Sarasvati writing system, mlecchita vikalpa by kalyan97

Indus script encodes mleccha speech Organization of the work The work is presented in five volumes, 1 to 5:

• Sarasvati Writing System, mlecchita vikalpa (1/5) • A dictionary of Sarasvati hieroglyphs (2/5) • Epigraphica Sarasvati (3/5) • Sarasvati lingua franca, mleccha (4/5) • Indian Lexicon (5/5) Rigveda 10.71.4 notes: utá tvah pás'yan ná dadars'a va_cam utá tvah s'r.n.ván ná s'r.n.oty enaam Trans. One man has never seen Vaak, yet he sees; one man has hearing but has never heard her. Vaak is lingua franca, speech. The objective of this quintet of 5 volumes is to unravel the lingua franca of Sarasvati civilization using the evidence provided by the Corpuses/Concordances of Indus Script Inscriptions and lexicons of over 25 ancient Indian languages. Brahmi of later periods is the name of the writing system, speech encoded. This work does not enter into a study of chronologies of speech and writing system of Vedic/Pali/Prakrits/Sanskrit/ Tamil/ Munda and other languages of ancient India and writings using Brahmi/Kharoshthi scripts on early punch-marked coin. The work also does not attempt to delineate stages in the evolution of Brahmi syllabic writing system (from early Brahmi of epigraphs through Siddhamaatrukaa). The unresolved research issues have been well-documented in Richard Salomon, 1995, On the origin of the early Indian scripts: a review article in Journal of the American Oriental Society 115.2 (1995), 271-279. http://web.archive.org/web/20060516000049/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgadkw/position/salomon.html

It should, however, be noted that this Brahmi writing system is based on a brilliant theory of identifying and classifying sounds based on the locations of articulation from the lips/nose into the gullet. Indus Script or Sarasvati writing system which is mostly pictorial, is also based on a brilliant, sound (pun intended) theory of pictographic writing to encode speech, a theory called rebus -- a theory based on which early writing systems such as, for example, Egyptian hieroglyphs or Akkadian cuneiform were invented and evolved. Both vaak and brahmi are synonyms of Sarasvati of Indian tradition recognizing Sarasvati as personified knowledge. At the present state of knowledge, it cannot be said if the Brahmi/Kharoshthi writing systems were hieroglyphic derivations from Sarasvati hieroglyphs (also called Indus Script). The focus of the work is on the early writing system commonly referred to as Indus Script and an early lingua franca called mleccha. The quintet in five volumes has, therefore, been called: Indus script encodes mleccha speech. A personal ode, down the memory lane and a dedication 1

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These are photographs of two momentos (one mounted on wood and another on onyx – each 3 in. square paperweight)which were given in 1978 to First Class passengers on Pakistan International Airlines. Note the logo PIA (in English and in Urdu script) at the bottom of the wooden paper-weight with a copper plate replica of a seal. The paper pasted on the obverse of these momentos states: “Seals from Mohenjodaro 5000 years old. These seals hae thrown an open challenge to the scholars to decipher their worth. Indus Valley Civilization flourished 5000 years ago in Pakistan. The inhabitants lived largely by agriculture but also maintained trade with lands as far away as Mesopotamia.” These paper-weights have been lying on my desk ever since; with the inspiration provided by a letter from Dr. BV Subbarayappa who has compiled a magnum opus on Science and Technology in Ancient India, these momentos set me sail into the mists of history to better understand the ancient language spoken and the writing system. This work is the result of nearly 30 years of intense investigation and is presented to every child who remembers with fondness the great contributions made by savants such as Panini, Tolkappiyan, Bharata, Patanjali, Bhartruhari and hundreds of other rishis and munis, who have contributed, through their tapasya, to understanding the evolution of languages and culture in Bharatam which represents the continuum of this civilization which I call Sarasvati civilization because over 80% of the archaeological sites are on the banks of Vedic River Sarasvati. The so-called ‘priestking’ is one such rishi who wears a pat.t.a, an uttariyam leaving the right-shoulder bare. It can now be confidently hypothesized that this rishi was in the lineage of the Vedic rishis of yore, purve yajnikaah, as Rigveda notes. As archaeological exploration proceeds, more evidences will unravel and every such evidence will be tested on this touchstone of discovery of mleccha and mlecchita vikalpa framed on the foundation of Indian Lexicon including Munda etyma so brilliantly compiled by Prof. D. Stampe based on earlier works of savants such as Pinnow and Sashibhushan Bhattacharya. I dedicate this work to all children of present and future generations and to our pitru-s, our ancestors whenever we do sankalpam and offer tarpanam at Rama Setu in Setu and Agni teertham on Ashadha amavasya day every year. This I do with all humility and praying to Vidyaa Devi Sarasvati who is the metaphor for knowledge and who is also the river which nurtured a civilization on her laps, the banks of this great Vedic river venerated in almost every ancient text of Bharatam. If I fail in communicating to the children the stunning discovery of a writing system based on sound theory, the fault is entirely mine. I owe a debt of gratitude to many savants who have contributed to decipherment of the writing system, far too many to name individually. The life-time dedication by Shri Iravatham Mahadevan and Prof. Parpola have to be singled out and this work draws on their magnum opuses – concordances of Indus script inscriptions. But for the brilliant insights of hundreds of scholars, insights which, together, became a floodlight, this work would have been impossible. My pranaams to all of them and to the late Moropant Pingley, the late Padmashri Vakankar, Shri Haribhau Vaze and Prof. Shivaji Singh who have guided me and who are my gurus. Dr. S. Kalyanaraman, Chennai, Kaliyugabda 5109, Mahas’ivaratri; March 5, 2008 2

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Sarasvati Writing System, mlecchita vikalpa Executive Summary Sarasvati writing system -- Mlecchita vikalpa encodes speech, mleccha speech. It is mlecchita vikalpa (an alternative system of rendering in writing, the lingua franca, mleccha). Mleccha may be called the substrate language of all Indian languages. (Mlecchita vikalpa is a phrase used by Vatsyayana). For a background reading on Indian languages, bhasha, and legacy of Sarasvati writing system, see Sarasvati lingua franca, mleccha (Mleccha is a lexeme used in S’atapatha Brahmana and in Mahabharata). Objective: Cracking the code of Indus Script; cryptography unravels, validates Mahabharata reference on mleccha and Vatsyayana’s reference on mlecchita ikalpa Over 150 attempts at decipherment have contributed to advancing the understanding of the writing system and every one of the decipherers has provided insights into unraveling the tough nut to crack. We are beholden to these savants for the contributions made by them to understand the messages left behind by our ancestors who created the most extensive civilization of their times. The apparent failure of over 150 decipherments of Indus Script announced so far is principally due to 1) non-recognition of signs and pictorial motifs as hieroglyphs and 2) non-recognition of mleccha as Language ‘X’. These two deficiencies have been substantially remedied in this work and over 90% of all glyphs of nearly 4000 epigraphs read rebus using the substratum lexemes of all Indian languages, Munda, in particular and repertoire of smithy and mint, in particular. Here’s an interesting news item. For example, the practice of writing names of ‘seal’ owners was noticed only in the 9th century BCE in Israel. It is a tall assumption to start looking for names of people on Sarasvati hieroglyphs, even though some early cylinder seals from Mesopotamia do contain names of persons after the practice of writing in cuneiform script got introduced. Thousands of earlier cylinder seals contain only glyphs without any cuneiform inscriptions. It is possible that some of these glyphs may be explained as comparable to Sarasvati hieroglyphs; this has to be further investigated. The practice so far has been only to explain these glyphs in heraldic terms and assuming the glyphs to be insignia of royalty. [quote] Etgar Lefkovits , THE JERUSALEM POST Feb. 28, 2008 An ancient seal bearing an archaic Hebrew inscription dating back to the 8th century BCE has been uncovered in an archeological excavation in Jerusalem's City of David, the Israel Antiquities Authority announced Thursday. The find reveals that by 2,700 years ago, clerks and merchants had already begun to add their names to the seals instead of the symbols that were used in earlier centuries. The state-run archeological body said the seal, which was discovered near the Gihon Spring in the City of David outside the walls of the Old City, bears the Hebrew name Rephaihu (ben) Shalem, a public official who lived in the Jerusalem neighborhood during this period. The excavation, which is being carried out by Haifa University Professor Ronny Reich and Eli Shukron of the Israel Antiquities Authority, also uncovered pottery shards that date back to the Iron Age 2 (8th century BCE), which they used to date the seal, as well as fragments of three bullae, or pieces of clay that were used to seal letters or goods. The discovery revealed an interesting development in the ancient world: whereas during the 9th century BCE letters and goods were dispatched on behalf of their senders without names, by the 8th century BCE the clerks and merchants had already begun to add their names to the seals, the archeologists said. "In contrast with the large cluster of bullae that was found two years ago, in which all of its items contain graphic symbols [such as a boat or different animals - fish, lizards and birds] but are of an earlier date [end of the 9th-beginning of the 8th century BCE], the new items indicate that during the 8th century BCE the practice had changed and the clerks who used the seals began to add 3

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their names to them," Reich said. [unquote] This find in Gihon Spring is relevant in the context of two tin ingots found in a shipwreck at Haifa with Sarasvati hieroglyphs (discussed in this work in a separate section). Cryptography employing nearly one thousand hieroglyphs (depicted on about 4000 inscribed objects) validates the reference to mleccha in the Great epic, Mahabharata, which is the sheet-anchor of ancient Indian itihaasa. In this text, Yudhishthira converses with Khanaka (the miner) and with Vidura in mleccha language. The crypt alo validates the reference in Kamasutra by Vatsyayana while discussing about vidyaasamuddes’a of 64 arts and mention of mlecchita vikalpa (writing system of copperworkers), des’abhaashaa jnaana and akshara mushthika kathana (messaging through finger-wrist mudra). The underlying language is emphatically proto-Indian which will become apparent as the evidence gets marshaled and presented in this work, glyph after glyph, lexeme after lexeme – both matched on the basis of a sound theoretical/methodological framework: rebus related to only one category: repertoire of smithy and mint. It is simply astonishing that just this one category provides about 2000 ancient lexemes and explains virtually the entire crypt on nearly one thousand hieroglyphs (signs + pictorial motifs – glyphs read and the substantive messages read rebus), thus unraveling almost the entire corpus of messages conveyed by over 90 % of the inscribed objects. The decipherment of Sarasvati writing system is substantially realized, together with the discovery of the language – mleccha (also known in ancient Mesopotamian civilization records as, meluhha). This work demonstrates that the corpus of inscriptions of the Sarasvati civilization (presented as Epigraphica Sarasvati) are intensely pictographic which are clear, emphatic and identifiable despite many orthographic variants of the glyphs. Many pictorial motifs evolve as ‘signs’. Thus both the pictorial motifs and ‘signs’ are read as glyphs. In the continuum of Sarasvati culture in India, these glyphs can also be called hieroglyphs, because vaak (cf. the French word, parole?) is viewed as a divinity metaphor, right from the days of Rigveda. Hence, the justification for calling the glyphs Sarasvati hieroglyphs which are analysed and presented herein. This work demonstrates, by presenting clusters of epigraphs of Sarasvati Civilization, that the glyphs used to constitute the epigraphs are mlecchita vikalpa, a rebus writing system, evolved circa 3300 BCE in Harappa, an archaeological site located on the.left bank of River Ravi and rigt-bank of River Sarasvati [trunk tributary: S’utudri (RV), S’atadru (MBh.), Sutlej (historical periods)]. The underlying language is gleaned, as a cluster of sememes related to the repertoire of a smith or a mint, from the Indian Lexicon (which includes semantic clusters of over 25 ancient languages of India including Munda). The argument Two special ligatured glyphs are read rebus: kole.l ‘smithy’ and kampat.t.am ‘mint’ The ligatured kod.el ‘rat’ glyph may be rebus for kol.el ‘smithy’: kole.l (That the glyph is a ‘rat’ – a seated bandicoot seen from the back -- may be surmised from the variants of Sign 51 shown below, the variant on Text 9845, in particular.) The ligatured kamar.kom ‘ficus’ glyph may be rebus for ‘mint’: kampat.t.am

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In the entire corpus of hieroglyphs, these are the only two glyphs with characteristic ligatures on top: one is a leaf and the other is what looks like the back of a field-rat. V327 [Is it a bird or an India River Otter? Could it be a scorpion’s tail/sting ligatured to a field-rat, a model for Signs 51 and 52? It is a rat, a bandicoot.] See variant in Text 9845 West Asia find] (Sign 51 itself is ligatured with special markers on top comparable to the markers ligatured on Sign 327) This connotes, bica ‘scorpion’; bica, ‘ore’? Or, kod.el, ‘rat’; rebus, substantive: kole.l, ‘smithy’. If the ligatured leaf connotes a kamat.ha (rebus: kampat.t.am ‘mint’ (Ta.)); kampat.amu ‘furnace’ (Te.) Depiction of a pannier on a one-horned bull What is being depicted orthographically is the waist-zone of the one-horned bull: Glyph: kamarasa_la = waist-zone, belt (Te.) kammaru = the loins, the waist (Ka.Te.M.); kamara (H.); kammarubanda = a leather waist band, belt (Ka.H.) kammaru = a waistband, belt (Te.) kammarincu = to cover (Te.) kamari = a woman’s girdle (Te.) komor = the loins; komor kat.hi = an ornament made of shells, resembling the tail of a tortoise, tied round the waist and sticking out behind worn by men sometimes when dancing (Santali) kambra = a blanket (Santali) Rebus: kamar ‘smith’; sa_la ‘workshop’. Like the postman in Father Brown, the linguistic area of Bharat, circa 5500 years Before Present, has gone unnoticed simply because it is all around us, as a dialectical continuum stretching from Kanyakumari to Kashmir, from Dholavira to Dacca. The prehistory of the civilization is also all around us emphasizing the cultural continuity for over 5500 years to the present day. Our pitr. postmen have delivered the messages in emphatic glyphs constituting over 3,000 epigraphs anchored on lexemes of the linguistic area of the civilization. The substratum language was mleccha! We had somehow not noticed the postmen for the last 150 years, ever since the first seal was discovered close to the banks of River Sarasvati. It is possible to identify both the mleccha messenger and the mleccha messages. To quote, Tolka_ppiyam, "ella_c collum porul. kur-ittan-ave_" (Tol. Col. Peya. 1), i.e. all words are semantic indicators. Hence, the use of rebus to denote res ‘things’. Locus The epigraphs of Sarasvati (Bharatiya) Civilization written on about 4000 objects present a remarkably uniform writing system over an expansive area and from over 45 sites ranging from Rakhigarhi on the east to Shahitump on the west, from Ropar on the north to Daimabad in the south. Epigraphs have also been found in neighbouring civilization sites such as: Ur, Tepe Yahya, in areas now called Iran, Iraq and Persian Gulf States.

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Earliest writing system of the world? Comparative evaluation of early writing systems It is likely that we are dealing with one of the earliest inventions of writing in the world; the earliest epigraph of the civilization has recently been discovered (year 2000) at Harappa on a potsherd. This stratigraphically dated (circa 3300 BCE) discovery is close to the date of the early writing system using cuneiform on clay tablets in Mesopotamia or Proto-Elamite tablets (dated circa 4th millennium BCE). An evaluation of the writing system can be presented in terms of structure, form and function of the writing system. This can also be evaluated in the perspective of similar writing systems which evolved in neighbouring civilizations such as Mesopotamia and Egypt. The Egyptian writing system composed of hieroglyphs was decoded because a Rosetta Stone was available with the same epigraph written with hieroglyptic writing system was also transcribed in the known scripts of Greek and Coptic. Meaningful set of Signs to keep track of goods Early potters’ marks from Rehman Dheri ca. 3500-2600 BCE [After Durrani et al. 1995]. Early script from Harappa, ca. 3300-2600 BCE. [After Fig. 4.3 in JM Kenoyer, 1998].

These are early attempts at a writing system to keep track of good bartered in trade. These could also include glyphs to constitute the calling card of the artisans who created this writing system. A remarkable breakthrough was achieved when it was recognized that some pictorials of, for example, animals such as tiger, buffalo, bull, heifer, zebu can also be used in the writing system using the rebus method: to connote sounds of words related to the artisan’s work, similar to the words which denote – graphically -- these animals. So was a writing system born in Sarasvati civilization area. That the glyph denoting the nave of a spoked-wheel occurs with two-short strokes (barea, two) and ligatured with a dome on zebu seals and on inscribed weapon provides a concordance on the general tenor of the message conveyed by the Dholavira Sign-board: the workshop of a turner, kut.ha_ru, armourer, turner who could carve a message into metal. m298

at.ar a splinter; at.aruka to burst, crack, slit off, fly open; at.arcca splitting, a crack; at.arttuka to split, tear off, open (an oyster)(Ma.); ad.aruni to crack (Tu.)(DEDR 66) Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’

(Ka.) kut.i = a slice, a bit, a small piece (Santali.lex.Bodding) Rebus: kut.hi ‘a furnace for smelting iron ore to smelt iron’; kolheko kut.hieda koles smelt iron (Santali) at.ar = a splinter (Ma.) aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.) badhi ‘to ligature, bandage, to splice’ (Santali) bad.hi ‘worker in iron and 6

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wood’ (Santali) hak to split (Bahnar); hak to tear; jik to cut (Stieng); gc? axe (Bonda) cf. paku (pakuv-, pakk-) to be split, divided (Ta.) (DEDR 3808). Rebus: hako = axe (Santali) Homograph: hako, bed.a hako a fish (Santali)

V123 V124 badhi = ‘to ligature, to bandage, to splice, to join by successive rolls of a ligature’ (Santali) Rebus: badhi ‘worker in wood and iron’ (Santali) bata_ bamboo slips (Kur.); bate = thin slips of bamboo (Malt.)(DEDR 3917).

sal = wedge joining the parts of a solid cart wheel (Santali.lex.) sal stake, spike, splinter, thorn, difficulty (H.); sal.i_ small thin stick; sal.iyo bar, rod, pricker (G.); s'ol. reed (Kho.)(CDIAL 12343). salleha, selleha = splinter (Ka.lex.) Rebus: sal ‘workshop’ (Santali); s’a_la id. (Skt.) sa_la = workshop (B.) tat.t.ai = mechanism made of split bamboo for scaring away parrots from grain fields (Ta.); tat.t.e = a thick bamboo or an areca-palm stem, split in two (Ka.)(DEDR 3042). Rebus: tat.t.e = goldsmith (Kod.); tot.xin, tot.xn goldsmith (To.); tat.t.a_n- gold or silver smith (Ta.); goldsmith (Ma .); tat.rava_~d.u = goldsmith or silversmith (Te.); *t.hat.t.haka_ra brassworker (Skt.)(CDIAL 5493).

kurappam currycomb (Ta.Ma.); korapa, gorapa id. (Ka.); kurapamu, kor.apamu, gor.apamu id. (Te.)(DEDR 1771). khara_ramu id. (Te.lex.) currycomb a comb consisting of a series of upright serrated ridges, for grooming horses (English)(Doubleday lex.)[cf. curry rub down with a comb and brush XIII cent.; Sp. correar prepare (wool) for use; OF. correier arrange, equip, curry (a horse); curry favel rub down the fallow or chestnut horse, which, for some obscure reason, was taken as a type of perfidy or duplicity; hence curry-comb (ODEE).] Glyph: khura = hoof (Santali)

V049 V084 Thigh = khura (Ka_tyS'r.), kuracu , kuraccai = horse's hoof (Ta.), kul.ampu = hoof (Ta.) kur_aku (Ma.) ku_t.a = hip (Tu.) kurki = thigh (Go.)

cokho = sharp, keen-edged; coega = sharp, pointed (Santali.lex.) Rebus: jhoka_= one whose business is to feed a furnace or an oven (P.) khuro (N.) head of a spear; ks.ura (RV.), sharp barb of arrow (R.); khura_ iron nail to fix ploughshare (H.) khura = razor (Pali) co_i, co_ sickle (Wg. < ks.auri_); ks.aura performed with a razor (VarBr.S.); n. shaving (Skt.); ks.auri_ knife (Skt.); c.ho_ra knife (Dm.); c.hor (Kal.)-- khaura razor (Pkt.influenced by Skt.)(CDIAL 3756). kuraga = an instrument of goldsmiths; a sort of anvil (Ka.); khura_rya_ (M)(Ka.lex.) kura = ploughshare (L.); kurelna_ to poke (P.); to dig (H.); kuredna_ to scrape (H.)(CDIAL 3319). [koramut.t.u = tool, instrument (Ka.)] 7

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Rebus: khura silver (Nk.); kuruku ‘whiteness’; kuru brilliancy (Ta.); kuro silver (Kol.Nk.Go.)(DEDR 1782). koru = bar of metal (Ta.) Seal impression, Ur (Upenn; U.16747) ); [After Edith Porada, 1971, Remarks on seals found in the Gulf States. Artibus Asiae 33 (4): 331-7: pl.9, fig.5]; Parpola, 1994, p. 183; water carrier with a skin (or pot?) hung on each end of the yoke across his shoulders and another one below the crook of his left arm; the vessel on the right end of his yoke is over a receptacle for the water; a star on either side of the head (denoting supernatural?). The two celestial objects depicted on either side of the water-carrier’s head can be interpreted as a phonetic determinant: ko_l. ‘planet’. The whole object is enclosed by 'parenthesis' marks. The parenthesis is perhaps a way of splitting of the ellipse (Hunter, G.R., JRAS, 1932, 476). kut.i = a woman water-carrier (Te.) kut.i = to drink; drinking, beverage (Ta.); drinking, water drunk after meals (Ma.); kud.t- to drink (To.); kud.i to drink; drinking (Ka.); kud.i to drink (Kod.); kud.i right, right hand (Te.); kut.i_ intoxicating liquor (Skt.)(DEDR 1654).Rebus: kut.hi ‘a furnace for smelting iron ore to smelt iron’; kolheko kut.hieda koles smelt iron (Santali) kaca kupi ‘scorpion’ (Santali) Rebus kacc = iron (Go.) Hunter calls it an unmistakable example of an 'hieroglyphic' seal. enclosure Signs of the field: ( )

Sign 12 (80) is a ligature of kan.d.a kanka ‘rim of pot’ + kut.i ‘water carrier’. Rebus: kan.d.a kanka ‘altar for copper’ + kut.hi ‘metal furnace’. ke~r.e~ ko~r.e~ an aboriginal tribe who work in brass and bell-metal (Santali)

V305 V307 ka_mat.hum [Skt. kamat.ha a bamboo] a bow (G.lex.) ka_m.t.hi, Glyph: kamat.ha bamboo (Skt.) ka_ca bhangi pole (Kuwi); ka_njui_ (pl. ka_ska) a banghi (Kuwi); ka_sa the shaft of a ka_vr.i (Kond.aj. Kui); ka_nj carrying yoke (Kond.a); ka_nju id. (Kui.Kuwi); ka_ca, ka_ja (Skt.); ka_ca, ka_ja (Pkt.); ka_a a yoke to support burdens (Pkt.); ka_ pole with ropes hung on each end, used to carry loads on the shoulder (Ta.); ka_gad.i, ka_vad.i bamboo lath or pole provided with slings at each end for the conveyance of pitchers (Ka.); ka_nja_na_, ka_nj to carry on the shoulders (Go.); ka_vat.i pole used for carrying burdens (Ta.); ka_vu to carry on the shoulder, bear anything heavy on the arms (Ta.); ka_vu, ka_vat.i split bamboo with ropes suspended from each end for carrying burdens (Ma.); ka_vad.i id. (Tu.); ka_vat.i, ka_vad.i id. (Te.); ka_vuka, ka_vikka to carry on a pole (Ma.); ka_var.i carrying yoke (Kol.); ka_vr.i, ka_ver.i, ka_vir.(i); ka_har.i (Go.); ka_vr.i id. (Mand. Pe.); ka_vad.a id. (Pkt.); ka_vad.ia one who carries burdens with yoke (Pkt.); ka_war. carrying yoke (H.)(CDIAL 3009, 3011, 2760; DEDR 1417).ka_mat.hum [Skt. kamat.ha a bamboo] a bow (G.lex.) kamat.ha = bamboo; kambi = shoot of bamboo; karmuka = bow (Mn.); 8

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kamad.ha, kamad.haya = bamboo (Pkt.); ko_ro = bamboo poles (Bhoj.); ka_mro bamboo, lath, pieces of wood (N.); ka_mvari bamboo pole with slings at each end for carrying things (OAw.); ka~_war, ka_war., ka_war., ka_war (H.); ka_var. (G.); ka_vad. (M.); ka_vad.ia, kavva_d.ia one who carries a yoke (Pkt.); ka~_war.i_, ka~_war.iya_ (H.); ka_var.iyo (G.); ka_va_t.hi_ carrying pole (S.); ka_va_t.hyo the man who carries it (S.); ka_mar.a_, ka_mur.a_ rafters of a thatched house (Or.); ka_mr.u~ chip of bamboo; ka_mar.-kot.iyu~ = bamboo hut (G.); ka_m.t.ha_ bow (B.); ka_mt.hu~ (G.); kamt.ha_, kamt.a_ bow of bamboo or horn (M.); ka_mt.hiyo archer (G.); kaba_ri flat piece of bamboo used in smoothing an earthen image (A.); ka~_bi_t., ka~_bat., ka_~bt.i_, ka_mat., ka_mt.i_, ka_mt.hi_, ka_ma_t.hi_ split piece of bamboo etc., lath (M.)(CDIAL 2760). ka_jaha_raka = bearer of a carrying-pole (Pali); ka_ha_ra = carrier of water or other burdens (Pkt.)(CDIAL 3011). ka~d.i, ka~_d.i, ka_d.i (Te.), ka_har.i= carrying yoke (Go.); ka_n~, ka~_j, ka_nj (Ga.) xa_xo_ = triangular frame made by folding a bamboo stem used in pairs for carrying logs (Kur.); ka_nju_ (pl. ka_ska) = a banghi, ka_nju (Pl. ka_ska) carrying yoke (Kuwi) Glyph: (palanquin bearer) ka_ma_t.i_ [komat.i_ (M.)] a caste of hindus who are generally palanquin bearers and labourers (G.); ka_m work (G.) Substantive: ka_mat.ha_yo a learned carpenter or mason, working on scientific principles (G.) Rebus: kamat.amu, kammat.amu = portable furnace for melting precious metals (Te.) kampat.t.am = mint (Ta.) kammat.i_d.u = a goldsmith, a silversmith (Te.) kampat.t.tam coinage coin (Ta.); kammat.t.am kammit.t.am coinage, mint (Ma.); kammat.a id.; kammat.i a coiner (Ka.)(DEDR 1236) Ligature on Sign 28: dhanus ‘bow’ (Skt.) dhan.i_ = the owner, the possessor (G.) Glyph: kama_t.hiyo = archer; ka_mat.hum = a bow; ka_mad.i_, ka_mad.um = a chip of bamboo (G.) ka_mat.hiyo a bowman; an archer (Skt.lex.) Rebus: kamat.ha_yo ‘a learned carpenter or mason, working on scientific principles’ (Santali) kammat.a = mint, gold furnace (Te.)

h99-3819 Harvard Harappa Project.

kamat.ha = a crab, a tortoise (G.lex.) kamat.ha = tortoise (Skt.) kamad.ha, kamat.ha, kamad.haka, kamad.haga, kamad.haya tortoise (Pkt.lex.) kamat.hamu = a tortoise; kamat.hi = a female tortoise (Te.lex.)

