less functional style in 1606–1609, it was breached only twice. During the course of the fourteenth century the aldermen of the city got the practical idea of renting or leasing unneeded space over the city gates. According to Chaucer scholar Paul Strohm, the assault was only successful “by the design of [Aldgate’s] defenders: “after a number of Fauconberg’s men were allowed to gain entry, the gate’s “portcullis was lowered to trap them inside, where they were taken and slain”. Gatehouse towers were, in established traditions, the place for the display of severed heads of traitors and other notorious criminals. Aldgate was not the premier fourteenth century place for this purpose; London Bridge was the preferred site. Yet any city gate could be put to this use, and in subsequent centuries Aldgate became a favored place for such displays. All the sixteenth century sketches and renditions of the gate show it well arrayed in traitors’ heads, mounted on special scaffolds for display. This shows the reflection of the forces of that time period, the power of military defense, the gates becoming the strong checkpoints - a call of warning for the citizens by hanging the traitors’ head. The security and protection of the cities became the main aspects and that led to the manifestation of this form of gateways.

Note: No visual evidence of these gates are left, so visual graphics available are added Description about the Aldgate obtained and referred : Strohm, Paul (2014), “Chaucer’s Tale: 1386 and the Road to Canterbury”

ATTRIBUTES ASSOCIATED: LOCATION: Part of fortification wall, edge of the city GATE TYPE: Gatehouse SUB - ELEMENTS: Towers, Rooms ROLE OF THE GATE: Defensive gateway

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

STONE GATE AT OLD LONDON BRIDGE: Old London Bridge was located on the great river Thames and was by far the longest inhabited bridge in Europe. The structure was constructed on North - South axis across a wide and powerful tidal river without the use of coffer dams(Fig. 43). The bridge acts as a linkage between Northern and Southern part of London.

Figure 42: Picture showing the gatehouse and the drawbridge closing up to let the ship pass below

Figure 43: Old city London plan

There were more than 124 houses, a chapel, principal markets at the ground level, drawbridges in between the house clusters and gateways at both the ends of the bridge. It was a community living in itself. It acted as the active thoroughfare at that time. (Fig. 45). The gateways guarded the bridge entry in medieval times. The structure was made up of stone with bastions attached on its either sides. It can be said that the upper floor of the gateways could have prisons or maybe the guardrooms for the guards to stay. The huge opening arch was wide enough for two carts to pass through at a time. Trap lattice were used to restrict the entry or exit at the gate. The practice of parboiling the heads of traitors and the dipping them in tar before Figure 44: Picture showing the location of London putting them on pikes above the gate apparently dates from 1305 can bridge be observed(Fig. 44). Drawbridges were also observed connecting the internal clusters, and when closed up isolated the cluster from the ATTRIBUTES ASSOCIATED: rest. The above picture shows the closing of the drawbridge, to let LOCATION: At both the edge of the old London pass the big ship below (Fig. 42). Bridge (north and south end) GATE TYPE: Gatehouse and Drawbridge SUB - ELEMENTS: Gatehouse - bastions, trap lattice and rooms MATERIAL AND TECHNIQUE: Stone construction

Figure 45: Sectional view of the London bridge

ROLE OF THE GATE: Defender and also as a threshold

22 UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

This typology was also observed at many other parts across Europe. It was an entry control point building, enclosing or accompanying a gateway for a town or other fortification building of importance. Gatehouses are typically the most heavily armed section of a fortification, to compensate for being structurally the weakest and the most probable attack point by an enemy. Over time, they evolved into very complicated structures with many lines of defense. Strongly fortified gatehouses would normally include a drawbridge, one or more portcullises, machicolations, arrow loops and possibly even murderholes where stones would be dropped on attackers. Its function also changed overtime. The Bargate is a medieval gatehouse in the city centre of Southampton, England and as a part of the Southampton town walls, it was the main gateway to the city (Fig. 46). It was started being used as a prison and at some point in the 16th century the Court leet of Southampton started to meet in the Bargate. The room above the gate itself has known several uses. It was originally used as the city’s guildhall and then in the 18th century, with the establishment of Southampton’s police force, the upper room was used as a prison. The guildhall within the Bargate was constructed to be used as a criminal court. In addition to this, it continued to be the site of meetings of Southampton’s court leet. By the starting of the 19th century, with the increasing traffic and introduction to trams, the walls were demolished and was ceased to be used as a court. In 1951 a museum of local history was opened in the Bargate as part of celebrations to mark the Festival of Britain and later it was closed. It also has served as a temporary exhibition and event space. Another example of the same is the Westgate of Canterbury, Kent, England (Fig. 47). It is a medieval gatehouse and the last survivor of Canterbury’s seven medieval gates, still well-preserved and one of the city’s most distinctive landmarks and the road still passes between its drum towers. In the early times, its upper part functioned as church but later on both the church and gate were dismantled. However, the rebuild as a defensive status symbol was paid for partly by Sudbury and partly by taxation for military protection against expected raids by the French. It served as Canterbury’s prison from the 15th to the 19th century. There was a grated cage in the prison gateway, where certain prisoners were allowed to beg for alms and speak with passers-by. In the 19th century, the city walls that joined the gateway to the back of the drum towers were removed and in 1823–1829, a jailer’s house was built on the north side which became the headquarters of Canterbury City Police. It is now a bar and cafe, whose dining room is still known as “The Parade Room”. At the end of the 19th century the Westgate was used as a temporary repository for the city archives, and a museum was also opened in the gatehouse (Fig. 48).

Figure 46: Bargate at Southampton, England

Figure 47: Westgate of Canterbury, Kent, England

Figure 48: Museum at Westgate, Canterbury

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

2.132 An Idea of playing its role as a Landmark The change in the form of the gates because of the influence of its own context, and culture led to see another typology of the gates. Another typology seen during that time period were the gate towers. They were once the part of fortification wall that surrounded the city or they could be the one which hold symbolic connotation, like their route could be for the Kingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s procession at that time. The location of the towers decided their role: if the tower stood in the front of the royal court, it was meant to be the gateway to the royal precinct and their facade would be heavily ornamented to reflect the grandeur. If the tower stands on the edge of the city; it would be kind of more defensive. The tower housed the rooms above or sometimes had a clock tower. These gates were tallest in comparison to its context as they served as a landmark. Because of their prominent height, they became the visual markers of the city which directs and navigates one. Such gates built during that time reflected Gothic or Romanesque architecture. This typology of gates could be seen across many historic states of Germany, Europe somewhere between 12th and 14th century (Fig. 49, 50).

Figure 49: Powder gate at Prague

Figure 50: Old gate at Speyer

ATTRIBUTES ASSOCIATED: LOCATION: Part of fortification wall at the edge of city, or at prime centre of city GATE TYPE: Gate tower SUB - ELEMENTS: Gate house at its side, Turrets, Clock turret, Rooms, Stair turret ROLE OF THE GATE: Ceremonial route or can be defensive SCALE: Tallest in the height

24 UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

GATES OF FREIBURG IM BREISGAU, GERMANY: The city was founded as a free market town at 1120 CE, strategically located at the junction of trade routes between the Mediterranean Sea and the North Sea regions, and the Rhine and Danube rivers. There are two existing gates of its medieval defensive wall built during 13th century namely: 1) Martinstor Gate 2) Schwabentor Gate

MARTINSTOR GATE:

SCHWABENTOR GATE:

The wooden structure of the gate suggests that it has been constructed in 1202 CE. It was flushed with the city walls and there was a huge forecourt in its front, a bridge and moat surrounding it. It was said of its occupants that they had donned “The Cloak of Martin“.

The gate tower built around 1250 CE was originally open towards the inside of the city and was only enclosed with a stone wall in 1547.

The structure above the gate was constructed in the 15th century which housed rooms, stair turret and had clock was attached to the tower, which helped the people to facilitate about the time. It has been known that earlier the rooms were used as prisons. With the extension upwards, the attached turret at the edges might be the gallery view - to get the whole city view (Fig. 52).

Figure 52: Martinstor Gate at Freiburg

Figure 51(1): Zoomed in plan showing junction and tram route at Schwabentor gate

2 1

Figure 51: Zoomed in plan of Freiburg city

The location of the Martinstor gate sits at the prime shopping street, west of the famous Augustine plaza; while Schwabentor gate sits next to its square and creates a node. In the above diagrams, it can be seen that the junction is active with tram and vehicular movement. The street where Martinstor is located acts as the primary street and secondary streets branch out of it. The square which is next to the Schwabentor gate had witnessed some incidents in the past which makes its location prime and historic (Fig. 51(1,2)).

Figure 51(2): Zoomed in plan showing junction and tram route at Martinstor gate

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

The structure above the gate was constructed in the 15th century and the stair turret was added to the gate. In the 19th century, the gate was extended upwards and height was doubled with the addition of crow-stepped gable modeled on city towers of Northern Germany (Fig. 56). Another addition was provided with a simpler tented roof, which was similar to the original one, and a bell turret with an onion dome. This figurine above the gate portal holds the philosophical meaning and the figurine depicts the Romanesque influence (Fig.55).

With the advent of modern transportation, it was been thought of demolishing the gate, but the officials of that time period had a different view. The mayor wanted to highlight the importance of the two historic 13th-century towers, commenting that “a village has roofs and a city has towers,” which he then managed to extend upward. Instead of tearing down Martinstor, the city actually almost tripled its height, from 22 to 63 meters. With the rise in verticality, it became the visual marker and the landmark (Fig. 53). A 15thcentury style turret at the edges and clock turret was also added. Figure 53: Martinstor gate acting as a visual pointer from distance

Same as the Martinstor gate, this gate also became a point of landmark and was a visual pointer (Fig. 57). Here, the side - gate was also added like the way in the earlier one as both these gates were the active routes for vehicles and trams.

As the old passageway had become too small for the tram infrastructure and vehicular movement together, the additional gateway with a larger thoroughfare, designed in the same architectural style, was erected next to the original gate. The new gate replicates the Roman arch which was the original structure of the old gate, in order to continue the same language (Fig. 54).

The arch of the gate is pointed one, different from the earlier gate and this structure is same in its side gate to continue the same language on its facade (Fig. 58).

Next to the archway, facing the city center, there is a tablet commemorizing the burning of witches in Freiburg on which names are engraved who were executed in 1599.

Figure 55: Romanesque figure above the gate

Figure 56: Schwabentor Gate at Freiburg

Figure 57: Schwabentor gate acting as a visual pointer from distance

Figure 54: Arch of the main and side - gate

Figure 58: Arch of the main and side - gate

ATTRIBUTES ASSOCIATED: ROLE OF THE GATE: LOCATION: Earlier they were at the edge Earlier they were city gates, now its a thoroughfare often city, now at the centre GATE TYPE: Gate tower SUB - ELEMENTS: Side gateway, turrets with balcony view, rooms, clock turret

SCALE: The scale of an arch can be compared to an elephant scale

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

2.14 GATEWAYS DURING RENAISSANCE AGES: 2.141 An Idea of Freedom of Expression In the aftermath of the Black Death, the economy of Italy was benefited greatly from the trade and commerce, which let people to migrate there. With the increase in the population, the feudal system collapsed; resulting cultural, artistic, political and economic rebirth during 13th and 16th century. People were free than ever before and that led to the development of new ideas about the society. People created new means of expressing themselves through different styles of art and architecture. The approach of cultural movement – ‘Humanism’ led to believe that man was the centre of his own universe, resulting into the efforts to imitate the lost world of Ancient Greece and Rome. The architects of this period began to look back again to the Greeks and Romans art and architecture. They started to get inspired from the Ancient Greek and Roman architecture, demonstrating a conscious revival and development of certain elements of Ancient Greek and Roman thought and material culture and replacing medieval Gothic style and architecture. The sense of the proportion and order were taken into consideration, and the facades were beautified and more expressive. In ancient times, Romans were the first to endow the gateway with a commemorative function. Thus, evolved the triumphal arch, whose symbolic power was greater than its transition again started to appear in this time period. The arches were made more grandeur by the sculptors who topped the arches with beautiful statues depicting the stories which gave us the clues of its existence. The transition of the function of gates from the functional to the notional began during this period. The manifestation of gates during this period were from many reasons like - the gates were built to evoke the long-lost memory of the city gates which stood to defend the city, or were built in the memory of the army troops who lost their lived during the wars and so on. The location of the gates was at the strategic center of the city and had more symbolic aspect. The form of the gate was different than that of earlier one in medieval times – like the depth was not such significant, there were no doors, the facade was more expressive and ornamented and with many other features symbolizing its creation. The first triumphal gateways were observed across Paris and carried Ancient Roman features. ATTRIBUTES ASSOCIATED: LOCATION: At strategic centre of the precinct, or city GATE TYPE: Triumphal gate ROLE OF THE GATE: Evoking memories, symbolic SCALE: Monumental in scale UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

PORTE SAINT DENIS, PARIS: The Porte Saint-Denis was originally a gateway through the Wall of Charles V that was built between 1356 and 1383 to protect the Right Bank of Paris. The medieval fortification had two gates and was surmounted with four towers (Fig. 60). Additional portcullises defended the outer gate along with a drawbridge and rock-cut ditch. However, with the advent of gunpowder and the development of cannons and bombards, the walls were eventually partly torn down and the remaining walls of Charles V were entirely demolished when Paris spread beyond the confines of its medieval boundaries. Figure 60: Porte Saint Denis original fortified gate

Figure 61: Paris plan of 1640â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s showing the original position of Porte Saint Denis gate

To replace the old gateway of Porte Saint-Denis, Louis XIV commanded architect and the sculptor to build him a monumental archway that would honour the capture of Franche-ComtĂŠ and the Rhine. It is considered to be the first of four triumphal arches to be built in Paris. It is a triumphal arch inspired by the Arch of Titus in Rome (Fig. 62). Porte Saint-Denis stands 60 meters away from the site of a former medieval gate that bores the same name.

Figure 62: Arch of Titus at Rome, Italy

28 UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

Porte Saint-Denis was the gate where the kings of France would pass through on their return to Paris from religious services at the SaintDenis basilica. The last sovereign to pass through the triumphal arch was Queen Victoria on her visit to the 1855 Universal Exhibition in Paris. This arch is 24.65 meters wide, 25 meters high and 5 meters deep, where its depth indicates its purpose was more like for ceremonial purpose. At the bottom, there were two smaller openings which indicated that how the common people have to use that passage to pass through while the central arch were only for royal families. The base of the arch, there is an inscription tablet which says about the conquer of other states by Louis XIV. To the left and right of the large opening are two obelisks applied to the wall, filled with sculptural groups of trophies of arms. At the bottom of the obelisks are two seated figures, the one on the left is a woman in dismay representing the Dutch Republic and the one of the rights is a man representing the defeated Rhine – which symbolises the victory over the both. The sculpture over the arch depicted stories related to the king. The entablature at the southern face bears the inscription dedicated to the king.

Figure 66: Porte Saint-Denis, pen and Indian ink. Etching by Gabriel Perelle, 1675. Musée du Louvre, Paris.

The southern face depicts “The Passage of the Rhine at Tholus“. Louis XIV can clearly be seen riding and leading the way.

Figure 67: Porte Saint Denis at Paris, France

Figure 63: Map of 10th arrondissement of Paris showing the location of Porte Saint Denis gate Figure 68: Porte Saint Denis at Paris, France

The northern face shows “Louis XIV takes over the city of Maastricht“.

Figure 69: Porte Saint Denis at Paris, France Figure 64: Zoomed in plan showing the location of Porte Saint Denis and Porte Saint Martin gate

Figure 65: Zoomed in plan showing the location of Porte Saint Denis gate

Paris was divided into several arrondissements out of which Porte Saint Denis and Porte Saint Martin are situated in the 10th arrondissement of Paris (Fig. 63). The location of the Porte Saint Denis is off the intersection of road network which creates the nodal junction at the gate (Fig. 65). Being the commemorative gateway, its location is set at the centre of the suburb, gateway welcoming and letting pass through it. The location of the Porte Saint Martin, built with the reason same as that of Porte Saint Denis, its location is however at the centre of the intersection of road network axis and does not fall on the same line that of Porte Saint Denis (Fig. 64).

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Porte Saint Martin stands 200 meters away to the east of Porte Saint Denis and carry some common features as of Porte Saint Denis.

Figure 70: Porte Saint Martin at Paris, France

ATTRIBUTES ASSOCIATED: MATERIAL: LOCATION: At the off centre of the intersection of Yellow stone (depicted from picture) Inscription out of bronze metal road network GATE TYPE: Triumphal arch

ROLE OF THE GATE: Ceremonial route

SUB - ELEMENTS: Obelisks, Small side gateways

SCALE: Monumental in terms of human scale

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

2.15 GATEWAYS DURING THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT: 2.151 An Idea of revival of Classical Architecture With the rise of the Humanist approach which existed in Renaissance where the people had freedom to express and to imitate the certain elements from the classical architecture, led people to explore more with their own ideas and bring it into the arts and architecture. This resulted to the phase of Baroque and Rococo style of architecture. It was the architecture characterized by elaborate ornamentation, asymmetrical values, pastel color palette, and curved or serpentine lines depicting the themes of love, classical myths, youth, and playfulness; totally against the principles of classical architecture which had symmetry and order. This resulted into questioning its true art or beauty and people started criticizing as too superficial. By the mid – 18th century, Neo – Classical approach dominated which were based on the principles of simplicity and symmetry. Returning back to the purity of classical architecture of Rome and Greek, the architects started looking into grandeur of scale, simplicity of geometric forms, Greek—especially Doric —or Roman detail, dramatic use of columns, and a preference for blank walls. Its response was to go back to simple, massive, classical form of the Greek and Roman architecture era. BRANDENBURG GATE, BERLIN, GERMANY: Brandenburg gate was built during mid-18th century representing one fine example of Neo – classical architecture. The design of Brandenburg Gate (Fig. 49) is inspired from the Propylaea, the sandstone structure composed of 12 Doric columns that create five portals. The height of the gate was 20 meters depicting its scale was grand and monumental. This gate had played different political roles in German history and came to symbolise various incidents almost a century. Like earlier it was a key entry point to the city of Berlin then it played the role as a Prussian triumphal arch where only the royal family was allowed to pass through the central archway. It was also used for a triumphal procession. When the Nazis ascended to power, they used the gate as a party symbol. For 20 years, the Brandenburg Gate came to symbolize divided Germany, as the Berlin Wall shut off access to the gate for both East and West Germans (Fig. 72). With the fall of Communism and fall of the Berlin wall, the gate symbolized freedom and the desire to unify the city of Berlin. Brandenburg Gate became the main venue for the 20th-anniversary celebrations of the fall of the Berlin Wall or “Festival of Freedom”.

Figure 71: Brandenburg Gate at Berlin, Germany

Figure 72: Brandenburg Gate as seen through a barbed-wire barrier, 1961

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

Figure 73: 1963 Berlin map showing the division of East and West Berlin, the position of Brandenburg gate playing its role of division of state.

Other gateway like Propylaea in Munich (Fig. 74) - is another fine example of Neo - Classical architecture gateway, inspired from the Propylaea of ancient Greece. Moving further, with the development of modern warfare, the walls of cities across Europe had become useless. Cities began the demolition of its ramparts, replacing them with paths or simply empty space. The city gates, once the only entrances to the walled city, were torn down to make way for striking new structures inspired by the triumphal arches of Ancient Rome. Besides the arches which addressed the notion of previous city gates or victory of King over wars, in the 19th century, the new role of the gates emerged which was more kind of notional.Gates and arches were constructed as a memorial, often dedicated to a particular war though some are dedicated to individuals where the emphasis was more on remembrance and commemoration, rather than celebration and victory. Arches built with the same notion during the time period of 19th and mid-20th century was Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel, Siegestor, Menin Gate, etc (Fig. 75,76)

Figure 74: Propylaea in Munich

ATTRIBUTES ASSOCIATED: LOCATION: At strategic centre of the precinct, or city GATE TYPE: Triumphal gate ROLE OF THE GATE: Evoking memories, symbolic

Figure 75: Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel at Paris, France

Figure 76: Menin Gate at Belgium

SCALE: Monumental in scale

32 UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

4 KM

1 KM

Figure 81: Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel framing the view of obelisk and Arc De Triomphe

Figure 77: Grande Arche

20 M

Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel was built earlier to commemorate victory during early 19th century and is a fine example of Neo - classical architecture (Fig. 80). In the middle of the square stands an Egyptian Obelisk, raised there in 1836 (Fig. 79). The monument is part of the strange geometrical layouts and alignments along the Historical Axis, referring the symbols of Ancient Egypt. At the end of the Avenue des Champs-Elysées stands the mighty Arc de Triomphe. Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel when viewed from its eastern side, it frames the Egyptian Obelisk and the Arc de Triomphe because of its positioning on the same axis (Fig. 81). They become visual pointers, directing people to walk through that axis and experience the strong line of axis. As stated above, the orientation of axis is set so perfectly on the line of movement of the sun that the arch of Arc de Triomphe frames the sun set beautifully (Fig. 83).

2 KM

50 M

It is a line of monuments, buildings, and thoroughfares that extends from the centre of Paris to the west (Fig. 85). The orientation of this axis is such that it follows the course of the Sun from its rising in the east to its setting in the west. It began with the creation of the avenue Champs-Élysées, designed in the 17th century to create a vista to the west, extending the central axis of the gardens to the royal Palace of the Tuileries. The palace does not exist now, but on this axis till the extension of Champs-Élysées there are series of landmarks - the gateways which were built to symbolise victory. It seems that a complex symbolism was at work in the mind of the successive urban planners - with the location of these gates on the same axis.

110 M

AXE HISTORIQUE OF PARIS:

Figure 78: Arc De Triomphe

Figure 79: Egyptian Obelisk

Figure 80: Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel

Figure 82: Vista from the point of Obelisk towards west

In the late 19th century, it was decided to stretch this historical axis to the west of its direction, marking it more stronger. It was stretched and past the city boundary to La Defense which marked out to become new business district. La Grande Arche situated in the midst of the skyscrapers which is 110 meters tall, is strong unifying symbol for the bicentenary of the French Revolution (Fig. 77). From the east of Arch de Triomphe, it can be seen that La Grande Arche creates the backdrop of Arc de Triomphe because of its monumental scale (Fig. 84). This historic axis from Louvre to La Defense is somewhat 8 Km long and still it is being going to stretch further past the La Grande Arche.

Figure 83: Arc De Triomphe framing the sun setting

Figure 85: Paris map showing the historic axis and marking the major landmarks on it and the map is north aligned upwards UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Figure 84: Grande Arche as a backdrop of Arc de Triomphe 33

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

ARC DE TRIOMPHE:

Figure 89: Victory Parade passing through the Arc de Triomphe, Paris - July 14,1919

Figure 90: Free French forces on parade after the liberation of Paris, 1944

The four sides of the facade of the triumphal arch feature impressive bas-reliefs, high-reliefs and friezes describing scenes from the Napoleonic Wars. The four high-reliefs at the base of the Arc de Triomphe depict the emotions of: ‘The Triumph’ (Fig. 92), ‘Resistance’ (Fig. 93), ‘Peace’ (Fig. 94) and the ‘Departure of the Volunteers‘ (Fig.95). These were created by various artists of that time. Through these sculptures, they expressed the stories of commemoration and peace over treaty.

Figure 92: The sculpture for ‘The Triumph’

30 M

The huge arch is a major stage in the centreline of the Historical Axis of Paris. The Arc de Triomphe marks the end of the Avenue des ChampsÉlysées where it stands at the centre of a huge square in the shape of a ‘star’- dodecagonal configuration of twelve radiating avenues (Fig. 87), each bearing the names of illustrious French military leaders and is located on the right bank of the river Seine.

passing under the arch after its construction

The gate is the monument in itself. The giant columns of the arch have the spiral staircase equipped within which leads one to its upper floor which houses permanent exhibition. Then reaching to the floor by staircase, corridor leads one to the hall. The steel and new media installation in the exhibition interrogates the symbolism of the national monument, questioning the balance of its symbolic message during the last two centuries, oscillating between war and peace. Taking stairs to go to the attic, where there is a small museum which contains large models of the Arc and tells its story from the time of its construction. The cut out Another 40 steps remain to climb in order to reach the top, the terrace, from where one can enjoy a panoramic view of Paris. (Fig. 88) The Arc de Triomphe honour those who fought for France, particularly during the Napoleonic Wars. In the ground beneath the arch is the tomb of the Unknown Soldier of the First World War. It became the rallying point of troops parading after successful military campaigns. Famous victory marches around the arch were done by French and Germans (Fig: 89,90). After the interment of the Unknown Soldier, however, all military parades (including the aforementioned post1919) have avoided marching through the actual arch out of respect for the tomb and its symbolism.

Figure 93: The sculpture for the Resistance

Figure 94: The sculpture for the Peace

Figure 95: The sculpture for the ‘Departure of the Volunteers’

The six reliefs sculpted on the facades of the Arch, above the high reliefs represents the important moments of the French Revolution and of the Napoleonic era (Fig. 96 to 101). These marble bas reliefs depict the wars during French Revolution like The Battle of Jemappes where the victory was very important for the emperor and how he encouraged the troops to attack on the enemies. Such scenes are being observed in other sculptures also.