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Sign 28 (50)

Ligature on Sign 28: dhanus ‘bow’ (Skt.) dhan.i_ = the owner, the possessor (G.) Glyph: kama_t.hiyo = archer; ka_mat.hum = a bow; ka_mad.i_, ka_mad.um = a chip of bamboo (G.) ka_mat.hiyo a bowman; an archer (Skt.lex.) Rebus: kamat.ha_yo ‘a learned carpenter or mason, working on scientific principles’ (Santali) kammat.a = mint, gold furnace (Te.) culli = fireplace, kiln (Ka.) me~t = the eye (Santali) mer.go = with horns twisted back; mer.ha, m., mir.hi f.= twisted, crumpled, as a horn (Santali.lex.) 9

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mer.hao = to entwine itself, wind round, wrap around, roll up (Santali.lex.) mer.ed, me~r.ed iron; enga mer.ed soft iron; sand.i mer.ed hard iron; ispa_t mer.ed steel; dul mer.ed cast iron; i mer.ed rusty iron, also the iron of which weights are cast; bicamer.ed iron extracted from stone ore; balimer.ed iron extracted from sand ore; mer.ed-bica = iron stone ore, in contrast to balibica, iron sand ore (Mu.lex.) d.han:gar ‘trough’; rebus: d.han:gara, t.hakkura, 'blacksmith'. Relief spinner Louvre Sb2834.jpg Elamite epigraph of Susa. kut.he = leg of bedstead or chair (Santali.lex.) Rebus: kut.hi ‘a furnace for smelting iron ore to smelt iron’; kolheko kut.hieda koles smelt iron (Santali) kol ‘tiger’ (Santali) [cf.tiger’s legs of the bedstead] bed.a hako ‘fish’ (Santali) Rebus: bed.a ‘either of the sides of a hearth’ (G.) bhin.d.a a lump, applied especially to the mass of iron taken from the smelting furnace (Santali) [Early form of hako is ‘ayo’; rebus: ayas ‘metal’] Six: bat.a (G.); Rebus: bat.a ‘furnace’.

bat.a ‘quail’; rebus: bat.a ‘furnace’. Ligatured glyph of bird and fish enclosed within () may thus be a homograph of : bat.a ‘six’ = bat.a ‘quail’. The fish may be read rebus: bed.a ‘hearth’; rebus: bed.a hako ‘fish’. hako ‘fish’; rebus: hako ‘axe’. Could this be a representation of a special hearth used for casting ‘axes’? Thigh of a sitting person. urseal9Seal; BM 122945; U. 16181; dia. 2.25, ht. 1.05 cm; Gadd PBA 18 (1932), p. 10, pl. II; each of four quadrants terminates at the edge of the seal in a vase; each quadrant is occupied by a naked figure, sitting so that, following round the circle, the head of one is placed nearest to the feet of the preceding; two figures clasp their hands upon their breasts; the other two spread out the arms, beckoning with one hand. If the orthographic intent is to image a ‘thigh’; the homonyms are: ukka_ ‘thigh’ (RV); ukka_ furnace (Pkt.) Alternative: ku_t.i = hip (Kui); ku_t.u = hip (Tu.); kut.a thigh (Pe.)(DEDR 1885); rebus: kut.hi = furnace (Santali)

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Lothal050 cogu = food for birds (S.); cogga_ (L.); food for birds (P.)(CDIAL 4920). Rebus: jhoka_= one whose business is to feed a furnace or an oven (P.)

xola_ = tail (Kur.); qoli = id. (Malt.)(DEDR 2135). ko_l raft, float (Ta.Ka.); kola , raft (Skt.BHSkt.); kulla (Palli)(DEDR 2238) ko_la decoration (Ka.); ko_lam = form (Ta.Ma.)(DEDR 2240). Rebus: kol = metal (Ta.) khut.i Nag. (Or. khut.i_) diminutive of khun.t.a, a peg driven into the ground, as for tying a goat (Mundari.lex.)

m1181A 2222 Pict-80: Three-faced, horned person (with a three-leaved pipal branch on the crown), wearing bangles and armlets and seated, in a yogic posture, on a hoofed platform kun.d.a ‘firepit’ (Skt.) kundu = to sit (Ta.); kun.d.aru =,. kun.d.ru = to fall so as to sit on the ground (Ka.lex.) kun.d.ru, kun.d.aru, kul.ir, kul.l.ir, kul.l.iru, ku_d.aru, ku_d.ru = to sit down (Ka.) kun.d.rike, kun.d.arike = sitting down or on; that on which one sits down, as a mat, a cumbly (Ka.lex.) kudikilu, kudikilabad.u = to squat down (Te.lex.) kul.iyu, kul.irdu, kul.tu, kul.l.atu, kul.l.ardu, ku_tu, kuntu = having sat down (Ka.lex.) kuntu (kunti-) to sit on the heels with legs folded upright, squat; n. sitting on the heels, squatting (Ta.); kuttuka = to squat, sit on one’s heels (Ma.); kuton.u = to sit (Tu.); gontu-gu_rcun.du to squat, sit with the soles of the feet fully on the ground and the buttocks touching it or close to it; kudikilu, kudikila~bad.u to squat down; kundika_l.l.u, kundikundika_l.l.u = a boys’ game like leapfrog; kunde_lu hare (Te.); kud- to sit; kuttul = a stool to sit on (Go.)(DEDR 1728). The glyph of seated person may be analysed with reference to the orthographic details depicted in two parts: one above the waist and the other below the waist. Glyphs above the waist seem to depict the semant. of kiln, furnace. Glyphs below the waist seem to depict the semant. of workshop. The substantive property item conveyed by the message is a kiln or furnace (cul.l.ai) for native metal (aduru). cul.l.i = dry twigs, small stick, branch (Ta.); a dry spray, sprig, brushwood; cul.l.ai = a chip, fuel stick (Ma.); long pliable stick, stalk of plant (Ko.)(DEDR 2706). cu_l.i = scales of fish (Ma.)(DEDR 2740). cuila, coelo = sharp, pointed (Santali) s’u_la, s’u_le, sul.a, su_la, su_l.a = a sharp or pointed weapon: a pike, a spear, a lance; s’u_li = spearman; s’u_lika = piercing, killing (Ka.)

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cu_l = pregnancy; cu_li = pregnant woman (Ta.); cu_l = pregnancy (Ma.Ka.); cu_lu = pregnancy, child, offspring; cu_li = child, offspring; cu~_d.i = pregnancy (Te.); su_l pregnant (animal)(Kuwi)(DEDR 2733). Rebus: culli = a fireplace, a cooking stove, ole (Ka.) culli = a fireplace, a hearth, a funeral pile (Te.) cula_ sagad.i_ = a portable hearth or stove of iron, clay etc. (G.) culi_, culd.i_ = a small fireplace, a hearth; culo, cu_l, cu_lo = a fireplace, the hearth; a stove (G.) culha = a fireplace; mit achia culha = a fireplace with one opening; bar achia culha = a fireplace with two openings (Santali) cul.l.ai = potter’s kiln, furnace (Ta.); cu_l.ai furnace, kiln, funeral pile (Ta.); cul.l.a potter’s furnace; cu_l.a brick kiln (Ma.); culli_ fireplace (Skt.); culli_, ulli_ id. (Pkt.)(CDIAL 4879; DEDR 2709). sulgao, salgao to light a fire; sen:gel, sokol fire (Santali.lex.) hollu, holu = fireplace (Kuwi); sod.u fireplace, stones set up as a fireplace (Mand.); ule furnace (Tu.)(DEDR 2857). [Together with (1) cu_d.a_, ‘bracelets’, a number of other phonetic detrminatives are used in the orthography of the horned, seated person: (2) cu_d.a_, cu_la_, cu_liya_ tiger’s mane (Pkt.) [note the mane on the face]; (3) cu_d.a, ‘head-dress’. The rebus substantive points to: cu_l.ai, ‘kiln, furnace’]. Mane ul.a (IL 1240) ur..a = king’s paraphernalia (Ma.) Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.) The face is depicted with bristles of hair, representing a tiger’s mane. cu_d.a_, cu_la_, cu_liya_ tiger’s mane (Pkt.)(CDIAL 4883) ka_ruvu = mechanic, artisan, Vis'vakarma, the celestial artisan (Te.); -ga_re = affix of noun denoting one who does it, e.g. samaga_re = cobbler (Tu.); garuva (Ka.); gar_uva = an important man (Te.) garia = in comp. Possessed of; doer or agent; badgaria = wise; bal garia = strong (Santali.lex.) gar [Skt. kr.; karavum = to do] a suffix found at the end of compounds, showing the ‘doer of an action’; soda_gar = a seller; ka_ri_-gar = an artisan (G.lex.) If the pubes of the woman with spread out thighs are connoted by kut.hi, ‘furnace’; the pictorial motif together with a foetus emerging out of the thights is intended to connote a furnace-artisan: kut.hi-gar_uva (pubes, foetus) or, alternatively: kut.hi-garu (furnace-mould). ka_ruvu = mechanic, artisan, Vis'vakarma, the celestial artisan (Te.); ga_re = affix of noun denoting one who does it, e.g. samaga_re = cobbler (Tu.); garuva (Ka.); gar_uva = an important man (Te.) cf. –ka_ra suffix. 'worker' (Skt.) Bristles, erection of hair of the body: garu, gaguru (Te.) [Note the imagery of bristles on the face of the seated person, almost looking like a tiger’s mane. The tiger's mane is: cu_l.a; rebus: cu_l.a 'furnac, kiln' + bristles 'garu'; rebus: ga_re 'important person, worker'; thus the composite glyph can be read as: cu_l.a ga_re 'furnace-kiln worker']. See also: Mane ul.a (IL 1240) ur..a = king’s paraphernalia (Ma.) karu = embossed work, bas-relief (Ta.); karukku (Ta.) karavi, karu, garu = a mould (Tu.) karuvi = tool (Ta.)[Thus, when tablets are embossed with glyphs to create objects in bas-relief, the artisan is trying to denote the nature of the function carried out by the –ga_re 'important person'; for example, when a tree is so depicted, it may represent kut.hi ga_re 'furnace worker'.] Foetus karuvu, karugu (Te.) [Rebus: -ga_re 'important person, worker'. See the glyph of foetus emanating from a woman with her thighs spread out and lying upside down. kut.hi 'pubes'; rebus: kut.hi 'smelting furnace'; hence, the composite glyph connotes: kut.hi ga_re = furnace worker.] 12

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The person wears bangles on his arms, from wrist to fore-arm. cu_d.a = bracelet (Skt.); cu_d.a, cu_la bracelet (Pkt.);. cu_r.o (S.); cu_r., cu_r.a_ (L.P.); cur.o (Ku.); curo, curi (N.); suri_ a kind of ornament (A.); cu_r., cur.a_ bracelet (B.); cu_r.i_ (Or.Mth.); cu_ra_ anklet, bracelet (OAw.); cu_r.a_ ring on elephant’s tusk, bracelet; cu_r.i_ bangle (H.); cu_r., cu_r.i_, cu_r.o (G.); cud.a_ (M.)(CDIAL 4883). chur. bangle, bracelet (P.) chhura_ (P.) tsud.o, tsude.a_ (Kon.); suri, surye (Kon:kan.i) [Note the glyph of a horned, seated person wearing bracelets from wrist to forearm] Alternative rebus of glyphs of person seated on a platform: hasani ‘furnace’; asani ‘seated’; pin.d.i ‘platform’; Rebus: bhin.d.ia ‘a lump, applied especially to the mass of iron taken from the smelting furnace’. The person wears a headdress with twigs; the glyph can be represented by two lexical clusters. cul.li = dry twigs, small stick, branch (Ta.); a dry spray, sprig, brushwood (Ma.); cul.l.ai a chip, fuel stick; nul.l.i small sticks for firewood (Ma.); cul.k long pliable stick, stalk of plant (Ko.)(DEDR 2706). ad.aru twig; ad.iri small and thin branch of a tree; ad.ari small branches (Ka.); ad.aru twig (Tu.)(DEDR 67). Cf. at.artti = thickly grown as with bushes and branches (Ta.) d.ar a branch; dare a tree; a plant; to grow well; ban: darelena it did not grow well; toa dare mother, the support of life (Santali) cavul.am, caul.am = tufted hair; cu_d.a_karumam (Ta.lex.). cu_d.a_ = topknot on head; cu_lika_ cockscomb (Skt.); cu_la_ ceremony of tonsure (which leaves the topknot)(Skt.); cu_l.a = crest; cu_l.a_ topknot (Pali); cu_d.a_, cu_la_, cu_liya_ topknot, peacock;’s crest (Pkt.); cula_ hair of head, lock, headdress (B.); cu_r. topknot, ceremony of tonsure (H.)(CDIAL 4883). cu_l.war = a grown-up woman wearing all her plaits of hair (Kho.)(CDIAL 4886). caud.a = relating to tonsure (skt.); caula (Mn.A_s’vGr.); co_laa shaving the head (Pkt.); col.e~ tonsure of a child’s head (M.)(CDIAL 4936). [Note the seven women with plaited hair: cavul.a [plaited hair; rebus: cavat.u, lead-silver ore (fuller’s earth) + bagala_ (pleiades; rebus: ban:gala_ goldsmith’s furnace); the reading is: cavat.u ban:gala_ = furnace for leadsilver ore]. Stone Quarry pan.e ground that is worked; tillage; a quarry (Ka.Ma.); pan.ai, pan.n.ai (Ta.); pan.n.eya, pan.ya, pan.e a farm, a landed estate (Ka.lex.) ba_n:ggar land dependent on rainfall; hard, barren soil (P.lex.) cf. va_nam-pa_rtta-pu_mi id. (Ta.lex.) banjri land irrigated by canal water alone (P.lex.) pan.e quarry; kalpan.e quarry where red laterite stones are cut (Tu.lex.) pan.ai, pan.n.ai agricultural tract, garden (Ta.); pan.a ground which is worked (including stone-quarry (Ma.)(DEDR 3891). pad.uku stone (Te.); pan.ku id. (Kond.a)(DEDR 3890). pan.ai pipal (Ta.); pan.i id. (Ka.)(DEDR 3895). phan.i_, phan.i_dhar, phan.i_ndra a large serpent (G.); phan.a_, phan.i_ the hood of a serpent (G.); phen.a [Dh. Des. phad.a_; Hem. Des. phad.am fr. Skt. phan.a_] the hood of a snake (G.) pat.am cobra’s hood (Ta.Ma.); ped.e id. (Ka.); pad.aga id. (Te.); par.ge, bar.ak, bar.ki, bir.ki hood of sepent (Go.); (s)phat.a, sphat.a_ a serpent’s expanded hood (Skt.); phad.a_ id. (Pkt.)(DEDR App. 47; CDIAL 9040). d.hon.d.-phod.o [M. dhon.d.a_, a stone] a stone-cutter, a stone-mason; d.hon:d.-jhod..o [M. dhon.d.a_ a stone + jhod.avum] a stone-cutter; a stone-mason; d.hon.d.o a stone; a blockhead; a stupid person (G.) 13

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dho~n.d. a species of snake found in water; bitkil dho~n.d., raj dho~n.d., ayan: dho~n.d. (Santali) d.ond.ya_ water-snake (Kol.); d.ond.uli, dho_ndi_ (Go.); < dun.d.ubha (Skt.)(DEDR 2985; CDIAL 6411)1. That silver metal --khura--is conveyed by the glyph (hoof on the legs of the stool) is reinforced on other epigraphs where a person is shown seated on a stool.

m0453At

m453BC

1629 Pict-82 Person seated on a pedestal flanked on either side by a kneeling adorant and a hooded serpent rearing up. h95-2485 sides 1 and 2. Harvard Harappa Project. The bunch of twigs = ku_di_, ku_t.i_ (Skt.lex.) ku_di_ (also written as ku_t.i_ in manuscripts) occurs in the Atharvaveda (AV 5.19.12) and Kaus'ika Su_tra (Bloomsfield's ed.n, xliv. cf. Bloomsfield, American Journal of Philology, 11, 355; 12,416; Roth, Festgruss an Bohtlingk, 98) denotes it as a twig. This is identified as that of Badari_, the jujube tied to the body of the dead to efface their traces. (See Vedic Index, I, p. 177). Rebus: kut.hi ‘a furnace for smelting iron ore to smelt iron’; kolheko kut.hieda koles smelt iron (Santali) kaca kupi ‘scorpion’ (Santali) Rebus kacc = iron (Go.) Substantive: aduru ‘native metal’. ad.rna_ to twist back one’s limbs or bend the body inward (as under threat of a blow)(Kur.); ad.re to strut; ad.ro a swaggerer (Malt.)(DEDR 108). [cf. the glyphs of antelope and tiger with their heads turned backwards.] ad.aru twig; ad.iri small and thin branch of a tree; ad.ari small branches (Ka.); ad.aru twig (Tu.)(DEDR 67). Goblet, black on red slip, Nausharo ID, Kachi Plain, Baluchistan (After Samzun, A., 1992, Observations on the characteristics of the pre-Harappan remains, pottery, and artifacts at Naudsharo, Pakistan (2700-2500 BCE) in: C. Jarrige, ed., South Asian Archaeology 1989, 245-252, Madison, Wisc.: 250, fig. 29.4, no.2, Mission Archeologique de Indus. Goblet. Mundigak IV, 1, eastern Afthanistan (After Casal, J.M., 1961, Fouilles de Mundigak, I-II, Memoires de la delegation archeologique francaise en Afghanistan 17, Paris. II: fig. 64, no.171, Delegation Archeologique Francaise en Afghanistan.

Kalibangan029

8018 ad.aren ‘lid’; rebus: aduru ‘native metal’

Portable stove of a goldsmith, ban:gala ban:gala = kumpat.i = an:ga_ra s’akat.i_ = a chafing dish a portable stove 14

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a goldsmith’s portable furnace (Te.lex.) cf. ban:garu ban:garamu = gold (Te.lex.)

V403 ban:gad.i_ a bangle, a bracelet of glass, gold, or other material, worn on the wrist by women (G.lex.) bhagan.a = a bangle (IA 19)(IEG) ban:gan = bangle (cf. Ka_li_ban:gan, black bangle: name of a site on River Sarasvati banks) bahula_ = Pleiades (Skt.) bagal.a_ = name of a certain godess (Te.lex.) bagal.a_, bagal.e, vagala_ (Ka.); bakala_, bagal.a_, vagal.a_ (Te.); bagal.a_devi = one of the s’akti deities by means of which one may shut the mouth of an opponent, etc. (Ka.lex.) bakkula = a demon, uttering horrible cries, a form assumed by the Yakkha Ajakala_paka, tto terrify the Buddha (Pali.lex.) bahula_ pl. the Pleiades (VarBr.S.); bahulika_ pl. (Skt.); bahul (Kal.); ba_l, baul, balh (Kho.); bol, boul, bolh (Kho.); bale (Sh.)(CDIAL 9195). bahulegal. = the Pleiades or Kr.ittika_-s (Ka.lex.) bahula_ (VarBr.S.); bahul (Kal.) six presiding female deities: vahula_ the six presiding female deities of the Pleiades (Skt.); va_kulai id. (Ta.)(Ta.lex.) 5719.Image: pleiades: bahulika_ pl. pleiades; bahula born under the pleiades; the pleiades (Skt.lex.) bahule, bahulegal. the pleiades or kr.ttika_s (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) Image: female deities of the pleiades: va_kulai < vahula_ the six presiding female deities of the Pleiades; va_kule_yan- < va_kule_ya Skanda (Ta.lex.) pa_kulam < ba_hula the month of Ka_rttikai = November-December; pa_kul.i full moon in the month of purat.t.a_ci (Vina_yakapu. 37,81)(Ta.lex.) ba_hule_ya Ka_rttike_ya, son of S'iva; ba_hula the month ka_rttika (Skt.Ka.)(Ka.lex.)

bha_gal.a = a gate in the wall of a town; the precincts of a village; bazaar (G.lex.) bagalo = an Arabian merchant vessel (G.lex.) bagala = an Arab boat of a particular description (Ka.); bagala_ (M.); bagarige, bagarage = a kind of vessel (Ka.)(Ka.lex.)

bakhor. = teeth of a comb (Santali.lex.) kangha (IL 1333) kan:g = brazier, fireplace (K.)(IL 1332) kan:kata = comb (Te.) Rebus: kan:gar = portable furnace (K.)

va_holo = adze; vahola_ = mattock; bahola_ = a kind of adze (P.lex.) Rebus: ban:gala = kumpat.i = an:ga_ra s’akat.i_ = a chafing dish, a portable stove, a goldsmith’s portable furnace (Te.lex.) cf. ban:garu, ban:garamu = gold (Te.lex.) va_holo = adze; vahola_ = mattock; bahola_ = a kind of adze (P.lex.) Rebus: ban:gala = kumpat.i = an:ga_ra s’akat.i_ = a chafing dish, a portable stove, a goldsmith’s portable furnace (Te.lex.) cf. ban:garu, ban:garamu = gold (Te.lex.) Fire-pit, furnace, kulme

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kolime, kolume, kulame, kulime, kulume, kulme fire-pit, furnace (Ka.); kolimi furnace (Te.); pit (Te.); kolame a very deep pit (Tu.); kulume kanda_ya a tax on blacksmiths (Ka.); kol, kolla a furnace (Ta.) kole.l smithy, temple in Kota village (Ko.); kwala.l Kota smithy (To.); konimi blacksmith; kola id. (Ka.); kolle blacksmith (Kod.); kollusa_na_ to mend implements; kolsta_na, kulsa_na_ to forge; ko_lsta_na_ to repair (of plough-shares); kolmi smithy (Go.); kolhali to forge (Go.)(DEDR 2133).] kolimi-titti = bellows used for a furnace (Te.lex.) kollu- to neutralize metallic properties by oxidation (Ta.lex.) kol brass or iron bar nailed across a door or gate; kollu-t-tat.i-y-a_n.i large nail for studding doors or gates to add to their strength (Ta.lex.) kollan--kamma_lai < + karmas'a_la_, kollan--pat.t.arai, kollan-ulai-kku_t.am blacksmith's workshop, smithy (Ta.lex.) cf. ulai smith's forge or furnace (Na_lat.i, 298); ulai-kkal.am smith's forge; ulai-k-kur-at.u smith's tongs; ulai-t-turutti smith's bellows; ulai-y-a_n.i-k-ko_l smith's poker, beak-iron (Ta.lex.) [kollulaive_r-kan.alla_r: nait.ata. na_t.t.up.); mitiyulaikkollan- muriot.ir.r.an-n-a: perumpa_)(Ta.lex.) Temple; smithy: kol-l-ulai blacksmith's forge (kollulaik ku_t.attin-a_l : Kumara. Pira. Ni_tiner-i. 14)(Ta.lex.) cf. kolhua_r sugarcane milkl and boiling house (Bi.); kolha_r oil factory (P.)(CDIAL 3537). kulhu ‘a hindu caste, mostly oilmen’ (Santali) kolsa_r = sugarcane mill and boiling house (Bi.)(CDIAL 3538). kola_ burning charcoal (L.P.); ko_ila_ burning charcoal (L.P.N.); id. (Or.H.Mth.), kolla burning charcoal (Pkt.); koilo dead coal (S.); kwelo charcoal (Ku.); kayala_ charcoal (B.); koela_ id. (Bi.); koilo (Marw.); koyalo (G.)(CDIAL 3484). < Proto-Munda. ko(y)ila = kuila black (Santali): all NIA forms may rest on ko_illa.] koela, kuila charcoal; khaura to become charcoal; ker.e to prepare charcoal (Santali.lex.)

(29)

Sign 178 (35)

‘Tree’ Field symbol 44 (6)

Grapheme: ko_lemu = the backbone (Te.)

2949 Dotted circles

2950

Rojdi

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threshing floor to his house; kolom = a threshing floor (Mundari); cf. kal.am (Tamil) [Note the twig adoring the head-dress of a horned, standing person] ku_l.e stump (Ka.) [ku_li = paddy (Pe.)] xo_l = rice-sheaf (Kur.) ko_li = stubble of jo_l.a (Ka.); ko_r.a = sprout (Kui.) ko_le = a stub or stump of corn (Te.)(DEDR 2242). kol.ake, kol.ke, the third crop of rice (Ka.); kolake, kol.ake (Tu.)(DEDR 2154) [kural = corn-ear (Ta.)] Five-petalled plant or five-branched shrub

m1123

kolma hor.o ‘ a variety of rice plant’ (Santali.lex.) kolame ‘furnace,

smithy, forge’ (Ka.)