20m

Figure 96: The Battle of Austerlitz on west facade

Figure 102: Map showing the visual axis experienced from the terrace of Arc De Triomphe

Figure 88: Cross section of Arc De Triomphe showing: The intake of light, panoramic view at its terrace, scale w.r.t. human, exhibition space and line indicates the direction to reach another level

In the attic above the richly sculptured frieze of soldiers are 30 shields engraved with the names of major French victories in the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars. The inside walls of the Arc de Triomphe feature the names of 660 people, mostly the French generals of Napoleon. On the inner facades of the small arches are engraved the names of the military leaders of the French Revolution. The names of those killed in battle are underlined (Fig. 91). The shorter sides of the four supporting columns contain the names of the major victorious battles of the Napoleonic Wars.

Figure 97: The Battle of Aboukir on south facade, left

Figure 98: The Fall of Alexandria on north facade, left

Figure 99: The Battle of Arcole on north facade, right

Figure 100: General Marceau’s burial on south facade, right

Figure 103: The Grande Arche and the business district seen

ATTRIBUTES ASSOCIATED: LOCATION: Dodecagonal configuration radiating twelve avenues from its point of position

Figure 87: Map showing the twelve radiating avenues from the position of the square of Arc De Triomphe

Figure 91: North wall of the small inner arch - names of the military leaders sacrificed during war UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

The panoramic view from the platform at the terrace displays the twelve avenues departing from its position. The viewing platform also offers a fine view over the whole Historical Axis, from the Louvre to the Grande Arche in the CBD of La Défense creating beautiful vistas for long than 1 Km. Thus, the Arch apart from being landmark, also becomes the visual pointer.

50 M

Arc de Triomphe was commissioned in 1806 after the victory at Austerlitz by Emperor Napoleon at the peak of his fortunes. It is designed in the Neoclassical monument, inspired from the triumphal Arch of Titus in Rome. Napoleon once said to his soldiers: “When you come back home, it will be through these triumphal arches”. But the building was stopped during the Napoleonic Wars and only resumed in the reign of Louis-Philippe in the 1830s. Napoleon never got to see it completed and so when it was built, his remains were passed under it Figure 86: Remains of the Emperor before going to his final resting place (Fig. 86).

Figure 101: The Battle of Jemappes on east facade

Figure 104: The view of the Eiffel Tower and Avenue Kleber

Figure 105: View of the Champs-Élysées

GATE TYPE: Triumphal Arch

ROLE OF THE GATE: Houses exhibition, triumphal gateway

MATERIAL AND TECHNIQUE: Arch made of limestone and cobblestone Sculpture reliefs made of marble

SCALE: Monumental in terms of human scale

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

2.16 GATEWAYS DURING MODERN AGES: 2.161 An Idea of Minimalism: The Age of Enlightenment as referred as the Early Modern Period was the root that sparked a new era in the way humans will change the world. In the late 18th â&#x20AC;&#x201C; early 19th century, another revolution - an industrial one, transformed the economic and social structure of Europe. With the rise in Industrial revolution, all the manufacturing process shifted from small shops to large factories resulting into the mass production of materials and goods. The production of material like cast iron and steel was a game changer in architecture. With its structural stability and its cheaper cost, this allowed architects to design increasingly bigger, lighter, more open spaces even while the traditional style was informed by the limitations of brick and masonry. This material gave freedom to expand the structure in terms of its scale, make its facade and structure lighter. The gateways which were built during this time emerged as its new typology itself. The role of the city gates and playing the role of defense did not fit with its urban context and thus gateways were seen then majorly as a commemorative and symbolic. The sub â&#x20AC;&#x201C; elements which played the role in earlier gateways, did not exist anymore in this gateways as they were built with minimalistic approach.

ATTRIBUTES ASSOCIATED: LOCATION: At strategic centre of the city GATE TYPE: Triumphal or ceremonial gateway ROLE OF THE GATE: Symbolic MATERIAL: Cast Iron and Steel SCALE: Monumental in scale

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

EIFFEL TOWER AT PARIS, FRANCE:

THE GATEWAY ARCH AT ST. LOUIS, USA:

GRANDE ARCHE AT PARIS, FRANCE:

In 1889, to honor of the centenary of the French Revolution, the French government had planned an international exposition, to demonstrate France’s industrial prowess to the world. Bordering the River Seine, it was the monumental entrance arch to the 1889 World’s Fair and led to the exhibition pavilions set up along the Champ de Mars.

During the westward expansion of the United States in the 19th century, the Gateway Arch was built to commemorate the accomplishments of 19th-century westward pioneers and celebrate the city’s role as the ‘Gateway to the West.’

To celebrate the 200th anniversary of the French Revolution the President commissioned the construction of the Grand Projects in 1989 which aimed to revitalize the city and promote culture. The Grande Arche “The Great Arch of the Defense” is a gateway arch and monument in the business district of La Defense , to the west of Paris, France. It is on the line of historic axis, to the west of Arc De Triomphe and is a part of the vista from the Louvre to Arc de Triomphe.

Figure 111: Grande Arche at Paris, France Figure 109: The Gateway Arch at St. Louis, USA

Figure 106: Map showing the position of Eiffel Tower and its line of axis

Figure 107: Eiffel Tower at Paris, France

The monument didn’t have any purpose in particular as it existed purely to demonstrate French architectural creativity and skill with materials to the world; it was imbued with meaning but not utility. It is 300 m tall and consists of an iron framework supported on four masonry piers, from which rise four columns that unite to form a single vertical tower. Platforms, each with an observation deck, are at three levels. Observation deck offers beautiful panoramic view and becomes the visual pointer also other than landmark in itself. The Eiffel tower is the symbol of democracy and a hallmark of modern architecture. That was what Gustave Eiffel had visualized it to be and for that he insisted that elevators be included in the tower, so that the building could be used as a tower from which Parisians and their visitors could enjoy a view on their city. But they had to be imported from an American company and so that was something that was before only accessible to a few wealthy people that could afford flying in a hot air balloon during that time. But then with the installation of elevators, it was affordable to all classes of society. Earlier, its one of the floors was used as a meteorological laboratory by scientists. The French military also used the tower to communicate wirelessly with ships in the Atlantic Ocean and intercept enemy messages during World War I. Today the tower stands out as a masterpiece and the floor besides being observation deck, houses restaurant and lounges. During New year eves, it becomes the place of celebration.

Figure 108: Map showing the position of the Gateway Arch

It stands 192 m above the Mississippi River and is the tallest national monument in America. The arch is a legendary engineering triumph, designed by architect Eero Saarinen and was built as part of the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial. In the year 1965, the massive stainless-steel arch was completed and in 1967, the internal tram system to take visitors to the top and the Visitor Center, which included exhibits, opened to the public. Less than a decade later, the Museum of Westward Expansion opened underneath the arch with exhibits on St. Louis’ role in the rapid westward expansion of the 19th century. The strong, elegant shape of the arch represents a door to the western part of the country. It is the world’s tallest arch, cladded in stainless steel and built in the form of a weighted catenary arch which has become an internationally recognized symbol of St. Louis. During its inauguration, one of the prime officials declared that the arch was “a soaring curve in the sky that links the rich heritage of yesterday with the richer future of tomorrow”.

Figure 110: Map showing the position of the Grande Arche

At the time La Defense, the futuristic business district of Paris, was often devoid of life because of its desolate concrete landscape and was in need of an iconic centerpiece that act as an urban center and create an identity for the new district. Johann Otto Von Spreckelsen designed an enormous arch that looks like a giant hollow cube. It marks the end of the historical east-west axis that runs from the Louvre along the Champs-Elysees to La Defense. It is the third arch on the Triumphal way, complimenting the two historic arches on this axis: the Arc du Carrousel and the Arc de Triomphe. While these arches were built to celebrate military victories, the new arch emphasizes the importance of La Defense as France’s financial and business center. The arch is set at a six-degree angle towards the axis of the Triumphal Way to avoid the contact of its piers with the tunnels underneath. The structure is pre-stressed concrete cladded in white Carrara marble, granite and glass – the materials symbolizing the modernity. Spanned between the inside of the archway is a tent-like structure dubbed the ‘cloud’. It was created to reduce wind resistance and also to reduce the gigantic proportions of the arch. The cloud is made of white plastic panels that are suspended by steel cables to the sides of the arch. Glass elevators bring visitors through the ‘cloud’ to an exhibition area at the rooftop of the arch which is three-story rooftop is arranged around four courtyards. Each of the four areas represents a part of the zodiac system. Stairs lead to the observation platform on top of the arch where visitors have a unique perspective over Paris and could see the whole length of the Triumphal Way all the way towards the Louvre.

Note: All maps are north aligned upwards and not to scale UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

2.17 SUMMARY: In this entire chapter, a discussion was generated on the major phases of the human history which have played an important role in the domain of architecture. Certain aspects like socio – political and cultural factors of the society were discussed in brief which gave us an understanding of how these factors were important for the manifestation of something in architecture and how architecture and these aspects are co-related to each other. This brought us to an observation of gateways diversified in terms of some specific parameters set to understand each phase and the gateways manifested during that time.

PHASE OF A HUMAN HISTORY FACTORS

Social Factors

Political Factors

Cultural factors

MANIFESTATION OF ARCHITECTURE OF GATEWAYS

Location

Gate type

Role

Scale

Material and Technique

Sub - elements

Figure 112: Parameters taken into the consideration for the study

The figure above explains the parameters through which each gateway was studied in this chapter. The insertion of any gateway in the urban context i.e. its location is very important to understand because that gives us a clue of the role played by the gateway like if it is located at the edge of the city – linked with the periphery wall then it is the city gate, if it is located at the prime centre of the city then it is the commemorative gateway. From understanding its role, the idea of the function played by that specific gateway can be obtained like if it is a city gate then it acts as a defender and protects the city from vulnerable situations, if it is the commemorative gateway it will be built to evoke the memories of a specific historical event occurred. Once getting the idea of a reason of its manifestation, one can further decipher its form, scale and structure and their sub – elements, its ornamentation. Again, all these parameters are inter - dependent on each other and thus it is necessary to understand it first.

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

In the pre – civilization, we observed the role of the gateway was purely functional i.e. for the entry/exit to a specific settlement, one had to pass through the gate so it stood as a threshold at its boundary. In the first civilization, with the development of larger communities the city state came up. With that, political and social classes were observed which led to build the boundaries according to the zones and each class was allowed to get entry to some extent. This resulted into the series of the gates – Gate to the city, Gate to the citadel. The city gates built were the punctures on the walls through which the access into the city was only possible. It acts as a threshold as well as protected the city from the outside world. As the cities flourished, the city gates were built more grand and various inscriptions and figures carved on the gates gave us the clue of beliefs of the people in the power of Almighty and Nature. With that, to impress their Gods religious complexes were built, believing that these ‘intermediary objects’ will enlist their support and enhance his power. The role and the scale of the gateway emerged to be different from the earlier ones – they were built monumental in scale and it act as a threshold between the ‘inner world’ and ‘outside chaotic world’. Various notions like cardinal directions, reliefs and ornamentation were associated with the gateways. With the rise of Medieval Age, the whole collapse of ancient empires and then the rise of the new socio – political factors contributed the major role in the architecture of gateways. The gateways were looked more like defensive one, they were the part of fortification walls that shaped the city. The gates were built with various defensive strategies and its intention was again purely functional i.e. protect the city. The form of the gate changed and it was like the whole building in itself as it housed the rooms and other functions. It worked as a system with the sub elements like bastion, barbicans, fortified walls, drawbridge, etc. With the evolution in time, though they had played the similar role, different form of the gates was observed like the gatehouse, gate tower, etc. With their increase in verticality, they started becoming the landmarks of the precinct and at the later time they were used more like the ceremonial gateways by the successive emperors. The Renaissance Age and the Age of Enlightenment again changed the whole architecture of gateways because of its socio – political and cultural role which resulted into the revival of certain elements of ancient architecture. Because of the expansion of the city, the fortified walls and many city gates were torn down. The gateways which were built during this phase marked the victory of the kings over the wars or were built to honor the military leaders who sacrificed their life during the wars. The location of the gate was at the prime center of the city or near to the royal precinct. With the freedom of expression, they were built more expressive through the carved reliefs or the statues attached with it indicating the stories of its creation. Thus, from this age the transformation of the role of the gates from functional to notional was largely observed. With the introduction to the Modern Age, the gates were built more out of symbolic purpose like to showcase the power of the Nation with their advancement and technology.

42 UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

With this understanding, one can observe that various kinds of typology of the gateways can be created on the basis of these parameters mentioned above. The typology with which this thesis will be studied further would be on the basis of the role played by the gateways.

TYPOLOGY OF GATEWAYS ITS ROLE AND FUNCTION

Acting as a Threshold

Gateway to a Religious Precinct

Gateway to a Royal Precinct

Acting as a Defender

Gateway to City

Acting as a Symbolism

Gateway to Fort

Commemorative gateway

Figure 113: Typology of gateways on the basis of its role and function

This chapter was studied taking the gateways from the different historical phases across the globe with Non â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Indian context, which gave us an understanding of the typology of gateways. The next chapter will be focused on the typology of the gateways with the Indian context.

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as an Urban Artefact: Evolution through different historical periods

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

CHAPTER 3: GATEWAYS AS A TYPOLOGY: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent: The evolution across the globe gave us a glimpse of how the gateways were associated with various notions which evolved from time to time, the philosophies, political strategies or functional aspects involved with its creation. The existence of the gateways across diverse cultures and historical periods gave us the clue how gateways worked as a system. “Because all openings in, and boundaries of, whatever has been imbued with sacrality – whether they are openings of human body or tradition boundaries of man created spaces – are considered vital and vulnerable, they are also the foci for protective patterns.” - Rudolf Arnheim in “The Dynamics of Architectural Form”

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

3.1 EVOLUTION OF GATEWAYS IN INDIA WITH ITS HISTORY IN BRIEF: The architecture of India has evolved through centuries because of the result of socio-political and cultural factors. Different types of Indian architectural styles include a mass of expressions over space and time, transformed by the forces of history is considered to be unique. As a result, diversity in architectural style can be seen throughout India. Therefore, before getting into the main examples of gateways of Indian subcontinent, it is necessary to understand the evolution of the gateways with respect to the historical phases of India and understand main factors associated with it. The oldest of the civilizations or one may say from where it all started in India can be traced back to Indus Valley Civilization. They provided evidences of extensive town planning, town protected with the huge tapered fortified walls to protect the city from the floods and the city gates were made out of baked bricks. From the positioning of gateways, it was also observed that they believed in the power of the cardinal directions. The gateways built were intended to be purely functional and the scale of the gate was submissive. After Indus Valley Civilisation, there are few traces of Indian architecture, which probably mostly used wood, or brick which has not survived. In the Vedic Era, Torana was originated for the first time in the ‘grama – dwara’ which means ‘gateway to the village’. These gates were built at the point of entry to mark a domain - by two verticals with horizontal over it and was made mostly out of wood. The rise of Mauryan Age led to the advent of Buddhist architecture in India. Walled and moated cities with large gates were observed during this time period. The gates in the form of Torana act as a threshold at the edge of the city and was used for the entry/exit to the city. The role of the Torana changed during that time period and were also used as a gateway to the religious shrines. The gateways were more kind of an invitation, where the transition from mundane to sacred was significant. The toranas of the Sanchi Stupa were the honorific gateways to the precinct, the stupa to hold cosmic power of the world. The four free-standing gateways were positioned in the cardinal directions, each one beautifully carved out of stone depicting the events took place in the life of Buddha. Another example of the gateway out of the rock – cut architecture was the entrance of Lomas Rishi Cave which was built during almost the same time period. The gateway has chaitya arch adorned with the ornamentation of carved reliefs. With the establishment of Hindu kingdoms in South India, Dravidian style of architecture developed. The temples built during that time had the gateways ‘Gopura’ which played the role as a threshold to the temples. They were of the small pyramidal structure made out of the stone. The concentric enclosures surrounding the temples are entered through Gopuram and devotee has to pass through various enclosures to reach to the main shrine and thus, ‘preached to the world, that surrounded with all the pomp and pageantry of the worldliness, the real abode of God lay within, in the innermost sanctum, meek and dark and the least attractive’8. This example will be studied in detail in the further study. 8. Saha, Sushree. On Entrances.... A Symbolic Aspect Undergraduate Thesis, CEPT

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

After the fall of Gupta empire, somewhere around 6th century there was the rise of Medieval Age in India. Between 6th to 12th century – generally referred as ‘Early Medieval Period’, no significant architecture of gateways was observed. Following the Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent and the decline of Buddhism were seen to be taken place, eventually founding the Delhi Sultanate and creating the IndoIslamic architecture. The construction of domes and arches used in the erection of the gateway indicated the rise of Islamic architecture in India. During the reign of Sultan Allaudin Khalji, Alai Darwaza was built as the southern gateway to the mosque complex. That was the first gateway in India which was designed on the basis of Islamic principles and ornamentation. The gateway stood as a threshold between the domains and the new form of the gate i.e. gatehouse was observed at that time, having significant depth and housed a chamber within. With the rise in Sultanate architecture, the form of the gateways emerged with its role played differently. Like in the year 1411, Sultan Ahmed Shah built Teen Darwaza which was the gateway to the Royal precinct. The gateway has three arches which led into a large courtyard of the palace called Maidan Shah in past, with a fountain and raised terrace in the center. During the ceremony, the emperors use to pass through the central gate on the elephant with the howdah. Authorities during that time use to meet at the gate and it also has been known that various kind of social gathering use to happen there. Another example of the gateway with its role different, seen during Sultanate architecture is Char Minar constructed by the emperor to commemorate the eradication of cholera and was built at the city center. The gateway was constructed on the basis of the cardinal directions – all the four archways facing all the directions. Char Minar is the monument in itself and houses the mosque on its above floor. The monument was so proportionately planned that when the fort first opened, one could see all four corners of the bustling city of Hyderabad through each of its four grand arches, as each arch faced one of the most active royal ancestral streets. Both the above examples will be studied in detail further. With the decline of Sultanate architecture, the early Modern period of India had started with the reign of Mughals. Mughal architecture believed in the idea of symmetry and geometry; including large bulbous domes, slender minarets at the corners, massive halls, large vaulted gateways, and delicate ornamentation. Fusion of Islamic, Persian and Indian architecture can be seen in Mughal architecture. The best example of the Mughal architecture gateway is Buland Darwaza which was built to commemorate Akbar’s victory over Deccan. This example will be explained in detail in the further study. The role of the gateways as the defender started coming up with the fort architecture. The forts like Agra Fort, Red Fort in Delhi – which were built during the reign of Akbar’s rule are the fine examples to understand the gateways and its defensive role. The gateways are the part of the fortification walls which surrounds the fort. Here the gateway is looked as a system as its sub – elements also plays a major role like barbican, bastion, tower, machicolation, battlement parapet, guardrooms, etc. The gates are in series, never in alignment or on same line of axis to make the approach meandering – to resist the force of elephants ramming towards the gate to break it. The aspects of the fortified gateways are wide and so it will be explained further through the examples.

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

In the early 18th century, with the death of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, the central power of their system weakened and the successive Mughal governors started claiming their territories as their personal domains which resulted into the collapse of Mughal Empire. The Early historians of Indian architecture looked upon the eighteenth century as the end of classical architecture and a century of chaos till the establishment of colonial architecture. The Maratha Empire ruled between the 17th and 19th centuries. The Marathas were never a stable kingdom to have cities as they were constantly at war against the Mughal Empire and thus, Marathas had no important “city” of the day under their direct control. They built forts to provide a guaranteed protection for the population and the region as well. The forts were of various types like Hill fort, Land fort and Sea fort; according to its context. Hill Forts were constructed on the high hills and made from stone cut out from those very mountains. The high altitudes and the steep walls made these forts daunting for the enemy. In the vernacular Marathi language, they were called as ‘Giri Durg’ (‘Giri’ means the mountain and ‘Durg’ is the term for a fort). They were considered the most reliable in comparison to land forts. Sea Forts were created in the middle of the sea at a shallow point with a solid foundation base and was protected by its vicious waves. In Marathi they were called ‘Jal Durg’. Shivaji was quick to realise the importance of sea forts as they had provided an efficient base for controlling sea traffic and trade. ‘Mahadarwaza’ was the main entrance gate of the fort which was built large enough compared to an elephant scale. It generally had huge wooden and metallic gates with rows and columns of long iron spikes were fixed in order to prevent enemy elephant or a wooden rammer from forcing open the gates which can be seen in the Mahadarwaza or Delhi Darwaza at Shanivar wada in Pune. There were often more than two to three entrances one after the other at short distances like that in Darwaza of Sinhagad. Alongside the doors there were spaces called Jibhi where stone plinths were available for the guards. Thousands of stone steps took one onto the main gateway like that of Raigad built at 2851 feet above sea level and has around 1500 stone steps leading to the fort. Some smaller forts had these nagarkhanas (drum houses) also used as administrative offices and watchposts. If attention of the people below the fort was sought, then these nagars/drums were often sounded built right over the mahadarwaza as seen in the Shanivar wada, the Peshwa’s residential citadel in Pune. With the rise of the British Empire in India, it marked a new chapter in Indian Architecture. During the initial phase of its empire, European styles including neoclassical and Gothic revival became prevalent across India. In the later phase, European style culminated with the fusion of Indian and Islamic style of architecture which came out to be known as Indo – Saracenic style of architecture. Gateways built during 18th and 19th century were more kind of a notional; built for a commemorative purpose or to pay respect to the ones who were sacrificed during the wars. The examples of the gateways during this period are: Gateway of India at Mumbai, India Gate at Delhi, Reay Gate or Sardar Patel Gate and Mahabat Circle Gate at Junagadh. The architecture of these gateways can purely be seen in Indo – Saracenic style as the elements like turrets, minarets, chhatri, dome, arches all comes from the Indo – Islamic style while the filigree on the gateways resemble the European style of architecture. These gateways are taken further in case studies and will be explained in detail. 48

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

Gopura at Meenakshi temple, Madurai

Teen Darwaza at Ahmedabad, Gujarat

GATEWAY TO RELIGIOUS PRECINCT

CharMinar at Hyderabad, Telangana

Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri, Uttar Pradesh

GATEWAY TO ROYAL PRECINCT

Gateway of India at Mumbai, Mahrashtra

India Gate at Delhi

COMMEMORATIVE GATEWAY

TYPOLOGY OF GATEWAYS

GATEWAY TO FORT

Delhi Darwaza at Ahmedabad, Gujarat

Daulatabad Fort at Aurangabad, Maharashtra

Amar Singh Gate at Agra Fort, Uttar Pradesh

Delhi Gate at Agra Fort, Uttar Pradesh

Figure 114: Index showing the gates which will be discussed further UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

3.2 GATEWAY TO RELIGIOUS PRECINCT: 3.21 GOPURA OF SOUTH INDIAN TEMPLES: The distinctive pyramidal gateway. Breaking the word ‘gopuram’ into ‘go’ and ‘puram’, go which means either ‘a city’ or ‘a cow’, and puram ‘a town’, or ‘a settlement’ in Sanskrit. Another derivation of it is that it consists of two words, ‘gawa’ and ‘puram’, meaning the place from which all the energy that exists in all living beings comes inside. These gateways became a dominant feature of the temple between 12th and 16th century, when Hindu temples increasingly became a hub of the urban life. In the ancient times, temples had smaller gopuram but later the Hindu temples of Dravidian style, the series of gateways along with its boundaries and courtyards started to appear (Fig. 117, 118, 119). These gateways became a dominant feature of a temple’s outer appearance, eventually overshadowing the inner sanctuary which became obscured from view by the gopuram colossal size and courtyards.9 A large Dravidian-style temple may have multiple gopuram as the openings into successively smaller walled enclosures around the main shrine, with the largest generally at the outer edges. The temple compound is typically square or rectangular with at least the outermost wall having gopura, often from the four cardinal directions. The multiple storeys of a gopuram typically repeat the lower level features on a rhythmic diminishing scale.9 The towering roof of central deity’s shrine is also called Vimanam, although it is typically smaller than the gopurams in the sanctum.

Fig. 115: Gopura of Nilkantesvara temple at Laddigam

Fig. 116: Gopura of Andal Renga Mannar Temple at Srivilliputhur

Fig. 117*: Plan of Thillai temple, Chidambaram

Fig. 118*: Plan of Meenakshi Temple, Madurai

Fig. 119*: Plan of Sri Rangaswamy Temple, Srirangam

9. S Michell, George (1988) in ‘The Hindu Temple’ Chicago: University of Chicago Press Note: Fig. 66, 67, 68 are the schematic plans of the temples to understand the concept of the positioning of the gopuras and so they are not to scale and all of them are north aligned upwards. UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

ABOUT THE PYRAMIDAL STRUCTURE: The eleventh century marked a moment of change in the increasing prominence, scale, and number of gopura which would come to dwarf the diminutive vimanas at the temple’s heart, resulting in the characteristic Tamil conception of the temple as a complex of structures entered through great pyramidal gateways on one or more sides.

Vimana

Gopuram

Fig. 120: Conception of formation of Gopuram form from Vimana

On the basis of both textual descriptions and the architectural form, it has been suggested that gopuras are based on vimanas, the main shrine of the Dravidian temple: a gopura is a vimana split in half with the garbhagriha surviving as a largely redundant small chamber on either side of the gopura entranceway. Unlike vimanas however, gopuras are always rectangular with two equal sections on either side of the gateway. Such a conception of splitting dynamic form to reveal the deity within has a counterpart in exterior wall niches containing images of deities framed by the two halves of a split column. (Fig. 120) The devotee approaching one of the later South Indian temple complexes would proceed through a series of gateways that conceptually divide to gradually reveal the deity at the temple’s heart (Fig. 121). In the Sri Rangam temple, the seven concentric prakara walls are said to symbolize the seven layers of matter-earth, water, fire, air, either, mind and intelligencethat enclose the awareness of the living entities in the material world. Gopuras come into view to have inclined revision in the temple plan and outline. The spaces just about the shrine became hierarchical; the further Fig. 121 Strong axis of the position of the space was from the central shrine, the lesser was its distinction. The Gopurams farthest ring had buildings of a more practical or a secular nature – shops, dormitories, sheds, workshops etc., thus transforming the temple from a merely place of worship to the center of a vibrant alive city (Fig. 122). The gopuram was constructed to great heights, this is for the reason that the old populace who cannot come to temple can also pray their deity by sitting at their place just bearing in mind the gopuram. By way of seeing the Gopuram’s form expanse, people planned the approximate distance of their target from their location. Gopuram’s were built extremely high to serve as landmarks as well as for traveler’s distance. Additionally, temples served as the main protection for travelers. When people travel between places, they stay at the temple building to take rest. Before they commence the new part of their journey, they would respect God and begin. Fig. 122 View of Meenakshi temple at Madurai 52

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

Fierce monster images mark the arch end of the vaulted roof and serve as guardian deities

Stucco work

Stone used in main structure of gopura Opening in the middle of the long sides allow light to enter the hollow chambers at each level

Superstructure made of brick and pilaster

Base of gopura made out of stone

Fig. 123: Diagram of Gopura showing its characteristics

Gopuras initially were built entirely from stone, but from the twelfth century they had superstructures constructed largely from brick, similar to vimanas, perhaps for reasons of economy as much as for reduced loadbearing. In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries; gopurams were built almost wholly of brick and stone was retained only for the most important load-bearing elements, such as the jambs or lintels of gopuras and other entrances.

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

3.3 GATEWAY TO CITY: 3.31 INTRODUCTION: In the medieval times, entrances to the city were dependent on the political, socio-economic and cultural conditions prevalent at the time of the growth of the city. Gateways were considered the most vulnerable points and during the period of political instability, those became the points of attack. So, the gateways were designed with complex degree of transition – the structure dependent on the defensive strategies. If it was not a point of attack, the number of walls, gates and entrance court or barbicans were reduced, and the gate was them merely symbolic of defense and demarcation of power and territory. Earlier the fortified wall demarcated the cities and the only way to enter into that cities were the gateways. The name of the gateways was kept after the zoning of that area or the route which lead towards the city or after any renowned personality. The roads associated with the gateways became the main arteries of the city, branching into secondary and tertiary routes amongst the city. The city gate apart from being the ‘checkpoints’ carried defensive purpose. So other elements on the gateways can be observed. To keep an eye on the outer states, the watch towers or ‘chattri’ can be seen on the top of it to get a distant view. On some of the gates, the rooms are observed which could have been for the guards to keep an eye on the gate day and night. The gates have huge doors which had poisonous iron spikes on it. The solely purpose of it was to resist from the elephants ramming at the time of attack. Along with it, a wicket gate sometimes can be seen along with it which is usually used for the local residents for transition. Thus, such gateways were looked as a set as many elements came together for its manifestation. The medieval period of India witnessed many fortified cities especially with the advent of Islam and Mughal period. Delhi, Aurangabad, Ahmedabad, Junagadh and many such states has city gates as the checkpoints to the city. The Delhi itself was divided into eight cities under the reign of the rulers who invaded Delhi from 8th to 20th century. The name of the cities was on the basis of the dynasty which ruled the city and the gates built during that phase reflects the architecture of that time period. Many gates of Delhi were named after the road that led towards another city like Ajmeri Gate leading towards Ajmer, Lahore Gate leading towards Lahore city of Pakistan. Besides it being a checkpoint, that was the place of trade and commerce, so the markets and shops can also be observed at those gates which are not the point of attack.

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

3.32 THE WALLED CITY OF AHMEDABAD HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: The city of Ahmedabad has witnessed and experienced the rule of five major dynasties that of the independent Sultanate of Gujarat, Mughals, Marathas, subsequently passed into the British hands and was under their rule till the Independence of India in 1947. The city grew and evolved under the rule of these dynasties mostly Muslim rulers. Ahmed Shah I of the Independent Sultanate of Gujarat decided to establish a new capital on the eastern bank of the river Sabarmati and credited with building the Bhadra fort and Teen Darwaza, Jami Masjid, Ahmad Shah’s mosque, Badshah’s and Rani’s Hajira. It was under the tenure of Sultan Mahmud Shah 1, popularly known as Mehmud Begada that Ahmedabad reached its glory. It became a centre of trade and commerce, literature and learning, art and architecture. The successors of Mehmud Begada were weak and ineffective thus initiating the decline of the Sultanate and the city. Akbar invaded the city twice and finally in 1573 A.D. established Mughal rule over Ahmedabad. During this period, the city earned highest reputation in trade and industry. The city also grew architecturally rich as the Mughals built many a mosque, mausoleums and gardens. After the demise of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire started to decay and the city of Ahmedabad fell into the hands of the Marathas and didn’t add to the architectural splendour of the city.

SERIES OF GATES - FROM THE CITY TO THE POLS: The walled city of Ahmedabad is an almost semi-circular city, earlier defined by the fortified city walls. Now the remnants of the wall and the city gates define the outer limits of the city. The fort wall was six miles in circumference and contained twelve gates: Shahpur gate, Delhi gate and Dariapur gate in the North; Kalupur gate, Sarangpur gate and Raipur gate in the East; Astodia gate, Jamalpur gate and Dhediya gate in the South; Khanjahan gate, Raikhad gate and Khanpur gate in the west. Some historian suggested to have 16 and later some Indologists found that 1. Ahmedabad has 21 gates. Although the city wall was made of terracotta bricks, lime mortar and lime plastered externally, the gateways were treated on their surface with stone. Shahapur

Name of the gates in Figure 124: City gate: 1. Shahpur gate 2. Delhi gate 3. Dariyapur gate 4. Premabhai gate 5. Kalupur gate 6. Pandikuva gate 7. Sarangpur gate 8. Raipur gate 9. Astodia gate 10. Mahudha gate 11. Jamalpur gate

2. Idarya

Khanpur

15.

Fig. 124: Diagram of Walled city of Ahmedabad showing the city gates and the gates of citadel

Mirzapur

14.

Gate to the royal precinct and citadel: A. Teen Darwaza B. Lal Darwaza

Daryapur

16.

12. Khanjahan gate 13. Raykhad gate 14. Ram gate 15. Baradari gate 16. Khanpur gate

Citadel

Jaweri wada

Khas Bazar

12.

Bhanderipur

Denkuva

6. Khadiya

Manek chowk

Pankor

13.

Tinlimbdi

Raypur

Raykhad

Sarangpur

Astodiya

Jamalpur

11.

10.

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

Within the walled city, Sultan Ahmed Shah I built the citadel of Bhadra, 1. the royal palace which is considered as the oldest part of the city. The 2. 3. Lal Darwaza was one of the gates of the citadel while Teen Darwaza 4. was the stately gateway to the enclosure leading to the royal palace within the citadel. The residential areas developed around the Bhadra 5. citadel and were segregated by caste and function. During the reign of Sultan Mehmud Begada, a well-developed group of neighbourhoods or 16. residential localities called ‘Paras’ emerged. The Sultan had given areas to his many commanders within the city limits to accommodate the 15. B. A. citizens of the city which resulted in the development of several distinct 6. residential localities named after the commanders in charge of that 14. specific residential locality, like Sarangpur named after Malek Sarang, 7. Dariapur after Daria Khan, Kalupur after Kalu Miyan except the Delhi Darwaza, which referred to the trade route, to which it led. The ‘paras’ 13. had a distinctive identity of their own based on their social identity like 9. 8. religion and caste but also on occupational specialization. Within these 12. ‘paras’ micro-neighbourhoods were found which arc known as ‘pols’ 11. 10. which are demarcated by a wall with a gate at its entrance. Fig.125: Diagram showing the routes connecting from the city gates

BRIEF OVERVIEW OF CITY GATES IN TERMS OF ITS FUNCTION: The function of the city gateways had been varied with respect to its position with the walled city. The route to Delhi Darwaza led to Delhi, and this gateway has three openings, central the main one for the arrival of King and the side ones for the foot passengers (Fig. 126). The central one depicts the power of how this gateway was used by the Royals for their transition. Moti Shahi Mahal was built to give work to the poor at the time of scarcity. During its inauguration when the Shah Jahan arrived on his elephant, it was realised that the scale of the gate was not grand enough to pass on with the elephant. Shah Jahan felt disgraced as it came to the point of his dignity. He decided not to enter the premise and leave. This shows how scale of the gates also depicted the power of dignity and grace. Other gateways like Mahudha Darwaza was a goods’ passage while food supplies were brought through Kalupur Darwaza. Some gateways were used only be certain group like Dariyapur Dawaza was used by soldiers while Salapas Darwaza was used by Queen’s convoy while Sarangpur Darwaza use to be for the common people for entry and exit. Khanpur Darwaza as it was positioned near the royal court, it was the entrance to the King’s garden.

Name of the gates in Figure 125: City gate: 1. Shahpur gate 2. Delhi gate 3. Dariyapur gate 4. Premabhai gate 5. Kalupur gate 6. Pandikuva gate 7. Sarangpur gate 8. Raipur gate 9. Astodia gate 10. Mahudha gate 11. Jamalpur gate 12. Khanjahan gate 13. Raykhad gate 14. Ram gate 15. Baradari gate 16. Khanpur gate Gate to the royal precinct and citadel: A. Teen Darwaza B. Lal Darwaza

Fig. 126: Sketch showing the king on elephant marching towards city through central gate of Delhi Darwaza 56

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

Fig.126: Old Walled City Ahmedabad City Map showing the access points through gates UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

Fig. 127: Drawing shows the schematic sketches of the gates of the Walled city of Ahmedabad 60

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

3.4 GATEWAY TO A ROYAL PRECINCT: 3.41 TEEN DARWAZA: Gateway reflecting the Sultanate Architecture The triumphal archway forming the central feature of Ahmad Shah’s processional route, connecting his place with the Jami Masjid, and known as the Tin Darwaza or “Triple Gateway” (Fig. 128). Now encroached on by small shops, and the fine thoroughfare of the “Kings Way” converted into a rather commonplace bazaar, this archway has lost much of its regal significance.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:

Fig. 128: Teen Darwaza at Ahmedabad

It was built by Ahmad Shah I immediately after the foundation of Ahmedabad and completed in 1415. Through it, in 1459, Mahmud Begada, king for only a few months, and not fifteen years old, quiver on back and bow in hand, with only 300 horsemen, marched to disperse his rebel nobles and their 30,000 followers. Leaving the palace, the young king ordered the roads leading to it to be held by elephants, and, with the royal music playing, marched slowly along the main street. His cool bravery gave some of his faithful nobles time to join, and forming a considerable force, though small compared with the insurgents, attacked them, put them to flight, and destroyed their leaders.Later the newly appointed Maratha governors used to aim five arrows at one of its beams, and augur good or ill to their administration in accordance with their success in striking it. This grand gateway divided the Khas from the Aam and served as a royal enclosure. The intricately carved darwaza was used by Mughal emperor, Jahangir and his wife Noor Jahan to watch the processions from the place to Jama Masjid. This grand gateway was also used as an entrance to Royal Square at Bhadra Fort. The darwaza served as a witness ground to watch processions and religious ceremonies that took place at the huge ground between the gate and the fort of Bhadra (Fig. 129).

Fig. 129: Teen Drawaza in 1886 UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

LOCATION: It spans the broad street running eastwards from the Bhadr, past the north side of Jami Masjid. The two major roads, one from Delhi gate to Jamalpur gate through Pankor naka (N-S axis) and the other through Teen Darwaza to Kalupur gate (E-W axis), established the cross axis of the city with the Jami Masjid concentrated at the intersection (Fig. 130, 131). These major avenues, were the market streets of the city.

Fig. 130: Figure showing the cross of N-s axis and E-W axis

This gateway led into a large enclosure, forming the outer courtyard of the palace, with the fountain and raised terrace in the centre. Here the great feudatories or foreign embassies assembled before approaching the presence, and the sovereign enthroned on the terrace, mustered the troops for martial enterprises and gala-day reviews, or held splendid Court in the cool of the evening beside the splashing fountain.

Fig. 131: Figure showing the cross of N-s axis and E-W axis

Market area

Built

Fig. 132: The surrounding context of Teen Darwaza 62

Fig. 133: The location of the gate w.r.t the fort

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

ABOUT THE GATEWAY: This magnificent gateway consists of three arches, of which the roadway in the central opening is 5.3m wide, and that of each side arch is 3.9m between the pilasters. The piers are 11.2m deep and 2.4m thick, with three cross passages through each. On the faces of the two piers are carved buttresses, with five recesses in the height of each. The arches are 7.4m in height. The terrace on the top was formerly covered by a tiled roof, but it did not belong to the original structure; and during repairs on the gateway in 1877, it was thrown open. This terrace has three balcony windows on each side (Fig. 135).

Fig. 134: The plan of the gate highlighting the routes

Fig. 135: The figure of the gate highlighting the routes: The middle route used by the royals and the side routes used by common people

ELEMENTS:

ARCHES:

The arches appear over here are pointed arches, as it reflects the Sultanate period - when it was built. There are multiple bands of intricate details which can be seen over the pointed arches (Fig. 136). Within each aisle of the gate, there are four bands of arches that form aisle of the gate. The wide opening in the middle indicated that it might be the gateways for the royal family to enter the royal enclosure and the sides for the common people (Fig. 134).

Fig. 134: The plan of the gate highlighting the routes

Fig. 135: Sketch of Teen Darwaza emphasizing the trio arches

Fig. 136: Detail of bands on the arch

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

COMPARING THE PROPORTION OF THE ARCH W.R.T. TO THE ELEPHANT SCALE: The Elephant with howdah on it has an average height with howdah of 4 - 5m and body length of 3-5 m. Comparing it’s size with that of both the arches (the central and the side arch), it is observed that only the central arch was meant for the processional route and for the transition of elephants. Width of central pointed arch: 5.3 m Width of side pointed arch: 3.9 m Height of both the arches: 7.4 m This analysis is helpful to understand the scale of the gate used for the procession, when the king sits on the elephant with howdah on it as that symbolises King’s power and his dignity. Here it can be understood that the central arch would be used for procession as it is much wider and grand in scale (Fig. 137).

Fig. 137: Comparison of side arch and main arch w.r.t. Elephant with howdah to understand the scale of gateway

2.5

BALCONY WINDOWS: It became the visual aspect, overlooking the square on the west and processional way on the east. Balcony window is generally of a Hindu architecture element. Four decorative corbels can be seen below the windows (Fig. 138). Above the window, adapting the same design as that of parapet had been seen over here; such that from elevation it blends with the parapet. It’s structure is made of stone. Each of its five semicircular windows is different from the other. The central window depicts the tree of life. Five palm trees are shown that are covered with snakes. Also, the roof above served as Naubat Khana and the ceremonial music was being played when the procession was carried out.

Fig. 138: Balcony window detail

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

TURRET: The intricately carved stone pillar is observed at each piers of the gateway. Several bands are observed on it and it gets repeated on each intervals. The turret is topped by the bands forming a cone. The bands divide the turret into five parts excluding its base and the top. Maratha inscription is observed in the lowest band of one of the turret.(Fig. 139)

MARATHA INSCRIPTION: Maratha governor Chimnaji Raghunath decreed and inscribed farman on Teen Darwaza in 1812 declaring equal right to women in inheritance of ancestral property. Raghunath had appealed to Hindu and Muslims both. This plaque engraved in Devnagari script and dated 10 October 1812 reads, ‘Let the daughter get her due share of fathers property without any hitch. So is Lord Vishwanath’s command. If you defy, the Hindu will have to answer Mahadev and the Mussalman will have to explain to Allah or Rasool.’(Fig. 140)

Fig. 140: Maratha inscription on gate

Fig. 139: Turret detail sketch

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

3.5 GATEWAY TO FORT 3.51 INTRODUCTION: The entire land of Hindustan is studded with imposing fortresses… Kings ruled from them and lesser chiefs built them to demonstrate their strength. Their origins are usually lost in antiquity, but most of India’s forts were transformed after the Muslim invasion of the 12th century, and although some retain early work, India’s Hindu legacy in building is revealed primarily in its great architecture. BARBICAN AND OTHER ELEMENTS AS DEFENDERS AND THE APPROACH: The gateways, which pierced the fortifications, were points of vulnerability, and their defences with the barbicans, trap-points, and rooms for the guards were worked out diligently. The barbicans helped to create a crooked and torturous approach to the portal, and a rightangled turn just before the main doorway was commonly built to prevent the doorway from being stormed, mainly elephants. The high walls of the barbican, helped the defenders in attacking the invaders from a height and sometimes take the form of two powerful walls that extend out beyond the gate with towers at the end and a sinuous road between; the road being defended by “box” machicolations jutting out from the parapets. At some forts, the gateways are trebled with open courtyards between or some has the approach to the gate through an ascending tunnel, with a guardroom midway in its course. The defence of the passage depended largely on the strong guard in recesses and guardrooms within it, which were often in two tires. Except in a few instances there is no gatehouse above the gateway. The wall in front of the gateway, raised at a considerable height above the passage, is devoted entirely to defence, having a gallery behind, the roof of which forms the walk-walk of battlements; but the rest of the gateway is levelled off to form a platform immediately above the roof of the passage. POWER THE GATEWAYS HOLD: The gateways differ in strength but are often very powerful. The passage through the gateway occasionally has a door at either end. The doorways are very large, generally from 12ft to 16ft wide and up to 25ft high to the point of the arch or underside of the lintel. Though the width is not much greater than that of the Roman and Medieval town gates in the West the height is considerably more and this greater height was doubtless provided in order to allow the entrance of elephants with their howdahs. The doors closing these large openings are heavy timber structures, strengthened by large battens behind; they are often plated and studded with numerous sharp iron spikes to protect them from being butted into by elephants. At times, they were poison tipped to drive the ramming elephants mad. There is generally a wicket gate, about 3ft. wide by 4ft. high and also armoured, in one leaf of the door. A richly carved moulding is carried all around the outer edges of the door and down the middle of the junction of its two leaves at the overlap. Iron chain was drawn across the opening of the door in time of siege. SITE CONDITIONS: Generally, a high hill was selected for the site; this eminence was often scarped all around except on the path of approach and powerful gates were thrown across that path at intervals in its ascent. When for strategic or geographic reasons the site chosen was on level ground the curtain walls were defended by wide and deep ditched, or if the site was by the side of river, then by river on one side and a ditch on all other sides. 66

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

Barbican Deep moat around citadel or fort

Drawbridge

Bastion

Series of gates

GATEWAY AS A SYSTEM 54

Watch tower

Guardroom

Machicolation

Series of courts

Iron spikes and system of door joints

Wicket gate

Iron spikes and system of door joints

Fig. 141: Chart showing the gate as a system UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

3.52 DAULATABAD FORT - Devagiri: Hills of God HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: Daulatabad Fort, also known as Devagiri or Deogiri, is a historical fortified citadel located in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India. It was the capital of the Yadava dynasty (9th century–14th century CE), for a brief time the capital of the Delhi Sultanate (1327–1334), and later a secondary capital of the Ahmadnagar Sultanate (1499–1636). Around the sixth century CE, Devagiri emerged as an important uplands town near present-day Aurangabad, along caravan routes going towards western and southern India. The historical triangular fortress in the city was initially built around 1187 by the first Yadava king, Bhillama V. In 1308, the city was annexed by Sultan Alauddin Khalji of the Delhi Sultanate and in 1327, Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq of the Delhi Sultanate renamed the city as “Daulatabad” and shifted his imperial capital to the city from Delhi. In 1499, Daulatabad became a part of the Ahmadnagar Sultanate, who used it as their secondary capital. Most of the present-day fortification at Daulatabad Fort was constructed under the Ahmadnagar Sultanate.

ABOUT THE FORT:

Fig. 142: Miniature painting showing the Mughals capturing Daulatabad fort in 1633

It was one of the most powerful fortresses of the Middle Ages in existence. The conical rock on which it is built is about 600 ft high and stands isolated at some distance from the surrounding hills. A powerful wall, about 3 miles in perimeter and defended by a moat and glacis, runs around the hill at its foot, and between this outer curtain and citadel are two other encircling walls. Beyond the third rises the citadel, the sides of which have been scraped all around vertically for a height of about 150 ft with sides so smooth as to render escalade quite impracticable. From this point, the only approach to the citadel is across a moat, around a narrow and strong defended gallery, and up through a narrow, steep and tortuous tunnel, with chambers for the guard opening off it at intervals. Emerging from the tunnel one is still some 200 ft from the summit. In its design, its plan, and the general disposition of its defences, this powerful fortification is essentially Hindu in character and belongs to the period of the Yadava occupation.

Fig. 143: Location of Daulatabad fort

Fig. 144: Aerial view of the present Daulatabad Fort 68

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

The entrance to the city through the outer curtain is by way of a strong horn work, consisting of a succession of gateways and courts which extends far beyond the curtain; it has very thick and lofty walls, convoluted on the outer faces, and is defended by large bastions both without and within the courts (Fig. 145). Bastion

Parapet

Conical Gateway Tower Fig. 145: Aerial view showing the curtain wall of the present Daulatabad Fort

Fig. 146: Sub elements of the gate of Daulatabad gate

APPROACH TO THE ENTRANCE GATEWAY: On the right of the entrance gateways is an enormous bastion, the upper part of which is rebuilt and loop holed for musket fire. The face of the gateway above the door has been pierced with three large openings for artillery and the parapet over it has been rebuilt with a level coping. Fig. 147: View of the citadel at Daulatabad Fort

Fig. 148: Diagram showing the approach to the entrance gateway

Fig. 149: Entrance gateway at the fort

APPROACH TO THE FIRST COURT: The entrance from the barbican to the first court is through a lofty vaulted passage, with a turn midway and a two-leaved door at either end, a large recess on the right for the guard and a stairway to the parapet walk over the gate on the left. The inner door is missing but the outer door, studded and spiked against elephant attack, is still in position. It is a formidable barrier 6 in. thick, strengthened behind by heavy battens spaced at short intervals, and secured when closed by a timber bar about 10 in. square, drawn out from a long socket in one jamb, passed behind the door and fitted into the socket in the other jamb. The iron spikes are fearsome looking objects, they are arranged in the horizontal rows up the face of the door, beginning 6 ft. 6 in. from the ground, and from a thick base they project 8 in., to a sharp point.

Fig. 150: Spikes at the main door of the gateway observed

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

The first court is defended by a row of guardrooms on either side, from the towers flanking the next gateway and from the large bastion, already mentioned, on the right of the outer passage. The next gateway is defended by strong towers and an embattles parapet. Two elephants on low pedestals(Fig. 151), carved in relief, face each other across the doorway; above the arch there is a corbel table and, at parapet level, are two round pinnacles, one on either flank. There is only one-leaved door here but it is of the usual heavy construction and is armed with iron spikes. Within the doorway are two guardrooms, each of two vaulted bays (Fig. 152).

Fig. 152: Diagram showing the approach towards the first court

Fig. 151: Relief of the elephant near the entry of gateway

Fig. 153: Entrance gateway to the first court

APPROACH TO THE SECOND COURT: In the next court, facing the second gateway, is a large conical tower which has lost its upper part and from this tower (Fig. 154), about midway in its height, projects a covered balcony supported on sculptured corbels of Hindu character; a window adjacent to balcony has lions carved in the spandrels over its head (Fig. 156). Even now, in its present truncated state, this tower rises above the rest of the horn work while from the height of its battlements when complete it must have commanded not only the field outside the fort but a large portion of the city inside. To reach the following gate in the horn work one must pass diagonally through the court exposed to attack from all sides; this gateway, closed only by a single two-leaved door, is much narrower than those already passed, being 9 ft 5 in., jamb to jamb as compared with 11 ft. for t he gateway at the entry to the second court, and 12 ft 2 in. for the doors at either end of outer passage.

Fig. 154: Watch tower

ENTRANCE TO THE SECOND CURTAIN WALL: The second curtain, within the city, has a simpler entrance, but here the gateway is till narrower, and the entrance is defended from within by a guardroom on either side of the passage at its issue (Fig. 155).

Fig. 155: Diagram showing the approach towards the second curtain wall 70

Fig. 156: Sketch of the balcony on watch tower

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

ENTRANCE TO THE THIRD CURTAIN WALL: The third wall is much further up the hill and the rise begins to grow steeper, the entrance here is complicated and difficult to negotiate, and is defended by a tower on either side. A flight of steps leads up to the first door; this door being carried, an assailant is faced by guards in a recess directly in front of him, and his further progress is obstructed by door on the right, opening to a passage through the wall with a flight of steps up, under attack from guards posted in a large recess in the rear, another recess on the right hand side of the passage and a third directly facing him (Fig. 157). A third door opening to a flight of steps on the left and under attack from the rear must finally be carried before he has arrived inside the wall.