Are these Signs 162 and 169 distinct are simply homographs, connoting the same word? Given the orthographic representation of fivepetals on Sign 169, this glyptic representation of a ‘sprout’ can be related to another unique 5petalled plant, ‘tabernae montana’ shown on Ur cylinder seal with taberna montana plant, BM 122947; Signs 162 and 169 Based on this identification, we can conclude that Sign 162 denoted kolma ‘rice-plant’; while Sign 169 denoted tagara, ‘tin’.

tagara wave (Si.)(CIDAL 5699). tagar = to be stopped or impeded; to impede (Ka.lex.) [cf. the motif of a person holding back tigers or bulls on either side]. tagr.a = large, massive, strong; tagoj = strength (Santali.lex.) tagar. = a trough; tagar.re surti ar cunko sipia they mix surti and lime in a trough (Santali.lex.) taga_rum [Pers. tagarih] a bricklayer’s trough; a hod (G.lex.) ero = watering place for cattle (G.) Rebus: era, eraka ‘copper’ (Ka.) Tub: go_lemu (Te..) gollemu, gol.l.emu (Te.) Rebus: kolame ‘furnace’ (Ka.) tagara = ram (Te.lex.); takaram (Ta.lex.); t.agaru, t.agara, t.igaru, tagar = a ram (Ka.); tagara, tan:gad.i_ (H.M.); tagade_ra, tagate_ra = having a ram for his vehicle: fire (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) Old Tamil: takar 1. sheep; 17

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2. ram; 3. goat; 4. aries in the zodiac; 5. male ya_r..i 6. male elephant; 7. male shark. t.agarudaleya, t.agarutaleya = daks.abrahmanu, Daks.a, the son of Brahma_, father of Durga_ and father-in-law of S’iva, who on one occasion celebrated a great sacrifice to obtain a son, but omitted to invite S’iva, wherefore S’iva interrupted the sacrifice, and by his incarnation Vi_rabhadra had Daks.a decapitated; for the decapitated head that of a ram was substituted (Ka.lex.) 4080.Images: ram; male elephant; male shark: takar sheep, ram, goat, male of certain other animals (porutakar ta_kkar-ku-p- pe_run takaittu : Kural.486); male elephant; male shark (Ta.lex.) (ya_l.i, elephant, shark)(Ta.); takaran huge, powerful as a man, bear, etc. (Ma.); tagar, t.agaru, t.agara, t.egaru ram (Ka.) tagaru, t.agaru id. (Tu.); tagaramu, tagaru id. (Te.); tagar id. (M.)(DEDR 3000). tan:gad.i_, tagara a ram (M.H.); tagade_ra having a ram for his vehicle: fire; tagarven.agisu to cause rams to fight (Ka.lex.) da_dlo bokro ram (Kon.lex.) [cf. kara_ male alligator; kar.e_n.u elephant (Ta.lex.)] Alloy: tara_ alloy of 8 parts of copper to 5 of tin, used for making metal vessels (pukar..tara_-ppo_kkillai) (Cine_n-. 169)(Ta.lex.) Rebus glyph: ta_ra_ = stars (Skt.) tagad.o = [Skt. trika a group of three] the figure three (3)(G.lex.) [Note. Three persons shown next to a tree on a tablet].

panjhar ‘ribs’; rebus: pasra ‘smithy’; vikalpa: ko_lemmu = the backbone (Te.lex.) Rebus: kolame ‘furnace’ (Ka.) Pictorial motifs of spearing or killing koru, kori, korru to kill (Kor.) kol ‘to kill’ (Ta.) kola = killing, e.g. a_d.ukola = woman-slaying (Te.) kol =metal (Ta.) go.l- (god.d.-) to beat, shoot with bow; god. to cut with axe (Kol.); gor.- (got.-) to strike, beat, kill (Nk.); kol. (kol.v-, kon.t.-) to strike, hurt; ko_l. killing, murder (Ta.); kol.ka (kon.t.-) to hit, take effect, come in contact (Ma.); kol.l.ikka to hit; ko_l. hitting, wound, damage (Ma.); kol.-/kon.- (kod.-) to pain, trouble (Ko.); kwil. (kwid.-) to quarrel (To.); kon.pini to hit; kol.puni, kolpuni to come into collision (Tu.); konu to be pierced as by an arrow (Te.)(DEDR 2152). kulai = a hare (Santali) Rebus: koru ‘a bar of metal’ (Tu.) The act of throwing a spear may be connoted by lexemes: d.an:gara, d.a_n:gara = throwing (Skt.lex.) Rebus: d.hangar ‘blacksmith’ (H.) xolla_ (Kur.) razor

“The motif of a figure grasping two felines (usually tigers) by the neck is found on another tablet from Harappa (the twisted terracotta example illustrated) and on tablets and seals from Mohenjo-daro. One of those from Mohenjo-daro appears to depict a male with genitalia (Parpola, 1994, p. 247 and FrankeVogt, 1991; Taffel XXXV: 248). Other examples are not so clear, but they have usually been assumed to 18

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represent males. As a likely female, the figure from Harappa conforms in sex with depiction of a composite female-bovine figure grasping a horned tiger on a seal from Mohenjo-daro (Franke-Vogt, 1991: Taffel XXXVI: 263). A Parpola (1994, p. 246) points out, the ‘contest’ motif is one of the most conincing and widely accepted parallels between Harappan and Near Eastern glyptic art.’ In the Harappan case, however, bulls and lions are replaced by tigers, and females as well as males are depicted as ‘hero(ine)’. Another interesting feature of the tablets is that whereas the bovine especially are depicted as clearly male, the sex of the huian figures is often not so evident.” [Richard Meadow and Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, 1997, Excavations at Harappa 1994-1995: new perspectives on the Indus scriptl, craft activities, and city organization, in: Raymond Allchin and Bridget Allchin, 1997, South Asian Archaeology 1995, Oxford and IBH Publishing]. "We have found two other broken tablets at Harappa that appear to have been made from the same mold that was used to create the scene of a deity battling two tigers and standing above an elephant. One was found in a room located on the southern slope of Mount ET in 1996 and another example comes from excavations on Mound F in the 1930s. However, the flat obverse of both of these broken tablets does not show the spearing of a buffalo, rather it depicts the more well-known scene showing a tiger looking back over its shoulder at a person sitting on the branch of a tree. Several other flat or twisted rectangular terracotta tablets found at Harappa combine these two narrative scenes of a figure strangling two tigers on one side of a tablet, and the tiger looking back over its shoulder at a figure in a tree on the other side." [JM Kenoyer, 1998, p. 115]. Feline figurine terracotta. A woman’s face and headdress are shown. The base has a hole to display it on a stick. (After JM Kenoyer/Courtesy Dept. of Archaeology and Museums, Govt. of Pakistan). It appears that the person holding back the two rearing jackals on the tablet is a woman: ko_l ‘woman’ (Nahali); dual. ko_lhilt.el (Sudhibhushan Bhattacharya, Field-notes on Nahali, Ind. Ling. 17, 1957, p. 247); kola = bride, son’s (younger brother’s) wife (Kui) ko_l is a phonetic determinative of the two jackals, kol ‘tiger’; rebus: kol ‘metal’ (Ta.) The decoding of ‘woman’ glyph on the tablet as a phonetic determinative of kol ‘tiger’ gains surprising validation from a ligatured terracotta image of a feline tiger with a woman’s face and headdress.. Mesopotamia. Cylinder seal, ca. 2254-2220 BCE (mature); ceramic; cat. 79; two groups in combat. A naked, bearded hero wrestles with a water buffalo, and a bull-man wrestles with a lion. In the centre: inscription (unread). Appears to be recut. Pictorial motif: Person grappling with two tigers standing on either side of him and rearing on their hindlegs.

Person throwing a spear at a

buffalo and placing one foot on the head of the

2279 seal buffalo. Mackay 1938: pl.88, no.279

impression, Mohenjodaro (DK 8165); after

ad.arincu, ad.arucu caus. of ad.a.ru = to shoot as a missile (Te.) aduru = native metal (Ka.) 19

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homa = bison (Ko.) soma = electrum (Skt.); hom = gold (Ka.)

prehistory and Poona, 354, fig. 88: k]. Buffalo's horns. Gumla, 354, fig. 88: b (=b), c (=c)

Motif of buffalo horns is combined with sixpointed star. [After Parpola, 1994, Fig. 14.19: Painted pottery, c. 3000-2600 BCE. a. Kot Diji, Sind; b,c. Gumla, NW Frontier Province; d. Burzahom, a Kashmir Neolithic site. After H.D. Sankalia, 1974, The protohistory of Bha_rata and Pakistan.

NW Frontier province. After Sankalia 1974:

Buffaloes sitting with legs bent in yogic a_sana. Susa Cc-Da, ca. 3000-2750 BC, proto-Elamite seals: (a-c) After Amiet 1972: pl. 25, no. 1017 (=a); and Amiet 1980a: pl. 38, nos. 581-2 (b-c) sal ‘Indian gaur’; sal sakwa ‘horns of indian gaur’. Furnace or forge of a smith; a goldsmith's smelting pot; torch: ukka_ (Vedic ulka_ and ulkus.i_; Latin volcanus; Old Irish olca_n to be fiery) firebrand, glow of fire, torch; tin.-ukka_ firebrand of dry grass; ukka_ a furnace or forge of a smith; a meteor; ukka_-dha_ra a torch-bearer; ukka_-pa_ta falling of a firebrand, a meteor; ukka_-mukha the opening or receiver of a furnace, a goldsmith's smelting pot = kamma_r'uddhana (Pali); ukka_cana_ enlightening, clearing up, instruction; ukka_cita enlightened, made bright; (fig.) or cleaned, cleared up; ukka_ceti to bale out water, to empty by means of buckets (Pali)(Pali.lex.) Image: fireplace: cf. cu_l.ai kiln, furnace, funeral pile (Ta.); culli_, ulli_ fireplace (Pkt.)(DEDR 2709)(CDIAL 4879). huko, hukko [Hem. Des. ukka_ fr. Skt. ulka_ a firebrand; Arabic hukka a casket] a smoking apparatus; a hukkah (G.) huka the hooka, the hubble bubble (Santali) sukar evening star (Santali.lex.) cukkai star (Ta.); cukka star (Te.); cikke, cikki star (Ka.); sukka star (Kol.); cukka (c = ts) id. (Nk.); cukkin id. (Nk.); cukka id. (Pa.); sukka star (Ga.); sukkum, huko, hukka, hukkom, hukka, ukkum, ukka, ukam id. (Go.); suka id. (Kond.a); huka (pl. -n) id.; hukeran, hukerin (pl. only recorded) stars (Pe.); hukerin id. (Mand..); suka star (Kui); hu_ka, hukka id.; suk'erika stars (Kuwi)(DEDR 2646). http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati/dictionary/2863TO.HTM 3132.Bright; handsome: s'ukra bright; brightness (RV.); s'ukla bright, white (AitBr.); bright half of month (Gr.S'r.); sukka bright (Pali); s'ukar pretty, pleasant; s'uka_r quietly (Gypsy); s'u_kri naked (woman)(Kal.); chuk good fortune (N.); suk bright, white; bright half of month (H.); su_kad.i sandal-wood (OG.); sukhar. (G.); sukkila, sukkilla bright, white (Pkt.); s'ukl.i_ moon; s'uklo_ white (WPah.); s'ukula white (D..); sukilo white, shining (Ku.N.); xukula_ (A.); sukka planet, star (Pali); sukka the planet Venus (Pkt.); s'u_k-ta_ra_ (WPah.); sukta_ra_ Venus (B.); su_k, suk Venus, Friday (H.); su_k Venus (M.)(CDIAL 12506). Meteor, to shine ul.ku, ul.uku (Ka.); ulka_ (Skt.); ul.ku = to shine (Ka.); ukka_ (Pkt.) [Note two stars shown as phonetic determinants of a water-carrier on a Mesopotamian Gadd seal]. ukka_, ‘stars’; rebus: ukka_, ‘furnace’; ka_~vad.iyo, ‘water-carrier’; rebus: kamat.ha_yo, ‘carpenter’; alternative: kut.i ‘woman water-carrier’; rebus: kut.hi ‘furnace’.

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suk’erika ‘stars’ (Kuwi)(DEDR 2646) sukar, sukor ‘the planet vennus as evening star’ (Santali) Rebus: sokol ‘fire’ (Santali) Buffalo-horned divinity. Painting on a jar. Kot Diji. C. 2800-2600 BCE [After Khan 1965, pl. XVIIb; cf. Fig. 2.25 in JM Kenoyer, 1998, Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, Karachi, Oxford University Press]. http://www.heritage.gov.pk/html_Pages/history1.html

mu~he~ = face; rebus: mu~ha_ = quantity of iron smelted at one time in the earthen furnace of the Kolhes (Santali) kad.a buffalo (Santali); Rebus: kad.iyo [Hem. Des. kad.a-i-o = Skt. sthapati a mason] a bricklayer; a mason (G.) Painted pottery, Mehergarh. http://www.heritage.gov.pk/html_Pages/history1.html

bat., bat.e = a road; bat. par.a = a highwayman, a spy (Santali.lex.) bhat.akavum [Skt. bhra_nta wandered fr. bhram to wander] to roam, to wander; bhat.aka_m pl. wanderings (G.lex.) bhat.au to go about, to go here and there, as a dog in heat (Santali.lex.) bha_t.iyo = a class of va_nia_s; a milkman; a vegetable-seller; bha_t.hela_ pl. a class of bra_hman.as (G.lex.) dobat.ia ‘cross roads, the junction of two roads’ (Santali) bat.oi traveller (Ku.); bat.ohi (N.); ba_t.oi, ba_t.ei (N.); bat.ohi_, bat.ohia_, bat.ohini (Mth.); bat.o(h)i_ (H.)(CDIAL 11367). Rebus: bat.a ‘furnace’ (G.) Sibri-damb01A SibriYahya. Rectangular steatite (?) stamp seal with perforated knob on the crossed from corner to opposite corner. Impression on a pottery sherd of of a type illustrated by Joshi and Parpola (Joshi and Parpola 1987: 88Karlovsky and Tosi 1973: fig. 121.

damb01B Tepe back with lines a Harappan seal 100). Lamberg-

kulhi = village street (Santali) kol ‘metal’ (Ta.) Smith, karma_ra kamar a semi-hinduised caste of blacksmiths; kamari the work of a blacksmith, the money paid for blacksmith work; nunak ato reak in kamarieda I do the blacksmith work for so many villages (Santali) ka_rma_ra = metalsmith who makes arrows etc. of metal (RV. 9.112.2: jarati_bhih os.adhi_bhih 21

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parn.ebhih s'akuna_na_m ka_rma_ro as'mabhih dyubhih hiran.yavantam icchati_) kammar a, kamma_ra, kammaga_ra, karma_ra, karmaka_ra, kammaga_ra, kamba_ra = one who does any business; an artisan, a mechanic; a blacksmith (Ka.) kamma_l.a = an artisan, an artificer: a blacksmith, a goldsmith (Ta.Ka.); a goldsmith (Ka.) kammara = the blacksmith or ironsmith caste; kammaramu = the blacksmith’s work, working in iron, smithery; kammarava_d.u, kammari, kammari_d.u = a blacksmith, ironsmith; kammarikamu = a collective name for the people of the kamma caste (Te.) karma_ras’a_la = workshop of blacksmith (Skt.) kamma_r-asa_le = the workshop of a blacksmith (Ka.); kamasa_lava_d.u = a blacksmith (Te.) kamarsa_ri_ smithy (Mth.) kamba_r-ike, kamma_r-ike = a blacksmith’s business (Ka.Ma.)(Ka.lex.)(DEDR 1236). karmaka_ra = labourer (Pa_n.ini's As.t.a_dhya_yi: ka_rukarma = artisan's work (Arthas'a_stra : 2.14.17); karma_nta = a workshop or factory (Arthas'a_stra : 2.12.18, 23 and 27, 2.17.17, 2.19.1, 2.23.10). The seated person wears a waist-band. Rebus: karma_ras’a_la = workshop of blacksmith (Skt.) [Note the pannier tied as a waist band to the one-horned heifer.] Glyph: kamarsa_la = waistband (Te.) kamba, kambha = Tbh. of stambha or skambha = a post, a pillar (Ka.Te.Tu.Ma.M.Skt.); a mast (Ta.Ma.) kambhagat.t.u = a construction on pillars (Ka.) kambu = a conch, a shell (Ka.); a bracelet (Ka.) kamarasa_la = waist-zone, waist-band, belt (Te.) kammaru = the loins, the waist (Ka.Te.M.); kamara (H.); kammarubanda = a leather waist band, belt (Ka.H.) kammaru = a waistband, belt (Te.) kammarincu = to cover (Te.) kamari = a woman’s girdle (Te.) komor = the loins; komor kat.hi = an ornament made of shells, resembling the tail of a tortoise, tied round the waist and sticking out behind worn by men sometimes when dancing (Santali) kambra = a blanket (Santali) krammar-a = to turn, return (Te.); krammar-ilu, krammar-illu, krammar-abad.u = to turn, return, to go back; krammar-u = again; krammar-incu = to turn or send back (Te.lex.) [Note the glyph showing an antelope or a tiger turning back]. kraman.a = act of walking or going (G.lex.) krama = step, series (AV); krame_n.a by degrees (R.); kama = step, way (Pali); foot, series (Pkt.); -krem in oi~n-krem and u~_-krem = upper and lower teeth (Wg.); krammar-ilu, krammar-illu, krammar-abad.u = to turn, return, to go back; krammar-u = again; krammar-incu = to turn or send back (Te.lex.) [Note the glyph showing an antelope or a tiger turning back]. kraman.a = act of walking or going (G.lex.) krama = step, series (AV); krame_n.a by degrees (R.); kama = step, way (Pali); foot, series (Pkt.); -krem in oi~n-krem and u~_-krem = upper and lower teeth (Wg.) *kamra = the back (Skt.); krem = the back (Kho.)(CDIAL 2776). *parikamra = near the back (Skt.); parikama_ = behind the shoulder (Ash.)(CDIAL 7799v). kamak =back (Sang.); com = back of an animal (Shgh.); *kamak = back of an animal (G.M.); kama neck (Yghn.)(CDIAL 14356). m309

m0309 k049

m0310AC

1355

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Kalibangan049

m0504At

8013

m0504Bt

h163

3323

h181A

m0505At

m0505Bt

1702

m1452Act m1452Bct appears on m-1448 to m-1452).

m0438atcopper

2912 (Similar imagery of an antelope looking back

m0272 Goat-antelope with horns bending backwards and neck

turned backwards 2554 m0353 Prabhas Patan (Somnath) pbs-001 a,b Two sides of a seal; obverse: three antelopes from top to bottom and in growing sizes; reverse: bottom register: antelope and tiger looking backwards; middle: antelope; top: illegible, perhaps the horns of the head of an antelope. Substantive: aduru ‘native metal’. ad.rna_ to twist back one’s limbs or bend the body inward (as under threat of a blow)(Kur.); ad.re to strut; ad.ro a swaggerer (Malt.)(DEDR 108). [cf. the glyphs of antelope and tiger with their heads turned backwards.] kamari, kammari declivity, steep bank, cliff, ravine (Ka.); kamar chasm, crack, cleft in the ground caused by drought (Ta.)(DEDR 1229). kamar kidin a small species of scorpion; kidin, kidin kat.kom a scorpion; kidin marmar a species of centipede (Santali) An antelope is shown with a seven-pointed star around a dotted-circle on tablet h-349.

h349A

h349B

Copper work

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Copper work; brazier: kan copper work, copper; kan- n-a_n brazier (Ta.); bell metal worker, one of the divisions of the Kamma_l.a caste (Ta.lex.) kanna_n id. (Ma.)(DEDR 1402). kan workmanship (Tiv. Tiruva_y. 5,8,3); kan mam (Tiv. Tiruva_y. 6,2,7)(Ta.) kanaka = a metal (Pali); kanaka = gold (Skt.) kan.d. furnace, altar (Santali) gan.d.a pit (furnace) kan.d.i = furnace, altar; khandha = a trench used as a fireplace when cooking has to be done for a large number of people (Santali.lex.) kandaka = a ditch, a trench (Ka.); khandaka (M.H.Te.)(Ka.lex.) This lexeme can be denoted by the dotted circle which is often depicted on ivory (khan.d.) objects. khan.d.ar.an:, khan.d.run: ‘pit (furnace)’ (Santali) me~rhe~t khan.d.a ‘iron implements’ (Santali) This compound phrase indicates that khan.d.a also meant ‘implements’. Thus the glyph of ‘rim of jar’ kan.d.a kan-ka may denote fire altar, furnace and also metal implements (or, more precisely, furnace/altar for making metal implements). khan.n.a = that which is dug (Pkt.lex.) khana = a trench, a pit, a hollow in the ground (Santali.lex.) [khan = a mine (Santali) ?khani = mine (VarBr.S.); khan.i = mine (Pkt.); khani (A.); khan (H.); khan. = mine, quarry (M.)(CDIAL 3813); cf. khana = a trench, a pit, a hollow in the ground (Santali.lex.)].

V342 Glyph: rim of pot: kanna_ edge, handle, rim (H.); ka_nu end of a rope for supporting a burden (N.); karn.a = the handle or ear of a vessel (RV 8.72.12; S'Br. 9); the helm or rudder of a ship; karn.aka = a prominence on handle or projection on the side or sides of a vessel [kan- (Santali) < karn.a (RV)]; karn.akita = having handles, furnished with tendrils (Skt.lex.) karn.a = ear, handle of a vessel (Rv.); end, tip (RV 2.34.3); kan.n.a ear, angle, tip (Pali)(CDIAL 2830). kan.n.aka = having ears or corners (Pali); kan.o = rim, border (S.); ka_n.a_ brim of a cup (B.)(CDIAL 2831). kankha, kan:kha, khan:kha = rim of a vessel; khan:kha habic perejme, fill it up to the brim; kan:khi = the rim of a vessel (Santali.lex.) kan.d.a kan:kha, kan.d.a kankha = the rim of a waterpot (Santali.lex.) kankha, kan:kha = brow of a hill (Santali.lex.) kankha, kan.d.a kankha = brim, rim of a vessel (Santali); ka~kh; kanna_ (H.)(Santali.lex.Bodding) kan.t.u = the rim of a vessel (Ka.lex.) kan.d.a = an earthenware pot (having a neck a little longer than that of a t.hili, but otherwise of about the same shape as this, only somewhat larger; ghar.a kan.d.a = a waterpot of brass (Santali.lex.Bodding) kankha = rim. The orthographic focus of this most frequently occurring glyph is clearly intended to denote the rim or handle of the short-necked jar – to be distinguished, for example, from a widemouthed pot without a rim. khan.d.i_ = ivory in rough (Jat.ki_)

V245

V247 khan.d.a a division; a section (G.)

gha~_t. = protuberance of snout of alligator (A.) gan.d.e (Te.) gha~r.iya_l (A.B.); ghar.ya_lu = longnosed porpoise (S.); gha~t. = protuberance on the snout of an alligator (A.) 24

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(70)

(21)

Sign 245 (207)

Copper tablets (48)

Field Symbol 14 (20)

Field Symbol 29 (10) (25)

Sign 25 (53)

Copper tablets (12)

Pairing glyph: nine divisions; lo ‘nine’ (Santali) rebus: loh ‘iron, metal’ (Skt.); khan.d.a ‘division’ (Skt.); kan.d. = furnace, altar (Santali) lokhan.d. ‘iron, ironware, tools’ (G.) lo + khan.d. = rebus: loh ‘iron’ + kan.d. ‘furnace, altar’ (Santali)

Signs using four short strokes to subscribe another glyph. gan.d.a ‘a set of four’; gan.d.a gut.i to divide, to make up an account (Santali) gan.d.i hole, orifice (Te.); kan.d.i, gan.d.i opening, hole, window (Tu.)(DEDR 1176). Rebus: kand. ‘altar, furnace’ (Santali)

M375 m314

gold coin, the half of a varaha (Ka.); honnu = por- = metal, gold, luster, beauty (Ta.); pol = gold (Ma.)

pon, ponea, ponon = four (Santali) Rebus: pon, hon = a gold (Ka.); ponnu (Te.); pon-,

Substantive: pit? gan.d.i hole, orifice (Te.); kan.d.i, gan.d.i opening, hole, window (Tu.)(DEDR 1176). Glyph: gan.d.e ‘to place at a right angle to something else, cross, transverse’; gan.d. gan.d. ‘across, at right angles, transversely’ (Santali)

a~s = scales of fish (Santali) ayas = metal (RV) badhor. ‘a species of fish with many bones’ (Santali) Rebus: barduga = a man of acquirements, a proficient man (Ka.) bar.ae = a blacksmith; bar.ae kudlam = a country made hoe, in contrast to cala_ni kudlam, an imported hoe (Mundari) Bat, flying-fox = vagguli (Pali), ba_vali, ba_voli (Tu.), va_til (Ma), vavva_l (Ta.) Bat = va_lgu.da (Skt.) Rebus: bha~wa~r, bha~ora = a boring instrument resembling a brace (Santali) cf. bhramara turning (Skt.lex.) 25

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The following glyphs are difficult to decode orthographically and hence, difficult to tag with corresponding lexemes. However, they may be interpreted in context with reference to comparable glyptic representations in the corpus. Another research avenue is to collect further information on the tools-of-trade of ancient smiths; such a research may point to tools which may match with these yetto-be identified glyphs:

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Rosetta Stones Even though a ‘Rosetta Stone’ has not been discovered so far to enable a conclusive presentation of the code used by the writing system, there are inscriptions available in neighbouring civilization areas containing glyphs comparable to Sarasvati (Bharatiya) Hieroglyphs. A comparative evaluation of the glyptic art forms found on cylinder seals and tablets of Mesopotamia and Elam, for example, will also be attempted to draw parallels in structure, form and function of the writing system which emerged in the fourth millennium BCE in what is referred to as the Near East (Mesopotamia – Tigris-Euphrates River Basin, Dilmun-Magan-Persian Gulf; Elam – Oxus River Basin) and Meluhha (Sarasvati-Sindhu River Basin). The more numerous rosetta stones are the 8000 semantic clusters of lexemes from Bharatiya languages which enable homonyms to be identified to be tagged to the hieroglyphs created by braziers. On the problem of the Indus (Sarasvati-Sindhu) Script, it is important to refer to one message on a sealing from Umma, since no bilingual script messages have so far been found: "...an imprint of (Indus (Sarasvati-Sindhu)) seal upon the fragment of a clay label from a bale of cloth had also been published by Father Scheil (Revue d'Assyriologie, Vol. 22: 56), and this was said to come from the site of Umma, the neighbor city of Lagash...No.1. First among the seals discovered at Ur (in 1923) is the unique object ...in the British Museum...On the face stands, below, the figure of a bull with head bent down...the inscription...is in archaic cuneiform writing...of a period before 2500 BCE There are three signs and very probably traces of a fourth, almost obliterated; the three preserved are themselves scratchy and rather worn, though not ill-formed. Hence their reading is doubtful--the choices are, for the first SAG(K) or KA, for the second KU or possibly LU, while the third is almost certainly S'I, and the fourth, it existed at all, is quite uncertain...using the commonest values of the signs, sak-ku-s'i--(with possible loss of something at the end) may be pronounced the best provisional reading...It does not, at least, seem to be any Sumerian or Akkadian name...(the seal is) probably, a product of some place under the influence both of Indus (Sarasvati-Sindhu) and of the Sumerian civilizations." (Gadd, 1932, pp.3-32.) The seal is a 'rosetta stone' available to provide a lead to decode the epigraphs of Sarasvati Civilization. It is a 'rosetta stone' because it contains a message written in a known script: the cuneiform. Assuming that the inscription in cuneiform on this seal is a transliteration of morphemes of the language of the civilization, an attempt may be made to relate the messages in terms of the general pattern of the use of pictorial motifs to convey weapons and tools. The possible rebus lexemes conveyes by sak lu… are: sak = conch shell; luhia, luiha = an iron vessel or pot used for cooking and other purposes; loha luti = iron utensils and implements (Santali) The bull is d.han:gar; rebus: blacksmith. Entries from the Indian Lexicon: sag, zag ‘a conical form; the teat’; the dug of a beast (G.) sagan ‘an iron nail fixed in the pole of a plough for fastening the yoke’ (G.) kus' a ploughshare (Skt.), kos' ‘an iron bar sharpened at one end, used as an instrument for digging’ (G.) kus ‘a hand-held implement for turning up of clods--a pole with an iron blade or a head: also the iron member of this implement’ (M.)2 Reading: sag ka-si-ta Rebus: saga denoting pha_tries or clans in Gond.; kase_ra_ metal worker (L.); kasera_ worker in pewter (P.Bi.H.); kasero maker of brass pots (N.);

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Alternative: kusi_da = usurer. kasat.iyo a pawnbroker, a money-lender (G.) kus. to test, examine; to shine (Skt.lex.) kusumbha, kusumbham gold (Skt.lex.) kah, dat. kusu testing gold on a touchstone (K.)(CDIAL 2970). ko_cikam Sa_ma ve_da (Cu_t.a_.)(Ta.lex.) Gold: ku_r..ai gold (Ta.); cf. kus' (Skt.)(Ta.lex.) kr.s'a_nu burning, tormenting (Rudra_, Agni_); kr.s'a_nu guarding of the Soma, name of an archer who guards the soma from gods and men (kr.s'a_nurasta_ etanna_makahso_mapa_lah- : RV. iv.27.3) (Vedic. lex.) cf. the interpretation of soma as electrum, gold-siver ore, op cit. kr.s'anam gold; form, shape; a pearl; kus'a wrought iron (Skt.lex.) kr.s'ana pearl (RV. x.68.11); kr.s'anvant decorated with pearls (RV. i.126.); kr.s'anin id. (RV. vii.18.23)(Vedic.lex.) cf. ka_cam gold; ka_cu gold; ka_can-am gold (Ta.lex.) ko_s'am gold or silver wrought or unwrought; treasure, money, wealth (Skt.lex.) Money-lender: kucchar. miserly (WPah.)(CDIAL 3420). kusi_dika, kusi_din a usurer; kus.i_da usury; kusita one who lives on usury (Skt.lex.) kahu_ mean, miserly (K.)(CDIAL 3441). kusi_da usury, a usurer (Skt.Ka.); kusi_daka a usurer (Skt.Ka.); a money-lender (Ka.lex.) kaca-vaci niggard; kayavaci id. (Ta.lex.) kus'i_dam. usury; kusi_dam. any loan or thing lent to be repaid with interest; lending money, usury, the profession of usury; kusi_daka, kusi_din a usurer kusi_dah. (also written as kus'i_s.i_-da) a money-lender, usurer; kusi_da-pathah. usury, usurious interest; any interest exceeding 5 percent; kusi_da-vr.ddhih. interest on money; kusi_da_ the wife of usurer; kusi_da_yi_ id. (Skt.lex.) Usury: kausi_da connected with a loan; usurious; kausa_dhyam the practice of usury (Skt.lex.) cf. kucar < khusr (U.) anything obtained from shopkeeper as a bargain (Ta.lex.) kusita_yi_ a kind of demoness (Maitra_yan.i Sam.hita_. iii.2.6); kusida_yi_ wife of a money-lender (Ka_t.haka Sam.hita_. x.5)(Vedic.lex.) r.s.i: kusi_di_ ka_n.va is the r.s.i of su_kta RV 8.81 to 8.83 Structure The structure of the writing system is divided into two distinctive elements which together make up the epigraphs: pictorial motifs (or over 100 field symbols) and signs (over 400). The pictorial motifs are glyphs such as: wild animals (e.g. tiger, elephant, boar, monkey), domesticated animals (e.g. bull, buffalo, deer) and other living phenomena (e.g. snake, eagle, scorpion, lizard, fish, branches of tree, stalks of plants); glyphs presented in unique geometrical forms: svastika, dotted-circle, trefoil, vedi (fire-altar); and representations of inanimate objects of house-hold use (e.g. rim of pot, rimless pot, double-axe) Representations of vedi as a pictorial motif?

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A characteristic structural feature of the writing system is that the glyphs are recorded on a variety of objects: seals, tablets, copper plates, bangles and there are epigraphs recorded even on metal weapons. 28

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Blurred distinctions between 'pictorials' and 'signs' The distinction between pictorial motifs and signs gets blurred in many compositions presented in the script inscriptions. Thus, a svastika appears together with an elephant or a tiger.The 'svastika' is a pictorial and also a sign Sign 148 Glyph: sathiya_ (Pkt.); rebus: satva 'zinc' (Ka.) Elephant: ib; rebus: ib 'iron'; Tiger: kol; rebus: kol 'pan~caloha alloy of metals'. The presence of zinc in a Lothal artefact (2200-1500 B.C.) (No. 4189) assayed: 70.7 percent copper; 6.04 zinc; 0.9 Fe, 6.04 acid-soluble component (probably carbonate, a product of atmospheric corrosion). The zinc and other components could have come from the Ahar-Zawar area, Rajasthan. The next dated brass artefacts are: from the Gordian tomb in Phrygia of the eigth and seventury B.C. and Etruscan bronze of the fifth century B.C. containing 11 percent zinc. Svastika, endless-knot and other glyphs Arethusa and svastika_ Svastika_ is a dominant glyph among the epigraphs of Sarasvati Civilization. Over 50 inscribed objects depict this glyph. That the head of Arethusa is imprinted on a tin ingot and on a Greek coin in the middle of a svastika_ glyph is a pointer to the decoding of the true meaning of svastika_ glyph. The morpheme which occurs in Kannada may hold a key to this decoding: satavu, satuvu, sattu = pewter, zinc (Ka.) dosta = zinc (Santali) jasada, yasada, yasadyaka, yasatva = zinc (Jaina Pali) ruhi-tutiya (Urdu) tuttha (Arthas'a_stra) totamu, tutenag (Te.) oriechalkos (Gk.)3 Homonyms are: sathiya_ (H.), sa_thiyo (G.); satthia, sotthia (Pkt.) = svastika_ sign

Glyph: sathiya_ (H.), sa_thiyo (G.); satthia, sotthia (Pkt.) Svastika_ sign Meeting of four roads svastika (Skt.) Early cementation processes roasted zinc ore (oxide) was mixed with copper fragments and charcoal (reducing agent) and the mixture was heated in a sealed crucible upto 1000 degrees C. The zinc vapour dissolved to yield a quality of brass. Examples of brass have been found in Lothal and Atranjikhera (6.28 to 16.2 % zinc) dated to c. 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE respectively. Carbon 14 dates (uncalibrated) for the Zawar mines of Rajasthan (40 kms. south of Udaipur) are PRL 932, 430+100 BCE and BM 2381, 380+ 50 BCE. Mining of lead zinc ores are found in the old workings at Rajpura-Dariba (375 BCE) and Rampura-Agucha (370 BCE) . At Prakashe, a Chalcolithic site (2nd millennium BCE) in Deccan, two copper objects each containing 25.86 and 17.75 percent zinc has been found. A vase found at Bhir mound (3rd cen. BCE), Taxila contained 34.34% zinc. A part of chariot in submerged Dwarka assayed 10.68% zinc (unknown date); many copper coins and many bronze images of historical periods contain upto 25% zinc. Silver used in many punch-marked coins was obtained from Zawar mines which yielded copper, zinc, lead and silver. 29

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On coins from Syracuse the head of Arethusa was often portrayed (ca. 500 BCE). This girls' head has often a net in her hair and is usually surrounded by fish.

Arethusa coin from Syracuse, 4th cent. BCE Arethusa is a water divinity, as shown by the four fish circling around; she wears a diadem of beads. Arethusa on a Greek coin [c. 510-490 BCE] The coin shows the image of Arethusa in the middle of a svastika_ glyph. Arethusa, a nymph known in several different parts of Greece, usually the Pelopponnese and Sicily. She was one of the Nereids. The river-god Alpheus fell madly in love with her, but she fled to Sicily. There she was changed into a fountain (the Fonte Aretusa, in Syracuse) by Artemis. Apheus made his way beneath the sea, and united his waters with those of Arethusa.

“The earliest tin ingots, apart from those shown in Egyptian tombs, are the ones recently found off the coast of Israel. Four (or more?) came from Haifa and one of these has a head of Arethusa impressed upon it. All four have Cypro-Minoan (?) letters.” [RF Tylecote, 1981, The early history of metallurgy Europe, London, Longman, p. 12].

[Tin ingots were traded through the Levant in the 2nd millennium BC; in the autumn of 1976 two ingots were found 'in the sea near the Phoenecian port of Dor, south of Haifa. Ingot 1 and Ingot 2; Museum of Ancient Art, Municipal Corporation of Haifa; local fishermen had raised about 7 tonnes of copper and tin ingots in Haifa. The date of the two ingots is uncertain. The symbols incised on the ingots also resemble Cypro-Minoan symbols used in Cyprus and Ugarit ca. 1500 to 1100 BCE. May be, they were weighed at Ugarit and stamped as they travelled through the long overland caravan route right upto the western end. It is notable that Cyprus had no tin. Sources: Anon., Ingots from wrecked ship may help to solve ancient mystery, Inst. Archaeo-Metallurgical Studies Newsletter, No. 1, 1980, 1-2; Maddin, R., T.S. Wheeler and J. Muhly, Tin in the ancient Near East: old questions and new finds, Expedition, 1977, 19, 35-47] MS 249 Unidentified Minoan text on clay. Knossos, Crete, 16th cent. BCE, Linear A script? Two glyphs incised on the ingots are comparable to the glyphs of Sarasvati Civilization epigraphs; they are: a ficus leaf (loa = ficus; loha = copper); a sprout with five petals (tagara = taberna montana; rebus: tagara = tin). These ?Cypro-Minoan letters could also have been the pictographs shown on inscribed objects of Sarasvati Sindhu Valley Civilization. 30

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Svastika, a countable object The svastika glyph connotes a countable object as seen from the number of glyphs shown on inscribed objects, h182B, h165 and har609: h182A

h182B

4306Tablet in bas-

relief h182a Pict-107: Drummer and a tiger. h182b Five svastika signs4 alternating right- and lefthanded. har609 terracotta tablet, bas-relief [The drummer is also shown on h182B tablet with a comparable epigraph and five svastika glyphs alternating right- and left-handed arms.] Substantive: dolan ‘a large house built of brick or stone having a flat terraced roof’ (Santali) d.olo gain, profit; an important business (G.) Glyph: d.hol ‘a drum beaten on one end by a stick and on the other by the hand’ (Santali); d.hol ‘drum’ (Nahali); dhol (Kurku); d.hol (Hi.) dhol a drum (G.) Rebus: dul ‘to cast in a mould’; dul me~r.he~t, dul mer.ed., dul; kot.e mer.ed. ‘forged iron’ (Santali) dola doli = divisions, sects (Santali.lex.) Glyph: dola ‘a kind of palki’ Glyph: dol ‘a company, party, detachment’ Glyph: dol ‘likeness, picture, form’ (Santali) [e.g., two tigers, two bulls.] Glyph: d.ol ‘the shaft of an arrow, an arrow’ Glyph: d.ol ‘an iron bucket for drawing water from a well’; dolkha ‘a large leaf cup or basin’ (Santali) d.ol a bucket, a pail (G.) Glyph: dhori_ a bull (G.) fr. dhairiyam fit for a yoked carriage; fr. dhur a yoke (Skt.) Glyph: dhoro a parapet wall (G.) Copper finger ring, Sirkap, Taxila, Stratum I, (Pl. 197, No. 24, Marshall); a total of nine symbols are inlaid on the ring including svastika_, vajra, cakra, triratna, s’ri_vatsa, Pl. XXII. Vajra and cakra are weapons. It is likely that svastika_ is also a weapon or tool: s’akti (flag)staff, spear (MBh.); satti = knife, dagger (Pali); satti = a kind of weapon (Pkt.); sa_t = sword, spear (CDIAL 12251). It can be demonstrated that the ‘s’ri_vatsa’ glyph is a derivative from a composite glyph of two fishes. If so, the glyph of two fishes may be read as: ken.t.a kini (lit. two fishes); rebus: ke~r.e~ ‘bell metal’ + gina ‘metal vessel’.

h165 4500 On h182 tablet, there are 5 svastika signs; on h165 seal, there are 4 svastika signs; this leads to the surmise that the svastika represents a countable object.

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The svastika glyph is associated with endless-knot glyph; the endless-knot glyph appears on a copper plate epigraph, indicating that both glyphs may connote the products made by metal-workers or equipment/processes involved in metal-work.

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Endless-knot motif appears on the following objects: 1. Rojdi ax-head or knife of copper; 2. Sumerian cylinder seal (circa 2500 BCE); and 3. Early Dynastic seal from Lagash. Rojdi. Ax-head or knife of copper, 17.4 cm. long (After Possehl and Raval 1989: 162, fig. 77

Cylinder seal impression. Sumer (ca. 2500 BCE). After Amiet 1980a: pl. 108, no. 1435

Early Dynastic seal. Lagash. After Amiet 1980a: pl. 83, no. 1099 Svastika_ connotes satva, sattu 'zinc, pewter'; endless-knot connotes kacc 'iron'.

The endless-knot glyph and the signs may be read as: kacc iron, iron blade (Go.)(DEDR 1096). kars.i furrowing (Skt.); ka_rs.i ploughing (VS.); kars.u_ furrow, trench (S'Br.); ks.i_ plough iron (Pr.); kas.i mattock, hoe (Pas'.); kas.i spade, pickaxe (Shum.); khas.i_ small hoe (Dm.)(CDIAL 2909). kr.s.ika, kus'ika, kus'i, kus'ira a ploughshare (Skt.Ka.)(Ka.lex.) kes.a plough 32

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(Pas'.)(CDIAL 3444). kis' plough (Kho.)(CDIAL 3455). ks.e plough iron (Pr.)(CDIAL 2809). Mattock, hoe: kas.i mattock, hoe (Pas'.); Spade, pickaxe: kas.i spade, pickaxe (Shum.); kars.i furrowing (Skt.); kars.u~ furrow, trench (S'Br.)(CDIAL 2909)

V194 kasi_ trench, watercourse (S.); kassi_ small distribution channel from a canal (L.); ka~_s artificial canal for irrigation (G.)(CDIAL 2909). kaccu = a rafter (Te.) kacce = the organ of generation (yoni) of cows and buffaloes (Ka.M.Te.)

m443Bt keccu the knot which is formed by twisting; to join the end of two threads by twisting them with the fingers (Ka.); kerci a knot (Tu.)(DEDR 1965). kars.ati draws, pulls (RV.); kassate_ ploughs (Pali); karisai, ka_sai pulls (Pkt.); ks'al to drag, pull, lead (Gy.); kas. to pull (Wg.); kasan.u to tighten (S.); kassan., kassun. (L.); kas'n.u_ (WPah.); kassn.a_ (P.); kasab (Mth.); kasai harnesses, binds (OMarw.); kasvu~ to tighten (G.); ka_sanem. to tie fast (OM.)(CDIAL 2908). gajipuni to fasten, strengthen (Tu.); kaccuni to be joined fast (Tu.); kaccu to join (Ka.); kacip to fasten bullock to yoke (Pa.); kah to tie, fasten up; ka_ca_na_ to be tied tight (e.g., clothes)(Go.); gac to tie, bind (Pe.); geh-, gehpa- to bind (Mand..); gaspa to tie a knot, hang, suspend; n. hanging, suspension (Kui); gah- to tie (Kui); to bind (Kuwi); gahpo fastening, tying (Kuwi); xa_jna_ to tether, bind by the feet (Kur.)(DEDR 1099). kasiba to draw tight (A.); kac a tying, bond (B.); kacakvu~ to bind tightly (G.); kacakn.e~ to pull smartly, jerk (M.); kacka_vin.e~ to bind tightly (M.); kacate_ fastens (Dha_tup.)(CDIAL 2610). kas'a_ whip (RV.); rein (S'is'.); kasa_ whip (Pali); whip, thong (Pkt.); cord, tie of a garment (M.); ka_h strip of leather for sewing leather articles (K.); ka~hi~_ tie, tape, riband (S.); kasa rope (Or.); kasa string (OMarw.); kas tape of a bodice (G.); kasaya whip (Si.); kasiba_ to whip (Or.); kasai binds, harnesses (OMarw.); kasn.e~ to bind tightly with a cord (M.)(CDIAL 2965). Image: to join: kaccir-i to join things, to unite; kaccisu to cause to join, to unite; kaccu to join; kaccat.a, kaccut.a, kacad.i (Tadbhava of kaks.a_pat.a) a cloth passed between the legs to cover the privities (Ka.); kaccad.a a tuck, truss, etc. (Te.) (Ka.lex.) Binding: kaccan:kam agreement, binding (Ta.lex.) khacayati fastens (Skt.); *khacyate_ be set, be studded (Skt.); khacita inlaid (MBh.); khacna_ to be fastened, be set, be studded (H.); khacn.e~ to set(jewels, etc.)(M.); khac crowd, crush (H.); khac tightly (G.)(CDIAL 3766). keccu, kettu to enclose, set (as precious stones)(Ka.); kettuni to set (as jewels)(Tu.); cer-r-u to set (as a jewel)(Ta.); ceyal setting work in jewelry (Ta.)(DEDR 1985). kacate_ fastens (Dha_tup.); kaca band, hem; kace_la string holding manuscript leaves together (Skt.); kasiba to draw tight (A.); kac a tying, bond (B.); kad.asn.i_ binding rope (M.); kacakvu~ to bind tightly (G.); kacakne~ to pull smartly, jerk (M.); kacka_vin.e~ to bind tightly (M.); kaciba_ to masturbate (Or.)(CDIAL

2610).

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m0461At m0461Bt 2806 Pict-73: Alternative 1. Serpent (?) entwined around a pillar with capital (?); motif carved in high-relief.

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Alternatives: ko_lam = form (Ta.Ma.) Rebus: kol ‘metal’ kan.d.a kanka ‘rim of pot’; rebus: kan.d. ‘altar, furnace’ + kan- ‘copper’ pa~er.e~ = overflow channel of a tank (Santali). Rebus: articles of joint family (pa~er.e~ ) (Santali). Alternatively, the endless-knot motif which follows the pair of signs (following Text 2813, for example) may be read as: me~e.he~t = iron (Santali) The entwined stones around a pillar or an entwined snake glyph: mer.hao = v.a.m. entwine itself; wind round, wrap round roll up; mar.hna_ cover, encase (H) (Santali.lex.Bodding) [Note: the endless-knot motif may be a rebus representation of this semant. ‘entwine itself’]. med.ha_ = curl, snarl, twist or tangle in cord or thread (M.); meli, melika = a turn, a twist, a loop, entanglement; meliyu, melivad.u, meligonu = to get twisted or entwined (Te.lex.) merhao = twist (Mun.d.ari) Rebus: melukka ‘copper’ 34

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Alternative 1: (sharp weapon; sharpness connoted by the ‘knot’ glyph): Substantive: patam = sharpness (as of the edge of a knife)(Ta.); padm (obl. Padt-) temper of iron (Ko.); pada = keenness of edge or sharpness (Ka.); hada = sharpeness (as of a knife), forming (as metals) to proper degree of hardness (Tu.); padna_ sharpness (Go.); padanu, padunu = sharpness, temper (Te.); padnu = sharpening (of knife by heating and hammering)(Kond.a); pato = sharp (as a blade); patter = to sharpen (Malt.)(DEDR 3907). badha = bound; bandha = tied up, hindered; bandh = an iron band round the nave of a cart wheel to prevent it from splitting (Santali) paddu = item, entry in an account (Te.); poddu – thing, item (Pa.)(DEDR 3919). pantam = torch, lamp (Ta.); torch (Ma.); pantye small lamp (Tu.)(DEDR 3919). [Note the procession carrying the standard device, the one-horned bull and perhaps a torch in front.] badhor, badhor.ia = crooked, cross grained, knotty (Santali.lex.) badhoria ‘expert in working in wood’(Santali) Alternative 2: melh ‘copper’; rebus: mer.hao ‘entwined’; mer.hao = to entwine itself, wind round, wrap around, roll up (Santali.lex.) [Note the endless knot motif]. Glyph: malukku slip-knot (Ta.); malaku a turn, twist, fold (Ka.); mala-gonu to be twisted; maluku a turn, slip-knot (Te.)(DEDR 4734). Melukka = copper (Pali) Alternative 3: d.on.t.ho ‘knot’; rebus: d.hon.d. ‘stone-cutter’ Glyph: d.on.t.ho, dhon.t.ho, dhon.t.o a knot (Santali) d.hon.d.-phod.o [M. dhon.d.a_, a stone] a stone-cutter, a stone-mason; d.hon:d.-jhod..o [M. dhon.d.a_ a stone + jhod.avum] a stone-cutter; a stone-mason; d.hon.d.o a stone; a blockhead; a stupid person (G.) Considering that on the cylinder seal impression from Sumer the motif of ‘endless-knot’ is shown together with a chariot accompanied by persons carrying weapons and also a dog, the entire glyptic could be related to a hunting expedition. This is consistent with the other part of the cylinder seal on the top register depicting a boat journey, also accompanied by a person carrying a spear. Thus, the ‘endless-knot’ as a glyph should be related to semant. ‘attack’ or ‘killing’. The association of the ‘endless-knot’ glyph with the ‘svastika’ glyph points to both the glyphs as related to the description of a weapon. If the ‘endless-knot’ means rebus ‘killing or attacking’; the ‘svastika’ rebus may mean ‘knife or dagger’, i.e., a weapon sharp enough or pointed enough to kill or be used in a hunting expedition. The glyphs and rebus representations may thus be deduced as: krandas ‘attack!’ ‘kil!’; rebus: grantha ‘knot’ glyph. satthiya ‘knife, dagger’; rebus: svastika glyph.

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Such a decoding is consistent with the depiction of the ‘knot’ glyph on a copper ax-head or knife from Rojdi. It is a weapon for krandas! Knife to kill! granthi = knot (RV. 9.97.18); ga_n.t.ha (H.); granthin = twined together (RV 10.95.6); granth = to tie together (Vedic lex.) L051a Seal. granthi = honey-comb (Pa_n. 4.3.116, Va_rtt.); cf. Nir. 1.20; granthi = knot of a cord, knot tied in the end of a garment for keeping money (Pan~cat.); a knot tied closely and therefore difficult to be undone, difficulty, doubt (Ch.Up.); granthila = knotted, knotty; grath = to be crooked (Dha_tup. 2.35); granthi = crookedness (Skt.lex.) gan.t.lu (pl.), gan.t.i = hole bored in ears for ear-rings (Te.lex.) brahma granthi = a sort of knot holding together the ends of dwija's sacred thread; gan.t.u = a knot (Te.lex.) grathana_ = tying, binding, ensnaring; grathita = strung, tied (RV 9.97.18; S'Br. 11) (Skt.lex.) kranta = the meeting place of cross-roads; a lane; a hole (Te.lex.) A remarkable demonstration of (1) the continuity of the motif of endless knot in the Indian civilization from ca. 3rd millennium BC upto the 17th cent. AD.and even today, in South India; and (2) the parallel use of the motif of the endless knot in Mesopotamian civilization ca. 3rd millennium BC. grantha = a book or composition in prose or verse; a code; grantha lipi = one of the various characters used in writ (Ka.lex.) krandas = battle-cry, army (RV 10.121.6) yam krandasi_ avasa_ tastab ha_ne 'dya_va_pr.thivyau' (Vedic.lex.) krath = to hurt, kill (Dha_tup. 19,39; caus. kra_thayati, to hurt, injure, destroy (with gen. of the person hurt, Pa_n. ii, 3.56, Dha_tup. 34.19); krathana = cutting through (as with an ax); slaughter, killing (Skt.lex.) krathana = killing, slaughter (Ka.lex.) gan.t.u = to cut, to wound; a wound, hurt; gan.t.i = a wound (Te.lex.) kr.ta = injured, killed; kr.ti = hurt, hurting, injuring; a kind of weapon, sort of knife or dagger (RV 1.163.3) (Skt.lex.) krandukayyamu = tumultuous mob fight (Te.lex.) krandadi.s.t.i = having roaring speed or moving with a great noise, said of Va_yu (RV 10.100.2); kranda = a cry, neighing (AV 11.2.22); a cry, calling out (AV 11.2.2 and 4.2) krandanu = roaring (RV 7.42.1); krandya = neighing (TBr. 2.7.7.1, parjanya krandya); krandana = crier; crying out; mutual daring or defiance, challenging (Skt.lex.). khar. = a call to cattle (Santali.lex.) khat. khat. = with a swish, thud, as of a horse's hoofs (Santali.lex.) kharajru = quick in motion (RV 10.106.7)(Vedic.lex.) kranditamu, krandanamu = cry, lamentation; krandillu = to sound, to resound (Te.lex.) kratha = name of a race always named with the Kais'ikas and belonging to the ya_dava people; name of an Asura (MB h. 2.585; Skt.lex.) kranta = the betrothal presents taken to the bride from the bridegroom's house (Te.lex.) grantha = giving, da_na; bha_gi, vibha_ga (Ka.lex.)

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grantha = wealth, property (Ka.lex.) Inscribed objects containing the 'endless knot' 5 Glyph: The endless knot = kra_nta, ga_n.t.ha (Hindi) and hence is shown together with the chariot. [cf, Lagash. Early Dynastic Seal with a variant of the endless knot. After Amiet 1980a: pl. 83, no. 1099.] Substantive: kra_nta = invading, attacking (Skt.lex.) In the Tantra tradition, Bha_ratavars.a is divided into three parts called kra_nta-s: vis.n.u-kra_nta, ratha-kra_nta, as'va-kra_nta each part having 64 tantra-s attached. Land east of the Vindhya ranges, extending upto Ja_va is Vis.n.u-kra_nta; the region north of Vindhya including maha_ci_na is as'va-kra_nta and the rest of the nation is as'va-kra_nta. krandas = n. battle-cry; du. two contending armies shouting defiance [heaven and earth: Sa_yan.a] yam krandasi_ sr.latayati_ vihvyete pare vara ubhaya_ amitra_h sama_nam cid ratham a_tasthivalatasa_ na_na_ havete sa jana_sa indrah RV 2.012.08 Whom (two hosts), calling and mutually encountering, call upon; whom both adversaries, high and low, (appeal to); whom two (charioteers), standing in the same car, severally invoke; he, men, is Indra. [Whom (two hosts): yam krandasi_ sanyati_ vihvayete = whom, crying aloud, encountering (two), invoke; the substantive is supplied: rodasi_, heaven and earth; or, dve sene, two armies; whom (two charioteers): here also a substantive is supplied: rathinau, two charioteers; or Agni and Indra]. s'u_ro va_ s'u_ram vanate s'ari_res tanu_ruca_ tarus.i yat kr.n.vaite toke va_ gos.u tanaye yad apsu vi krandasi_ urvara_su bravaite RV 6.025.04 The hero, (favoured by you), assuredly slays the (hostile) hero by his bodily prowess, when, both excelling in personal strength, they strive together in conflict, or when, clamorous, they dispute for (the sake of) sons, of grandson, of cattle, of water, of land. yam krandasi_ avasa_ tastabha_ne abhy aiks.eta_m manasa_ rejama_ne yatra_dhi su_ra udito vibha_ti kasmai deva_ya havis.a_ vidhema RV 10.121.06 Whom heaven and earth established by his protection, and shining brightly, regarded with their mind, in whom the risen sun shines forth -- let us offer worship with an oblation to the divine Ka. If gand.en to prick (Kol.); ka~_d.u to enter, penetrate, pierce, pass through (as arrows)(Te.)(DEDR 1178) ka_n.d.a arrow (G.) kan.i_ arrow (G.); kan.ai arrow (Ta.); kan.ayam spear, club (Ma.); kan.aya a kind of spear or lance (Pali.Skt.)(DEDR 1166) is rebus for ga~t. ‘knot’, the svastika glyph may be cognate with sutki_ ‘an instrument of stone-splitters, hammer’. Thus, a warrior riding a chariot may carry both weapons: hammer and arrow (or spear or club). The importance of the glyph denoting svastika may be seen from the composition in m0488 tablet in bas relief. It occupies the center of the field and is flanked by an elephant and a tiger looking back: m0488Atm0488Btm0488Ct 2802 Prism: Tablet in bas-relief. Side b: Text +One-horned bull + 37

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standard. Side a: From R.: a composite animal; a person seated on a tree with a tiger below looking up at the person; a svastika within a square border; an elephant (Composite animal has the body of a ram, horns of a zebu, trunk of an elephant, hindlegs of a tiger and an upraised serpent-like tail). Side c: From R.: a horned person standing between two branches of a pipal tree; a ram; a horned person kneeling in adoration; a low pedestal with some offerings. On side B of a tablet (h177), kneeling person is shown in prayer in front of a standing person under an arch decorated with a toran.a of ficus leaves. Glyph: sal a gregarious forest tree, shorea robusta; kambra a kind of tree (Santali) Substantive: sal workshop (Santali)

m0482At m0482Bt 1620 Pict-65: Gharial (or lizard), sometimes with a fish held in its jaw and/or surrounded by a school of fish. On tablet m0482, the svastika follows the glyph of a tree branch ‘aduru’; hence the two signs may be read as: aduru ‘metal’ + satthiya ‘knife, dagger’ (s’akti –Skt.) swadhiti (RV.AV.) sathiya_ (H.) knife, dagger; sathia_, satthaka = knife (Pkt.Ka.)

h629

h104

m1225A m1225B. 1311 Cube seal with perforation through the breadth of the seal Pict-118: svastika_ , generally within a square or rectangular border.

m0507At

m0507Bt

3350

m0508At

m0508Bt

3352

Rao finds the svastika motif more common in Mesopotamia than in the Sarasvati civilization. Paul Amiet suggests an Iranian origin for the svastika motif. [Paul Amiet, 1961, La glyptique Mesopotamienne Archaique, Paris] Yaudheya coin. Godess Sas.t.hi on reverse. S.an.mukha with lance on obverse. Lucknow State Museum. A remarkable legacy of the Sarasvati Sindhu inscriptions is echoed in the glyphs of a svastika_ above tree on railing (Journal of the Numismatics Society of India, Vol. V, Pt.I, June 1943) This is obviously a rebus pun on the word: satthi, s’akti, spear, sas.t.i = six, satthika = auspicious 38

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symbol. The tree may be also be a rebus representation. Godess S'as.t.hi. Mathura, 2nd cent. Mottled red sandstone 67.8 X 34.5 cm (MIK I 5924). "The godess lifts her right hand in a gesture of salutation that is typical of the Kushana period. The hand is slightly turned inwards, towards the body (vya_vr.tta-mudra). Her left arm, which bends outward, rests on her hip. She wears a broad girdle, a thin band around the waist, and aa sash over the shoulders and arms. her jewellery comprises earrings, a braod necklace, and bangles... on the large nimbus, which occupies the entire upper half of the stele, five more female figures are seen, which seem to emanate from the main figure. Each of the secondary figures have both arms lifted, perhaps in an expression of joy. They hold certain objects in their hands which are difficult to identify... the large size of the present stele suggests that it was meant for a temple..." (Heino Kottkamp, Exhibit 26 in: Saryu Doshi, ed., 1998, Treasures of Indian Art: Germany's tribute to India's cultural heritage, Delhi, National Museum, p.33). Two seals found at Altyn-depe (Excavation 9 and 7) found in the shrine and in the 'elite quarter'. V.M. Masson, Seals of a Proto-Indian Type from Altyn-depe, pp. 149-162; V.M. Masson, Urban Centers of Early Class Society, pp. 135-148; I.N. Khlopin, The Early bronze age cemetery in Parkhai II: The first two seasons of excavations, 1977-78, pp. 3-34 in: Philip L. Kohl (ed.), 1981, The Bronze Age Civilization in Central Asia, Armonk, NY, ME Sharpe, Inc. "The discovery in Altyn-Depe of a proto-Indian seal with two signs deserves special mention. V.M. Masson pointed out, that what the seal depicted was a pictogram and not just a representation of animals. In his opinion this means that some of the ancient residents of Altyn-Depe were able to read this text.”(G. BongardLevin, 1989, Archaeological Finds in Central Asia throw light on Ancient India, Jagdish Vibhakar and Usha Gard (Eds.), Glimpses of Ancient India through Soviet Eyes, Delhi, Sundeep Prakashan). Text 4500 (Incised miniature tablet; not illustrated).

Early Dynastic seal, depicting an endless knot motif facing the turned face (krem-) of a battling tiger (kol-kamar, smelter-smith); Lagash. [After Amiet, 1980, pl. 83: no. 1099] Terracotta stamp seal, Taxila, c. 1st cent. CE. [After Parpola, 1994, fig. 4.6]

m443At m443Bt m1356 The seals m443 and m1356 show the endless knot motif together with the svastika_ glyph. The semantics connoted: me.rha, ‘twisted; leader, merchant’s clerk, med.h’; svastika_, ‘caravan’; the Sumer cylinder seal impression showing a chariot-rider and a caravan, by adding the endless knot motif as a semantic determinant is a depiction of a merchants’ caravan, med.h svastika_. Instruments: cutti, kan.aya (hammer and spear) Alternative readings of glyphs: ‘endless knot’ and ‘svastika’: sutki_ an instrument of stone-splitters (M.); cutti, cuttiyal small hammer (Ta.); cutti, cuttika, tutti hammer (Ma.); suttige id. (Ka.); sutti, suttige, suttiye, suttee, suttye id. (Tu.); suttee id. (Te.Go.); suthi id. (Kuwi); (DEDR 2668). 39

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Glyph: ga~t. knot (Santali) grantha a knot; fr. granth to tie (Skt.) gat.t.ho knot (G.) sva_tta (Av. hva_sta) sweetened, seasoned, well-cooked (Vedic.lex.) s'uti_ ashes (Ash.); s'ut earth (Kt.)(CDIAL 3709). suti extraction of soma juice (Skt. lex.) suti (Tadbhava of s'ruti) the Ve_da (Ka.lex.) sutti-ttal to calcine medicine, refine metal (Tailava. Taila. 109); cutti-ceytal to refine, sublimate (Ta.); sutam < s'ruta sacred books (Tirunu_r-. 52); curuti < s'ruti Ve_da, as learnt orally and not from written text (Tiva_.); cuti id. (Ta.); suti (Te.Ka.Tu.)(Ta.lex.) sutva an offerer of soma juice; a student who has performed his ablutions (Ka.lex.) suta_vant = sr.taso_ma having the soma pressed (RV. iii.25.4); suta_suta what is extracted and what is not extracted; suti pressing; impelling (Vedic.lex.) suta-kri purchased with the Soma (RV. vi.31.4); suta-pa_ drinking the Soma-juice (RV. i.155.2); suti pressing; impelling; sutya_ pressing of the Soma; sutvan id. (RV. x.99.1)(Vedic.lex.) suta poured out, extracted, expressed; su_ta impelled, sent, despatched; su_tye expressing or drinking the soma juice (at a sacrifice) (Ka.lex.) chuai grinds, presses (Pkt.)(CDIAL 3710). Svastika_: A marker of Bronze-age civilization in Bha_rata; its significance in the context of bronzeworking in Bha_rata with parallel imageries of Cyprus An interesting point is that some scholars agree that the model for the symbol of svastika_ must have been an object, known and useful throughout the ancient world. [Thomas Wilson, 1896, The Svastika_. The earliest known symbol, and its migrations; with observations on the migration of certain industries in prehistoric times, Washington DC, The Smithsonian Institution, US National Museum, Washington DC].

Svastika_ and Endless knot: sword and instrument of stone-splitters: satti, suta

su_tika = a woman in childbed; su_ti = birth, delivery, parturition; offspring, progeny (Te.lex.) cu_ttu = anus, buttocks, pudendum muliebre; cu_r-u anus (Ta.); testicles, penis (Ma.); suti = female urinal passage (Kui); cu_ta, cu_ti, cyuti = anus (Skt.)(CDIAL 4860)(DEDR 2724). kundrka_ (Kur.); kunde = to be born, be created (Malt.) [Note a glyph: a woman giving birth]. sutti, suttige, suttiye, sutte, suttye hammer (Tu); sutte (Te.Go.); suthi (Kuwi); sutki_ = an instrument of stone-splitters (M.)(DEDR 2668) Cylinder seal impression, depicting an endless knot motif above the horses drawing the chariot; Sumer, c. 2500 BCE. [After Amiet, 1980: pl. 108, no. 1435]; the charioteer is a su_ta. cur-r-u = to turn around, spin, take a circuitous course, be coiled, lie encircling, encircle, entwine, surround, coil up, whirl (Ta.); cur-ayuka = to turn around, wriggle (Ma.); suttu = to surround, wrap round, wind, circumambulate; coiled metal ring, coil, a turn (Ka.); sut.t.are = a whirlwind (Ka.); cutt- to wind around (Kod.); suttuni = to wind, roll, wrap, swurround (Tu.); cut.t.a = loop, coil (Te.); cutt- to wind round (Pa.); sut- to twine (rope)(Go.)(DEDR 2715). sutam = thread, yarn, any flimsy substance produce by insects, such as spiders, silkworms (Santali.lex.) su_tra = thread (Skt.) su_tradha_rud.u = a carpenter; a stage-manager (Te.lex.) 40

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su_tamu = mercury (Te.lex.) su_tye = expressing or drinking the soma juice (Ka.lex.) [Note the glyph of two persons drinking in a Mesopotamian seal]. su_tud.u = a charioteer; a carpenter; a bard, an encomiast, a reciter or teller of epics (Te.lex.) su_ta = a charioteer, driver, groom, equerry, master of the horse (esp. an attendant on a king who in earlier literature is often mentioned together with the gra_ma-n.i_; in the epics also a royal herald or bard, whose business was to proclaim the heroic actions of the king and his ancestors, while he drove his chariot to battle (AV); a carpenter or wheelwright; su_takarman = the office or service of a charioteer; su_tagra_man.i_ (Ka_s’ on Pa_n. 7.1.56) an equerry and the chief of a village (S;Br.); su_tatva = the business or condition of a charioteer; su_ta f. the daughter of a charioteer (Pa_n. 6.3.70, Va_rtt. 9, Pat.)(Skt.lex.) mer.ha = twisted, crumpled, as a horn (Santali.lex.) meli, melika = a turn, a twist, a loop, entanglement; meliyu, melivad.u, meligonu = to get twisted or entwined (Te.lex.) [Note the endless knot motif]. me_t.i, me_t.ari = chief, head, leader, lord, the greatest man (Te.lex.) mehto [Hem. Des. med.hi = Skt. van.ik-saha_ya: a merchant’s clerk, fr. Skt. mahita praised, great fr. mah to praise, to make great] a schoolmaster; an accountant; a clerk; a writer (G.lex.) milakat [Ar. Milkate] property; estate; effects; chattels; goods (G.lex.) mleccha = a man speaking any language but Sam.skr.ta and not conforming to brahmanical institutions; a kira_ta, s’abara or pulinda etc.; mleccharene kod.ava kod.agaru…kod.ava kon:garu (Ka.lex.) med.i = sound, roar (TS 5.7.8.1); methis.t.ha = worthy of hearing (TBr. 2.7.6)(Vedic.lex.) mleccha = a man speaking any language but Sam.skr.ta and not conforming to brahmanical institutions; a kira_ta, s’abara or pulinda etc.; mleccharene kod.ava kod.agaru…kod.ava kon:garu (Ka.lex.) mlaskati = to snap with tongue (Slovan)(Vedic.lex.) mle_ch = speak indistinctly (Skt.); mle_cchati speaks indistinctly (S’Br.) brichun, pp. bryuchu = to weep and lament, cry as a child for something wanted or as motherless child (K.)(CDIAL 10384). milakkha, milakkhu non-aryan (Pali); malak savage; malaki-du_ a Vadda_ woman (Si.); mila_ca wild man of the woods, non-aryan (Pali); maladu wild, savage (Si.); mi_cuth, mi_catas habit or life of an outcaste (K.)(CDIAL 10390). mle_ccha = nonaryan (S’Br.); maleccha, miliccha, meccha, miccha = barbarian (Pkt.); mi~_ch, mi~_cas non-hindu (K.); milech, malech Moslem, unclean outcaste, wretch (P.); mele_ch dirty (WPah.); mech a Tibeto-Burman tribe (B.); milidu, milindu wild, savage (Si.)(CDIAL 10389). mer = a kind of large copper or brass pot (G.lex.) cf. melukka = copper (Pali); mleccha = copper (Skt.) mlecchamukha = copper; what has the copper-coloured complexion of the Greek or Mahomedans]. mer-iya = a rock; mer-ayu = to shine, glitter (Te.lex.)

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Finds of svastika on seals and finds of weapons Svastika_ glyph occurs on over 50 inscribed objects of the civilization. "A copper blade (Marshall 1931: pl. 136, f.3) found in one of the upper levels, though termed a spearblade, may conceivably have been a knife (Plate IX, no.1). An exactly similar blade, but with a slightly longer tang, was found in the A mound at Kish (Mackay 1929a: pl. 39, gp. 3, f.4)... attention should be called to a steatite seal from Kish, now in Baghdad Museum, which bears the svastika symbol. This seal, both in shape and design upon it, exactly resembles the little square seals of steatite and glazed paste that are so frequently found at Mohenjodaro (Marshall 1931: pl. 144, f. 507-15). “I do not think that I err in regarding the Kish example, which was found by Watelin, as either of Indian workmanship or made locally for an Indian resident in Sumer... The curious perforated vessels shown (Marshall 1931: pl. 84, f. 3-18) are very closely allied to perforated vessels found at Kish (Mackay 1929a: pl. 54, f. 36), especially in the fact that besides the numerous holes in the sides there is also a large hole in the base, which suggests that by this means they were supported on a rod or something similar... I have suggested, from evidence obtained by Sir Aurel Stein in southern Baluchistan, that these perforated vessels were used as heaters...(E.J.H.Mackay, Further links between ancient Sind, Sumer and elsewhere, Antiquity, Vol. 5, 1931, pp. 459-473).

Partner, merchant, belonging to a caravan

satthika = belonging to a caravan (Pali); satthia (Pkt.); sothi = comrade (K.); sa_thi = comrade (S.); sa_thi_ = partner, opponent (L.); sa_tthu~, sa_thi_ = comrade (P.); sa_thi (N.B.Or.Aw.H.Marw.G.M.)(CDIAL 13366). Sa_thi = companionship, friendship (Or.)(CDIAL 13367). sattha = caravan (Pali.Pkt.); sa_t.ha = village (Pas’.); sa_t. (Par.); sa_th = company (K.); sa_thu = caravan (S.); sa_th small caravan (L.); company (P.); sa_thu_ = company, train (Oaw.); sa_th, poet. Sa_tha_ (H.); sa_tha = a group of people (H.); sa_th, sa_thva_ro = company of travelers (G.); sa_th = company, companionship (M.); sa_thi = companionship, friendship (Or.); sa_th, sa_t = with (Tor.); sa_ti (Sh.); sa_th (P.); sa~_th (Ku.); sa_tha (N.); sa_the, sa_th (B.); sa_tha (Or.); sa_th (Mth.Bhoj.Aw.H.); sa_thi_ (Marw.); sa_thim (OG.); sa_thi_ for the sake of (M.); sa_rtha = caravan, troop, company (MBh.); sa_rthena = in company with (Skt.)(CDIAL 13364). Satthava_ha = caravan leader (Pali.Pkt.); satthavaha, sattha_ha (Pkt.); sa_tha_ = fellow-traveller, pilgrim, guide (B.); sa_thava_hu = caravan leader (OG.); satvu~ = merchant (Si.); satthava_hika = caravan leader (Pkt.); sa_thuya_, sa_tho = pilgrim’s guide, companion (B.); sa_rthava_ha = caravan leader (MBh.)(CDIAL 13365). sa~_t = companion (Sh.); sa_th, sa_t = partner (M.); sa_than. = companion (M.); sa_thin (H.); satthuna = friend (Pali); sa_rthin = companion on a journey, merchant (MBh.)(CDIAL 13366). Cf. sa_th [Hem. Des. sattharo = Skt. samu_ha, a group; fr. Skt. sa_rtha, a caravan] company, society, association; fellowship; a partner; a company of persons on a visit of condolence (G.lex.) This interpretation is suggested because the des’i_ phonemes for svastika_ are: suvatthi, sotthi = wellbeing (Pali)(CDIAL 13913). sa_thiyo = auspicious mark painted on the front of a house (G.)(CDIAL 13917). svastika_ is the emblem of the seventh deified teacher of the present era (Jainism)(G.lex.) The symbol or the word, 'svasti' becomes an invocatory message on many epigraphs of the historical periods in Bha_rata.

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svasti welfare, health, prosperity, blessing; joy, happiness, bliss (Ka.); goodness; may it be well! hail! health!; so be it! amen!; an auspicious particle used at the beginning (of a letter etc.)(Ka.lex.)svasti good fortune (RV.); suvatthi, sotthi well-being (Pali); s'vasti (NiDoc.); satthi, sotthi welfare, blessing (Pkt.); seta good fortune (Si.)(CDIAL 13915). 3349.Image: svastika: sathiya_, satiya_ mystical mark of good luck (H.); sa_thiyo auspicious mark painted on the front of a house (G.); sotthika, sotthiya auspicious (Pali); satthia, sotthia auspicious mark (Pkt.); svastika auspicious; auspicious mark (R.)(CDIAL 13916). svastika auspicious mark (R.); sotthika, sotthiya auspicious (Pali); satthia, sotthia auspicious mark (Pkt.); sathiya_, satiya_ mystical mark of good luck (H.); sa_thiyo auspicious mark, painted on the front of a house (G.)(CDIAL 13916). cf. svastha well, healthy (MaitrUp.)(CDIAL 13917). suttige rice and cocoanut kept for 'swastika', an auspicious ceremony; sutye to set apart some rice and/or cocoanut as an offering to a deity in order to cure some disease supposed to have occurred due to the wrath of that deity (Tu.lex.) s'asta auspicious, happy, well, right (Skt.Ka.); best, excellent (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) s's'te xuda_ God be praised (Pas'.); sattha praiseworthy (Pkt.); cust beautiful (Kho.)(CDIAL 12365). s'asya best, excellent; praiseworthy, laudable (Skt.lex.) s'asa_ praise, song of praise (RV. v.41.18); s'asta song of praise (VS. xxxiii.24; RV. iv.3.15)(Vedic.lex.) s'asti praise, eulogy; a hymn of praise (sto_tra)(Skt.lex.) s'am.s to praise, extol; s'am.str. a reciter of hymns; a praise, a panegyrist (Skt.lex.) ca_sta_ < s'a_sta_ nom. sg. of s'a_str. a village deity, aiyana_r (Cu_t.a_.); ca_sta_ppiri_ti feeding of brahmins for propitiating ca_sta_ (Na_.)(Ta.lex.) s'a_str. a teacher, an instructor; a ruler, king, sovereign; a father; a Buddha or Ji_na; or a deified teacher of the Buddhas or Jainas (Skt.lex.) s'a_s to instruct (RV. ii.28.9); to direct (RV. x.32.4); to command (RV. viii.34.1); to praise (RV. i.189.7); to guide (RV. vi.54.2); s'a_sa commander, ruler (RV. x.152.1)(Vedic.lex.) Well-being: suvatthi-, sotthi- well-being (Pa.); s'vasti (NiDoc.); satthi-, sotthi- blessing, welfare (Pkt.)(CDIAL 13915). svasti good fortune (RV.); suvatthi, sotthi well-being (Pali); s'vasti id. (NiDoc.); satthi, sotthi blessing, welfare (Pkt.); seta good fortune (Si. < *soti < sustha (CDIAL 13915). svastha well, healthy (MaitrUp.); sattha in good health (Pkt.); sasto (Gypsy); sa_stu (Phal.); sasti_ sound, healthy (Pas'.)(CDIAL 13917). suvastika_ a godess [suvatsa_ name of a Dikkuma_ri_ (Pa_rs'van.); suvaccha_ (Pkt.)]; su_ci_ fairy (Wg.Kal.)(CDIAL 13514). sotthi [svasti (Skt.) = su + asti] well-being, safety, blessing; brings future happiness; sotthi hotu hail! sotthin in safety, safely; sotthina_ safely, prosperously; suvatthi id.; sotthi-kamma a blesing; sotthi-ka_ra an utterer of blessings, a herald; sotthi-gata safe wandering, prosperous journey; sotthi-gamana id.; sotthi-bhava well-being, prosperity, safety; sotthi-va_caka utterer of blessings, a herald; sotthi-sa_la_ a hospital (Pali). sotthika, sotthiya happy, auspicious, blessed, safe; di_gha-sotthiya one who is happy for long; sotthiyya = sotiya a learned man, a brahmin; sotthivant lucky, happy; sottha_na blessing, well-fare (Pali.lex.) cottu < svam neut.nom.sing. of sva one's own (RV.)(CDIAL 13893). property, possessions of two kinds (ta_varam and cankamam); gold (Ta.); sottu (Te.Ka.)(Ta.lex.) Swastika symbol: cuvasti < svasti a Sanskrit indeclinable denoting auspiciousness, used at the beginning of inscriptions, calendars, etc.; cuvastikam < svastika a mystical mark; a yo_gic posture. svasti-va_cana ve_da recited in the presence of idols taken in procession (Ta.lex.) svastika a kind of mystical mark (shaped like a Greek cross with the extremities of the four arms bent round in the same direction)(Ka.lex.) svastika (sva_sta s'ubha_ya hitam ka) a kind of mystical mark on persons or things denoting good luck; a lucky object (Skt.lex.) svastis'ri_ a Sanskrit expression used at the beginning of inscriptions, letters, etc. to denote auspiciousness (Ta.lex.) cf. sotthika, sotthiya adj. (fr. sotthi) happy, auspicious, blessed, safe; sotthi (Skt. svasti = su + asti) well-being, safety, blessing (Pali.lex.) svasti welfare, happiness (RV. i.89.6); godess of welfare (RV. iii.38.9; TS. vi.1.5); svasti-ga_ leading to fortune (RV. vi.51.16); svasti-ta_ welfare (Aitre_ya A_ran.yaka. i.5.2); svasti-da_ giving happiness (RV. x.17.5); happy, fortunate, affording happiness (RV. vi.46.9); welfare (RV. x.101.7); leading auspiciously (AV. xiv.2.8)(Vedic.lex.) Image: svastika: sotthi-va_cakam < svasti-va_cana a portion of the Ve_das recited with a view to auspiciousness; Ve_da recited in the presence of idols taken in procession (Vina_yakapu. 15,117); co_taka-va_kkiyam mandatory precepts (Ci. Po_. Pa_. Avai. 15); co_ttam < sto_tra expr. of salutation from an inferior (Tiv. Periyati. 2,2,6); co_ttu id. (Tirukko_. 43