Fig. 157: Entrance to the third curtain wall

Fig. 158: Entrance gateway to the third curtain wall

ENTRANCE TO THE CITADEL: The entrance to the citadel is defended by a wide and deep wet moat which has been excavated out of the living rock, leaving dams across it and a submerged causeway to the bridge (Fig. 159). The bridge is of unusual design; it descends rapidly by a flight of steps down from the counterscarp and rises again to the level of the gallery on other side (Fig. 160). There can be little doubt that the principle of this arrangement is that of an alternative to a drawbridge.

Fig. 159: Approach to the citadel

The gallery passes around three sides of a tall bastion and an assailant rushing through it will be under attack from the battlements of the bastion and from those of high wall and strong tower on the counterscarp of the moat, which are so built as to face in that direction. From the end of the gallery a few steps lead down to a small open court, on one side of which is the entrance doorway to the tunnel (Fig. 161). Fig. 160: Approach to the citadel through bridge

Fig. 161: Approach to the citadel through bridge UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

ELEMENTS: Bastion: DEFENSIVE STRATEGY Here this structure is observed to project out from the curtain wall of the fortification, seen either one side or both side of the entrance gateways and are circular in shape, tappers as it goes up. Its height is lower than that of conical tower, and its construction is of stone masonary (Fig.162 ). Fig. 162: Upper part of the bastion

Loopholes in Parapet: DEFENSIVE STRATEGY Here most of the parapets are observed with the loopholes of specific manner, parapets either of a square shaped or pointed arch shaped. Its a narrow opening from where the defenders are allowed to shoot out without exposing themselves to their enemies (Fig. 163).

Fig. 163: Loopholes in parapet

Recess for Guardrooms: DEFENSIVE STRATEGY Gateways were observed as a vulnerable point in the forts. For the defense and to attack the enemies at the point, series of recess were observed besides the gateway. Those rooms were for the guards to guard the gateways. Pointed Arch construction can be observed over here, and also between the guardrooms, an element is observed which may be used to support the fire stick which provided light during the night (Fig. 164).

Fig. 164: Sketch of the niches used as guardrooms

Tower: DEFENSIVE STRATEGY/VISUAL ASPECT To provide a high, safe place from where the guards can observe the surrounding area, is one of the primary purpose of such tower. Here the large conical tower, which has lost its upper part and from this tower, about midway in its height, projects a covered balcony supported on corbels of Hindu Character (Fig. 165). This tower rises above the rest of the horn work, which seems it must have commanded not only the field outside the fort but a large portion of the city inside.

Fig. 165: Watch tower

Wicket Gate: SECONDARY DOORWAY FOR ACCESS It is a secondary gate built within the main gateway, which provides access without the need to open the main one. Such gates are observed in almost all the gateways of this fort. It is usually about 3ft wide and 4ft high and also armored, in one leaf of the door (Fig. 166).

Fig. 166: Wicket gate in the main gate 72

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

Iron spikes: DEFENSIVE STRATEGY In most of the gateways of this fort, the fearsome looking objects studded and spiked against elephant attack, is still in position. Its main purpose was to protect the gateway from being butted into by elephants. They are arranged in the horizontal rows up the face of the door, beginning from 6 ft 6 in from the ground, and from the thick base they project 8 in to a sharp point (Fig. 167). Gateway:

DEFENSIVE STRATEGY

GATEWAY TO THE FIRST COURT: The outer and inner doors are two-leaved door, both being 12 ft 2 in (jamb to jamb) and almost up to 25 ft high to the point of the arch. It seems that it was provided in order to allow the entrance of elephants with their howdahs. GATEWAY TO THE SECOND COURT: For the gateway at the entry to the second court, width of the door (jamb to jamb) is 11 ft, which again seems to allow the transition of elephants through it. The next gateway from the second court is narrower which being 9 ft 5 in width (jamb to jamb), which can be a little doubt for passing of elephants through it. The successive gateways are still being narrower and have a complicated approach which seems that there was no allowance of elephants to pass through it.

Fig. 167: Iron spikes on the gateway

Fig. 168: Gateway compared to elephant scale in order to understand the scale of the gateway

0 UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

2.5

5m 73

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

Tunnel: Secondary doorway for access The doorway to the tunnel, at the opposite end of the court, is of monumental character and is of two periods of Hindu architecture. The heavy jambs with their rather crude capitals and corbels and huge lintel spanning the original opening relate to the period far anterior to the doorway inserted between them; they resemble those forming the doorway to the Kailasa temple at Ellora, while the inserted doorway with sculptured architrave, flat lintel and sculptured frieze is of similar form to the doorway of entrance to the shrine of the larger of the Sas Bahu temples at Gwalior. From its entrance, the tunnel rises steeply and tortuously, in utter darkness, by rough flight of steps, passing in its ascent through caves. Guards posted in these caves could deal with enemies, one by one, as they emerged from the tunnel. At one point, the tunnel was obstructed by a stone barrier, about 1 ft wide by 2 ft high; this heavy block, which has iron ring at either end, could be drawn from a socket on one side and pulled across the tunnel, forming a serious check to an enemy rushing through in the dark.

Fig. 169: Small doorway to the tunnel

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

3.53 AMAR SINGH GATE, AGRA FORT: In remembrance of the great Rajput warrior HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: The southern gateway which is at present called Amar Singh Gate was originally known as Akbar Darwazah, as William Finch, an English traveler who visited India between 1608 and 1611 has recorded. It was renamed as such about the middle of the 19th century by the British. It was recorded as such about the middle of the 19th century by the British. Distorting the episode of 1644 when Rao Amar Singh, the Rathor chief of Marwar and then a Mughal mansabdar, assassinated Mir Bakshi Salabat Khan in full court and was himself cut to pieces, the British made a torso of a stone horse and ceremoniously planted it near this gateway and circulated the story that Amar Singh escaped alive on this horse which jumped over the ramparts across the moat and was converted into a stone sculpture. This was deliberate and part of the policy to tarnish the image of the Mughals and provoke the Hindus against the Muslims. The gateway was renamed Amar Singh Gate accordingly.

LOCATION: It is located on the southern face of the fort (Fig. 170).

Fig. 170: Plan of Agra Fort marking the Amar Singh Gate

ABOUT THE GATE AND ITS APPROACH: The Amar Singh Gate is defended by two barbicans: the outer barbican formed by the extension of the outer wall of the curtain round an oblong space (Fig. 171); and the inner enclosed by the full double curtain, with a bastion at each end on one side, and extensions from the inner wall on the other three. There are three gates (Fig. 172).

Fig. 171: Sketch showing the outer gate and the outer barbican

APPROACH TO THE FIRST GATE:

Fig. 172: Aerial plan showing the movement from the outer gate to inner gate

The first, opening into outer barbican, is reached by a drawbridge, still in working order, across the ditch; it has one two-leaved door and is defended, like the wall on either side, by battlements with hooded loopholes (Fig. 173, 174, 175). These loopholes are seen both internally and externally. The holes are too narrow to be of use as machicolations and were therefore for the defense of the men firing through them. Passing through the outer gate and taking a turn to the right one faces the gate into the inner barbican. The wall on the right of this gate is defended by two tiers of loopholes and in the upper tier by two apertures covered by large stone hoods. Here these large hooded holes are clearly machicolations, designed to Fig. 173: Plan marking the first gate and its approach counter sapping operations at the base of the wall by casting heavy and lethal missiles through them. UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

Fig. 174: Old photograph showing the gate and its approach through bridge

Fig. 175: Sketch showing the approach to first gate

APPROACH TO THE SECOND GATE: The gateway into the inner barbican has a straight-faced front with decorative panels. The passage through has a domed hall with two tiers of recesses for the guard on either side. It is noticeable that the recesses have no entry at the back, so that the guard must leave as well as enter them from the front: an awkward situation if the enemy has forced the gate.

Fig. 176: Plan marking the second gate and its approach

Fig. 177: Sketch showing the approach to second gate

APPROACH TO THE THIRD GATE: The third gate, reached by a turn to the left in passing through the inner barbican, is an ornate structure of three storeys, flanked by multi-angular towers which are smaller and less ornately finished and here elephants did not make archway to the entrance. Their lower portions were divided into oblong and arched panels. Each bastion is crowned by a chhatri made of heavy piers instead of slender pillars. The upper storey halls which have now been completely renovated and modernised, housed the Naubat-Khana originally.

Fig. 178: Plan marking the third gate and its approach

Fig. 179: Sketch showing the approach to third gate 76

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

ELEMENTS: BARBICAN AND BASTION: DEFENSIVE STRATEGY The Amar Singh Gate is defended by two barbicans. The inner barbican is much thicker than outer one and has bastion at each corner (Fig. 180). Barbicans are usually the fortified outpost and are for defensive purpose. Bastion over here are circular in shape and tappers as it rises up. The height of the bastion is same that of its extended curtain wall. The bastion at the right of the second gateway seems to have semi-circular arch openings which can be for the guards to keep watch on the enemies Fig. 180: Sketch showing the position of bastion (Fig. 181). It is made up of red sandstone. with the fortified wall

Fig. 181: Openings in bastion become the checkpoints

DRAWBRIDGE: DEFENSIVE STRATEGY Drawbridge is usually a wooden bridge which leads to the gateway and here the system to raise it up was through the pulley (Fig. 182). It is hinged on one side and pulled up through chains. It was used for defensive purpose.

Fig. 182: Diagram showing the mechanism of drawbridge

MACHICOLATIONS AND HOODED LOOPHOLES: DEFENSIVE STRATEGY Hooded loopholes are observed in the battlements of the exterior as well as interior walls. These holes are much narrower to be used as machicolations and might be used to fire through them. The outer curtain wall has two tier of loopholes and the stone element jutting out of the wall are clearly can be seen as machicolations, intended to drop hot water or oil and harm the enemies (Fig. 185). Machicolations are made of red sandstone and projected out from the battlement parapet. It is of cuboid shape topped by pyramid. Its arch opening is unique (Fig. 184).

Fig. 183: Drawbridge at the first gate

Fig. 184: System of machicolation

Fig. 185: Loopholes at the first gate to fire at enemies UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

GUARDROOM: DEFENSIVE STRATEGY The second gateway had recesses on both its sides inside the passage. Those recess are the guardrooms. There is only one entry from the front for the guards which creates an awkward situation if the enemy has forced the gate.

BASTION OF THIRD GATE AND ITS ORNAMENTATION: The tower is multi-angular, and can be seen into two portions: the lower which has decorative panels while the upper panels are plain. The lower portion were divided into oblong and arched panels which were glazed tiled in beautiful geometric designs in yellow, green, blue and white colors. The bastions thus have a curious combination of glazedtile ornamentation and stone carving; the composition as a whole is extremely impressive, befitting an entrance gateway (Fig.187). The cupola was originally glazed-tile. These are heavy piers which is crowned by a chattri. There are openings at the chajja which has been for the visual aspect (Fig. 186).

Fig. 187: Glazed colorful tiles in geometrical pattern at the gate

Fig. 186: The third main gate and its ornamentation

The upper storey halls were housed as Naubat Khana where ceremonial music was being played, which was the part of the medieval life.

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

3.54 DELHI GATE, AGRA FORT: Regal impression of architecture during Akbarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reign HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: The masterpiece of Akbarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s time, Delhi Gate was built between 1568-69 to the western side of the fort and served as the principal gateway of the fort. It was purposefully designed to enhance the security of the fort.

LOCATION:

Fig. 189: Diagram showing the movement from outer to inner gate

Fig. 188: Plan showing the position of Delhi Gate

It is located on the western face of the fort (Fig. 188).

ABOUT THE GATE AND ITS APPROACH: The Delhi Gate is defended with a barbican with a double wall: the inner wall extending out, at a lower level, from the inner wall of the curtain, and the outer wall continuous with the outer wall of the curtain and their battlemented parapet with merlons (Fig. 191). The ditch is crossed by a drawbridge, still complete with wheels and chains and the deep broad moat with a draw bridge over it which could be lifted up and disconnect the main fort from the mainland rendering it inaccessible to the invader, the approach was also very ingeniously planned to put the defenders in a definitely advantageous position.

Fig. 191: Old photography showing the approach to the gate through bridge and the moat surrounding the fort

Fig. 190: Old sketch showing the distant view of Delhi Gate

Fig. 192: Plan showing approach to the first gate

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

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APPROACH TO HATHI POL GATE: From the first gateway the approach through the barbican to the second, the Hathi Pol, or Elephant Gate, was by a walled passage, originally pierced by arcades; which was obstructed, at times blocked, the passage of the guns and elephants of the invading army and exposed them to the fire of defenders who took positions on the ramparts above. The passage having a rise of 6 m from the outer to the inner gates and taking two turns in its course (Fig. 193).

ABOUT HATHI POL GATE:

Fig. 193: Plan showing approach to Hathi Pol gate

The Hathi Pol is tall and magnificent structure, flanked by semi-octagonal towers and surmounted by an embattled parapet with loopholes for defense; it is crowned by pillared pavilions and pinnacles. Balconies, supported on carved and moulded corbels, project from the towers at second-storey level. At the entrance into the passage are two elevated platforms on which stood two stone sculptures of life-size elephants by Rajput heroes Jaimal and Patta which adorned the entrance on the western side with raised trunks making an impressive archway. The entrances, defended by two leaved doors, leads into a doomed hall with large recesses for the guard on either side. The gateway is built of red sandstone, inlaid with architectural designs in white marble and each of the outer and inner fronts has a rich and imposing appearance (Fig. 194).

ELEMENTS: BARBICAN AND BASTION:

DEFENSIVE STRATEGY

Fig. 194: Hathi Pol Gate

The Delhi Gate is defended with a barbican with a double wall on both the sides. The inner wall extending out, at a lower level, from the inner wall of the curtain, and the outer wall continuous with the outer wall of the curtain (Fig. 195). Their battlemented parapet with merlons sheltered the defenders who could safely fire at the besiegers under their cover through loopholes and embrasures. The bastions over here are circular in plan and is tappered. The form is same as that of bastions of Amar Singh Gate, but there are stone element jutting out of the bastion - the machicolations which have appeared same in the earlier gate (Fig. 196). These might be used to drop hot materials on besiegers and hurt them. It is made up of red sandstone. The height of the bastion is same that of its extended curtain wall.

MACHICOLATIONS AND HOODED LOOPHOLES: DEFENSIVE STRATEGY

Fig. 195: Position of bastion at Delhi Gate

Fig. 196: Sketch showing bastions of Delhi Gate

Hooded loopholes are observed in the battlements of the exterior as well as interior walls. These holes are much narrower to be used as machicolations and might be used to fire through them. The outer curtain wall has two tier of loopholes and the stone element jutting out of the wall are clearly can be seen as machicolations (Fig. 197). Fig. 197: System of Machicolation 80

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

The machicolation are made of red sandstone and projected out from the battlement parapet. It is of cuboidal shape topped by pyramid. Its arch opening is unique. The curtain wall which extends out of the Hathi Pol gate, the machicolations are observed alternative to the loopholes at battlement parapet, so that the armies and use bow and arrow and can drop the harmful materials at the enemies at the time of attack (Fig. 198,199). Fig. 198: Machicolation jutting out of the wall

Fig. 199: Sketch showing the machicolations which were used to drop harmful material

ELEVATED PLATFORM:

SYMBOLISM

At the entrance into the passage are two elevated platforms on which stood two stone sculptures of life-size elephants by Rajput heroes Jaimal and Patta which adorned the entrance on the western side with raised trunks making an impressive archway (Fig. 200). The elephants and their mounts, from which the gateway received its name, are said to have been destroyed by Aurangzeb and so, only their pedestals have remained in situ. Photograph show the statues which were carved in red sandstone and were originally mounted on a pair of life-sized black marble elephants. The riders became separated from their mounts and are shown displayed at Fig. 200: Sketch of two stone sculptures on either side of the entrance to an unidentified house (Fig. 201) The figures platform are of the upper half only, with curved bases which would be seated on the backs of the elephants. The elephants stood outside the Delhi Gate at the Lal Qila or Red Fort and their riders represented Jaimal and Patta, two heroic Rajput chiefs who defended the fortress of Chitor against the Mughal emperor Akbar. In the reports of Archaeological Survey of India, it is stated that the statues originally stood outside the fort at Agra and were brought from there to Delhi (Fig. 202). Fig. 201: Photograph of two statues of elephant riders at Delhi taken in 1870

Fig. 202: Photograph of Hathi Pol Gate taken somewhere in 1800 UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

BASTIONS AT HATHI POL:

DEFENSIVE STRATEGY

The entrances, defended by two leaved doors, leads into a doomed hall with large recesses for the guard on either side. The gateway is built of red sandstone, inlaid with architectural designs in white marble and each of the outer and inner fronts has a rich and imposing appearance. Two beautifully designed and ornamented bastions which are octagonal in plan and double-storeyed and crowned by chattri each (Fig. 203), protect the hexagonal entrance on this side; the hall above the entrance originally served as Naubat Khana where ceremonial music was played at fixed timings and with regular intervals, firstly to denote time and secondly the movements of Emperor. ‘Naubat’ (Ceremonial Music) was part of the medieval life; it was by this that the state let the people feel its presence. ‘The King is in his Castle and everything is right with the World.’ The gateway has four-storeyed elevation on eastern side, in receding terraces, composed of living rooms, verandahs and pavilions. The lower storey of the bastion had arched and oblong sunk niches; the upper one has arched alcoves with openings and similar niches beautifully alternated along the elevation on each octagonal side.

Fig. 203: Bastion of Hathi Pol

ORNAMENTATION: White marble has been most judiciously used with red sandstone in this scheme of surface decoration. In fact, the whole building has been most profusely ornamented ad Akbar spared no money or effort to give it a Regal impression. All possible techniques of decoration were adopted and, as it seems, all available artisans were employed on this project. Thus, it has inlay and mosaic; stone carving chiefly in geometrical, floral and stylized designs; stucco in arabesques and stalactite; painting and of course, glazed- tiling. One can still see the inlay work in white marble and the panels alternately depicting a Gaja-Vyala and a pair of ducks. Gaja-Vyala is the depiction of a lion, horse, bird and elephant fighting simultaneously with seven elephants (Fig. 205). Space for each technique was suitably selected. Carving in bold relief has been done in oblong panels around the arches on the western facade, and in brackets, lintels and friezes on the eastern. Brackets, particularly those with elephant heads with raised trunk, based on indigenous prototypes, make up an extremely gorgeous composition on the facade. Beautifully designed jallis have been used on the balustrade of the balconies.

Fig. 204: Upper floor of bastion at Hathi Pol

Fig. 205: Details above the arch at the first floor of bastion

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Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

3.6 COMMEMORATIVE GATEWAY: 3.61 INTRODUCTION: A form or a structure, representative of an age, civilization or a ruler, which when seen again, evokes memories of that time, and produces a psychological reaction in the beholder, reminiscences of the thought, and the culture. They not only evoke memories of the old, but also acquire an additional meaning, because of its new context. The reason of its existence symbolised the forces or circumstances which led to its creation. They may either symbolised the king’s victory, or constructed by king in order to celebrate the city’s overcome on some diseases or plague, or its may have constructed as a memorial and pay homage to martyr soldiers who died in a war. In India, the first commemorative gateways were built by the Muslim rulers in the second millennium AD. Until then, the Kirti Stambha – the pillar of victory – was the only monument to victory erected by the Hindu rulers. Prominent amongst the Muslim ‘triumphal arches’ are the Badal Mahal gateway (1460), the Char Minar (1591), and the Buland Darwaza (1601). They were all built to commemorate victories, and stand physically or visually isolated. The Badal Mahal gateway stands isolated at the end of the main street of Chanderi, and the Char Minar at a major crossroads of Hyderabad. The Buland Darwaza with its imposing towers over its surroundings, and thus isolates itself, visually. The Britishers, under the Greco – Roman influence built the first classical triumphal arches in India. The Gateway of India was built to commemorate the visit of King – Emperor George V to India, and the India Gate, also known as the All India War Memorial, to the memory of Indian troops who died in World War I. Today, with ‘Amar Jawan Jyoti’ burning under it, it serves as a memorial to all the dead soldiers of free India. “Monuments are supposed to commemorate kings and religions, heroes and dogmas, but in the end the man they commemorate is the builder.” - Gideon ‘Architecture Phenomena of Transition’

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Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

3.62 CHAR MINAR: The centre of an old city This 400-years-old structure was built by Sultan Muhammed Quli Qutb Shah, the 5th Sultan of the illustrious Qutb Shahi dynasty (Fig. 206). An inseparable part of the history of Hyderabad, the Sultan built the monument right after shifting his capital from Golkonda to Hyderabad.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: Historians opine that the inadequacy of water and plague forced Quli Qutub Shah to construct a new city. He prayed to the Almighty to end his people’s suffering and pledged to build a mosque at the very site where he prayed. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), the current caretaker of the structure, mentions in its records, “There are various theories regarding the purpose for which Charminar was constructed. However, it is widely accepted that Charminar was built at the centre of the city, to commemorate the eradication of cholera”, a deadly disease which was wide spread at that time. According to Jean de Thévenot, a French traveler of the 17th century whose narration was complemented with the available Persian texts, the Charminar was constructed in the year 1591 CE, to commemorate the beginning of the second Islamic millennium year (1000 AH). The event was celebrated far and wide in Fig. 206: Old photograph of CharMinar at the Islamic world, thus Qutb Shah founded the city of Hyderabad to Hyderabad celebrate the event and commemorate it with the construction of this building. Due to its architecture it is also called as “Arc de Triomphe of the east.” Another theory, according to the book “Days of the Beloved”, Qutb shah constructed the Charminar in the year 1589, on the very spot where he first glimpsed his future queen Bhagmati, and after her conversion to Islam, Qutb Shah renamed the city as “Hyderabad”. Though the story was rejected by the historians and scholars, it became popular folklore among the locals.

LOCATION:

Fig. 208 (a): The position of CharMinar at the intersection of cross - axis

The Charminar was constructed at the intersection of the historical trade route that connects the markets of Golkonda with the port city of Machilipatnam (Fig. 208 (a,b)). The Old City of Hyderabad was designed with Charminar as its centrepiece. The city was spread around the Charminar in four different quadrants and chambers, segregated according to the established settlements. Towards the north of Charminar is the Char Kaman, or four gateways, constructed in the cardinal direction (Fig. 209). 84

Fig. 207: Streets emerging from the point of its location

Fig. 208 (b): The position of CharMinar at the intersection of cross - axis

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Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

Fig. 209: The diagram show the position of CharMinar, Char Kaman and water foundation on the same axis such that the arch of Char Minar frames the Char Kaman

ABOUT THE GATEWAY: The building of Qutb Shahi period…… which represents the most real architectural value is neither a mosque nor a tomb, but a ceremonial gateway erected in 1591, as a form of triumphal archway, and now called the Char Minar or Four Minars. In position and appearance, it seems to have served the same purpose as the Tin Darwaza or “Triple Gateway” built at much earlier date in the city of Ahmedabad, Gujarat. The Char Minar is a composition of considerable size square plan measures 30.4 m side, and the four minars, one at each corner are each 57 m in height, house two balconies, and are topped with small delicate domes and intricate carvings on the outside walls. Its ground storey consists of four spreading archways, one in each side and each of 11 m span, above the apex of which are diminished storeys of arched and richly embellished cornices (Fig. 210).

Fig. 210: Plan of Char Minar

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ELEMENTS: PHYSICAL ELEMENTS: ARCHES: The monument is a magnificent square edifice of granite, built upon four grand arches facing North, South, East and West. These arches support two floors of rooms and gallery of archways. Each spans of 11 m and the height of each is about 20 m. These arches have a significant depth, and on its surface, arches with jali work can be observed (Fig. 211).

MINARETS: At each corner stands an equisitely shaped, 57 m high minaret, with double balcony. Each minaret is crowned by a bulbous dome with dainty, petal-like designs at the base. Unlike the minarets of Taj Mahal, Charminarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s four fluted minarets are builted into the main structure. There are 149 winding steps to reach the upper floor. The structure is known for its profusion of stucco decorations and the arrangement of balustrades and balconies (Fig. 212).

SPATIAL ELEMENTS: GALLERY AND ROOF:

Fig. 211: Arch detail

Fig. 212: Minaret detail

A mosque is located at the western end of the open roof. The remaining section of the roof served as a royal court during the Qutb Shahi times. The actual mosque occupies the top floor of the four-storey structure. A vault which appears from inside like a dome supports two galleries within the Charminar, one over another. Above those is a terrace that serves as a roof that is bordered with a stone balcony. The main gallery has 45 covered prayer spaces with a large open space in front to accommodate more people for Friday prayers (Fig. 213).

Fig. 213: Minaret detail

VAZU: The small Vazu in the middle of the courtyard with a small fountain provides water for Ablution for Muslims offering prayer in the Mosque (Fig.214).

Fig. 214: Vazu at Char Minar 86

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Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

3.63 BULAND DARWAZA: Symbolises it’s grandness HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND ITS LOCATION: Some twenty-five years after the completion of mosque, Akbar returned from his victorious campaign in the Deccan in 1601, and was considering a site on which he could erect a great triumphal archway commemorative of his conquests. He finally decided on the southern entrance of the Jami Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri as being a suitable position for this monument, and he accordingly proceeded to demolish the existing doorway and raise the Buland Darwaza or “Gate of Magnificence”, in its place. Had he built it along the mosque about the time he conquered Gujarat, to commemorate its conquest c.1571, he would have certainly raised it on the eastern side which was the most suitable site for a commemorative gateway (Fig. 216 (a)), facing it did the Royal and other complexes of his township. The main gateway of the mosque in India is built on the eastern side to balance the liwan structure in the W, and the gateways on the N and S sides are only subsidiary. It is noteworthy that its addition on the S side has spoiled the symmetry of the quadruple and has thrown the mosque complex a little out of balance. By its proportions, it is dominating the scheme of the mosque of which it is logically subordinate part. The gate faces south is indicative of the direction of the Deccan Fig. 215: Location of Bulan Darwaza w.r.t. Fatehpur which was then the pivot of Mughal political aspirations. Sikri complex and the city

Fig. 216(a)

Fig. 216(b) Fig. 216: The above figure explains the position of gateway oriented to South direction

Fig. 217: Frontal facade of the gateway

ABOUT THE GATEWAY: The entire structure may be resolved into its two aspects, the frontal and highest aspect, forming the façade with its portal, and the back view consisting of a lower and a plainer portion intruding itself into the mosque courtyard (Fig. 217, 218). The main effect is produced by the front view with its façade embowed by means of three planes comprising of a large central face and a lesser one on each side receding at an angle. The central plane which is 86 feet across is rectangular in shape, the greater part of its surface being occupied by an arched and domed recess, while the narrower faces on its wings are in three stories with varied openings in each stage.

Fig. 218: Posterior facade of the gateway

Fig. 219: Plan and section of the gateway UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

It is raised on a platform of about 13 m height above the road and is 41 m high; the total height from the road is thus 54 m, with a total of 42 steps up to the top. It is thus an extraordinary gateway standing majestically and imposingly on the highest point of the ridge towering over its low surroundings (Fig. 220). The central of these small arches then leads one onto the courtyard of the mosque through a domed passage with attendantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; rooms on either side (Fig. 222). It is thus that the transition from awesome monumentality to a humbles and sheltered passageway, from wide open spaces to the sequestered courtyard, is smoothly and satisfactorily concluded (Fig. 221).

Fig. 221: Its presence imposing context of the complex

Fig. 220: Gateway as a threshold

Fig. 222: Posterior side of the gateway

ELEMENTS:

CHATTRI: FRONT FACADE: The parapet is crowned by a series of 13 chhatris also having three larger chhatris on the superstructure (Fig. 223). Chhatris are distinctive element of Hindu Architecture and it can be seen in many buildings built during Akbarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s period. The 13 chhatris at the front are in connected to each other and appears collectively. Its dome sits on a square platform and the platform seems to be supported in square columns. Its arch is carved in a unique manner. The large chhatri in the middle is different from the side chattris. The dome of the middle one sits on the big square platform and its edges are tappered and then the platform is supported by 4 columns on each side. The side ones have the octagonal platform and they are supported on 8 columns located at points of octagon (Fig 223, 224). Fig. 223: Aerial view of the gateway showing the chattris placed in the top

Fig. 224: Various types of Chhatri observed

BACK FACADE:

Three layered terrace structure can be observed in the back facade where, in the secondary terrace, at the both of its corners, chattris can be seen, both different from each other. The chattri at the most corner has the dome supported on square platform which are supported on 4 columns where the ones(chhatri) which are beside them are of similar ones having an octagonal platform (Fig. 225). 88

Fig. 225: Posterior side of the gateway

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

At the lowest terrace, the series of 15 chhatris can be observed which are smaller and have slender columns but the form is similar to that of the corner ones at the secondary terrace (having the square platform). The columns or the lower part of all the chhatris are made of red sandstone while its dome is of buff sandstone. TURRETS: The quoins formed are observed to have attached turrets which are surmounted by pinnacles. These turrets tapper as it rises up and reach to the pinnacle. The whole turret is divided into eight parts by the rings at the intervals (Fig. 227). One can observe that the materials are red and buff sandstone which are used alternatively and in the middle of the part of the turret, bands of both the materials can be seen (Fig. 228). The pinnacle has petal-like design at its base (Fig. 226).

Fig. 227: The presence of turrets at the quoins

Fig. 226: Pinnacle of the turret detail

Fig. 228: The side plane at the front facade of gateway

IWAN: Approaching to the gateway, one comes across this grand iwan which would be huge almost 15 m wide and 31 m high. Its high arch resplendent like “browed morning” is backed by a scalloped semi dome portal that guides one’s vision fluidly down the modest twostorey rows of arches and balconies set in a pentagonal fashion at the base (Fig. 229). The material used over here is red and buff sandstone and one can see the bands of beautiful geometric designs out of black and white marble bands around the balconies and the entrance arches. ELEVATED PLATFORM AND FLIGHT OF STEPS: The Buland Darwaza is a work of great force, especially when viewed from the ground below, as then it presents an appearance of aspiring and overwhelming strength without being weighty and pretentious. It is strongly supported by the high plinth and succeeds in creating an awe-inspiring impression (Fig. 230). Multi-storeyed and containing large halls, small chambers, passages and stairways on the two sides of iwan, it is a complete monument in itself.

Fig. 229: Iwan at the gateway

Fig. 230: Elevated platform and the flight of steps acting as a threshold

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Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

INSCRIPTION ON BULAND DARWAZA: The Quaranic verses have been carved around its iwan, in three oblong panels with ornamental foiled ends. The inscription begins on right hand side as one stand facing the portal, with the words (Fig. 232, 233): ‘Bismillah-ir-Rehman-ir-Rahim.’ It speaks of the righteous conduct. Those who conduct righteousness will be led to the Garden of Paradise. The gate will be opened to them and they will be admitted. The reference to the gate of the Garden of Paradise is significant in as much as it provides a simile to the Buland Darwaza. The verses inscribed on the gateway emphasizes on righteous conduct, they deal with revelations. The other verse speaks of those who believe stand straight and steadfast. Angels descend on them and will protect them now and hereafter they will get all they desire. A tablet on the right side bears the inscription: “Kataba hazal kitab Ahmed Husain alChishti” being record of the name of the calligrapher. However there is no date. There are two inscribed slabs on the northern side of Buland Darwaza towards the courtyard, one on each side of the archway. Each slab contains three lines in Persian, in Nastaliq characters. This inscription is a historical document pure and simple and does not play any part in Fig. 231: From this inscription, it is noted that it the ornamental scheme of the gateway, as the Quranic verses do on was built to commemorate his victory over Deccan the south facade. It reads: “The Mighty Emperor Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar, the Shadow of God, whose hall of audience is a firmament, may God protect him, having conquered the countries of Dakhan and Dandesh, formely known as Khandesh, in the year Ilahi 46, according to A.H. 1010, reached Fatehpur Sikri and marched to Agra......” (Fig. 231) Besides this, it has some interesting references. Jesus Christ has been mentioned to have said that: “The world is a bridge, so pass over it and do not build on it.” Curiously, while the authority of Christ has been quoted, the name of the Prophet Muhammad has not been even mentioned. There are large number of verses in the Quran on the momentary nature of this world but none is quoted from it. This is significant and reflects Akbar’s religious views in the latter part of his life.

Fig. 233: Zoomed in photo of the inscription of fig. 232

Fig. 232: Inscription on the panel of the front facade

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

3.64 GATEWAY OF INDIA: Gateway to country HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: It was built to commemorate the first visit of the men reigning British Monarch to India – jewel of the British Empire. This “grandiloquent triple arch”, the Gateway of India then welcomed the new arrivals ashore at the Apollo Bunder in Bombay, and became universally recognised symbol of the British in India. Since the opening of the Suez Canal, Bombay had claimed to be the gate or the eye of India, and the gateway, built in 1927, at the edge of the Bombay harbour, became the ceremonial point of arrival and departure. Before the gateway’s construction, Apollo Bunder used to serve a native fishing ground.

LOCATION: The Gateway of India stoically stands at Apollo Bunder and seems to watch over the Mumbai Harbour, facing the vast Arabian Sea (Fig. 235, 236).

Fig. 235: Gateway of India standing at the site of Apollo Bunder

Fig. 234: Old photograph showing the site of Apollo Bunder

Fig. 236: Axis from the centre of the gateway stretching out to the Sea

ABOUT THE GATEWAY:

In the past Gateway of India used to be the arrival point for visitors from the west. In 1911, when the King – Emperor George V arrived in India for a state visit, “a wedding cake arch of plaster was erected – white as icing” (Fig. 237). It was intended to be a part of a much bigger ceremonial development which included reception halls, customs offices, etc. As a result, it sits ‘oddly’ on its reclaimed site. The foundation stone for the gateway was laid on 31 March 1913 by then governor of Bombay, Sir George Sydenham Clarke with the final design of George Wittet for the gateway sanctioned in August 1914 (Fig. 239). Its foundations were completed in 1920 while construction was finished in 1924. The gateway was opened to the public on 4 December 1924 by then viceroy, Rufus Isaacs. Following Indian independence, the last British troops to leave India, passed through the gateway with a 21-gun salute, as part of a ceremony on 28 February 1948, signalling the end of the British Raj. Ironically, when the Raj ended in 1947, this colonial symbol also became a sort of epitaph: the last of the British ships that set sail for England left from the Gateway (Fig. 238).

Fig. 239: Foundation stone at the gate

Fig. 237: Arch of plaster erected during the King’s visit

Fig. 238: Last British troop leaving India

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ELEMENTS: TURRETS: In the structure of gateway, four grand turrets are observed, two turrets on each face. It can be divided into three parts to understand the structure (Fig. 240). The profile in plan from the below is half octagon which sits on a heavy base ornamented intricately and it is divided by the ornamented bands in between. The middle part is ornamented intricately with and the part above with the inscription and the parapet. It has the octagonal base, by the series of bands it rises up at the pinnacle (Fig. 241). There are intricate jali work seen with the small pointed arches at each face of octagon, which represents Indo-Sarcenic style.

Fig. 240: Turrets of the gate

Fig. 242: Pinnacle detail of turret

Fig. 241: The position of turrets at the front facade of the gate

ARCH AND DOME: The gatewayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s arch has a height of 26 m with its central dome being 15 m in diameter. The pointed arch and dome represents the Sarcenic architecture while the intricate details of jali work and ornamentation represents the Hindu architecture (Fig. 244). In the side arches, the arch within the arch can be seen. It was a reception hall as well as a triumphal arch, so besides it central gateway there were tall domed chambers, each large enough to hold 600 people.

Fig. 243: Inner dome of the gateway

Fig. 244: Scale of the main arch and side arch 92

Fig. 245: Inner arch of the gateway

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Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

FORM, SYMMETRY AND MATERIAL CONSTRUCTION: The form of the gateway somehow resembles the form of Roman triumphal arch (Fig. 246). It is built of yellow basalt and reinforced concrete. The stones were sourced locally while the perforated screens were brought in from Gwalior.

Fig. 246: Roman triumphal arch

Fig. 247: Symmetry of the gateway

Fig. 248: Inner arch of the gateway

THRESHOLD AND FLIGHT OF STEPS: There are steps constructed behind the arch of the gateway which lead to the Arabian Sea. It acts as a threshold, a gateway to the country (Fig. 249).

Fig. 249: Steps acting as a threshold

INSCRIPTION: Inscription on the gateway reading: “Erected to commemorate the landing in India of their Imperial Majesties King George V and Queen Mary on the Second of December MCMXI” (Fig. 250). It refers to the gateway as a “jewel in the crown” and a “symbol of conquest and colonization”.

Fig. 250: Inscription detail

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

3.65 INDIA GATE: In remembrance of our great Indian martyrs HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: The India Gate was part of the work of the Imperial War Graves Commission (I.W.G.C), which came into existence in December 1917 for building war graves and memorials to soldiers who were killed in the First World War. The foundation stone of the gate, then called the All India War Memorial, was laid on 10 February 1921, by the Duke of Connaught in a ceremony. On the occasion, the viceroy is reportedly to have said, “The stirring tales of individual heroism, will live for ever in the annals of this country”, and that the memorial which was a tribute to the memory of heroes, “known and unknown”, would inspire future generations to endure hardships with similar fortitude and “no less valor”. The Duke also read out a message by the King, which said, “On this spot, in the central vista of the Capital of India, there will stand a Memorial Archway, designed to keep”, in the thoughts of future generations, “the glorious sacrifice of the officers and men of the British Indian Army who fought and fell”.

Fig. 251: India Gate at Delhi

Ten years after the foundation stone laying ceremony, on 12 February 1931, the memorial was inaugurated by Lord Irwin, who on the occasion said “those who after us shall look upon this monument may learn in pondering its purpose something of that sacrifice and service which the names upon its walls record” (Fig. 252)

LOCATION:

Fig. 252:Foundation stone at India Gate

During the British colonial period, the archway spanned the Kingsway, New Delhi’s main processional route, and at the opposite end of this broad avenue sat the Viceroy’s House (now Rashtrapati Bhavan), a structure that at the time of its inauguration in 1931 was not only the largest private residence in the world, but also the paramount symbol of British imperial power in South Asia. Thus, at the westernmost point of the Kingsway stood a powerful symbol of empire and at the eastern end stood a symbol of imperial sacrifice. As Kingsway, this processional path was built to invoke a sense of awe. The gradient from Raisina Hill, visually directed towards the Purana Qila, was subsequently broken by the National Stadium (Fig. 253). It was designed as the symbolic axis of power, with its wide vista and pavements, flanked by linear gardens and the symmetric North and South blocks. On the axis, as it was originally conceived, were a series of landmarks and fountains, the “chattri” that once Fig. 253: Aerial View from Rashtrapati Bhavan to India housed the statue of the king, and India Gate. Gate

Fig. 254: Historic axis from India Gate and Rashtrapati Bhavan 94

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

ABOUT THE GATEWAY: It stands as a memorial to 70,000 soldiers of the British Indian Army who died in between 1914–1921 in the First World War, in France, Flanders, Mesopotamia, Persia, East Africa, Gallipoli and elsewhere in the Near and the Far East, and the third Anglo-Afghan War. 13,300 servicemen’s names, including some soldiers and officers from the United Kingdom, are inscribed on the gate. For Lutyens who designed it, New Delhi’s All-India War Memorial symbolized Britain and India’s inseparability. David Crellin described the arch as a “creative reworking of the Arc de Triomphe”(Fig. 255) Lutyens reduced the ornamentation on his memorial arch and made his “proportions slimmer and more elegant” by making the height of the opening two and one half times its width. Multiples of the width are used throughout the archway. In the attic storey, the seven setbacks emphasize its height. The mass of the side faces (north and south) is relieved by lateral arches and concave recess (in the attic). Beneath the base of the attic, a band of suns unites the four sides. At the summit, the dome echoes the form of the dome at the Viceroy’s house, located at the other end of the King’s Way. Lutyens proposed a pillar of flame atop the dome to symbolize the eternal nature of the sacrifices. Today, ‘the Amar Jawan Jyoti’, kept alight under the archway, echoes the sentiments of Lutyens.

Fig. 255: Roman Triumphal arch

Fig. 256: India Gate

Arc De Triomphe, Paris Height: 49 m Width: 25 m

India Gate, Delhi Height: 42 m Width: 9.1 m

Fig. 257: Comparison of the arch - Arc De Triomphe and India Gate

ELEMENTS: ARCHES: The 42 m high archway, exhibits a scale of appropriate to the country while the main opening of arch is 9.1 m, stands on a low base of red Bharatpur stone and rises in stages to a huge moulding (Fig. 258). The proportional relationships of the archway were fundamental to its success.

Fig. 257(a): Side arch of the gate UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

Fig. 258: Sketch showing main arch and side arch of the gate

INSCRIPTION: The cornice of the India Gate is inscribed with the Imperial suns while both sides of the arch have INDIA, flanked by the dates MCMXIV (‘1914’; on the left) and MCMXIX (‘1919’; on the right). Below the word INDIA, in capital letters, is inscribed (Fig. 259): TO THE DEAD OF THE INDIAN ARMIES WHO FELL AND ARE HONOURED IN FRANCE AND FLANDERS MESOPOTAMIA AND PERSIA EAST AFRICA GALLIPOLI AND ELSEWHERE IN THE NEAR AND THE FAR-EAST AND IN SACRED MEMORY ALSO OF THOSE WHOSE NAMES ARE HERE RECORDED AND WHO FELL IN INDIA OR THE NORTH-WEST FRONTIER AND DURING THE THIRD AFGHAN WAR.

Fig. 259: Inscription on the gate

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

3.7 SUMMARY: In this chapter, the typology of the gates was studied in detail by taking the examples from the Indian Subcontinent. India also faced different historical phases and hence to get a glimpse of the range of gateways, the examples picked were the representative ones of their time and so it did not focus on any specific time period or religion.

TYPOLOGY OF GATEWAYS ITS ROLE AND FUNCTION

Acting as a Threshold

Gateway to a Religious Precinct

Acting as a Defender

Gateway to a Gateway to City Royal Precinct

Acting as a Symbolism

Gateway to Fort

Commemorative gateway

PARAMETER OF ANALYSIS

Location

Gate type

Scale

Material and Technique

Sub - elements

Figure 260: Typology of the gateways

In order to understand the above typology which was established in the previous chapter, each were analysed by the certain parameters. Through these parameters specific observations were obtained on each of its type. Like in the gateway to a Religious precinct, the gateway act as a threshold at the edge of the sacred shrine - to separate the domains; the position of the gateways were according to the cardinal directions such that the first rays of the Sun fall on the shrine, the gates if in series were placed in hierarchical manner such that the movement is outer periphery is loose and as one moves towards the main shrine, the movement gets restricted on the axis created by the gateway of the main shrine. The ornamentation of the gateway are in the form of carved reliefs and deities and usually depicts the story of the Gods and gives us clues of the culture and beliefs of that time. The scale of the gateway varied from culture to culture, like in Gopura of South Indian temple, the outer gopuram are tallest in height - for they instructs one to follow the path in order to reach towards the main shrine. While the gopuram of the inner sanctum reduces gradually. This is not such case in Hindu temples in North India where the shikhara of the temple is the tallest.

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

Looking into the gateway to Royal precinct, these gateways were placed at the strategic position of the precinct which is linked with the fort or the mahal such that the point of arrival and departure of the Royal families happen through that gate. During the ceremonial procession, these gates were crowded with people, higher authorities and the King and his family use to pass through the gate on the elephant. Thus, the scale of these gates were huge compared to human scale. Also, the scale depicted the grandeur of the King and so they were usually built huge and ornamented with reliefs of that time period. Such gates usually housed Naubat Khana such that during the procession, ceremonial music can be played over there. The inscription or foundation stone give us the clue about the creator of the gate and his beliefs. With the change in its role from the threshold to protecting the precinct, the gateways were built on the basis of many defensive and political strategies. The gateways which were named as city gates were the part of the fortified walls that shaped the city. The connecting trade routes to the outer cities decided the position of the gates. The primary function of these gates was they being the checkpoint - to verify whether the person is the citizen of the state or not. The secondary role of all the gates were different like one gate was the route that takes to the other city and thus its name was kept after that city; other role could be that the gate would be used only by the royals or specific set of group etc. In some of the gates, the upper floor housed rooms for the guards or accommodated officials during that time. The gates were built huge and they had two leaved doors; wicket gate in one of the door for the regular movement of the people. The iron spikes on the gate were studded to resist the elephants ramming towards it during the attack. Thus, this role of gates was very much observed almost across all the cities of Medieval India some of which still exist today, standing alone on its position with the remnants of the fortified walls once attached with it; indicating the power of defense it once possessed. This role of the gateway was also observed in the fortified gates. The King built forts as their capital and were located at the strategic position such that its approach was torturous. The forts were usually built at high hills where one side of it is surrounded by water body and other side, the slope is made steep hardly to climb. The fort was surrounded by the moat such that the fort is always isolated with its context. The gates which were built were in series, each attached with the layers of the curtain walls of the fort. They were never positioned in alignment, thus making its approach meandering. There were no secondary exit gates and thus to get entry or exit, each wall had one gateway only. These gateways, as being a vulnerable point of attack - acted as a system with its sub - elements and defended the fort from the enemy attack. Bastion, Barbican, court, Battlement parapet, watch tower, drawbridge, etc all such elements can be seen attached with the gate from where attack on the enemies can happen. From this it could be observed that how the gateways were a part of a system and thus it cannot be look as a singular element.

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

With the change in the time period and the circumstances, the transition of the role of the gateways can be seen from functional to notional. The gateways which were built later stand out more as symbolic ones, evoking the memories for which the gateway was created. The gateways built were grand compared to human scale. They sit at the strategic location with its urban context, stand alone and built high, becoming the landmarks and visual pointers. From this study, some spatial diagrams are deciphered which can bring us to a point where one can understand how the gateways work in a specific typology.

Gateway to a Religious Precinct Acting as a Threshold

• Strong axis observed • Gates are either in a singular or in a set of gates • Transition from mundane to sacred

Gateway to a Royal Precinct

TYPOLOGY OF GATEWAYS

• Seperates the domain between royal and common people • Gate stands in Juxtaposition

Gateway to City Acting as a Defender • Serves as a checkpoint • Series of the gates on the periphery - at the boundary

Gateway to Fort

• Works as a system with its sub - elements • Gates are either in series or situated at the boundary

Acting as a Symbolism

Commemorative gateway • At a strategic centre • Creates the notion of the past Figure 261: Derivations from the study

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Gateways as a Typology: Generic study of gateways taking the examples of Indian Subcontinent

The aspects mentioned above in the Fig. 261 are the important observations which can be said it differs each of its type from the rest, signifying its own characteristic. This was the catalogue of range of the gateways from the Indian Sub - continent signifying their characteristics. After studying the typology of gateways, the final chapter will now focus on a specific city Junagadh and will explain in detail about the gateways which are in existing condition.

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CHAPTER 4: Case Study of a Medieval Fortified city â&#x20AC;&#x201C; JUNAGADH

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Figure 262: Present growth of Junagadh city with its citadel and Girnar

4.1 INTRODUCTION: In the western part of India, the city of Junagadh has a long history attached to its urban developments. Its history dates back to pre – history, ancient period, when the Mauryas, the Indo – Greek, the Guptas, the Rajputs ruled the state. First evidence of the settlement is at the northern portion of Uparkot during 150 B.C. to 10th century A.D. Then Rah Narayana I and Rah Khengar extended the settlement outside the walls of Uparkot, building a palace at vantage point. Under the rule of Mahmud Begada during 14th – 16th century, the city was named Mustafabad which was formed on the basis of Islamic four-square plan schema. The city got further evolved and extended under the reign of different rulers over the time. This section will briefly discuss on the geographical, historical, political and social factors of the Junagadh city of that time period; which in order will help us understand the architecture of the gateways.

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4.2 HISTORY IN BRIEF: Junagadh is a town of historical importance, situated at the foot of the celebrated mount Girnar. An impressive fort, Uparkot was located on a plateau in the middle of town, was originally built during the Mauryan dynasty by Chandragupta in 319 BCE. The fort remained in use until the 6th century, then rediscovered in 976 CE. It was besieged 16 times over an 800-year period. One unsuccessful siege lasted twelve years. The Solanki of the Chalukya dynasty ruled Gujarat in the 11th and 12th centuries. Muslims conquered Gujarat in 1299 AD. The Sultanate of Gujarat was formed in 1407. Mahmud Begada (Mahmud Shah I) invaded Junagadh in 1467 and the city was annexed to the Gujarat Sultanate; the city foundation was laid for Mustafabad in 1497. Strong embankments were raised along the river, and the city was adorned with a palace, handsome buildings and extensive gardens. Later absorbed into the Mughal Empire under Akbar, it lay within the administration of the Mughal governor of Gujarat. Mohammad Bahadur Khanji I, who owed allegiance to the Sultan of Ahmedabad, founded the state of Junagadh by expelling the Mughal governor and declaring independence in 1748. Mohammad Bahadur Khanji I, who assumed the name Zaid Khan when he came to power in Junagadh, was the founder of the Babi dynasty. In 1807 the state entered into political relations with the British and the chief was given the title Nawab and an eleven-gun salute. This placed Junagadh in the middle ranks of Indian states under British protection, and accordingly it both paid tribute to the Gaekwad of Baroda (as well as to the British) and received tribute from numerous lesser states in the region. At the end of the century the state’s population was approximately 400,000 of which the majority were Hindus, with Muslims forming less than a quarter. But in the capital city at that time—with a population of 34,000— the two religious communities were more evenly represented, thus creating a stronger Muslim presence and culture around the court than in the outlying districts.

4.21 THE ORIGINS OF THE NAME OF THE CITY ACROSS VARIOUS EMPIRES: There are no such left evidences of the city before 4th century B.C., but it is generally believed that the old fort of Junagadh (citadel) has been built by Ugrasen Yadav during the time of Mauryan Empire and under the rule of Chandragupta Maurya. The city has been entitled with various names since ancient times. During 150 A.D., under the Kshatrapa ruler, the city has been known as Girinagar. During 7th – 8th century, it came to be known as Jirnadurga which ultimately called Jirnagadh meaning old or ancient fort. This name was derived from fortress situated in the Uparkot (citadel). And after under the rule of Mahmud Begada, the city was known as Mustafabad. Jirnadurga ultimately came to be known as Jirnagadh meaning old or ancient fort from which it took its name as Junagadh.10 10. Reference taken from: Shambhuprasad Desai. Junagadh and Girnar (1978) UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

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4.22 JUNAGADH AND ITS PAST GEOGRAPHY: On one side bounded by the Gulf of Kachchh and on the other side by the Gulf of Khambhat, the almost rectangular peninsula of Kathiawar juts out into the Arabian Sea. In its south-western division, which was known as Sorath – Prant, lay the famous State of Junagadh (Junagarh or Junagad). In Gujarati, “Junagadh” is made up of two words – ‘Juna’ and ‘Garh’ which means ‘Old’ and ‘Fort’ respectively. The town of Junagadh takes its name from the fort that enclosed the medieval town. It is located at latitude 21°31’ N, 70°28’ N and longitude 70° and 72° E. Ten rivers traversed the State, the most famous of which are the Bhadar and the Saraswati.