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173)(Ta.lex.) svasti-s'ri_ a Sanskrit expression used at the beginning of inscriptions, letters, etc., to denote auspiciousness (Ta.lex.) co_ttikam < svastika_sanam a yo_gic posture symbolic of success, which consists in sitting with legs crosswise while the body is held erect and at ease (Pirapo_ta. 44,7); cuvattika_can-am id.; cuvattikam, cuvasti, cuvatti a Sanskrit indeclinable denoting auspiciousness, used at the beginning of inscriptions, calendars, etc; cuvastikam a mystical mark denoting auspiciousness; a yo_gic posture; cuvattikam a mystical design (Vina_yakapu. 15,48); a kind of sitting posture (Cilap. 8,25); co_ki < jo_gi (Ka.) < yo_gin a caste of itinerant Telugu mendicants, who are dexterous jugglers and snake-charmers, and claim a profound knowledge of charms and medicine (E.T. ii,494)(Ta.lex.) svasti good fortune (RV.); suvatthi, sotthi well-being (Pali); s'vasti (NiDoc.); satthi, sotthi blessing, welfare (Pkt.); seta good fortune (Si.)(CDIAL 13915). svastha well, healthy (MaitrUp.); sattha in good health (Pkt.); sasto (Gypsy); sa_stu (Phal.); sasti_ adj. sound, healthy (Pas'.)(CDIAL 13917). sotthika [svasti = su + asti (Skt.)] well-being, safety, blessing; brings future happiness; sotthi hotu hail! sotthin in safety, safely; sotthina_ safely, prosperously; sotthi-kamma a blessing; sotthi-ka_ra an utterer of blessings, a herald; sotthi-gata safe wandering, prosperous journey; sotthi-bha_va well-being, prosperity, safety; sotthi-va_caka utterer of blessings, a herald; sotthi-sa_la_ a hospital; sotthika, sotthiya adj. happy, auspicious, blessed, safe; sottha_na [svastyayana (Skt.)] blessing, well-fare; sovatthika safe; in the shape of a svastika; sovatthika_lanka_ra a kind of auspicious mark; sotthivant adj. lucky, happy, safe (Pali.lex.) svasti = welfare, happiness (RV 1.89.6; goddess of welfare (RV 3.38.9; TS 6.1.5: daivi_ svastih, pathya_m svastim, 'svasti sam.jn~a_ devata_')(Vedic.lex.) svastiga_ = leading to fortune (RV 6.51.16); svastita_ welfare (RV 1.5.2); svastida_ giving happiness (RV 10.17.5); svastimant happy, fortunate, affording happiness (RV 6.46.9); svastiva_h bringing welfare (RV 10.101.7); svastiva_han leading auspiciously (AV 14.2.8); svastyayan obtainment of welfare; procuring welfare (TS 1.2.9.1)(Vedic.lex.) svastika the meeting of four roads; the crossing of the arms, making a sign like the cross (Skt.lex.) canti the cross roads, junction of three or more roads (Tirumuru. 225); cantikkarai junction where several roads meet (Ta.lex.) svastika, svastikam a particular mode of sitting practised by yogins (Skt.lex.) kattari-co_ttikam < kartari + svastika gesture with both hands in which the fore-fingers of either hand are stretched out together whilst the rest are kept bent to represent a pair of scissors, ear of corn, etc. (Parata. Pa_va. 64)(Ta.lex.) cuttika_tan-am < svastika_sana a yogic posture symbolic of success (Tirukka_l.at. 18,22)(Ta.lex.) s'ukta united, joined (Skt.lex.) s'astra an instrument for cutting or wounding, a weapon; a sword, a knife, a scymitar, korahu (Ka.); iron; s'astraka iron (Skt.Ka.); s'astra-kriye weapon-business; s'astra_ji_va living by the profession of arms: a soldier (Ka.); s'astri a knife (Skt.Ka.)(Ka.lex.) Knife, dagger, adze; iron: s'astra instrument for cutting (S'Br.); iron (Skt.); s'astraka knife, iron (Skt.); s'astri_ knife, dagger (Skt.); sattha, satthaka knife (Pali); sattha dagger (Pkt.); satthia_ knife (Pkt.); s'astir, saster iron (Gypsy); s'eitr, s'e_l, leis' knife (Pas'.); s'e_thar, s'a_htar iron (K.); satthra_ adze (P.); sat-a weapon, instrument (CDIAL 12367). satthia_ knife (Pkt.); s'astra instrument for cutting (SBr.); s'astraka knife, iron (SSkt.); s'astri_ knife, dagger (Skt.); sattha, satthaka knife (Pali); sattha dagger (Pkt.); s'astir, saster iron (Gy.); seitr knife (Pas'.); s'e_thar iron (K.); satthra_ adze (P.); sat-a weapon, instrument (Si.)(CDIAL 12367). sasa carpenter, wheelwright (Si.)(CDIAL 5621). cf. kattari (Ta.); kattarisu (Ka.) to cut with scissors, clip, snip, shear (Ta.lex.); kattarikai (Perun.. Vattava. 14,7); a dance gesture: forefinger and middle finger are held together and pointed upward, while the thumb and the little finger remain bent, the little finger being kept stretched (Cilap. 3,18, Urai)(Ta.lex.) kartari scissors, knife (Sus'r.); kattari_ id., shears (Pali); scissors, shears (Pkt.)(CDIAL 2l858). { Two semantic streams lead into two morphemes: s'astra and kartari: s'astra instrument for cutting (S'Br.); sattha, satthaka knife (Pali); sattha dagger; satthia_ knife 44

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(Pkt.)(CDIAL 12367). < kati.r knife; katy knife (Ko.)(DEDR 1204); tar-ika a kind of axe, chisel (Ta.)(DEDR 3140) < tar.c to cut (Go.)(DEDR 3146). cattiram weapon used in close combat; hand-weapon as sword, lance (Pin..); spear, javelin; iron; surgeon's knife, lancet; catti-taran-< s'akti-dhara Kuma_ra as having javelin; cattiya_n- id. (In-. Na_r-. 1); catti spear, dart (Perun.. Makata. 20,63); trident (Perun.. Makata. 14,153); catti pit in which a flagstaff is planted (Perun.. Ila_va_n.a. 6,56, Kur-ip.)(Ta.lex.) catturu < s'atru enemy, foe (Civaraka. A_yutte_va. 3)(Ta.lex.) sattha (Vedic. s'astra) a weapon, sword, knife, coll. 'arms'; often in combination: dan.d.a + sattha coll. 'arms'; satthan a_harati to stab oneself; sattha-kamma application of the knife, incision, operation; sattha-ka_raka an assassin; sattha-van.ijja_ trade in arms; sattha-ha_raka an assassin; satti (Vedic. s'akti orig. identical with 'ability, power') knife, dagger, sword; di_gha-dan.d.a-satti sword with a long handle; tikhin.a-satti a sharp knife; mukha-satti piercing words; satti a spear, javelin; satti-pajara lattice work of spears; satti-langhana javelin dance; satti-simbali-vana the forest of swords (in purgatory); satti-su_la a sword stake; sattu (Vedic. s'atru) an enemy; sattuka an enemy; satthaka a knife, scissors; dan.d.a-satthaka a knife with a handle; satthakanisa_dana (cf. Skt. nis'a_tana) knife-sharpening; sattha-nisa_na (cf. Skt. nis'a_na) id.; satthaka-va_ta a cutting pain (Pali.lex.) cf. s'astra instrument for cutting (S'Br.); sattha dagger (Pkt.); satthra_ adze (P.)(CDIAL 12367). sathiya_ surgeon, oculist (H.); astra-s'astra: s'astr. one who cuts up (AV.); s'as cut (Skt.)(CDIAL 12366); s'astra instrument for cutting (S'Br.); s'asya to be slaughtered (Skt.) (CDIAL 12368); vis'asti cuts up (RV.); 3 pl. vis'asanti (S'Br.); visase_i kills; pp. visasiya (Pkt.); bisasna_ to cut up the body, scrape, hurt, kill (H.)(CDIAL 11934). Warrior: satti (Vedic. s'akti) ability, power (Pali); yatha_ satti, yatha_ sattin, yatha_ sattiya_ as much as one can do, according to one's ability; satta (Vedic. sattva living being; satvan strong man, warrior; sant) a living being, creature, a sentient, rational being, a person; sattava (a diaeretic sattva) id.; satta-ussada teeming with life, full of people; sattha-van.ijja_ slave trade; sattatta state of having existence (Pali.lex.) sattha competent, able (Pali.lex.) Epigraphs with endless-knot motif Mcmohan cylinder seal with six signs, found in 'Swat and Seistan', unrolled photographically and the unbroken stamp-end of the seal; positive impression of the cylinder showing Harappan inscriptions (Robert Knox, 1994, A new Indus Valley Cylinder Seal, pp. 375-378 in: South Asian Archaeology 1993, Vol. I, Helsinki) The triangle motif is similar to the motif shown on M-443B. "The Seistan findspot of this seal is of great interest. Evidence exists for the movement of Indus commodities, and, therefore, Indus commercial activities in the direction of western Asia and, in return, from there to the Indus world.Evidence for the Harappan penetration of Seistan and farther to southeastern Iran is scanty but includes at least one other Indus inscription from an impression of a sherd discovered at Tepe Yahya, period IV A (c. 2200 BC) (Lamberg- Karlovsky and Tosi 1973: pl. 137)" (Knox, p. 377). Our hypothesis is that the traders with their seals, and people who travelled in Swat and Seistan, in search of minerals, were the bronze-age smiths and lapidaries of Meluhha.

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h613A

h613C

Chanhudaro49A

Chanhudaro49B

Chanhudaro50A

m0463At m0457 to 0462]

4259 Endless-knot motif?

Chanhudaro50B

m0463Bt

2813

[See also identical tablets:

Four-crosses motif on a Mohenjo-daro tablet M-463 is comparable to the same motif which appears painted on a potsherd of Malwa ware from Navdatoli, Maharashtra, c. 1700-1400 BCE. [After H.D.Sankalia, SB Deo and ZD Ansari, 1971, Chalcolithic Navdatoli: the excavations at Navdatoli, 1957-59. Poona: 216f., fig. 87: D 585 (sherd 8355 I A 13/5; After Paropla, 1994, p.55, fig. 4.4).

m1457Act

m0507At

m1457Bct

m0507Bt

2904 Copper tablet [4 out of 4 are copper tablets]

3350

m0508At

m0508Bt

3352 m0488At

m0488Bt

m0488Ct

2802 Prism: Tablet in bas-relief. Side b: Text +One-horned bull + standard. Side a: From R.: a composite animal; a person seated on a tree with a tiger below looking up at the person; a svastika within a square border; an elephant (Composite animal has the body of a ram, horns of a zebu, trunk of an elephant, hindlegs of a tiger and an upraised serpent-like tail). Side c: From R.: a horned person standing between two branches of a pipal tree; a ram; a horned person kneeling in adoration; a low pedestal with some offerings [if it is a skull, it could be man.t.ai = skull (Ta.)]. man.d.a = a branch; a twig (Te.lex.) 46

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man.d.i = kneeling position (Te.lex.) mandil, mandir = temple (Santali) ma_d.a = shrine of a demon (Tu.); ma_d.ia = house (Pkt.); ma_l.a a sort of pavilion (Pali); ma_l.ikai = temple (Ta.)(DEDR 4796). man.d.iga = an earthen dish (Te.lex.) man.d.e = a large earthen vessel (Tu.lex.) man.di earthen pan, a covering dish (Kond.a); cooking pot (Pe.); brass bowl (Kui); basin, plate (Kuwi)(DEDR 4678). man.d.e = head (Kod.)(DEDR 4682). man.d.a_ = warehouse, workshop (Kon.lex.)

m1225A

m1225B.

1311 Cube seal with perforation through the breadth of the

seal Pict-118: svastika_ , generally within a square or rectangular border.

m1389t

Rahman-dheri150

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m1240 enance) unkn01

m0332

h622

(prov h1 12

m1241 AC

m033

h623

m1242

unkn 02 3

h113

m033

h624

m1243

m0335 m1244

h625 h104

m0336

h114

m1245 h626 m0337 m1246 h115 h627 m0338

h105

h628

m1247

m0339

m1248

h1 16 h629

h106

m0340

m1249

h117 Lothal069

m0341 m1250

h107 h118

Lothal0

m034

m1251

h1 08

m0343 Lothal0

m0419acyl

m0419dcyl

h616 m0344 71 72

h109

Lothal0 m0345

h617

h618 h 110

m0419fcyl

Mehrgarh14 Svastika_ sign on a seal, ca. 2800 BCE

h619

m0346

m0347

m0348 m0435t

h1 11

h620

m1239

h621 (Not illustrated)

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Svastika_ symbol used in historical periods Stone toilet tray, Sirkap, Taxila, Stratum II (pl. g = No. 246, Marshall); Gold amulet, Svastika_, 1st cent. CE, Sirkap, Taxila (Pl. 191, No. 85, Marshall). Copper seal, svastika_, Sirkap, Taxila, stratum II, legend indistinct, pl. 55 no. 27, Marshall).

[Pl. 27, Svastika_ symbol: distribution in cultural periods]

[Pl. 28, A, Ramnagar, Lotapur, Mamdar, Singavaran: Punch-marked coins]

[Pl. 28, B to E: svastika_ symbol on punch-marked/cast copper coins]

[Pl.28, F: Ujjayini, copper coins with svastika_ symbol]

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[Pl. 28, G to J, Taxila, Ayodhya, Arjunayana, Sibis, Kun.inda, Kuluta, yaudheya, S’a_tava_hana coins: Svastika_ symbol] Thomas Wilson, [curator, Department of Prehistoric Anthropology], notes: “(svastika_) is characterized by straight bars of equal thickness throughout, and cross each other at right angles, making four arms of equal size, length and style.” While not finding definitive clues as to its time or place of origin, Wilson concludes that the svastika_ was perhaps the first symbol to be made with ‘a definite intention’ and a continuous or consecutive meaning, the knowledge of which passed from person to person. The view that the symbol may perhaps have represented a known object, is echoed by Ashley and Butts. H.J.D Ashley wrote: “In the first instance probably the svastika_ may have represented the course of the sun in the heavens revolving normally from left to right.” (1925, The Swastika: A study, The Quest, January 1925). Edward Butts noted: “…It is evident that the svastika_ figure is only emblematic of what it originally was, from the fact that it must have been a more useful device and of very necessary application to have forced itself into the needs of so many widely distributed localities.” [1901, Statement No.1: The Swastika, Kansas City, Franklin Hudson Publishing Co.] Friedrich Max Mueller characterized the symbol with its hooks facing left-ward as suavastika, but there is no corroboration for such a lexeme. Wilson analyzed the occurrence of the symbol on artifacts – from funeral urns to spears – and attempted a classification by physical and symbolic properties to fathom some logic as to why the symbol has been prevalent in so many cultures for so long. It is difficult to surmise that the sign was just ornamental; it had some specific symbolic importance. Troy. Svastika_ with four birds. [Compare the two ducks shown with the symbol in Cyprus. Source: Dr. Henry Schliemann, 1885, Tiryns: the prehistorical palace of the kings of Tiryns, New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons]. “According to the migration theory (as opposed to the coincidence theory), the svastika_’s earliest known habitat is a wide territory beginning at the valley of the river Indus in India and extending westward across Persia and Asia Minor to Hissarlik (where the remains of ancient Troy were found) on the shore of the Hellespont…W. Norman Brown contented (1933, The Swastika: The study of the Nazi claims of its Aryan Origin, Emerson Books) that ‘for combined age, frequency, and perfect execution, the examples from the Indus Valley are the most interesting.’..Brown noted that the svastika_ was among India’s ‘first civilized remains, as early as 2500 BCE, possibly 3000 BCE, and appears in forms perfectly developed, in contrast with slightly older but primitive and less perfect forms found farther westward.’ More important, Brown concluded that it existed in India before the arrival of the Aryans. ‘Like other symbols which the Aryans of India used on coins and stone sculpture, it came to them from non-Aryan predecessors. It was a simple minutia of the spoils the victors had taken from those they had vanquished.’..The svastika_ was also discovered in the early 1930s in 50

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explorations of the ancient civilization in Baluchistan (in Central Asia)…The next chronological stratuth’ (as Brown calls it) for the svastika_ appears at Hissarlik, the site of Homer’s Troy, and many older cities that had risen and perished before it...According to Brown (and contrary to Schliemann’s assertion), it was at Hissarlik or elsewhere in Asia Minor that the Indo-Europeans may for the first time have met the svastika_, but this is only a supposition.” (Steven Heller, 2000, The Swastika: symbol beyond redemption? New York, Allworth Press, pp. 28-33). W. Norman Brown who refuted the claim of Indo-European origins of the svastika_ was emphatic that the people who first used the symbol were the ‘Japhetic’ and the Indus Valley Peoples. “Whatever these various peoples were, they were not Indo-Europeans; and the Indo-Europeans, as far as our evidence indicates, did not know the svastika_ until a thousand years after the time of its earliest preserved specimens.” He further adds: “Egypt seems to have been without it (svastika_) until very late, when Greece had arisen. Ancient Assyria and Palestine, as far as I know, were also without it… Although by 2000 BCE it extended across to the Hellespont, it passed to the north of the great Semitic territory and missed that people. The jews did not use it. Early Christianity seems not to have known it. The Christians used the svastika_ only after their religion was well established in Europe.” Many bronze articles with svastika_ sign; Dates: Unknown [Source: Thomas Wilson, Report of National Museum, 1894]. Celts who were proficient bronze- and gold-workers also used the svastika_ motif.

Bronze pin-head from the Caucasus Marks of three black pottery from

svastika_ on Caucasus

Fragment of bronze

ceinture from

Koban,

Necropolis of Caucasus

Bronze pin from

Bavaria

Spearhead with

svastika_, from Germany

stylized, flower-like

Footprints of the Feet of the Buddha; note the svastika_ just below the fingers. [Source: Alexander Cunningham, 1962, The Stupa of Bharhut: a Buddhist monument, Varanasi, Indological Book House]. Cypriot artifact with svastika_. Note the symbol on the wheel of the chariot.

Ireland. Triskelion on Cypriot artifact with

carved wood. svastika_ flanked by two ducks.

Altar from south of France. Cypriot artifact with svastika_ on the shoulder of the warrior holding a bull model in his left hand; his hind-part is the hind-part of a bull? 51

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Ancient coins of Bharat with svastikas, normal and ogee (After Figs. 231 to 234 in Thomas Wilson, opcit). The coins were found by Cunningham at Behat near Shaharanpur. E. Thomas assigns them to about 330 BCE. (Edward Thomas, Jour. Royal Asiatic Soc. (new series), I, p. 175). The svastika sign does not appear in Indo-Bactrian (ca. 300 to 126 BCE), Indo-Sassanian (from 200 to 636 CE) or later Hindu or Mohammedan coins. The sign of svastika becomes an integral part of the temple architectural tradition and becomes a sacred symbol of the Hindu, Buddha and Jaina traditions. KTM Hegde and Ericson, J.E., 1985, Ancient Indian Copper Smelting Furnaces, in: Furnaces and Smelting Technology in Antiquity, ed. P.T. Craddock, Occasional Paper No. 48, British Museum, London, pp. 5967: The survey covered six ancient copper ore mining and smelting sites in the Aravalli (Arbuda) hills extending over a thousand kms.: Khetri and Kho Dariba in NE, Kankaria and Piplawas in the Central part and Ambaji in SW.. A large majority of mine-pits measure 7-8 metres in dia. and 3-4 metres deep showing evidence of fire-treating of the host rocks on the mine walls to widen rock joints. The evidene indicated probable mining in the chalcolithic period. Timber supports recovered from a gallery at a depth of 120 metres at Rajpura-Dariba mines in Udaipur District were radio-carbon dated to 3120+_ 160 years before the present (1987). This correlates with the zinc-containing copper artefacts of Atran~jikhera. Examples of epigraphs written with extraordinary economy in choice of glyphs A painting on a storage jar and a cylinder seal impression constitute examples of epigraphs written with extraordinary economy in choice of glyphs. A zebu bull tied to a post; a bird above. Large painted storage jar discovered in burned rooms at Nausharo, ca. 2600 to 2500 BCE. Cf. Fig. 2.18, J.M. Kenoyer, 1998, Cat. No. 8. Large painted storage jar discovered in burned rooms at Nausharo, ca. 2600 to 2500 BCE. Cf. Fig. 2.18, J.M. Kenoyer, 1998, Cat. No. 8. Nausharo.”Large, painted storage jar with a humped bull tied to a papal or sacred fig tree. A bird, possibly the egret, is sitting on the bull’s back. Further along in the panel a wild goat is tied to a tree with ball-shaped leaves or fruit. The goat has alternating hatching ot fill the body, while the humped bull is painted solid black. A geometric panel just below the rim has parallels to earlier pottery in this region and from the highlands of Baluchistan to the west. From shape and painted style, however, the vessel was clearly made at Nausharo. The designs were painted in a grey black pigment on top of a buff colored background. Found in burned rooms of Period ID (2600 – 2500 BCE) along with several other jars that were painted with similar style and motifs. 46 cm. Height, 35 cm. Minimum dia. 10 cm. Base dia.” [After Samssun 1992: 248, fig. 29.3, no.3; JM Kenoyer, 1998, p. 188 Glyphs: zebu (brahmi) bull; bird; tieto a post Lexemes:

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paghaia d.an:gra a pack bullock (Santali)adar, adar d.an:gra a brahmini bull, a bull kept for breeding purposes and not put to work (Santali); and.ren (pl. and.ran) male, man (Pe.); and.ra a male animal or bird, male (Kui); an.d.ra_ male (said only of animals)(Kur.); rebus: aduru = native metal (Ka.); ajirda karba = very hard iron (Tu.); ayil = iron (Ta.); ayir, ayiram any ore (Ma.)(DEDR 192; hence, ‘ayas’ meaning ‘metal’ in Vedic) ayo_ku_t.a, ayaku_t.a iron hammer (Pali); yakul.a sledge-hammer (Si.); yavul.a (< ayo_ku_t.a) (Si.)(CDIAL 592). ayas metal, iron (RV.); ayo_ (Pali); aya iron (Pali.Pkt.); ya id. (Si.)(CDIAL 590). adaru = a sparkle (Te.); ayir = iron dust (Ma.) at.a_r = sand (in Kathiawa_d.)(G.); adar = the waste of pounded rice, broken grains (Kur.); adru = broken grain (Malt.)(DEDR 134). ayas metal, iron (RV.); ayo_ (Pali); aya iron (Pali.Pkt.); ya id. (Si.)(CDIAL 590). yahun.u iron filings (Si.)(CDIAL 589). yakad.a iron (Si.); ayaska_n.d.a a quantity of iron, excellent iron (Pa_n..gan..) atar = fine sand (Ta.); adaru = a sparkle (Te.); ayir = iron dust (Ma.) at.a_r = sand (in Kathiawa_d.)(G.); adar = the waste of pounded rice, broken grains (Kur.); adru = broken grain (Malt.)(DEDR 134). Rebus: d.hangar ‘smith’ Vikalpa: Substantive: garn.d.a_lu a stalwart man, giant (Kod.) Rebus: gan.d.a pit (furnace) adar, adar d.an:gra a brahmini bull, a bull kept for breeding purposes and not put to work (Santali) d.hor = cow; dhotta_ = cows, cattle (Nahali) d.hor-ku = cattle (Ku.); e_k d.hat.t.o_ = a bull (BaoriLahore); d.hor = cattle, beast (H.M.); do_r (Ko.); d.ho_r.-k = cattle (Gondi); dhorai_ = shepherd (GuB.); t.o~d.a_~ = cattle (Bhili) adar. odor., adar udur fat and naked, over-grown, unwieldy; adar. odor.e calaoena he waddled away (Santali) dhur = draught cattle; either oxen or buffaloes; dhur menakkotaea se ban: = has he got plough cattle or not? (Santali) and.ren (pl. and.ran) male, man (Pe.); and.ra a male animal or bird, male (Kui); an.d.ra_ male (said only of animals)(Kur.); an.d.ya_ fierce, unmanageable (of hbulls, bullocks, and male buffaloes)(Kur.); an.d.ya a bull (Malt.); an.d.i_ra male (Skt.); an.d.ira_ id. (Or.)(CDIAL 1111; DEDR App. 7). an.d.ga, an.d.ge = testicle; an.d.ra = not effectually castrated (Santali) an.d.ia = male, of animals, birds and trees (Santali) an.t.ar, in.t.ar = shepherds (Ta.); an.t.ar id. (Ma.)(DEDR 125). ad.ar = herd of cows (Kond.a); ad.er id. (Pe.)(DEDR 84). da_yaro (Persian da_yareh a circle fr. da_yar fr. der revolving, turning, round) an assemblage; a company; a group (G.) The combination of glyphs of fish and quail; Sign 63 and Sign 64: bhed.a ‘fish’; bed.a ‘hearth’; bat.a ‘quail’; bat.a ‘iron’; i.e., furnace for (s)melting iron. bed.a ‘ingot’ may be connoted by the ligaturing:

() Signs

and

64,

bird

and

fish

Hako, ‘fish’; hako, ‘axe’; bat.a, ‘quail’; bat.hi, ‘furnace’; the ligature () = kut.ila san:gad.a, i.e. bronze furnace bhat.a = warrior bhat.i = furnace; bhat.a = kiln va_karan- = soldier d.han:gar = blacksmith hako = fish hako = axe bed.o = a ship, a vessel (G.lex.) be_d.a_ = boat (Skt.)(CDIAL 9308). bodam = sail (Santali.lex.) 53

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bat.a = a kind of iron (G.lex.) bhat.a = a furnace, a kiln; it.a bhat.a a brick kiln (Santali) h452a

4124 (bird + rimmed jar) Is it an egret?

bat.a = a quail or snipe, coturnis colurnix (Santali) Rebus: bhat.a = furnace, kiln (Santali). bat.ai = to divide, share (Santali) [Note the glyphs of nine rectangles divided.] d.hagara_m = n.pl. the buttocks; the hips (G.) d.an:go = branch of a tree (Nahali); dagan (Ku.) d.e_nga = to be suspended (Kui)(DEDR 5495) d.on:gor = hill, jungle, forest (Nahali); don:gor (Ku.); do~gar = hill, mountain (H.M.) d.o~ga_ = trough, canoe, ladle (H.)(CDIAL 5568). dhan:kar = shepherd (Nahali); dhan:gar = shepherd (Ko.M.); dha~_gar = a caste whose business it is to dig wells, tanks etc. (H.); adar, adar d.an:gra a brahmini bull, a bull kept for breeding purposes and not put to work (Santali) d.hor = cow; dhotta_ = cows, cattle (Nahali) d.hor-ku = cattle (Ku.); e_k d.hat.t.o_ = a bull (BaoriLahore); d.hor = cattle, beast (H.M.); do_r (Ko.); d.ho_r.-k = cattle (Gondi); dhorai_ = shepherd (GuB.); t.o~d.a_~ = cattle (Bhili) adar. odor., adar udur fat and naked, over-grown, unwieldy; adar. odor.e calaoena he waddled away (Santali) dhur = draught cattle; either oxen or buffaloes; dhur menakkotaea se ban: = has he got plough cattle or not? (Santali) and.ren (pl. and.ran) male, man (Pe.); and.ra a male animal or bird, male (Kui); an.d.ra_ male (said only of animals)(Kur.); an.d.ya_ fierce, unmanageable (of hbulls, bullocks, and male buffaloes)(Kur.); an.d.ya a bull (Malt.); an.d.i_ra male (Skt.); an.d.ira_ id. (Or.)(CDIAL 1111; DEDR App. 7). an.d.ga, an.d.ge = testicle; an.d.ra = not effectually castrated (Santali) an.d.ia = male, of animals, birds and trees (Santali) an.t.ar, in.t.ar = shepherds (Ta.); an.t.ar id. (Ma.)(DEDR 125). ad.ar = herd of cows (Kond.a); ad.er id. (Pe.)(DEDR 84). da_yaro (Persian da_yareh a circle fr. da_yar fr. der revolving, turning, round) an assemblage; a company; a group (G.) Rebus lexemes which get depicted as glyphs on epigraphs: aduru = native metal (Ka.); ajirda karba = very hard iron (Tu.); ayil = iron (Ta.); ayir, ayiram any ore (Ma.)(DEDR 192). darap = metal, excluding iron, money, wealth (Santali) darja = property, house and stock; khub darja menaktaea = he is very well-to-do; darja = degree, rank, station (Santali) daran:, daran: daran: = white hot, blazing hot, glowing (Santali) dr.s’ad = a stone (Skt.G.) ayas metal, iron (RV.); ayo_ (Pali); aya iron (Pali.Pkt.); ya id. (Si.)(CDIAL 590). yahun.u iron filings (Si.)(CDIAL 589). yakad.a iron (Si.); ayaska_n.d.a a quantity of iron, excellent iron (Pa_n..gan..) atar = fine sand (Ta.); adaru = a sparkle (Te.); ayir = iron dust (Ma.) at.a_r = sand (in Kathiawa_d.)(G.); adar = the waste of pounded rice, broken grains (Kur.); adru = broken grain (Malt.)(DEDR 134). d.e_r = heap (Pas’); heap, stor, granary (K.); d.her = heap, large quantity (Ku.); large lump (M.); heap (H.G.)CDIAL 5599). The early substratum forms are retained in Kannada and Telugu lexemes as: ad.aru Cognate: Skt. root dru = wood.

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ad.aru = twig; ad.iri = small and thin branch of a tree; ad.ari = small branches (Ka.); ad.aru = a twig (Te.)(DEDR 67). ad.d.o, ard.u = tree, wood (Nahali) d.ar = a branch of a tree; dare = a tree, a plant; to grow, to grow well; ban: darelena = it did not grow well; toa dare = mother, the support of life (Santali) dare kudrum = cultivated for its fibre, hibiscus cannabinus (Santali) da_ru = wood (Skt.G.) deva-da_ru (Skt.); devada_r a species of pine; dealwood (G.); devada_ri_ adj. made of fir-wood (G.) dru = wood; druma tree (MBh.); duma tree (Pali.Pkt.); duminda the Bodhi tree (Pali)(CDIAL 6637, 6639). da_rava = made of wood (Mn.); da_ru, da_ro wood (Dm.); da_rav beam, rafter (K.); da_ruvu wooden (K.)(CDIAL 6296). Da_ru piece of wood (MBh.); in RV. Nom. da_ru (gen. drun.ah, dro_h); da_ru = wood (Pali.Pkt.); dar timber, firewood (Kho.); da_r timber (Ku.N.H.)(CDIAL 6098). de_vada_ru = Himalayan cedar (MBh.); de_vada_ruka (Pali); de_vada_ru (Pkt.); di_a_r (K.); dya_r (Ku.); dya_ra_n.i deodar forest (Ku.); dewa_r (N.)(CDIAL 6531). deru, dreu-. To be firm, solid, steadfast; hence specialized senses “wood,” “tree,” and derivatives referring to objects made of wood. Derivatives include tree, trust, betroth, endure, and druid.1. Suffixed variant form *drew-o-. a. tree, from Old English tr ow, tree, from Germanic *trewam (Bartleby dictionary) ad.a_li_ = a small tray of wood (G.); Skt. a_ intense. + stha_li_, tha_l.i_ ‘a dish’; ad.uso = name of a tree (G.); at.avi_ = a forest (Skt.G.) at.a_ro = household furniture (G.) a_d.an.i_ [Dh. Des. satti_ = Skt. vakrapa_da trayam vr.ttam da_ru kalas’a_dha_ra bhu_tam, fr. Skt. sapti = a horse; or, Hem. Des. ohad.an.i_ = Skt. phalaka_rgala_ = a wooden latch] a small wooden stool on which bread is made (G.) a_d.alum = a piece of wood with which fibres or threads are twisted into a rope [Dh. Des. ohad.an.i_ = Skt.phalaka_rgala_](G.) a_d.asar = a cross beam; a beam (G.) argal.a, argala, agan.i = bolt or bar to fasten a door (Ka.); argal.amu = a wooden bolt, bar or pin for fastening a door (Te.); argoli = crossbar, rail (Kui); argala (Skt.); aggala (Pkt.)(CDIAL 629; DEDR App. 9). daran: = steep, precipitous (Santali) dar.e = strength, to vanquish, to conquer; dar.e hor = an able bodied man (Santali) da~r.e~ = a sacrifice, a victim; to devote to sacrificial purposes (Santali at.al = a kind of fish; at.alai = a marine fish (Ta.); at.ava = a kind of marine fish (Ma.); ad.ami_nu = a kind of fish; ad.a_vu id. (Tu.)(DEDR 68). dar.ka, dan.d.ka = a species of fish (Santali) darka dale = with disheveled hair; darka daleya rakeda = she weeps with her hair loose and in disorder; darkal markal, darkul markul = with disheveled hair, applied to men as ‘darkadale’ is applied to women (Santali) dar.kak, dhan.dka, d.han.d.kak = stalks of certain crops left in the ground at time of reaping; stubble, a stalk (Santali) at.avari = chin (Pe.Mand.)(DEDR 69). da_ra adj. (Persian da_r ‘keeper’ fr. da_s’tan = Skt. dhru, dh_r, to hold, to keep, to put) A Persian suffix showing ‘holder, keeper, bearer, possessor’ (G.) da_ra = a woman, wife (G.); da_ra id. (Skt.) Semantics: pounding, powdering, working in wood Glyph: “ ad.aruni = to crack (Tu.); at.aruka = to burst, crack, slit off (Ma.); at.ar = a splinter; at.arcca splitting, a crack; at.arttuka, at.attuka = to split, to tear off, open (an oyster)(Ma.)(DEDR 66). da_ravum = to tear, to break (G.) dar = a fissure, a rent, a trench; darkao = to crack, to break; bhit darkaoena = the wall is cracked (Santali) tarukku = to pound, break (Ta.); tarakkuka = to deprive rice of its husk (Ma.)(DEDR 55

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3099). at.a = flour, meal (Santali) a_t.u = to move, to shake; a_t.al = shaking, moving (Ta.)(DEDR 347) at.ava_vum = to be crushed (G.); a_t.o = crushing; flour; a_n.t.o [a_vartana, a_vr.tti] = a turn; a twist (G.)]; at.a_vum = to be pounded; va_t.avum = to pound; to ground by rubbing upon a stone with a muller; to mash (G.)[Skt. vr.tta, varta = Latin verto ‘to turn); va_t.a = an iron circle put round the wheel of a carriage; a tire (G.)] va_t.ika_ = a garden; an orchard (Skt. va_t.a ‘an enclosed space’)(G.) va_d.iyo, vha_d.iyo = a ship-builder; a carpenter; a title given to housebuilders and shipwrights; va_d.havum = to cut; va_d.ha = the edge of an instrument for cutting; a cut, a wound; reaping a field (G.) a_d.iyum = a saw (G.) da_ru-kha_num = a powder magazine; powder-works; fire-works; a liquor-shop (G.); da_ru = spirituous or vinour liquor (G.Persian) da_l-ci_ni_ [See da_ru ‘wood’ + ci_na ‘China’](G.) daru = gunpowder; daru = distilled liquor, from matkom flowers (Santali) dar cini = cinnamon (Santali) d.aren, ad.aren to cover up pot with lid (Bond.a); d.arai to cover (Bond.a.Hindi) ad.rna_ = to twist back one’s limbs or bend the body inward (as under threat of a blow)(Kur.); ad.re = to strut; ad.ro = a swaggerer (Malt.)(DEDR 108). ad.ar an attack (Ka.); at.ar to beat, strike, mould by beating (Ta.)(DEDR 77). ad.ar = harrow; a~r.gom ‘a clod crusher, a harrow without teeth; to harrow; a~r.gom bhuk ‘this hole into which the shaft to which the cattle are yoked, is inserted into the harrow’ (Santali) Alternatives: The dominant images are: khu~t., bagal.o, med.h : zebu, egret (paddy bird), post. The rebus substantives are: ku_t.a, ‘chief (kut.ha_ru, ‘writer, armourer’)’; bagal.o, ‘merchant vessel (boat)’; med.h, ‘merchant’s clerk, writer’. Hole: kud.e (Tu.); got.aru (Ka.), khod.ar (H.) [Note the glyphs of dotted circles]. khu~t.ro = entire bull; khu~t. = bra_hman.i bull (G.) khun.t.iyo = an uncastrated bull (Kathiawad. G.lex.) kun.t.ai = bull (Ta.lex.) cf. khu~_dhi hump on the back; khui~_dhu~ hum-backed (G.)(CDIAL 3902). The zebu is: khu~t., a bra_hman.i_ bull, a bull found even today in many parts of Gujarat, roaming the streets of Ahmedabad, for instance. The word may connote the rebus of kut.ha_ru, armourer or weapons maker (metal-worker), also an inscriber or writer. khu~_t.ad.um a bullock (used in Jha_la_wa_d.)(G.) khu~_t.iyum an upright support in the frame of a wagon (G.) Headless trunk: gu~n.d. ‘Bent’ glyph: kuṇḍā— f. ‘mutilation’ Pāṇ., kuṇḍati ‘mutilates’ Dhātup.] H. kuṇḍā m. ‘son born in adultery’; — Pa. kuṇḍa- ‘bent’ (CDIAL 3265). ‘Clump’ glyph: kuṇḍa— 3 n. ‘clump’ e.g. darbha—kuṇḍa— Pāṇ. [← Drav. (Tam. koṇṭai ‘tuft of hair’, Kan. goṇḍe ‘cluster’, &c.) T. Burrow BSOAS xii 374] Pk. kuṁḍa— n. ‘heap of crushed sugarcane stalks’; WPah. bhal. kunnū m. ‘large heap of a mown crop’; N. kunyũ ‘large heap of grain or straw’, baṛ—kũṛo ‘cluster of berries’. (CDIAL 3266). ‘Body trunk’ glyph: gu~n.d. trunk of body without head, applied principally to the bodies of animals which have been killed in sacrifice by beheading (Santali) Rebus: kun.d. ‘pit, fire-pit’ kūḍayati, kūḷ° RV. ‘burns’, akūlayat AitBr., kūlita- ‘burnt’ Suśr., kúṇḍatē ‘burns’ Dhātup. [If of non—Aryan origin, poss. conn. with Pa. kōḷāpa— ‘dry (of a tree)’] Pa. kuṇḍati ‘burns’; — Pk. kulukkiya— ‘burnt’, kuluṁ- caï tr. 56

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‘burns’, kullaḍa— m. ‘stove’ (cf. CULLĪ—); G. kɔ lsɔ m. ‘burning oil’; M. koḷapṇẽ ‘to be scorched’, koḷãj̈ṇẽ ‘to burn, consume’, koḷãgā m. ‘live coal’, koḷsā m. ‘charcoal’, koḷśī f. ‘charred portion of wick’. (CDIAL 3399). kuṇḍá— 1 n. (RV. in cmpd.) ‘bowl, waterpot’ KātyŚr., ‘basin of water, pit’ MBh.; H. kūḍ ̃ f. ‘tub’, kūṛ̃ ā m. ‘small tub’, kūḍ ̃ ā m. ‘earthen vessel to knead bread in’, kū̃ṛī f. ‘stone cup’; G. kũḍ m. ‘basin’, WPah.kṭg. kv́ṇḍh m. ‘pit or vessel used for an oblation with fire into which barley etc. is thrown’; J. kũḍ m. ‘pool, deep hole in a stream’ (CDIAL 3264). Ta. kuṭṭam depth, pond; kuṭṭai pool, small pond; kuṇṭam deep cavity, pit, pool; kuṇṭu depth, hollow, pond, manure-pit. Ma. kuṇṭam, kuṇṭu what is hollow and deep, hole, pit. Ka. kuṇḍa, koṇḍa, kuṇṭe pit, pool, pond; guṇḍa hollowness and deepness; guṇḍi hole, pit, hollow, pit of the stomach; guṇḍige pit of the stomach; guṇḍitu, guṇḍittu that is deep; guṇpu, gumpu, gumbu depth, profundity, solemnity, secrecy. Koḍ. kuṇḍï pit; kuṇḍitere manure-pit. Tu. kuṇḍa a pit; koṇḍa pit, hole; guṇḍi abyss, gulf, great depth; gumpu secret, concealed. Te. kuṇṭa, guṇṭa pond, pit; kuṇḍu cistern; guṇḍamu fire-pit; (Inscr.) a hollow or pit in the dry bed of a stream; gunta pit, hollow, depression. Kol. (Pat., p. 115) gunḍi deep. Nk. ghuṇḍik id. Pa. guṭṭa pool. Go. (A.) kunṭa id. ( Voc. 737). Konḍa guṭa pit, hollow in the ground. Kui kuṭṭ a large pit (Chandrasekhar, Trans. Linguistic Circle Delhi 1958, p. 2). Kuwi (S.) guntomi pit; (Isr.) kuṇḍi pond. Cf. 1818 Ta. kur̤al and 2082 Kur. xoṇḍxā. / Cf. Skt. kuṇḍa- round hole in ground (for water or sacred fire), pit, well, spring.(DEDR 1669). Glyph: sun.d. ‘trunk of elephant’ Glyph: son.d. ‘tusk of boar’ (Santali) Substantive: sund ‘pit (furnace)’. Glyph: ke.l.e, ko.l.e barking deer (Ir.); ke.yi id. (A_lKu.); ke.y wild goat (Ko.); ko.g barking deer (To.); ke.me id. (Kod..)(DEDR 2016). kel.i sheep; ewe three or four or more years old (Kho.); *kaid.ika_ (ka_-, e_d.a-) a small sheep (CDIAL 3476). [The cognate phonemes: kolum ‘tiger’ and ke.me ‘deer’; ko.l.e id. May indicate the reason why these are the only two animals which are orthographically depicted with their heads turned backwards, in a wry fashion: Substantive: khokrao ‘to carve, to cut out, scrape, gouge, hollow out’ (Santali) Glyph: kokr.e ‘to carry the head sideways, wry-necked’ (Santali)] Thus, a tiger or an antelope with head turned backwards may connote a forge where carving work is done. Alternatives (copper or alloyed metal): kol metal (Ta.) kol = pan~calo_kam (five metals) (Ta.lex.) Thus, the entwined figures of 3 or more tigers may connote an alloy of 3 or more metals. melukka ‘copper’ (Pali); rebus: melh ‘goat’ (Br.) me_dhi, me_t.hi, me_t.i, me_n.t.i = a pillar in the middle of a threshing-floor to which oxen are bound; a post to which cattle are tied; a prop for supporting the shafts of a carriage (Ka.lex.) me_t.i, me_n.i = the plough-tail (Ka.); me_di (Te.); me_r..i (Ta.Ma.)(Ka.lex.) med.hi_-bhu_ta = being the central point round which everything turns (Skt.lex.) A zebu bull tied to a post; a bird above. Large painted storage jar discovered in burned rooms at Nausharo, ca. 2600 to 2500 BCE. Cf. Fig. 2.18, J.M. Kenoyer, 1998, Cat. No. 8. cf. kut.hara = the post round which the string of the churning-stick winds (Skt.lex.) khun.t.o = a peg; the anchorage fee (of a ship); the handle of a hand-mill (G.lex.) khu~t.iyo = an uncastrated bull (used in Ka_t.hia_wa_d.); a man versed in witchcraft; a wizard (used in Surat district)(G.lex.) kut.ha_ru = an armourer (Skt.lex.) kut.ha_ra = a tree; an axe, a sort of hoe or spade; kut.ha_ru = a monkey (Skt.lex.) khun.t.um = the portion of a tree, or a plant, left in the ground; a stump (G.lex.) baka = a kind of heron or crane; an apparatus for calcining or subliming metals or minerals; name of Kubera; bakayantra = name of a particular form of retort (Skt.lex.) 57

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me_t.i = a big man, a chief, a head (Ka.Te.Ta.); loftiness, greatness, excellence, superiority (Ka.Te.); me_t.t.imai (Ta.)(Ka.lex.); me_t.i = a head-servant (Ka.Ta.)(Ka.lex.) me_t.i, me_t.ari = a chief, head, leader, lord, the greatest man (Te.lex.) met.ha (cf. men.d.a), med.ha, men.t.ha = an elephant-keeper (Skt.lex.) me_dini_sura = a bra_hman.a; me_dini_s’a = a king, a prince; me_dini = the earth, land, ground (Ka.); me_daka = spirituous liquor used for distillation (Ka.); medho_hota (medhas hota) = a sacrificial priest; name of a brahmara_ks.asa; me_de, me_dha_ = understanding, intelligence, wisdom; me_dha = a sacrifice (Ka.lex.) cf. Ahura-mazda; -mazda possibly derived from medha, sacrifice. Cf. meda [Skt. medas, fat, marrow] fat, marrow (G.lex.) meli (EI 9) same as med.i = a kidnapper of victims for sacrifices; mel-s’a_nti (SITI)(Tamil, Sanskrit) = chief priest of a temple (IEG). Rebus: med. ‘iron’ (Mundari) The bull is tied to a post. tambu = pillar (G.); stambha id. (Skt.) Rebus: tamba = copper (Santali) tamire = the pin in the middle of a yoke (Te.) Rebus: ta_marasamu = copper, gold (Te.) khun.t.a peg (Pkt.); khu~_t.a_ stump, stake, post, peg (H.); khu~_t.i_ peg (H.); khu~t.a_, khu~t.i_ stake, peg (M.)(CDIAL 3893). Pin: khu~t.a_ pin, wedge, stake, wooden post (B.); khut.nu to stitch (N.); khut.a_ peg, post (Mth.); khu~t.a_ stake; khu~t.i_ wooden pin (M.)(CDIAL 3893). gu_n.t.a, gun.t.i, gun.t.e, gu_n.t.ige peg, pin, stake (Tu.); gun.t.a, gu_n.t.a, ku_t.a peg, plug (Ka.); gud.ida id., stumpy post (Ka.); gu.t.a peg, post (Kod..); gu_t.amu stake, post, peg (Tu.); gud.ide hinge, peg, pivot (Te.); kut.t.a pillar, post (Go.)(DBIA 104). Glyph: bat.a = a quail or snipe, coturnis colurnix (Santali) h452a 4124 (bird + rimmed jar) Is it an egret? Rebus: bhat.a = furnace, kiln (Santali). bhat.a = a furnace, a kiln; it.a bhat.a = a brick iln; bhat.i = an oven, kiln, a still, a boiler, a copper (Santali.lex.) bha_t.-bhut. = frying; bhut.i-bha_t.i hasty frying (N.); bhr.s.ti = act of frying or parching (Skt.)(CDIAL 9597). Bhat.t.ha = gridiron (Pkt.); but.hu = level surface by kitchen fireplace on which vessels are put when taken off fire (K.); bat.hi_ distilling furnace (S.); bhat.t.h = grain-parcher’s oven; bhat.t.hi_ kiln, distillery; bhat.h (L.); bhat.t.h, bhat.t.hi_ furnace; bhat.t.ha_ kiln (P.); bha_t.i oven or vessel in which clothes are steamed for washing (N.); bhat.a_ brickor lime-kiln (A.); bha_t.i = kiln (B.); brick-kiln, distilling pot (Or.); bhat.hi_, bhat.t.i_ brick-kiln, distilling pot (Or.); bhat.hi_, bhat.t.i_ brick-kiln, furnace, still (Mth.); bha_t.ha_ kiln (Aw.); bhat.t.ha_ kiln; bhat. kiln, oven, fireplace (H.); bhat.t.a_ pot of fire; bhat.t.i_ forge (M.); bhras.t.ra = frying pan, gridiron (MaitrS.)(CDIAL 9656). Bhras.t.raja produced on a gridiron (Skt.); bhat.ku_har, bhat.ku_hra_, bhat.hura_, bhat.hora_ cake of leavened bre3ad (P.)(CDIAL 9657). bhat.hia_r, bhat.ia_la_ grainparcher’s shop (P.))(CDIAL 9658). Bhra_s.t.ra = gridiron (Nir.); adj. Cooked on a gridiron (Pa_n.); bha_d.a oven for parching grain (Pkt.); bhar. to roast, fry (Phal); bha_r. oven (L.); iron oven, fire, furnace (Ku.); bha_r grain-parcher’s fireplace (Bi.); bhar.-bhu_ja_ grain-parcher (Bi.N. of Ganges); bha_ru_ , pl. bha_ra_ oven, furnace (Oaw.); bha_r. oven, grain-parcher’s fireplace, fire (H.); bha_d.i oven (G.); bha_d. (M.)(CDIAL 9684). bharsa_ri_ furnace, oven (H.)(CDIAL 9685). bhad. crackling fuel (M.); bhar. Crackle, rush (H.); bhar.bhar.a_t crackling of fire (Ku.); bhar.kan.u = to blaze (S.); bhar.k flash (P.); bhar.ak flash, display (H.); bhar.ku~ blaze (G.); bhat.akvu~ to blaze (G.)(CDIAL 9365). bha_d.a [Skt. bhra_s.t.raka fr. bhrassj to parch] a kiln or oven for parching corn; a pan in which corn is parched; a large well; bha_d.iyo = an earthen pot with a hole in its side in which corn is parched (G.lex.) bhat.t.hi_ [Skt. bhr.s.ti frying] a kiln; a furnace; an oven; a smith’s forge; a stove; the fireplace of a washerman; bhat.hiya_ro an eating-house keeper; a baker, a cook (G.lex.) bat.i = a furnace for melting iron-ore (Santali.lex.) bat.hi = a furnace for melting iron-ore (the same as kut.hi)(Santali.lex.Bodding) bhat.t.hi_ = [Skt. bhr.s.ti frying; fr. bhrasj to fry] a kiln, a furnace; an oven; a smith’s forge; a stove; the fireplace of a washer-man;a spirit still; a distillery; a brewery (G.lex.) 58