Figure 263: Map of India

Barda, Halar, Vasavad and Virpur are sub-divisions of the Province as its northern boundary, the Gohilvad and Kathiawar subdivisions as its eastern limit, and the Arabian Sea guarding it on the west and south. Compact and contiguous as are her territories, Junagadh cannot boast undisputed possession of the whole of the south-western corner of the peninsula; in her very heart lie Bilkha, Mendarda, outlying possessions of Jamnagar, Dhoraji and by villages of Jetpur. On the east lie Amreli Mahals and on the very sea board lie Jafarabad and Diu. For administrative purposes, and to collect revenues, Junagadh state was divided into Mahals.

Figure 264: Map of Gujarat - marking Kathiawar state 16.

ARABIAN SEA

Name of the Mahals: Figure 266: Distribution of provinces in 1. Kutiyana 9. Patan Kathiawar before British rule 2. Shil 10. Baroda 3. Keshod 11. Una 4. Junagadh 12. Diu 5. Jetpur 13. Bherai 6. Malia 14. Jaffarabad 7. Gir 15. Navnagar 8. Gir Forest 16. Gondal 104

Figure 265: Location of Junagadh town in Sorath state

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4.3 EVOLUTION OF THE CITY UNDER THE REIGN OF DIFFERENT EMPIRES: Based on the historical resources and references, following section has been created in order to understand the evolution of the city. The city has witnessed different periods of history which have played their role in the architecture and urbanization of the city. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Rajput Period The Period of Gujarat Sultans The Mughal Period Babi rule to Indian Independence

875 A.D. to 1472 A.D. 1472 A.D. to 1591 A.D. 1591 A.D. to 1748 A.D. 1748 A.D. onwards

150 B.C. to 10th Century A.D.: The first evidence of the settlement was believed to be at the northern portion of the present city called Uparkot. Subsequently this was washed away by floods. Between 5th and 10th century, the importance of the city declined and evidences are thus not obtained. In the 10th century, Uparkot was rediscovered again by Rah Grahar of Vanthali. 10th to 14th Century A.D.: Rah Navgham I and Rah Khengar made Uparkot habitable and self sufficient by constructing step wells and underground wells. The traces of settlement were witnessed at the site of Uparkot. With the rise in the Jainism, various temples were built on MOUNT Girnar, turning Junagadh into thr major pilgrim centre. By the end of 14th century, the city got extended upto the present Jagal Chowk. Mughal Rule:: It has been believed that Turkish invaded Gujarat in 1299 A.D. but the real Muslim rule began in the mid-15th century during the reign of Sultan Ahmed Shah. During that time period, Delhi was the capital of the Muslim rulers and so it was not possible to rule effectively over these areas. After 1591 A.D., Muslims had an effective control over Gujarat. 14th to 16th Century A.D.: During this time, Mahmud Begada captured the town, made his capital and renamed it as Mustafabad. Under his rule, strong embankments were built along the river and the city was adorned with a palace, handsome buildings and extensive gardens. The location of the palace was located on the centre â&#x20AC;&#x201C; with two major streets running perpendicular to each other and these streets resulted into commercial spines. No proper evidences are obtained about the town plan but the essence of the Islamic Four-Square Plan Schema can be seen, which was also observed in the initial urban growth of Ahmedabad.

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16th to 18th Century A.D.: In the local text – Tarik – a – Sorath, it was described that the town in 1633 had fort walls with 114 bastions and nine gates; five closed and four open which were positioned in cardinal directions. During the Mughal period, the northern and southern tip were kept as burial and cremation ground respectively. In the late 18th century, the expansion of the town started taking place. British Rule: In 1818, the East India Company took control of the state. However, the Saurashtra never came under the direct administration of British India. The British divided the state into more than one hundred princely states which existed till 1947. Junagadh was among the former princely states which were under the rule of the Britishers. 18th to 20th Century A.D.: It has been believed that the city had two fort walls and the settlement existed within the two. In the reign of Mahabat Khanji II (1851–1882 AD), the capital city of Junagadh having out-grown itself, necessary to extend it in circumference. After 1884, the old fortified walls were torn down and the present-day walls were constructed. In between the two fort walls, the institutional buildings came up which displayed the rich Colonial influenced architecture with the fusion of Islamic architecture. Large gardens, gateways were beautifully constructed during this time. 20th Century to Present day: The early 20th century reflected a strong colonial influence not only in architecture but also in planning. The commercial spine was re-created in the grids and its facade reflected the fusion of Islamic architecture and colonial architecture. The town started to expand in the western and southern side.

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LEGENDS: Uparkot Citadel Expansion of the city in phase 1 Expansion of the city in phase 2 Expansion of the city in phase 3 Sonarekh and Kalwa river 11. Maniar, Karan. Idea of a City Understanding the form of the walled city Junagadh Undergraduate Thesis, IPSA (2010) The map of Present day Junagadh has been taken from the above source.

THE CITY EMERGED WITH THE PRESENCE OF THE CITADEL - UPARKOT

EVOLUTION OF THE CITY: 10TH CENTURY A.D. TO 14TH CENTURY A.D.

EVOLUTION OF THE CITY: 14TH CENTURY A.D. TO 16TH CENTURY A.D.

EVOLUTION OF THE CITY: 16TH CENTURY A.D. TO 18TH CENTURY A.D.

EVOLUTION OF THE CITY: 18TH CENTURY A.D. TO 20TH CENTURY A.D.

PRESENT DAY - JUNAGADH CITY

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THE CITADEL ACTING AS A NUCLEUS

THE CITY EXTENDS IN THE LINEAR AXIS FROM THE CITADEL IN ITS INITIAL PHASE

THE CITY EXTENDS FURTHER IN THE CARDINAL AXIS EVOLUTION OF THE CITY ON THE BASIS OF URBAN CONTEXT: The oldest evidence found was the Uparkot which remained the citadel during many centuries under the reign of different empires. The citadel acted as a nucleus of the city - the prime locus from where the city grew from the past till today. In its initial phase of growth, the city expanded in the linear axis from its nucleus towards the western direction. It took the surrounding area of the citadel, growing in organic pattern. In its further growth after few centuries, the city expanded on the cardinal axis and grew in all three directions. The main axis which became the prime route divided the city into two quadrants which can be observed in the third drawing. Rang Mahal was shifted to Circle Chowk resulting into the formation of crescent complex added later in the expansion. In the further phase of expansion, the city again grew into the similar directions; this time stretching towards all the four directions resulting into the four quadrants - Islamic Four Square Plan Schema. The city also grew towards north - east, where the Sonarekh river once flown. Strong embankments were built at the edge to protect the city from the adversities. The intersection of the primary and secondary axis created a prime node of the city and were considered main commercial routes of the city.

FORMATION OF THE CITY INTO FOUR QUADRANTS - INTERSECTION OF AXIS FORMING MAJOR NODE UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

After few centuries, the city expanded further into their respective quadrants gradually blurring the boundaries of the quadrants and the urban structure started taking place in grid pattern. The secondary fort walls appeared around the built periphery of the city. The city gates, bastions became the part of the fortified walls that shaped the city. THE CITY EXTENDS FURTHER FROM THE ORGANIC TO GRID PATTERN

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Notes: • The map shown here of Junagadh city dates back to 1933 A.D. ; where the gates which existed at that time have been marked. • The visual evidence of the other gates have not been obtained from any source and hence whatever information has obtained about the old city gates have already been mentioned here. • In Tarikh - a - Sorath, the text says that the city had 9 gates. The information about the nineth gate have not been obtained and hence it has not been mentioned. Old photograph of Majewdi Gate, Junagadh A. MAJEWADI GATE: It is the northern entryway to the city. Eastwick in 1881 called this the Moganri Gate. Edwardes and Fraser in 1907 described Majewadi Gate in the early 20th century: ‘Majevadi Gate, the largest gate in the city. It takes its name from an adjacent village. The door is thickly studded with brass spikes intended to resist the attack of elephants. Over the gate is a picturesque balcony leading out of rooms, where in the old days Political Officers and even Governors who visitied Junagadh were accommodated’. Shridharani in 1941, describing his recollections of Majewadi Gate as it was in about 1920, when he was there as a young boy, said that: ‘On the other side of the paddock was the great gate of the old fort where the customs officers collected the “one-tenth” due the Nabob from the farmers who came to the city to sell fresh vegetables.’ B. REAY GATE OR SARDAR PATEL GATE This gate has been taken into the case study and hence it will be explained in detail further. C. VANTHLI GATE: This gate once stood at the western end of Dhal Road, where now is located the large Gandhi Chowk and was once the starting point for talao road. D. TALAV GATE: It was about 100 m immediately east of Narsinh Mehta Lake which does not exist now, was located opening towards lake.

Present day photograph of Shahpur Gate, Junagadh E. VERAVAL GATE OR SHAHPUR GATE: Shapur is about 4 km east of Vanthli and is accessed via the Veraval Road. This gate was at the south-west corner of the city wall, about 400 m west of Kalwa Gate and Kalwa Chowk, and about 500 m south of Talav Gate. It was located adjacent what was once known as the Sharpur Gate Police Lines and what is now the Police Headquarters. Watson in 1884 suggested that Veraval Gate was long ago called the Kalwa Gate. Referring to Rah Khengar II (1094–1113 AD), Watson said that he: ‘… marched to Patan, and broke down one of the gates. He carried off the wooden gates to Junagadh and put them up in the Kalwa (now called Verawal) gateway at that town.’

The further study will be focused on two gateways; both having the different typology but built during the same time period. It will be analysed from the parameters set and discussed in the previous chapters. 1) MAHABAT CIRCLE GATE: Gateway to Royal Precinct 2) REAY GATE OR SARDAR PATEL GATE: Gateway to City

F. KALWA GATE: This gate once stood at the intersection of MG Road and Jayshree Road, i.e. Kalwa Chowk, immediately north of the bridge over the Kalwa River. From the history, a Maher or Mer named Kalwa, galloped his horse over this city gate of Junagadh, which was named after him.

G. VAGHESHWARI GATE OR GIRNAR GATE: It is about 100 m east of the south-east corner of Uparkot. This gate was the entrance to the road leading east to Girnar Taleti. H. DHARAGADH GATE: It was near Triveni Kund, at the confluence of the Sonarekh and Palasini Rivers, about 110 m north of the centre of the north wall of Uparkot. It was named so as it led to Dharagadh village.

Source of the Map: Maniar, Karan. Idea of a City - Understanding the form of the walled city Junagadh Undergraduate Thesis, IPSA (2010)

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4.4 MAHABAT CIRCLE GATE: Gateway to Royal Precinct: The central circle was named Mahabhat Circle after Mahabhat Khan II and was a truly urban feature. Two gates were placed on the northern and southern sides of Circle Chowk which stressed the importance of the city centre (Fig. 270). The crescent was entered through a gateway defining the square in front of the palace from which the princely family also witnessed ceremonial processions (Fig. 269).

Mandvi chowk

Danapith chowk

Circle chowk

Figure 269: Old photograph showing the ceremonial procession during Nawabâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reign

Diwan chowk

Figure 270: Circle chowk acting as a central core

Figure 267: Location of Circle Chowk w.r.t other chowks

100

200m

On the south of Mandvi chowk, the north of Diwan chowk and the east of Danapith chowk - the intersection of its axis create a node - which is called Circle chowk. It acts as a centre point between the chowks and Rang Mahal which is located on its eastern side (Fig. 267).

City palace, Shat Bhai Ni Haveli etc. were living quarters for Royal family, while Aiyna Mahal on south side of the City Palace was mainly used for administrative purposes (Fig. 271).

Known earlier as Chandni Chowk, the Circle Chowk was built by Nawab Mahabat Khan II. Its foundation stone was laid by Political Agent Mr WW Anderson on 27th May 1872. The plan and design of Circle Chowk, and its surrounding buildings, was prepared by the British Agency engineer Walter Blackie; the scheme as a whole was conceived by him. The Nawabâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s government acquired the property on either side of this road (Rajmarg), and constructed a straight bazaar with rectangular shops to replace a tangle of shops. Because this bazaar was adjacent the city palace complex, the government permitted the sale only of precious jewelry, silver and gold. Government guidelines required the use of standardized arched windows, ventilators, parapets, otla, cornices and zarookha. Light poles, railings and signage were designed according to the overall character of the area (Fig. 268).

City Palace (Rang Mahal) became the main force of core of the city; around it different civic institution and commercial area (bazaar) were developed. The axis emerged from the Mahal towards the Circle Chowk became the strong visual axis while the secondary north-south spine divided the royal functions and public area. The eastern central part just adjacent to north-south road was developed as royal area and opposite to it various specialized bazaars were developed. Rang Mahal

Royal Buildings Bazaars Residential Buildings

Figure 268: Old photograph showing the lively bazaars

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Note: The map taken is of present day urban fabric as the old detailed map was not obtained.

Figure 271: Circle chowk acting as a central core - dividing the institutions

000

2525 25 50 50 50m

100

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The main entry to this City Palace was from Circle Chowk which, as the name suggests, is a semicircular plaza for the palace, enclosed on one side by the palace complex, the clock tower opposite it and flanked by two grand entrance gates on either side. The clock tower block is a large, arcaded, twostorey crescent with a central clock tower and an engrailed entrance arch capped by domes and minarets (Fig. 272, 273, 274). The Circle Chowk traditionally was a community space where the Garba folk dance was performed on important occasions and festivals. Some important state functions were also held here, and regal parades passed through. Hence the important quarters were facing this place with projected balconies and jharokhas from where the royalty, especially the women, could view the happenings. The windows, jharokhas and other openings facing this side are highly decorated and ornamental in nature. All intricate work done in stone is a speciality of the stone architecture of Junagadh. The carved brackets, composite column capitals influenced by the Indogothic architecture, the carved jharokhas, and windows made a fine specimen that almost catalogues the traditional development of architecture of this period.

Figure 272: Old photograph showing Mahabat Circle Gate

Figure 274: Old photograph taken during 1890 A.D. showing the original facade of Mahabat Circle gate and the crescent complex UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Figure 273: Old photograph dated 1900 A.D. showing Rang Mahal, Ayana Mahal and the Kaman at south

Figure 275: Old photograph dated 1900 A.D. shown from Diwan Chowk 115

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ENTRANCE GATEWAYS TO THE RANG MAHAL: The gateways were positioned on N-S axis of the street which linked Diwan chowk, Circle chowk and Mandvi chowk while the main gate - Mahabat Circle gate is on the axis of the Rang Mahal, separating the inner precinct from the outer one. Thus this gateway acts like a threshold - a transition from the outer to the inner royal precinct (Fig. 275).

Fig. 276: Key plan showing the position of the gates and their function as a threshold (On the right)

Motifs

Hooks on the parapet

100m

Motifs

Parapet put of stone Motifs Arched niches Structure topped with motifs

Side arch

Main arch

Side arch

Fig. 277: Gateway on the north of Circle Chowk

Side arch Fig. 278: Gateway on the south of Circle Chowk

• These grand gateways are a mixture of Indo-Islamic and Gothic architecture. The influence of Gothic architecture came into the picture because of the friendly relations the Nawabs had with the British. • The structure which can be seen in the middle of the columns of the Northern Gateway might have been used as a security cabin by the guards who protected the precinct. • The design of the parapet and the motifs appears to be same as the one on the crescent complex such that the whole elevation unifies with the same character throughout. • The hooks with hemispherical bases and circular domes observed at intervals might have been used for lighting up the structure at night. • The main arched gateway has intricate carvings at its borders as well as multiple receding circular columns, while the side arches have a singular band – this indicates the use of the main gateway by the royalty whereas the side arches were for the public. The width of the main arch is 3.2 m and the clear height is 5.6 m, which is wide enough for ceremonial processions of royals on elephants with howdahs. 118

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Gateway on the north of Circle Chowk

Gateway on the south of Circle Chowk 0

Fig. 279: Comparison of the side gateways with the elephant in order to understand the scale of the gateway

Gateway on the north of Circle Chowk Fig. 280: The scale of the gateways depicts the users - the main archway used by the royals while the side ones by common people

Gateway on the south of Circle Chowk 0 1 2 4m

• On the either sides of the central main gate, there was a linear staircase which led to the first floor. • On the parapet of the crescent complex at certain intervals, hooks are observed where lamps were placed to illuminate the structure. • The crescent bay has an arcade with a larger bay on the ground floor and a relatively smaller one in the upper floor. These bays were structured by cusped arches with attached plasters on a covered wall. There are twelve such bays on either side of the main gate. The rhythm of openings on the ground floor is doubled on the upper floor enhancing the feeling by a series of continuous curved steps leading up to the shop level. 0

2.5

Fig. 281: Module of the bazaar at the crescent complex which is located on the western side of Rang Mahal UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

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ELEMENTS OF THE CENTRAL GATE: Main gateway: The main gateway had pointed arch with ornamented bands. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s capital is ornamented with European style and the opening is 2.8 m wide and 6.1 m high. Circular columns that appear near the columns do not hold any structural value. On the either sides of the gateway, there was a staircase which led to the first floor of the crescent complex; out of which only one staircase is existing. (Fig. 282) Fig. 282: The main arch of the central gate

Minarets: There are minarets on either side of the gate. These minarets act as a staircase core till the second floor and topped with the chattri which becomes the visual element. It sits on the square base at the bottom and then rises to the octagonal base of the minaret. Cusped arches are observed and this language continues in the whole crescent complex. Chhatri also has octagonal base with the ornamented capital circular columns at the corners and is topped with the bulbous dome - depicting the fusion of Indian with Islamic architecture (Fig. 283). Fig. 283: Minarets at the central gate

Cental Gothic Arch topped with Clock tower: In the centre, Gothic arch with trio pointed arches with colorful glass is being observed. There are numerous circular columns in receeding manner with the ornamented capital which gives the depth of the main central arch. Above the arch, clock tower is observed which is topped by pyramidal structure. Above the structure, european style ornamentated motifs are ovserved. The language of circular columns with its ornamentation remains the same throughout the gate, unifying the whole (Fig. 284).

Fig. 284: Clock tower at the central gate 120

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ELEMENTS OF THE CENTRAL GATE: Pyradimal structure topped with the motifs

Parapet out of stone

Central clock topped with pyramidal structure with cusped arch - giving characteristic of Gothic architecture

Chabutras topped with circular dome Cusped arches at every level of minaret

The columns of parapet topped with such arched elements - Hooks Minarets with staircase block Curved brackets used to unify with the whole design

The base of the minaret sits on octagonal plan Square base at the bottom

Gothic arch

Multiple receeding columns of the Gothic arch giving the depth

Designed niches observed above the lintel

Arched entrance gate with intricate carvings on the borders

Glass window with colorful glass - giving characteristic of Gothic architecture

Fig. 285: Sectional elevation showing the elements of the gate - Eastern facade of the central gate UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

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Fig. 286: Original elevation of eastern facade of the crescent complex along with the Mahabat Circle gate recreated

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4.5 REAY GATE OR SARDAR PATEL GATE: Gateway to City: In 1887 H. E. Lord Reay, Governor of Bombay paid a visit to Junagadh, laid foundation stone of Jetalsar-Junagadh Railway Line on 11th December 1886. and performed the opening ceremony of the newly constructed railway line from Jetalsar to Veraval. In commemoration of his visit, a gate was put up in the city wall opposite to the Railway Station and was named the Reay Gate.

It is located near the Railway Station, on the opposite side of the road. It is sometimes also called the Panch Batti Gate. It is an imposing two storey crescent archway with domes and minarets, built with the construction of a series of new palaces, public buildings and parks, notably during the reign of the Nawab Mahabat Khan II. This gate is not one of the original entrances to the city as it was built in the later period on the occasion of the commemoration of Lord Reay visit. A large imported clock has been fitted at the top of the gate.

Railway Station

Central Jail

Sardar Gate

Mahabat Maqbara

Figure 287: Location of Sardar Patel Gate w.r.t other pointers

The following is an account of this event: ‘The capital city is a walled town and as none of the ordinary gates of ingress and egress was in the vicinity of the newly placed railway station, and it was desirable and necessary, to afford facilities of approaching the station, an additional large entrance was made in the portion of the wall facing the Station buildings. This happened to form the commencement of the Wodehouse Suburb, and in fitness of things the gate was named after the popular and sympathetic Governor Lord Reay who performed the opening ceremony of the State’s integral section of the B.G.J.P. [Bhavnagar, Gondal, Junagadh and Porbandar] Railway, and whose marble bust was placed in the arch on the top of the gate in commemoration of the auspicious event. The work was executed at a cost of rupees 56,169-2-4.’

100

200m

Figure 288: Old photograph taken during 1890 A.D. showing the original facade of Sardar Patel Gate

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Figure 289: Sketch of the western facade of clock tower and the Sardar Patel Gate

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Chhatri crowned on the eight circular pillars positioned in a circular formation This wall at this floor houses the Clock tower and the gate opens up for a balcony view

Staircase core at the either sides of the main archway

Base floor of the clock tower housing the staircase and the arched windows. Below the arch there is an arched gate which opens up to the terrace

The core of the side gateways houses the room at its first floor

The smaller arches at the either side if the main arch acting as a side gateway

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ELEMENTS: CHHATRI AND ARCHED TURRET: This structure which adds the beauty and grandeur to the whole gateway structure, can be studied in two parts. It sits on the semi- hexagonal platform till the first floor. Circular colums with cusped arches on the three sides can be seen with the windows for the intake of light in that core. To support the chhatri which is projecting out, brackets are observed to support them. Chhatri sits on the octagonal plan with circular columns at each corner. It is at the second floor level plan and becomes the visual element.Ornamentation of the pinnacle of the chhatri depicts the fusion of Indian architecture with Islamic and Gothic architecture. The structure is made up of Porbandar limestone.

Figure 290: Plan of different levels of turret and chattri

Figure 291: Sketch showing the arched turret and chattri

Figure 292: Photograph of chhatri at various angle

JHAROKHA AND THE THREE ARCHES: The overlooking balcony jharokha sits on the semi - hexagonal plan, starting at the top with the series of ornamented bands, with the columns at the corner. At four corners, circular columns with the ornamented capital with the cusped arched at all the three sides were observed. The ornamentation and the motifs used over here depicts they were inspired from the motifs of the Gothic architecture.

Figure 293: Sketch showing jharokha jutting out of te facade

Figure 294: Photographs showing the details of jharokha

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Above the side gateways, the staircase leads to upstairs having the corridor and the room on the either sides of the first floor. These rooms were housed for the special accomodations during that time. The room was entered through the foyer and both the elevations had trio arches, with the jharokha in the frontal elevation. At the front side, there is the door to the jharokha balcony and the side windows with the pointed Islamic arches while the back side had the three pointed arched two way openings with the railings at the edge.

Figure 296: View showing the foyer and the door overlooking the balcony (Towards front)

Figure 295: Plan showing the organisation of the side room

Figure 297: View showing the trio openings (Towards back)

GATEWAYS: 1) MAIN GATEWAY 2) SIDE GATEWAYS The Gothic arches with the fusion of Islamic architecture are observed over here. The height of the main arch is 8 m while the height of side arches is 5 m. Inside the main gateway, on both its sides platforms are observed. These platforms are created by the arches. Dome is supported on this arches and pendentives are observed. The purpose of those platforms during that time are not known yet. These doorways have pivoted wooden doors and ornamented. Figure 300: Ornamentation above the main archway

Figure 298: Diagrams showing the organisation at different levels UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Figure 299: Sketch shows the arches of the gateway and the studded ornamented leaf door

Figure 301: Dome supported by pendentives 131

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CLOCK TOWER: The plans shown over here explains the layering of the clock tower on the Gate which is the main feature of the gate. The original clock which was present earlier was imported when it was built. At the base floor of the tower which is the second floor plan of the gate, pointed Islamic arches with are observed at the either side of the main arched window. Below the main arched window there is an arched gate which opens up to the terrace. There is a staircase running up from the second floor tower plan upto the third floor. At the third floor, on all the four sides there is an opening which leads to the balcony - where one can see the panoramic views of the city. The clock sits above these openings. From the fourth level plan of the tower, it sits on the circular plan with the circular columns arranged in a circular fashion to form a chhatri. The chattri is topped with a small dome with a pinnacle on it.

Figure 302: Roof plan

Figure 303: Sixth floor plan

Figure 304: Fifth floor plan

Figure 309: Clock tower at the Gate Figure 305: Fourth floor plan Figure 308: Elevation drawing of the clock tower

Figure 306: Third floor plan

Figure 307: Second floor plan

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Figure 310: View of the Clock tower

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4.6 SUMMARY: This chapter focused on the Junagadh city and studied the two case studies of the existing gateways. The gateways which are taken were built almost during the same time period i.e. late 18th century under the reign of the Nawab Mahabat Khan II. Also, one must be aware of the fact that by that time, Junagadh was already under the British protectorate. Hence, these all factors reflected on the architecture of the gateways and its reason of existence. Both the gateways which are taken differ in their typology i.e. The Mahabat Circle Gate comes into the typology of the gateway to a royal precinct where its main role is that it is acting as threshold to a precinct while The Reay Gate or Sardar Patel Gate is a commemorative gateway and its position gave its role as a gateway to the city. Though their roles are different, certain similarities can still be carried out on its architecture and formation. Looking at its position with the urban context, the gateway stands along with the crescent complex forming an imaginary circular or elliptical formation. This imaginary formation creates an impact in its surrounding where it feels that the complex creates a strong boundary between the domains. The gate which is at the centre of the complex, acts as a puncture in that boundary, carrying the function of regulating the entry or exit to its domain. The positioning of the gateways decipher the role of the cardinal directions and the axis to play part into it.

Figure 311: Map of Mahabat Circle Gate (on left) and map of Sardar Patel Gate (on right) showing the circular or elliptical formation in its precinct

Looking to the evolution of the Junagadh city, it can be noted that during 14th to 16th century, Rang Mahal was shifted over here and hence it became the residence of the Nawabs thereafter. In 16th to 18th century, the city evolved resulting into the formation of the crescent complex on the east side of the Mahal, forming a boundary. Hence, the continuation UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

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of the organic pattern was observed around the Circle chowk. Looking into the case of Sardar Gate and its precinct, it was built after the former one. Its location built during that time period was itself being the new boundary of the city. Also, it should be noted that during that time period, the urban context start taking place into grid pattern. The crescent complex in both the cases housed commercial shops at both of the floors during that time. The gates having the significant depth housed various functions within it. The Mahabat Circle gate housed a room above its main archway whose function still cannot be recognized; it has side minarets which became the staircase core ended up being a balcony view at the top. While the Sardar gate, has three archways â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the main arch at the middle and the two small archways at its either side. Between the main and the side arch, there is a staircase core which connects them. Above the side arches, there is a room which were used to accommodate government authorities during that time period. In both the cases, the clock tower has been observed which resembles the Colonial style of architecture as this prototype can be seen earlier across Europe. Its rise in the verticality resulted the gateways to become landmarks of its precinct and become visual pointers of the city. Looking into the architecture of both the gateways, the elements like Sultanate arches, cusped arches, domes, turrets, minarets, chhatri with bulbous domes, jharookha and the filigree observed on the gateways are floral patterns of various forms. Thus these gateways represent Indo - Saracenic style of architecture. These gateways built were not only to reflect the grandeur but also to reflect how the architecture of that period reached its peak. In todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s time, it no longer plays its role for which it was created but their scale and grandess still impacts the whole precinct and creates nostalgia of the past era.

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5.0 CONCLUSION: The basic concern raised in this research thesis was to understand the architecture of historical gateways as a typology. The four defined objectives mentioned were interdependent on each other. To understand the concept of the gateways and what forces manifested the architecture of gateways, the discussion started with introducing the basic attributes observed in the gateways and different roles played by them. To understand their different roles, another chapter was introduced which discussed the representative gateways across the globe according to the historical periods. This resulted into an understanding of typologies of gateways and a typology was created by author which was taken forward into the third chapter where their representative examples from India were discussed into detail. With that understanding, the final chapter was introduced to decipher and to do detail analysis on the existing gateways of Junagadh city. This chapter first answers the main question for which this research was aimed at and then it will summarize in the end. RESEARCH QUESTIONS: 1) What were the forces/ circumstances faced during that time period that manifested the architecture of gateways? The strong beliefs of the society and the creation of any Urban Artefact are closely knotted to each other. In the whole study, it was observed that various situations which existed in that period were the resultant social, political and cultural factors that existed in the society. To symbolize those factors, Urban Artefact were built. For their protection from the outside world, for their religious beliefs, for the defense, for showing their power to the world, for nostalgia â&#x20AC;&#x201C; these forces of human creation led the architecture of the gateways.

BELIEFS OF THE SOCIETY FACTORS

Social Factors

Political Factors

Cultural factors

MANIFESTATION OF ARCHITECTURE OF GATEWAYS Figure 312: Diagram showing the factors that led to the manifestation of the gateways UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

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2) What was/were the component/components that manifested the typology of gateways? In this research, the gateways were studied on the basis of certain parameters. It was observed that the gateways have their unique characteristics in each parameter. The reason of its creation for which the gateways were built i.e. the ‘Role’ was responsible for the variation. Hence, the typology of the gateways was created on the basis of its role they played during that period.

TYPOLOGY OF GATEWAYS ITS ROLE AND FUNCTION

Acting as a Threshold

Gateway to a Religious Precinct

Gateway to a Royal Precinct

Acting as a Defender

Gateway to City

Gateway to Fort

Acting as a Symbolism

Commemorative gateway

Figure 313: Typology of the Gateways on the basis of its role and function

EPILOUGE: After my visit to the existing gates of Junagadh city, certain questions were raised within where some of them were like – Why were these massive structures built if its only purpose was for a transition? Why these Kaman of Circle chowk fall on an axis? If they functioned as a city gate, why would they have housed rooms above? What are the factors for the diversification of gateways? All these questions left me curious, making me understand that the answer lies in the history itself. In order to answer my questions, this research topic was selected where the basic understanding started with its literature study. It was introduced with the various notions of how the people associated themselves with the gateways. With that, an understanding was created that the certain factors existed in the society were responsible for their manifestation. Different historical periods across the Europe were taken and the socio – political and cultural factors existed at that period were understood in brief in order to understand the reason of the creation of the gateways. This led to the observation of diversified gateways in terms of its function, scale, form, and appearance. But it was also observed that some gateways carried few similarities. It resulted creating 138

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a typology which can help to understand the architecture of gateways clearer. On the basis of its role, the gateways were classified and understood further. Then it was introduced with the representative gateways of India and classifying into its typology, the physical and spatial elements along with its parameters were understood. The reading from the various books about its history and the sketch technique helped a lot to understand this urban artefact and take out inferences from it. With the end of this chapter, certain level of understanding was achieved and the questions which I had initially after my Junagadh visit was likely to get decipher further. The final chapter started with the introduction of Junagadh city in terms of its geography, history and its evolution with the urban context. Then after the brief introduction of Junagadh gates which are no longer existed – the case study of the existing gateways was taken and tried to decipher most of my questions.

“Ever and again in the history of art and architecture, there are periods of marvellous unity of artistic expression; but it is a part of man’s nature that past, present and future should intermingle. The phenomena of transition are always with us, though their intensity varies.” - S. Gideon in ‘Architecture and the Phenomena of Transition’

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ILLUSTRATION CREDITS: CHAPTER 1:

Figure 1: Gateway - An element of threshold (Recreated by author. Primary source - Patel, Nirali. Gateways: Artefacts of Civilizations, Undergraduate Thesis, CEPT 1987) Figure 2: Gateway - An element which glorifies the transition by creating pause in the movement (Source - Author) Figure 3(a,b,c,d): Various sizes and shapes of the doorway acting as a threshold (Recreated by author. Primary source - Thiis Evenson Thomas. ‘Archetypes in Architecture’ ,Norwegian University Press, 1987) Figure 4: Gateway - An element depicting its monumentality by its scale (Source - Author) Figure 5: Torii Gate - Transition from mundane to sacred (Sketch by author) Figure 6: Victory Parade passing through the Arc de Triomphe, Paris - July 14,1919 (Source - http://roadstothegreatwar-ww1.blogspot.com/2013/07/14-july-1919-victory-parade-in-paris.html) Figure 7 (a,b,c,d): Figures explaining the basic definition of Gateway (Source - Author) Figure 8: Catawba village settlement boundary (Source - https://in.pinterest.com/pin/140244975868443945/) Figure 9: Diagram showing formation of cluster and its settlement system (Source - Author) Figure 10: ‘Gate of the Sun’ at Tiwanaku (Source - https://in.pinterest.com/pin/293156256979409917/) Figure 11: Pylons of Egypt (Source - https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-geography-travel-egypt-luxor-temple-entrance-pylon-and-obelisksreconstruction-19375741.html) Figure 12: Torana at Sanchi - the gateway which is more kind of inviting you to the sacred precinct (Source - https://in.pinterest.com/pin/513691901230488990/) Figure 13: Painting showing the activities that happen at City gate (Source - https://www.1st-art-gallery.com/Ralph-Hedley/The-City-Gate.html) Figure 14: Diagram showing how the positioning of gates signify its function (Source - Author) Figure 15: Firepower from canon (Source - Author) Figure 16: Principal gateway to Imperial Palace (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Gate_of_Divine_Prowess) Figure 17: Halle Gate at Brussels, Belgium (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Halle_Gate) Figure 18: Eiffel Tower at Paris, France (Source - https://www.insider.com/eiffel-tower-facts-and-history-2017-3)) Figure 19: The Gateway Arch at St. Louis, United States (Source - https://www.flickr.com/photos/22711505@N05/27914658407)

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CHAPTER 2:

Figure 20: Early village settlement boundary (Source - http://puttingzone.com/graphics/IndianOtherImages/IndianVillageCongaree.gif) Figure 21: Timucua village settlement boundary and its gateway (Source - Rc11029_Timucua_Indian_village_drawing_by_Le_Moyne_de_Morgues.jpg) Figure 22: Different type of placement of gateways to the village settlement (Source - author) Figure 23: Pathway showing that the processional route (Recreated by author. Primary source -https://canvas.brown.edu/courses/949656/files/48537365 download?wrap=1.) Figure 24: Figure showing eight gates to access to the inner city of Babylon (Recreated by author. Primary source - https://www.flickr.com/photos/quadralectics/22222959659) Figure 24: Figure showing sirrush depicted on the facade of the gate (Source -https://canvas.brown.edu/courses/949656/files/48537365 download?wrap=1.) Figure 25: Figure showing bull depicted on the facade of the gate (Source -https://canvas.brown.edu/courses/949656/files/48537365 download?wrap=1.) Figure 26: Section through Ishtar gate (Recreated by author. Primary source - https://www.flickr.com/photos/quadralectics/22222959659) Figure 27: Ishtar gate conceptual sketch (Source -https://canvas.brown.edu/courses/949656/files/48537365 download?wrap=1.) Figure 28: Procession at Ishtar gate conceptual sketch (Source - https://in.pinterest.com/pin/365847169725155200/) Figure 29: Lion Gate at Mycenae, southern Greece (Edited by author. Primary source -https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Lion_Gate) Figure 30: Plan of Mycenae citadel (Edited by author. Primary source - https://oxfordre.com/oxford/fullsizeimage?imageUri=/10.1093/ acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-4298-graphic-003-full.gif&uriChapter=/10.1093/ acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-4298) Figure 31: Diagram showing the Mycenae citadel (Sketch by author) Figure 32: Emblem of Mycenaean kings (Source -https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Lion_Gate) Figure 33: Plan of the Propylaea (Source - http://www.ancestryimages.com/proddetail.php?prod=e9876) Figure 34: Propylaea of Ancient Greece (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Propylaea) Figure 35: Pylons at Karnak temple, Egypt (Source - https://discoveringegypt.com/karnak-temple/karnak-temple-first-pylon/) Figure 36: Conceptual ceremonial view at temple (Source - https://discoveringegypt.com/rebuilding-ancient-egyptian-temples-in-3d/) Figure 37: Sectional view showing the verticality of pylons and gateway acting as a threshold and the journey from mundane to sacred (Recreated by author. Primary source - https://ohiostate.pressbooks.pub/exploringarchitectureandlandscape/chapter/ temple-of-khons/)

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Figure 38: Orientation of pylons and gateways according to cardinal directions (Recreated by author. Primary source - https://discoveringegypt.com/karnak-temple/karnak-temple-first-pylon/) Figure 39: Plan showing the positioning of gateways and pylons in one axis, the shadow of the pylons not disturbing the first rays of the Sun to fall on the main sanctuary (Recreated by author. Primary source - https://in.pinterest.com/pin/165014773822104941/) Figure 40: Obelisk at Karnak temple, Egypt (Source - https://www.flickr.com/photos/concertina226/8297692964) Figure 41: Old Fortified city London with its gates, map North aligned - not to scale (Source of the map - Strohm, Paul. Chaucerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Tale: 1386 and the Road to Canterbury, 2014 Source of photograph - https://www.amazon.com/LONDON-CITY-GATES-Demolished-Cripplegate/dp/B009ZV3QMY) Figure 42: Picture showing the gatehouse and the drawbridge closing up to let the ship pass below (Source - https://www.lookandlearn.com/history-images/XJ528740/Reconstruction-showing-Old-London-Bridge-a-fewyears-after-it-was-built-looking-north-west) Figure 43: Old city London plan (Source - https://www.pinterest.ru/pin/341992165436602886/) Figure 44: Picture showing the location of London bridge (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/South_London) Figure 45: Sectional view of the London bridge (Source - https://www.countrylife.co.uk/architecture/living-thames-history-london-bridge-one-celebrated-lostlandmarks-205294) Figure 46: Bargate at Southampton, England (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Bargate) Figure 47: Westgate of Canterbury, Kent, England (Source - https://ehive.com/collections/4006/canterbury-westgate-towers-museum) Figure 48: Museum at Westgate, Canterbury (Source - https://www.touristplaces.uk/canterbury/westgate-towers-museum-and-viewpoint/) Figure 49: Powder gate at Prague (Source - https://www.praguecityline.com/prague-monuments/the-powder-tower-is-the-gateway-to-the-old-town) Figure 50: Old gate at Speyer (Source - https://notesplusultra.files.wordpress.com/2013/09/speyer_3.jpg?w=916&h=608) Figure 51: Zoomed in plan of Freiburg city (Source -https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Stadtplan_Freiburg_im_Breisgau_1931.jpg) Figure 51(1): Zoomed in plan showing junction and tram route at Schwabentor gate (Source - Image taken from Google Earth and recreated by author) Figure 51(2): Zoomed in plan showing junction and tram route at Martinstor gate (Source - Image taken from Google Earth and recreated by author) Figure 52: Martinstor Gate at Freiburg (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Martinstor) Figure 53: Martinstor gate acting as a visual pointer from distance (Source - Image taken from Google Earth) Figure 54: Arch of the main and side - gate (Source - https://www.flickr.com/photos/paul-mcclure/10433197673/)

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Figure 55: Romanesque figure above the gate (Source -https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-george-patron-freiburg-saint-legend-emblem-george-lance-bastillepatron-142047146.html) Figure 57: Schwabentor gate acting as a visual pointer from distance (Source - Image taken from Google Earth) Figure 58: Arch of the main and side - gate (Source - https://www.shutterstock.com/search/schwabentor) Figure 60: Porte Saint Denis original fortified gate (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Porte_Saint-Denis) Figure 61: Paris plan of 1640’s showing the original position of Porte Saint Denis gate (Source - http://www.oldmapsofparis.com/) Figure 62: Arch of Titus at Rome, Italy (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Arch_of_Titus) Figure 63: Paris plan of 1640’s showing the original position of Porte Saint Denis gate (Source - https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-paris-10e-arrondissement-entrepot-1920-vintagemap-103812607.html?pv=1&stamp=2&imageid=54C3B399-B3DF-489A-9444-C82E89B90FE5&p= 283958&n=0&orientation=0&pn=1&searchtype=0&IsFromSearch=1&srch=foo%3dbar%26st%3d0%26pn%3d1%26ps%3d100%26sortby%3d2%26resultview%3dsortbyPopular%26npgs%3d0%26qt%3d10e%26qt_) Figure 64: Zoomed in plan showing the location of Porte Saint Denis and Porte Saint Martin gate (Source - Image taken from Google Earth and edited by author) Figure 65: Zoomed in plan showing the location of Porte Saint Denis gate (Source - Image taken from Google Earth and edited by author) Figure 66: Porte Saint-Denis, pen and Indian ink. Etching by Gabriel Perelle, 1675. Musée du Louvre, Paris (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Porte_Saint-Denis) Figure 67: Porte Saint Denis at Paris, France (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Porte_Saint-Denis) Figure 68: Sculpture at southern face at Porte Saint Denis (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Porte_Saint-Denis) Figure 69: Sculpture at northern face at Porte Saint Denis (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Porte_Saint-Denis) Figure 70: Porte Saint Martin at Paris, France (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Porte_Saint-Martin) Figure 71: Brandenburg Gate at Berlin, Germany (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Brandenburg_Gate) Figure 72: Brandenburg Gate as seen through a barbed-wire barrier, 1961 (Source - http://slideplayer.com/slide/8063670/) Figure 73: 1963 Berlin map showing the division of East and West Berlin, the position of Brandenburg gate playing its role of division of state. (Source - https://www.reddit.com/r/MapPorn/comments/58xtgw/berlin_a_cold_war_map_showing_the_berlin_wall_as/) Figure 74: Propylaea in Munich (Source - https://www.archinform.net/projekte/1986.htm) Figure 75: Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel at Paris, France (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Arc_de_Triomphe_du_Carrousel) UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

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Figure 76: Menin Gate at Belgium (Source - https://medium.com/@samuelvonbuckstein/beneath-the-menin-gate-once-more-2d4ccc97252b) Figure 77: Grande Arche (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Grande_Arche) Figure 78: Arc De Triomphe (Source - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Front_view_of_the_Arc_de_Triomphe,_Paris_23_February_2016.jpg) Figure 79: Egyptian Obelisk (Source - https://frenchmoments.eu/historical-axis-of-paris-la-voie-triomphale/) Figure 80: Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Arc_de_Triomphe_du_Carrousel) Figure 81: Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel framing the view of obelisk and Arc De Triomphe (Source - https://www.flickr.com/photos/les_butcher/34437590354) Figure 82: Vista from the point of Obelisk towards west (Source - https://frenchmoments.eu/historical-axis-of-paris-la-voie-triomphale/) Figure 83: Arc De Triomphe framing the sun setting (Source - https://frenchmoments.eu/historical-axis-of-paris-la-voie-triomphale/) Figure 84: Grande Arche as a backdrop of Arc de Triomphe (Source - https://www.cnbc.com/2019/12/11/these-are-the-best-companies-to-work-for-in-france-in-2020.html) Figure 85: Paris map showing the historic axis and marking the major landmarks on it and the map is north aligned upwards (Source - Map taken from Google Earth and edited by author) Figure 86: Remains of the Emperor passing under the arch after its construction (Source - https://frenchmoments.eu/tombstone-of-napoleon-paris/) Figure 87: Map showing the twelve radiating avenues from the position of the square of Arc De Triomphe (Source - Map taken from Google Earth and edited by author) Figure 88: Cross section of Arc De Triomphe showing: The intake of light, panoramic view at its terrace, scale w.r.t. human, exhibition space and line indicates the direction to reach another level (Source - Edited by author. Primary source - http://mikestravelguide.com/things-to-do-in-paris-climb-the-arc-de-triomphe/ arc-de-triomphe-cut-away-drawing/) Figure 89: Victory Parade passing through the Arc de Triomphe, Paris - July 14,1919 (Source - http://roadstothegreatwar-ww1.blogspot.com/2013/07/14-july-1919-victory-parade-in-paris.html) Figure 90: Free French forces on parade after the liberation of Paris, 1944 (Source - https://bwog.com/2018/02/understanding-a-lack-of-transparency-in-global-politics/) Figure 91: North wall of the small inner arch - names of the military leaders sacrificed during war Figure 92: The sculpture for ‘The Triumph’ Figure 93: The sculpture for the Resistance Figure 94: The sculpture for the Peace Figure 95: The sculpture for the ‘Departure of the Volunteers’ Figure 96: The Battle of Austerlitz on west facade Figure 97: The Battle of Aboukir on south facade, left Figure 98: The Fall of Alexandria on north facade, left Figure 99: The Battle of Arcole on north facade, right Figure 100: General Marceau’s burial on south facade, right Figure 101: The Battle of Jemappes on east facade (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Arc_de_Triomphe) Figure 102: Map showing the visual axis experienced from the terrace of Arc De Triomphe (Source - Map taken from Google Earth and edited by author) 144

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Figure 103: The Grande Arche and the business district seen Figure 104: The view of the Eiffel Tower and Avenue Kleber Figure 105: View of the Champs-Ă&#x2030;lysĂŠes (Source - https://frenchmoments.eu/arc-de-triomphe-paris/) Figure 106: Map showing the position of Eiffel Tower and its line of axis (Source - Map taken from Google Earth and edited by author) Figure 107: Eiffel Tower at Paris, France (Source - https://www.insider.com/eiffel-tower-facts-and-history-2017-3) Figure 108: Map showing the position of the Gateway Arch (Source - Map taken from Google Earth and edited by author) Figure 109: The Gateway Arch at St. Louis, USA (Source - https://www.tripadvisor.in/LocationPhotoDirectLink-g35926-d3320608-i354347540-Malcolm_W_Martin_ Memorial_Park-East_Saint_Louis_Illinois.html) Figure 110: Map showing the position of the Grande Arche (Source - Map taken from Google Earth and edited by author) Figure 111: Grande Arche at Paris, France (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Grande_Arche) Figure 112: Parameters taken into the consideration for the study (Source - Author) Figure 113: Typology of gateways on the basis of its role and function (Source - Author)

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Figure 114: Index showing the gates which will be discussed further (Index by author, primary source if images from online) Fig. 115: Gopura of Nilkantesvara temple at Laddigam (Source - https://quod.lib.umich.edu/a/ars/13441566.0045.004/--tamil-gopura-from-temple-gateway-to-global-icon?rgn=main;view=fulltext) Fig. 116: Gopura of Andal Renga Mannar Temple at Srivilliputhur (Source - https://www.tamilnadutourisminfo.com/srivilliputhur-andal-renga-mannar-temple/) Fig. 117: Plan of Thillai temple, Chidambaram Fig. 118: Plan of Meenakshi Temple, Madurai Fig. 119: Plan of Sri Rangaswamy Temple, Srirangam (Source - Author) Fig. 120: Conception of formation of Gopuram form from Vimana (Sketch by author. Primary source - https://quod.lib.umich.edu/a/ars/13441566.0045.004/--tamil-gopura-from-templegateway-to-global-icon?rgn=main;view=fulltext) Fig. 121 Strong axis of the position of Gopurams (Sketch by author) Fig. 122 View of Meenakshi temple at Madurai (Source - https://www.deviantart.com/tomhopkinson/art/Sri-Meenakshi-Temple-Madurai-49517601) Fig. 123: Diagram of Gopura showing its characteristics (Source - author) Fig. 124: Diagram of Walled city of Ahmedabad showing the city gates and the gates of citadel (Source - author) UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

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Fig.125: Diagram showing the routes connecting from the city gates (Source - author) Fig. 126: Sketch showing the king on elephant marching towards city through central gate of Delhi Darwaza (Source - https://www.india-tours.com/blog/ahmedabad-is-indias-first-world-heritage-city.html) Fig.126 a: Old Walled City Ahmedabad City Map showing the access points through gates (Edited by author. Primary source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Gates_of_Ahmedabad) Fig. 127: Drawing shows the schematic sketches of the gates of the Walled city of Ahmedabad (Source - author) Fig. 128: Teen Darwaza at Ahmedabad (Source -https://ahmedabadtourism.in/teen-darwaza-ahmedabad) Fig. 129: Teen Drawaza in 1886 (https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Teen_Darwaza) Fig. 130: Figure showing the cross of N-s axis and E-W axis (Source - author) Fig. 131: Figure showing the cross of N-s axis and E-W axis (Source - Lavingia, Raj. Fortifications and gates - case of the fortified medieval city of Ahmedabad, Undergraduate Thesis, CEPT) Fig. 132: The surrounding context of Teen Darwaza (Source - author) Fig. 133: The location of the gate w.r.t the fort (Source - author) Fig. 134: The plan of the gate highlighting the routes (Recreated by author. Primary source - http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/other/019wdz000002220u00023000. html) Fig. 135: The figure of the gate highlighting the routes: The middle route used by the royals and the side routes used by common people (Recreated by author. Primary source - Google Earth 3d Model) Fig. 135 (a): The plan of the gate highlighting the routes Fig. 135 (b): Sketch of Teen Darwaza emphasizing the trio arches (Source - author) Fig. 136: Detail of bands on the arch (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Teen_Darwaza) Fig. 137: Comparison of side arch and main arch w.r.t. Elephant with howdah to understand the scale of gateway (Source - author) Fig. 138: Balcony window detail (Source - author) Fig. 139: Turret detail sketch (Source - author) Fig. 140: Maratha inscription on gate (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Teen_Darwaza) Fig. 141: Chart showing the gate as a system (Created by author. Sketch by author. Primary source of images - Sidney, Toy. Strongholds of India, London William Heinemann Ltd. 1957)

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Fig. 142: Miniature painting showing the Mughals capturing Daulatabad fort in 1633 (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Padshahnama) Fig. 143: Location of Daulatabad fort (Source - Map taken from Google Earth) Fig. 144: Aerial view of the present Daulatabad Fort (Source - Map taken from Google Earth) Fig. 145: Aerial view showing the curtain wall of the present Daulatabad Fort (Source - Map taken from Google Earth) Fig. 146: Sub elements of the gate of Daulatabad gate (Source - author) Fig. 147: View of the citadel at Daulatabad Fort (Source - Sidney, Toy. Strongholds of India, London William Heinemann Ltd. 1957) Fig. 148: Diagram showing the approach to the entrance gateway (Recreated by author. Primary source - Sidney, Toy. Strongholds of India, London William Heinemann Ltd. 1957) Fig. 149: Entrance gateway at the fort (Source - author) Fig. 150: Spikes at the main door of the gateway observed (Source - author) Fig. 151: Relief of the elephant near the entry of gateway (Source - https://nroer.gov.in/55ab34ff81fccb4f1d806025/file/5902ea3516b51cf5e6c832f9) Fig. 152: Diagram showing the approach towards the first court (Recreated by author. Primary source - Sidney, Toy. Strongholds of India, London William Heinemann Ltd. 1957) Fig. 153: Entrance gateway to the first court (Source - author) Fig. 154: Watch tower (Source - Sidney, Toy. Strongholds of India, London William Heinemann Ltd. 1957) Fig. 155: Diagram showing the approach towards the second curtain wall (Recreated by author. Primary source - Sidney, Toy. Strongholds of India, London William Heinemann Ltd. 1957) Fig. 156: Sketch of the balcony on watch tower (Source - author) Fig. 157: Entrance to the third curtain wall (Recreated by author. Primary source - Sidney, Toy. Strongholds of India, London William Heinemann Ltd. 1957) Fig. 158: Entrance gateway to the third curtain wall (Source - author) Fig. 159: Approach to the citadel (Recreated by author. Primary source - Sidney, Toy. Strongholds of India, London William Heinemann Ltd. 1957) Fig. 160: Approach to the citadel through bridge (Source - Sidney, Toy. Strongholds of India, London William Heinemann Ltd. 1957) Fig. 161: Approach to the citadel through bridge (Recreated by author. Primary source - Sidney, Toy. Strongholds of India, London William Heinemann Ltd. 1957) Fig. 162: Upper part of the bastion (Source - author) UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

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Fig. 163: Loopholes in parapet (Source - author) Fig. 164: Sketch of the niches used as guardrooms (Source - author) Fig. 165: Watch tower (Source - Sidney, Toy. Strongholds of India, London William Heinemann Ltd. 1957) Fig. 166: Wicket gate in the main gate (Source - https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-entrance-of-daulatabad-fort-in-aurangabad-atmaharashtra-india-83616250.html?pv=1&stamp=2&imageid=C303E365-B25A-40FB-BC7D-7B35DB37CF 1D&p=148099&n=0&orientation=0&pn=1&searchtype=0&IsFromSearch=1&srch=foo%3dbar%26st%3d0%26pn%3d1%26ps%3d100%26sortby%3d2%26resultview%3dsortbyPopular%26npgs%3d0%26qt%3ddaulatabad%26qt_) Fig. 167: Iron spikes on the gateway (Source - author) Fig. 168: Gateway compared to elephant scale in order to understand the scale of the gateway (Source - author) Fig. 169: Small doorway to the tunnel (Source - Sidney, Toy. Strongholds of India, London William Heinemann Ltd. 1957) Fig. 170: Plan of Agra Fort marking the Amar Singh Gate (Source - Sidney, Toy. Strongholds of India, London William Heinemann Ltd. 1957) Fig. 171: Sketch showing the outer gate and the outer barbican (Source - author) Fig. 172: Aerial plan showing the movement from the outer gate to inner gate (Source - author) Fig. 173: Plan marking the first gate and its approach (Edited by author. Primary source - Sidney, Toy. Strongholds of India, London William Heinemann Ltd. 1957) Fig. 174: Old photograph showing the gate and its approach through bridge (Source - http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1600_1699/agrafort/walls/) Fig. 175: Sketch showing the approach to first gate (Source - author) Fig. 176: Plan marking the second gate and its approach Fig. 177: Sketch showing the approach to second gate (Source - author) Fig. 178: Plan marking the third gate and its approach (Edited by author. Primary source - Sidney, Toy. Strongholds of India, London William Heinemann Ltd. 1957) Fig. 179: Sketch showing the approach to third gate (Source - author) Fig. 180: Sketch showing the position of bastion with the fortified wall (Source - author) Fig. 181: Openings in bastion become the checkpoints (Source - author) Fig. 182: Diagram showing the mechanism of drawbridge (Source - Sidney, Toy. Fortified Cities of India, London Heinemann Ltd. 1965) 148

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Fig. 183: Drawbridge at the first gate (Source - author) Fig. 184: System of machicolation (Source - author) Fig. 185: Loopholes at the first gate to fire at enemies (Source - author) Fig. 186: The third main gate and its ornamentation (Source - https://www.123rf.com/photo_136919876_amar-singh-gate-of-agra-fort-unesco-heritage-site-in-india.html) Fig. 187: Glazed colorful tiles in geometrical pattern at the gate (Source - https://www.123rf.com/photo_136919876_amar-singh-gate-of-agra-fort-unesco-heritage-site-in-india.html) Fig. 188: Plan showing the position of Delhi Gate (Edited by author. Primary source - Sidney, Toy. Strongholds of India, London William Heinemann Ltd. 1957) Fig. 189: Diagram showing the movement from outer to inner gate (Source - author) Fig. 190: Old sketch showing the distant view of Delhi Gate (Source - http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1600_1699/agrafort/drawings/) Fig. 191: Old photography showing the approach to the gate through bridge and the moat surrounding the fort (Source - http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1600_1699/agrafort/walls/) Fig. 192: Plan showing approach to the first gate (Edited by author. Primary source - Sidney, Toy. Strongholds of India, London William Heinemann Ltd. 1957) Fig. 193: Plan showing approach to Hathi Pol gate (Edited by author. Primary source - Sidney, Toy. Strongholds of India, London William Heinemann Ltd. 1957) Fig. 194: Hathi Pol Gate (Source - https://www.flickr.com/photos/nileshkorgaokar/17117340256) Fig. 195: Position of bastion at Delhi Gate (Source - author) Fig. 196: Sketch showing bastions of Delhi Gate (Source - author) Fig. 197: System of Machicolation (Source - author) Fig. 198: Machicolation jutting out of the wall (Source - http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1600_1699/agrafort/walls/) Fig. 199: Sketch showing the machicolations which were used to drop harmful material (Source - author) Fig. 200: Sketch of two stone sculptures on platform (Source - Sidney, Toy. Strongholds of India, London William Heinemann Ltd. 1957) Fig. 201: Photograph of two statues of elephant riders at Delhi taken in 1870 (Source - https://www.rajras.in/index.php/1567-siege-chittorgarh-akbar-jaimal-patta/) Fig. 202: Photograph of Hathi Pol Gate taken somewhere in 1800 (Source - http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1600_1699/redfortdelhi/delhigate/) Fig. 203: Bastion of Hathi Pol (Source - https://www.flickr.com/photos/nileshkorgaokar/17117340256) UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

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Fig. 204: Upper floor of bastion at Hathi Pol (Source - https://www.flickr.com/photos/nileshkorgaokar/17117340256) Fig. 205: Details above the arch at the first floor of bastion (Source - https://www.flickr.com/photos/nileshkorgaokar/17117340256) Fig. 206: Old photograph of CharMinar at Hyderabad (Source - https://in.pinterest.com/pin/858498747702044487/) Fig. 207: Streets emerging from the point of its location (Source - https://www.siasat.com/aerial-view-ganersha-immersions-1616084/) Fig. 208 (a): The position of CharMinar at the intersection of cross - axis (Source - http://dome.mit.edu/handle/1721.3/20312) Fig. 208 (b): The position of CharMinar at the intersection of cross - axis (Source - author) Fig. 209: The diagram show the position of CharMinar, Char Kaman and water foundation on the same axis such that the arch of Char Minar frames the Char Kaman (Source - author) Fig. 210: Plan of Char Minar (Source - https://www.slideshare.net/nithakj1/deccan-provincial-architectural-style) Fig. 211: Arch detail (Source - author) Fig. 212: Minaret detail (Source - author) Fig. 213: Minaret detail (Source - author) Fig. 214: Vazu at Char Minar (Source - author) Fig. 215: Location of Bulan Darwaza w.r.t. Fatehpur Sikri complex and the city (Source - Map taken from Google Earth and edited by author) Fig. 216: The above figure explains the position of gateway oriented to South direction (Source - author) Fig. 217: Frontal facade of the gateway (Source - Pandya, Yatin. Elements of spacemaking, Ahmedabad Mapin Pub. Pvt. Ltd 2014) Fig. 218: Posterior facade of the gateway (Source - Pandya, Yatin. Elements of spacemaking, Ahmedabad Mapin Pub. Pvt. Ltd 2014) Fig. 219: Plan and section of the gateway (Source of plan - Grover, Satish. Islamic architecture in India, New Delhi Galgotia Pubs. Pvt. Ltd. 1996) (Recreated by author. Primary source - Grover, Satish. Islamic architecture in India, New Delhi Galgotia Pubs. Pvt. Ltd. 1996) Fig. 220: Gateway as a threshold (Source - Pandya, Yatin. Elements of spacemaking, Ahmedabad Mapin Pub. Pvt. Ltd 2014) Fig. 221: Its presence imposing context of the complex (Source - Pandya, Yatin. Elements of spacemaking, Ahmedabad Mapin Pub. Pvt. Ltd 2014) Fig. 222: Posterior side of the gateway (Source - Pandya, Yatin. Elements of spacemaking, Ahmedabad Mapin Pub. Pvt. Ltd 2014) 150

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Fig. 223: Aerial view of the gateway showing the chattris placed in the top (Source - https://www.trawell.in/uttar-pradesh/fatehpur-sikri) Fig. 224: Various types of Chhatri observed (Source - author) Fig. 225: Posterior side of the gateway (Source - https://www.isango.com/delhi/2-day-private-tour-agra-delhi-car-taj-mahal-agra-fort-itimad-ud-daulah-fatehpursikri_34375) Fig. 226: Pinnacle of the turret detail (Source - author) Fig. 227: The presence of turrets at the quoins (Source - author) Fig. 228: The side plane at the front facade of gateway (Edited by author. Primary source -https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Lofty_Gate.jpg) Fig. 229: Iwan at the gateway (Source - author) Fig. 230: Elevated platform and the flight of steps acting as a threshold (Source - Pandya, Yatin. Elements of spacemaking, Ahmedabad Mapin Pub. Pvt. Ltd 2014) Fig. 231: From this inscription, it is noted that it was built to commemorate his victory over Deccan (Source - Nath, R. History of Mughal Architecture, Volume 3, Abhinav Pub. Pvt. Ltd 1982) Fig. 232: Inscription on the panel of the front facade (Source - https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/india-fatehpur-sikri-city-gate.html) Fig. 233: Zoomed in photo of the inscription of fig. 232 (Source - Nath, R. History of Mughal Architecture, Volume 3, Abhinav Pub. Pvt. Ltd 1982) Fig. 234: Old photograph showing the site of Apollo Bunder (Source - https://www.india.com/travel/articles/maharashtra-day-2016-31-vintage-photographs-of-old-bombay-like-youwouldnt-have-imagined-3234562/) Fig. 235: Gateway of India standing at the site of Apollo Bunder (Source -http://www.victorianweb.org/art/architecture/wittet/1.html) Fig. 236: Axis from the centre of the gateway stretching out to the Sea (Source - Map taken from Google Earth and edited by author) Fig. 237: Arch of plaster erected during the Kingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s visit (Source - Patel, Nirali. Gateways: Artefacts of Civilizations, Undergraduate Thesis, CEPT 1987) Fig. 238: Last British troop leaving India (Source - https://thecreativityengine.wordpress.com/2014/03/10/gateway-of-india-mumbai/) Fig. 239: Foundation stone at the gate (Source - https://twitter.com/mumbaiheritage/status/672821837655646209) Fig. 240: Turrets of the gate (Source - https://hindi.nativeplanet.com/travel-guide/interesting-facts-about-gateway-of-india-hindi/articlecontentpf7155-001109.html) Fig. 241: The position of turrets at the front facade of the gate (Source - author) Fig. 242: Pinnacle detail of turret (Source - author) UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

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Fig. 243: Inner dome of the gateway (Source - author) Fig. 244: Scale of the main arch and side arch (Source - https://www.istockphoto.com/in/photos/gateway-of-india-mumbai-landmarkdesign?mediatype=photography&phrase=gateway%20of%20india%20mumbai%20landmark%20design&sort=mostpopular) Fig. 245: Inner arch of the gateway (Source - author) Fig. 246: Roman triumphal arch (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Arch_of_Titus) Fig. 247: Symmetry of the gateway (Source - author) Fig. 248: Inner arch of the gateway (Source - https://www.istockphoto.com/in/photos/gateway-of-india-mumbai-landmarkdesign?mediatype=photography&phrase=gateway%20of%20india%20mumbai%20landmark%20design&sort=mostpopular) Fig. 249: Steps acting as a threshold (Source - author) Fig. 250: Inscription detail (Edited by author. Primary source - https://www.istockphoto.com/in/photos/gateway-of-india-mumbai-landmarkdesign?mediatype=photography&phrase=gateway%20of%20india%20mumbai%20landmark%20design&sort=mostpopular) Fig. 251: India Gate at Delhi (Source - https://military.wikia.org/wiki/India_Gate) Fig. 252:Foundation stone at India Gate (Source - https://www.flickr.com/photos/anujoji/581421161/) Fig. 253: Aerial View from Rashtrapati Bhavan to India Gate (Source - https://www.britishempire.co.uk/article/lutyensnewdelhi.htm) Fig. 254: Historic axis from India Gate and Rashtrapati Bhavan (Source - Map taken from Google Earth and edited by author) Fig. 255: Roman Triumphal arch (Source - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Front_view_of_the_Arc_de_Triomphe,_Paris_23_February_2016.jpg) Fig. 256: India Gate (Source - https://www.wikiwand.com/en/India_Gate) Fig. 257: Comparison of the arch - Arc De Triomphe and India Gate (Source - author) Fig. 257: Side arch of the gate (Source - https://www.thehistoryhub.com/india-gate-facts-pictures.htm) Fig. 258: Sketch showing main arch and side arch of the gate (Source - author) Fig. 259: Inscription on the gate (Source - http://natureconservation.in/india-gate-india-gate-timings-entry-ticket-history-location-architecture-about-indiagate/) Figure 260: Typology of the gateways (Source - author) Figure 261: Derivations from the study (Source - author) 152

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

CHAPTER 2:

Figure 262: Present growth of Junagadh city with its citadel and Girnar (Source - Map taken from Google Earth) Figure 263: Map of India (Source - Drawn by author) Figure 264: Map of Gujarat - marking Kathiawar state (Source - Drawn by author) Figure 265: Location of Junagadh town in Sorath state (Source - Drawn by author) Figure 266: Distribution of provinces in Kathiawar before British rule (Source - Drawn by author) PLATE - 01: Drawings showing the evolution of Junagadh town (Recreated by author. Primary source: Maniar, Karan. Idea of a City - Understanding the form of the walled city Junagadh Undergraduate Thesis, IPSA (2010)) PLATE - 02: Evolution of the city on the basis of an urban context (Recreated by author. Primary source: Maniar, Karan. Idea of a City - Understanding the form of the walled city Junagadh Undergraduate Thesis, IPSA (2010)) PLATE - 03: Brief Information about the City Gates of Junagadh (Recreated by author. Primary source: Maniar, Karan. Idea of a City - Understanding the form of the walled city Junagadh Undergraduate Thesis, IPSA (2010) Figure 267: Location of Circle Chowk w.r.t other chowks (Source - author) Figure 268: Old photograph showing the lively bazaars (Source - http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/other/largeimage57153.html) Figure 269: Old photograph showing the ceremonial procession during Nawabâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reign (Source - Edwardes, S. M., Fraser, L. G. Ruling Princes of India. Junagadh: being a historical, archaeological, political and statistical account of the Premier State of Kathiawar, Published by Times of India., Bombay, 1907) Figure 270: Circle chowk acting as a central core (Source - Drawn by author) Figure 271: Circle chowk acting as a central core - dividing the institutions (Source - Drawn by author) Figure 272: Old photograph showing the Mahabat Circle Gate (Source - Wainer, John. Girinagar: Junagadh and Mount Girnar - Chapter 11: Some Important Features of Junagadh City (Part of the book Girinagar: Junagadh and Mount Girnar - One of the Most Ancient and Sacred Sites of India) Kindle Edition) Figure 273: Old photograph dated 1900 A.D. showing Rang Mahal, Ayana Mahal and the Kaman at south (Source - http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/t/019pho0000002s6u00027000.html) Figure 274: Old photograph taken during 1890 A.D. showing the original facade of Mahabat Circle gate and the crescent complex (Source - http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/other/019pho0000002s6u00026000.html) Figure 275: Old photograph dated 1900 A.D. shown from Diwan Chowk (Source - http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/n/019pho000430s38u00020000.html) Fig. 276: Key plan showing the position of the gates and their function as a threshold (On the right) (Source - Drawn by author) Fig. 277: Gateway on the north of Circle Chowk (Source - Drawn by author) UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

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Fig. 278: Gateway on the south of Circle Chowk (Source - Drawn by author) Fig. 279: Comparison of the side gateways with the elephant in order to understand the scale of the gateway (Edited by author. Primary source of drawing - Ojas Hirani Architects Pvt. Ltd.) Fig. 280: The scale of the gateways depicts the users - the main archway used by the royals while the side ones by common people (Edited by author. Primary source of drawing - Ojas Hirani Architects Pvt. Ltd.) Fig. 281: Module of the bazaar at the crescent complex which is located on the western side of Rang Mahal (Edited by author. Primary source of drawing - Ojas Hirani Architects Pvt. Ltd.) Fig. 282: The main arch of the central gate (Photograph taken by author. Primary source of drawing - Ojas Hirani Architects Pvt. Ltd.) Fig. 283: Minarets at the central gate (Photograph taken by author. Primary source of drawing - Ojas Hirani Architects Pvt. Ltd.) Fig. 284: Clock tower at the central gate (Photograph taken by author. Primary source of drawing - Ojas Hirani Architects Pvt. Ltd.) PLATE - 04: Fig. 285: Sectional elevation showing the elements of the gate - Eastern facade of the central gate (Gate on the right side drawn by author. Edited by author. Primary source of drawing - Ojas Hirani Architects Pvt. Ltd.) PLATE - 05: Fig. 286: Original elevation of eastern facade of the crescent complex along with the Mahabat Circle gate recreated (Source - Drawn by author) Figure 287: Location of Sardar Patel Gate w.r.t other pointers (Source - Drawn by author) Figure 288: Old photograph taken during 1890 A.D. showing the original facade of Sardar Patel Gate (Source - http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/other/019pho0000002s6u00004000.html) Figure 289: Sketch of the western facade of clock tower and the Sardar Patel Gate (Source - Drawn by author) PLATE - 06: Section of the gate showing the main elements (Edited by author. Primary source of drawing - Ojas Hirani Architects Pvt. Ltd.) Figure 290: Plan of different levels of turret and chattri (Edited by author. Primary source of drawing - Ojas Hirani Architects Pvt. Ltd.) Figure 291: Sketch showing the arched turret and chattri (Source - Drawn by author) Figure 292: Photograph of chhatri at various angle (Source of photographs - Savani Heritage Conservation Pvt. Ltd.) Figure 293: Sketch showing jharokha jutting out of te facade (Source - Drawn by author) Figure 294: Photographs showing the details of jharokha (Source of photographs - Savani Heritage Conservation Pvt. Ltd.) Figure 295: Plan showing the organisation of the side room (Edited by author. Primary source of drawing - Ojas Hirani Architects Pvt. Ltd.) Figure 296: View showing the foyer and the door overlooking the balcony (Towards front) (Source of photographs - Savani Heritage Conservation Pvt. Ltd.) Figure 297: View showing the trio openings (Towards back) (Source of photographs - Savani Heritage Conservation Pvt. Ltd.) 154

UNDERSTANDING GATEWAYS AS AN URBAN ARTEFACT: Taking the case study of Medieval Fortified City JUNAGADH

Figure 298: Diagrams showing the organisation at different levels (Edited by author. Primary source of drawing - Ojas Hirani Architects Pvt. Ltd.) Figure 299: Sketch shows the arches of the gateway and the studded ornamented leaf door (Source - Drawn by author) Figure 300: Ornamentation above the main archway (Source of photographs - Savani Heritage Conservation Pvt. Ltd.) Figure 301: Dome supported by pendentives (Source of photographs - Savani Heritage Conservation Pvt. Ltd.) Figure 302: Roof plan (Source of drawing - Ojas Hirani Architects Pvt. Ltd.) Figure 303: Sixth floor plan (Source of drawing - Ojas Hirani Architects Pvt. Ltd.) Figure 304: Fifth floor plan (Source of drawing - Ojas Hirani Architects Pvt. Ltd.) Figure 305: Fourth floor plan (Source of drawing - Ojas Hirani Architects Pvt. Ltd.) Figure 306: Third floor plan (Source of drawing - Ojas Hirani Architects Pvt. Ltd.) Figure 307: Second floor plan (Source of drawing - Ojas Hirani Architects Pvt. Ltd.) Figure 308: Elevation drawing of the clock tower (Edited by author. Primary source of drawing - Ojas Hirani Architects Pvt. Ltd.) Figure 309: Clock tower at the Gate (Source of photographs - Savani Heritage Conservation Pvt. Ltd.) Figure 310: View of the Clock tower (Source of photographs - Savani Heritage Conservation Pvt. Ltd.) Figure 311: Map of Mahabat Circle Gate (on left) and map of Sardar Patel Gate (on right) showing the circular or elliptical formation in its precinct (Source - Drawn by author) Figure 312: Diagram showing the factors that led to the manifestation of the gateways (Source - Drawn by author) Figure 313: Typology of the Gateways on the basis of its role and function (Source - Drawn by author)

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BIBLIOGRAPHY: THESIS REFERENCES: 1) Gateways: Artefacts of civilizations (1987) Thesis by Nirali Patel, Undergraduate thesis, CEPT University 2) On Entrances: A symbolic aspect (1986) Thesis by Sushree, Undergraduate thesis, CEPT University 3) Fortifications and gates – case of the fortified medieval city of Ahmedabad – (a study across scales) Thesis by Raj Lavingia, Undergraduate thesis, CEPT University 4) Doorway as a spacemaking element (2010) Thesis by Kaustubhi Bhatt, Undergraduate thesis, CEPT University 5) Idea of a City – Understanding the form of the walled city of Junagadh (2010) Thesis by Karan Maniar, Undergraduate thesis, IPSA University

BOOK REFERENCES: 1) Strongholds of India Toy Sidney – London William Heinemann Ltd. 1957. 2) Fortified Cities of India Toy Sidney – London Heinemann Ltd. 1965. 3) Forts and fortresses: from the hillforts of prehistory to modern times – the definitive visual account of the science of fortification Brice Martin – New York Facts on File. 1990. 4) Forts of India. Forward by the Maharaja of Jaipur Virginia Fass – London William Collin Sons & Co. Ltd. 1986. 5) Indian Summer: Lutyens, Baker and imperial Delhi Robert Grant Irving – Madras, Singapore etc Oxford Uni. Press. 1981. 6) Indian Architecture: Islamic Periods Percy Brown – Bombay D. B. Taraporevala Sons & Co. 1968. 7) Indian Architecture: Buddhist and Hindu Periods Percy Brown – Bombay D. B. Taraporevala Sons & Co. 1959. 8) Architecture of India: Islamic 727 – 1707 A.D. Satish Grover – New Delhi,Bombay etc Vikas Pub. House Pvt. Ltd. 1981. 9) History of Sultanate Architecture R. Nath – New Delhi Abhinav Pubs. 1978. 10) History of Mughal Architecture Vol. 2: Akbar (1556 -1605 A.D.), the age of personality architecture R. Nath – New Delhi Abhinav Pubs. 1985. 11) History of Mughal Architecture Vol. 3: the transitional phase of colour and design, Jehangir (1605 – 1627 A.D.) R. Nath – New Delhi Abhinav Pubs. 1994.

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12) Architecture at Ahmedabad: the capital of Goozerat. Photographed by Colonel Biggs James Fergusson – London John Murray & Sons 1866. 13) Muhammadan Architecture of Ahmedabad. Pt – 1: A.D. 1412 – 1520 Jas Burgess – New Delhi Archaeological Survey of India 1997 14) Doorway Simon Unwin – London and New York Routledge 2007. 15) Junagadh and Girnar Shambhuprasad Harprasad Desai – Sorath Research Society 1972. 16) Ruling Princes of India. Junagadh: being a historical, archaeological, political and statistical account of the Premier State of Kathiawar S. M. Edwardes, L. G. Fraser – Times of India, Bombay, 1907 17) Girinagar: Junagadh and Mount Girnar - Chapter 11: Some Important Features of Junagadh City (Part of the book Girinagar: Junagadh and Mount Girnar - One of the Most Ancient and Sacred Sites of India) Dr. John Wainer

ARTICLE REFERENCES: 1) Urban Gateway: Just a Symbol, or More? (Reappraising an Old Idea in the Case of Ankara) Olgu Caliskan – Journal of Urban Design, Vol. 15 No. 1, 91-122, February 2010 2) City Frontiers and Their Disappearance Wim Nijenhuis – The MIT Press (Dec. 1991)

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