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potam bele = epsilon lyrae, two small stars very close to each other, near Vega, in the constellation Lyra (Santali.lex.) potam = a pigeon, dove (Santali.lex.) pot.ea gar.ai = a species of fish; pot.ha hako = a species of fish; the fry of this fish are known as put.hi hako (Santali.lex.) Substantive: pota [Hem. Des. potti_ = Skt. ka_cah ‘glass’] beads of glass (G.) pota a boat; a raft (G.Skt.) po_tram a boat, ship (Skt.lex.) po_ta-va_kan- boatman (Can.. Aka.); po_tam vessel, ship, boat (po_tan:ko n.et.un tan-ip poruvil ku_mpot.u : Kampara_. Pal.l.ipat.ai. 68)(Ta.lex.) pota calf of leg (Pe.); pata id. (Mand.Ku.)(DEDR 4513) pot upper part of back; pottel back; adv. Behind (Pa.); pot., pot.tl, pot.t.u back (Ga.)(DEDR 4514). pota adj. ‘six’ (used in secret conversation by merchants)(G.) Tree in front. Fish in front of and above a one-horned bull. Cylinder seal impression (IM 8028), Ur, Mesopotamia. White shell. 1.7 cm. High, dia. 0.9 cm. [Cf. T.C. Mitchell, 1986, Indus and Gulf type seals from Ur in: Shaikha Haya Ali Al Khalifa and Michael Rice, 1986, Bahrain through the ages: the archaeology, London: 280-1, no.8 and fig. 112]. "No.7...A bull, unhumped, of the so-called 'unicorn' type, raises his head towards a simplified version of a tree, and two uncertain objects, one a sort of trefoil, are shown above his back. Under his head is an unmistakable character of the Indus script, the 'fish' with cross-hatchings..." (C.J. Gadd, Seals of Ancient Indian Style Found at Ur', in: G.L. Possehl, ed., 1979, Ancient Cities of the Indus, Delhi, Vikas Publishing House, p. 117). The ‘uncertain’ glyphs above the back of the bull may be: fish + Y A bird is also shown hovering above a one-horned heifer, together with a fish shown hovering over a short-horned bull in the following cylinder seal impression. Tell Suleimeh (level IV), Iraq; IM 87798; (al-Gailani Werr, 1983, p. 49 No. 7). A fish over a short-horned bull and a bird over a one-horned bull; cylinder seal impression, (Akkadian to early Old Babylonian). Gypsum. 2.6 cm. Long 1.6 cm. Dia. [Drawing by Larnia Al-Gailani Werr. Cf. Dominique Collon 1987, First impressions: cylinder seals in the ancient Near East, London: 143, no. 609] If the bird or egret denotes a furnace, what does the one-horned heifer denote? This will be analysed in detail and the analysis has been presented elsewhere. The lexeme to denote a heifer is damr.a m. a steer; a heifer; damkom = a bull calf (Santali) rebus: ta(m)bra ‘copper’; damad.i, dammad.i = a ka_su, the fourth part of a dud.d.u or paisa (Ka.M.); damad.i_ (H.) damr.i, dambr.i = one eighth of a pice (Santali) dammid.i = pice (Te.) damha = a fireplace; dumhe = to heap, to collect together (Santali) Glyph: bel [Hem. Des. ba-i-lo fr. Skt. bali_vard] a bull; a bullock; an ox (G.) vahama_na hala bali_varda = bullocks used in ploughing land (LP, IEG) balivarda = ox, bull (TBr.); baleda_, baled = herd of bullocks (L.); baledo (S.); bald, baldh, balhd = ox; baled, baleda_ = herd of oxen (P.); bahld, bale_d = ox (P.); balad, bald = ox (Ku.); barad (N.); balad(h) (A.); balad (B.); bal.ada (Or.); barad(h) (Bi.); barad (Mth.); barad (Bhoj.);. bardhu (Aw.); balad, barad(h), bardha_ (whence baladna_ to bull a cow (H.); bal.ad (G.)(CDIAL 9176). bal.ad = an ox; a bullock; a bull (G.lex.) baredi_ = herdsman (H.); baldi_ = oxherd (P.); baldiya_ cattle-dealer (Ku.)(CDIAL 9177). Rebus: bali = iron ore, iron stone sand; the Kol iron smelters 59

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wash the ore from the sand in the river bed; balgada ‘sand carried down by a flow of water’ (Santali) bal = to bore a hole, or to puncture, with a red ho iron (Santali) balimer.ed iron extracted from sand ore; mer.ed-bica = iron stone ore, in contrast to bali-bica, iron sand ore (Mu.lex.) Homograph: bal ‘to bore a hole, or to puncture, with a red hot iron’ (Santali) Glyph: bed.a hako = fish (Santali); Rebus: bed.a = either opening of a hearth (G.) . 1330 Text. zebu bull is the field symbol. [This inscription starts with a sign (right-most sign on the inscription, read from right to left) which is a variant of the 'roof or canopy or cattle-shed' pictograph included in Sign 393; on the roof is a 'flag?' (kolmo ‘rice-plant’; rebus: kolimi ‘forge’.) Sign 393 variants. The roof is: gumat.a, gumut.a, gumuri, gummat.a, gummut.a a copula or dome (Ka.); ghumat.a (M.); gummat.a, gummad a dome; a paper lantern; a fire-baloon (H.Te.); kummat.t.a arch, vault, arched roof, pinnacle of a pagoda; globe, lantern made of paper (Ta.)(Ka.lex.); gumat.a a high, huge figure of stone, representing a Jaina saint (Ka.); gummat.e id. (Tu.)(Ka.lex.) kumbutalaya place of an elephant's frontal globes (Si.)(CDIAL 3314). Rebus: kumpat.i = ban:gala = an:ga_ra s’akat.i_ = a chafing dish, a portable stove, a goldsmith’s portable furnace (Te.lex.) The infixed ‘nave-of-six-spokedwheel’ is : era, eraka; rebus: era, eraka ‘copper’. On many inscribed objects, the orthographic distinction between a small tree, a sprout and a stump is blurred and may be subject to varying rebus interpretations:

Chanhudaro28

m0482At

m0482Bt

1620

kun.d.i_ = chief of village.

m1170a

1382

Kalibangan028

Kalibangan098A

8201

Banawali10

9204

Banawali11

8038

Banawali

Banawali 9C

Banawali12

xola_ ‘tail’ (Kuruku); rebus: kole.l = temple in Kota village; koyl. = harvest; kulme = furnace (Ka.); kwala.l = Kota smithy (To.); kole.l = smithy (Ko.); kolimi = furnace (Te.); kol = blacksmith (Ta.); kolla (Ka.); koluva = forge (Te.) 60

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The U sign could be bat.i 'broad-mouthed, rimless metal vessel'; rebus: bat.i 'smelting furnace'. The structural form within which this sign is enclosed may represent a temple: kole.l 'temple, smithy' (Ko.); kolme smithy' (Ka.)

The ‘rice-plant’ is ligatured to a store-house creating Sign 395 . The store-house glyph is comparable to the two storehouse glyphs shown on Sohgaura copper plate. The storehouse can be read as: kod., kod.iyum, kahod.iyum the place where artisans work. Thus, Sign 395 which has a ligature with a ‘riceplant’ (kolma) or tail (xola_)’ glyph to Sign 393 can be read as smithy – kole.l -- with a furnace for ‘native metal’ – aduru. How to read the ‘rice-plant’ word? It is kolom ‘cutting, graft,’ (Santali.B.) ko_le ‘stump of corn’ (Te.) kolma ‘paddy plant’ (Santali) Read rebus, it connotes a forge (smithy): kolame ‘deep pit’ (Tu.); kolame, kolme ‘smithy’ (Ka.); kolla ‘furnace’(Te.) The ‘rice-plant’ glyph and its variants get ligatured to create a number of signs as shown below:

Sign 21

Sign 24 168

Sign 90

Sign 223

349

Sign 350

Sign 372

Sign 91

Sign 224

Sign 274

Sign 351

Sign 23

Signs 162 to

Sign 227

Sign 291

Sign 388

Sign 22

Sign 235

Sign 331

Sign 352

Sign 389

Sign 270

Sign 346

Sign 355

Sign 390

Sign 389 This sign is a ligature. The ‘rice-plant’ glyph is

Sign 271

Sign 347 Sign 356

Sign 395

Sign 273

Sign48 Sign 357

Sign Sign 371

Sign 405

infixed within an

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oval. The oval can be seen as an orthographic variant of two parenthetical marks () shown on Signs 64 and 65: kola_ ‘flying fish’ (Ta.) [kaulo may be derived from kola ‘fish’] bat.a ‘quail’ (Santali) Rebus: kol ‘pancaloha (alloy of five metals’ (Ta.); bhat.a ‘furnace’ (G.) bat.a ‘a kind of iron’ (G.) kolame ‘deep pit’ (Tu.) kulume (Te.) The two parenthetical marks constituting the oval as an enclosure may be read a ‘deep pit’ – kolame Thus, the enclosure glyph can be seen as a phonetic determinant of the substantive connoted by ‘rice-plant’ glyph, read rebus to connote kolame ‘deep-pit-furnace’. kot.u ‘curved, bent (Ta.) kor.va sickle (Kol.) i.e. two sickles. go_t.u state of being full grown, but hard; go_t.ad.ike a hard, inferior kind of arecanut (Ka.)(DEDR 2202). kod. 'place where artisans work’ Alternatively, the enclosure can be seen as a double (), a variant of the ‘eyebrow’ glyph. kut.i = the eyebrows (Santali.lex.) Rebus: kut.hi ‘smelter furnace’ (Santali) A third alternative is that the ‘oval’ glyph connotes an ingot. The combination of glyphs of fish and quail; Sign 63 and Sign 64: bhed.a ‘fish’; bed.a ‘hearth’; bat.a ‘quail’; bat.a ‘iron’; i.e., furnace for (s)melting iron. bed.a ‘ingot’ may be connoted by the ligaturing:

() Vikalpa: bed.o = a ship, a vessel (G.lex.) be_d.a_ = boat (Skt.)(CDIAL 9308). bodam = sail (Santali.lex.) Signs 63 and 64, bird and fish Hako, ‘fish’; hako, ‘axe’; bat.a, ‘quail’; bat.hi, ‘furnace’; the ligature () = kut.ila san:gad.a, i.e. bronze furnace There is a homograph for the ‘quail’ glyph shown on Signs 64 and 65. It is a glyph showing six numeral strokes paired with a ‘fish’ glyph:.

This is a homograph to represent words related to ‘six’ and ‘fish’. These two words can be denoted by other glyphs also. This pair of glyphs can be pronounced using Mleccha speech: kola_ ‘fish’; bat.a ‘six’ (Gujarati); rebus: kola ‘pancaloha or alloy of five metals’ (Tamil); bhat.a ‘furnace, kiln’ ; bat.hi ‘furnace for smelting ore’ (Santali) bat.a = a kind of iron (G.lex.) bhat.a = a furnace, a kiln; it.a bhat.a a brick kiln (Santali) bat.hi furnace for smelting ore (the same as kut.hi) (Santali) bhat.a = an oven, kiln, furnace; make an oven, a furnace; it.a bhat.a = a brick kiln; kun:kal bhat.a a potter's kiln; cun bhat.a = a lime kiln; cun tehen dobon bhat.aea = we shall prepare the lime kiln today (Santali); bhat.t.ha_ (H.) bhart = a mixed metal of copper and lead; bhart-i_ya_ = a barzier, worker in metal; bhat., bhra_s.t.ra = oven, furnace (Skt.) me~r.he~t bat.i = iron (Ore) furnaces. [Synonyms are: me~t = the eye, rebus for: the dotted circle (Santali.lex) bat.ha [H. bat.t.hi_ Sad.] any kiln, except a potter’s kiln, which is called coa; there are four kinds of kiln: cunabat.ha, a lime-kin, it.abat.ha, a brick-kiln, e_re_bat.ha, a lac kiln, kuilabat.ha, a charcoal kiln; trs. Or intrs., to make a kiln; cuna rapamente ciminaupe bat.hakeda? How many limekilns did you make? Bat.ha-sen:gel = the fire of a kiln; bat.i [H. Sad. bat.t.hi, a furnace for distilling) used alone or in the

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cmpds. Arkibut.i and bat.iora, all meaning a grog-shop; occurs also in ilibat.i, a (licensed) rice-beer shop(Mundari.lex.)

The ligature of the ‘rice-plant’ glyph to the three linear strokes is instructive Sign 90

We will see that this numerical hieroglyph is related to smithy (furnace)in Sarasvati civilization based on the following rebus readings and the word for three in Mleccha (Austro-asiatic and Munda survival word): kolom <kolom>(D) {NI} ``^sheaf''. #17211. Kh<kolom>(D) {NI} ``^sheaf''. Kh<kolhu>(ABD),,<kulhu>(B) {NI} ``^oil_^press''. The phonetic integrity of this reading is confirmed by the ligaturing of the glyph to the tail of antelopes on many epigraphs. The ‘tail’ glyph is homograph also connoting the same word, making it virtually a phonetic determinant. Sarasvati writing system begins with the depiction of the ‘rice-plant ‘ glyphon a potsherd. That this ain’t no mere potter’s mark becomes clear by the appearance of the glyph dominantly on hundreds of Sarasvati epigraphs. Inscribed Ravi potsherd with an early writing system (Harappa, 1998 find; after Kenoyer Slide 124). The origins of Indus writing can now be traced to the Ravi Phase (c. 3300-2800 BC) at Harappa. Some inscriptions were made on the bottom of the pottery before firing. Other inscriptions such as this one were made after firing. This inscription (c. 3300 BC) appears to be three plant symbols arranged to appear almost anthropomorphic. The trident looking projections on these symbols seem to set the foundation for later symbols such as those seen in Slide 131 (shown below) Inscribed sherd, Kot Dijian Phase (Slide 131 harappa.com) . This sign was carved onto the pottery vessel after it was fired and may indicate the type of goods being stored in the vessel or the owner of the vessel itself. Another possible explanation is that this symbol represents a deity or spirit to which the contents of the vessel were sacrificed. This symbol becomes very common in the later Indus script. Rebus: kolimi-titti =bellows used for a furnace (Te.lex. kolime= furnace (Ka. kolime, kolume, kulame, kulime, kulume, kulme fire-pit, furnace (Ka.) kolame ‘a very deep pit’ (Te.) Ka. koḷḷa a deep place, a depth, the cleft in a rock, a cave, etc. Tu. kolamè a very deep pit, abyss, hell (DEDR 2157) Ta. kol working in iron, blacksmith; kollaḷ blacksmith. Ma. kollan blacksmith, artificer. Ko. koll smithy, temple in Kota village. To. kwall Kota smithy. Ka. kolime, kolume, kulame, kulime, kulume, kulme fire- pit, furnace; (Bell.; U.P.U.) konimi blacksmith; (Gowda) kolla id. Koḍ. kollë blacksmith. Te. kolimi furnace. Go. (SR.) kollusānā to mend implements; (Ph.) kolstānā, kulsānā to forge; (Tr.) kōlstānā to repair (of ploughshares); (SR.) kolmi smithy ( Voc. 948). Kuwi (F.) kolhali to forge (DEDR 2133)

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Ta. kulai (-pp-, -tt-) to shoot forth in a bunch (as a plantain); n. cluster, bunch (as of fruits, flowers); Koḍ. kola- (kolap-, kolat-) (plant) shoots against (one who planted it; in a proverb); kole bunch of plantains. (DEDR 1810) Go. (Tr.) kōḷsānā, kōrsānā to sprout, grow (of trees, plants, etc.) (DEDR 2149). mukulayati ‘*blossoms’ (Skt.) (CDIAL 10147) Vikalpa: kolom ‘three’ (Austro-asiatic) kolmo ‘rice-plant’ (Santali) That three long linear strokes is a hieroglyph is surmised from the fact that this glyph gets ligatured (with a lid) as in:

Kalibangan029 8018 [ad.aren ‘lid’; rebus: aduru ‘native metal’; the ligatured glyph may thus connote a furnace for native metal.]

V089 V090 V091 Signs and sign variants 89 to 94 also indicate tha t the ‘plant’ glyph is ligatured to the three-linearstrokes glyph. This is an affirmation of ‘plant’ as a phonetic determinant of the three-linear-strokes glyph. The plant is ‘kolmo’ (rice plant – Santali); so is ‘kolmo’ (three) as in Austro-asiatic. See also the text 8024 on Kalibangan 065 cylinder seal; one of the two glyphs is three-long-linear strokes followed by a ‘plant’ glyph.

Kalibangan065a

Kalibangan065A6

Kalibangan065E

Kalibangan082A

8122

Let us read the ‘axe’ shown on the Chanhudaro seal, a glyph which dominates the inscription in front of the goat-antelope. What is the word for ‘axe’ in Mleccha speech? I suggest that the word is bad.hi_r – a word which can be represented rebus using hieroglyphs. The word survives in Phalu_r.a (Dardic) language. There are words – in Mleccha language community – see for example, ba_d.d.hi in Punjabi, 64

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which sound similar (rebus) which denote a professional – a carpenter, a worker in wood and iron. The Santali word is: bad.hi ‘carpenter’. And, hence the use of ‘axe’ glyph as a hieroglyph to be read rebus. There are other homographs to denote the word, bad.hi ‘carpenter’ – for example, baddhi_ ‘ox, bull’ (Nahali). Homographs baddi_ ‘ox’ (Nahali) Nahali baddi ‘bull’ Gutob of Bastar state ba_d.i_ badhi ‘to ligature, bandage, to splice’ (Santali)

m1135 the standard device.

2140 Pict-50 Composite animal: features of an ox and a rhinoceros facing

badhia = castrated boar (Santali) Gu<badia> {N} ``^boar''. *Des.<baria>(M) `pig(G), boar(M)'. Ju<baDi>(KP),,<baRi>(K) {N} ``^stick''. Syn. <DanDa>(KP); <TeGa>(M), <TheGga>(P). *O.<baDa>. Ju<badi>(M) {N} ``^dispute''%2621. #2601. <badita>(P) {N} ``^enemy''. *$??H.<badhItA> `impeded, hindered, annoyed', Sk.<badhItA>. %2630. #2610. Ju<badi>(M) {N} ``^dispute''. Go<baDi>(Z) [baRi] {N} ``^place''.

Chanhudaro23 The object in front of the goat-antelope is a double-axe.

6402 Goat-antelope with a short tail.

Weapon shapes

h189A

h189B

4341 Pict-126: Anchor?

h236A h236B Object shaped like fish or sickle? h825A h825B

4658 Incised miniature tablet.

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h237A

h237B

h232A shape of a double-axe.

5337

h232B tablet in bas relief

4368 Inscribed object in the

m0592At m0592Bt 3413 Pict-133: Double-axe (?) without shaft. [The sign is comparable to the sign which appears on the text of a Chanhudaro seal: Text 6402, Chanhudaro Seal 23]. Chanhudaro24a h816Bt

6116

4602

h817At h817Bt Inscribed object in the shape of a double-axe. One or more dotted circles. h818At

h818Bt Inscribed object in the shape of a double-axe.

h819At

h819Bt Shape of object: Blade of a weapon?

4376

5302 h821At

h821Bt Shape of object: axe.

h822At h822Bt Shape of object: axe. h233A h233B 4387 Tablet in bas-relief. Sickle-shaped. Pict-131: Inscribed object in the shape of a crescent?

h234A

h234B

4717

h236A h236B Object shaped like fish or sickle? h825A h825B

h325A writing tablet (?) h327A

h325B

h327B

h235A

h235B

4658 Incised miniature tablet.

4416 Pict-130: Inscribed object in the shape of a

5472

5483 Shape of object: Blade of a weapon?

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h326A

h326B

4564 Double-axe?

bad.hi_r axe (Phal.) vardh- = to cut (Skt.); vardhaka carpenter (R.); bardog, bardox axe (Kho.); wadok (Kal.); wa_t. axe (Wg.); wa_t.ak (Pas'.)(CDIAL 11374). bad.gi, bad.gya_ carpenter (Kon.lex.) bad.hi, bar.hi mistri, bad.hoe, bad.ohi, kat. bad.hoe carpenter (Santali.lex.) bad.agi, bad.a_yi, bad.iga, bad.igi, bad.ige, bad.igya_, bad.d.agi (Tadbhava of vardhaki) a carpenter; bad.agitana carpentry (Ka.lex.) Image: stick: bar.ga, bar.iya stick (Kuwi); bur.ga stick, club; badga walking stick (Kuwi); bar.ga, bad.ga, bad.d.e, bad.d.i, bar.iya, war.iya_ stick (Go.); bar.iya stick (Pa.); vat.i small cane or stick; vat.ippu iron rod (Ta.); vat.i stick, staff, club or armed brahmans, shaft, stroke; vat.ikka to strike; vat.ippikka to have the measure struck (Ma.); bad.i, bad.e, bod.i, bod.e to beat, strike, thrash, bang, pound; n. beating, blow, castration, a short thick stick, cudgel; bad.ike beating; bad.ige stick, staff, cudgel, hammer, mallet; bad.isu to cause to beat; bad.ukatana beating, etc.; ba_y bad.i to prevent one from speaking, silence one (Ka.); bad.i (bad.ip-, bad.ic-) to hammer, pound; ba.y bad.i- to bawl out (Kod..); bad.ipuni, bad.iyuni to strike, beat, thrash; bad.u stick, cudgel (Tu.); bad.ita, bad.iya, bad.e thick stick, cudgel (Te.); bed.ta club; bad.ya walking stick (Kol.); bad.iga big walking stick; bad.ga stick (Kond.a); bad.ge stick, staff (Pe.); bad.ga stick (Mand..); bad.ga_ cudgel, stick; bad.vin.e~ to bruise, beat (M.)(DEDR 5224). bharia a carrying stick (Santali.lex.) vad.aga_ a stick, staff (M.); bad.iko_l a staff for striking, beating or pounding; bad.i-man.i an instrument for levelling a surface by beating; bad.iho_ri a gelded young bull (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) vardhaka =in cmpd. = cutting (Skt.); ci_vara-vad.d.haka = tailor; vad.d.haki = carpenter, building mason; vad.d.hai_ = carpenter (Pkt.); vad.d.haia = shoemaker (Pkt.); ba_d.ho_i_ = carpenter (WPah.); ba_d.hi (WPah.); bar.hai, bar.ahi (N.); ba_rai (A.); ba_r.ai, ba_r.ui (B.); bar.hai_, bar.ha_i, ba_r.hoi (Or.); bar.ahi_ (Bi.); bar.hai_ (Bhoj.); va_d.ha_ya_ (M.); vad.u-va_ (Si.); vardhaki carpenter (MBh.); vad.d.haki carpenter, building mason (Pali)(CDIAL 11375). vad.hin.i_ cutting (S.); vardhana cutting, slaughter (Mn.)(CDIAL 11377). vad.d.ha_pe_ti cuts (moustache)(Pali); badhem I cut, shear (Kal.); so_r-berde_k custom of cutting an infant's original hair (Kho.); bad.n.o_ to cut, (K.); vad.han.u (S.); vad.d.han. to cut, reap (L.); ba_d.hna_ to cut, shear (H.)(CDIAL 11381). va_d.ho carpenter (S.); va_d.d.hi_, ba_d.d.hi_ (P.)(CDIAL 11568). bed.i_r sledgehammer (Kho.); bad.il (Gaw.); bad.i_r (Bshk.); bad.hi_r axe (Phal.); sledgehammer (Phal.)(CDIAL 11385). Substantive: bar, bar.i house, household; cas bari, cas bar.i farm and stock; cas, casbas cultivation; growing crops; casedale we cultivate (for a living); cas bar.i a farm, an agricultural holding; cacasic a husbandman; casa a husbandman, a farmer (Santali) ba_r [Dh. Des. dva_ra_yi_, duva_ra_i_, fr. dva_ra_n.i door, fr. dva_ra a door] a door; a courtyard in front of a house; ba_ran.um a door; a gate; an entrance; the courtyard in front of a house (G.) Substantive: harbour: ba_rum a door; a gate; an opening; a harbour; a haven; a port; the mouth or entrance of a harbour; ba_ri_ a window, a sally-port; an escape (G.) bha_ravum to keep live coals, buried in the ashes; ba_ran.iyo one whose profession is to sift ashes or dust in a goldsmith’s workshop; ran.i_ a small part of gold handedover to a goldsmith tomake ornaments of [Hem. Des. rayan.i_ fr. Skt. ratni_ a small jewel](G.) Glyph: bar, barea two (Santali) Glyph: garo eleven (Santali) Glyph: ga~r.a~ shoot springing for toot of a plant (Santali)

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Substantive: garia in comp. possessed of; doer or agent; badgaria wise; bal garia strong; d.ahgaria envious; rojgaria one who provides for daily wants (Santali) The first sign may be: kol ‘smithy, blacksmith’ of bolom ‘spear’; rebus: bal ‘iron ore’ or, dol ‘arrow’; rebus: dolan ‘a large house built of brick or stone having a flat terraced roof’ (Santali) d.olo gain, profit; an important business (G.) Glyph: fish ‘hako’; rebus: hako ‘axe’ bar, barea ‘two’; bari_ ‘blacksmith’; thus, the two heads of one-horned bulls may connote: bari_ vahoro (glyphs: two, heifers); substantive: blacksmith, trader. The nine leaves connote: lo (nine); lo (ficus); lo [loha, metal (copper)]. bari_ = blacksmith, artisan (Ash.)(CDIAL 9464). bari_, ba_ri_ (Wg.); bari_ (Kt.); ba_ri_ (Pr.) bha_ran. = to spread or bring out from a kiln (LO.); bha_rvu~ = to keep live coals buried in ashes (G.); bha_rn.e~, bha_l.n.e~ = to make strong by charms (weapons, rice, water), enchant, fascinate (M.) The staff (+ sheaf?) with a ligatured device in the center may connote: kan:gra ‘portable furnace’ (as a possession of the seal owner, together with other possessions indicated by the epigraph, text 1387). The two heads are joined into the device with dots, perhaps connoting dotted circles. A pair of beads are seen to be emanating from top of the device, below the branches with nine ficus leaves. ha_s ‘beads’; hasanti ‘furnace’

h585 Nippur; ca.

h086

4233 Kalibangan032a 13th cent. BC; white stone; zebu bull and two pictograms

Glyphs: ‘joining’ ‘a staff’; brahmani bull: ad.ar d.angra Brahman.i bull; rebus: aduru ‘native metal’; d.han:gra ‘smith’, i.e. metalsmith. Alternative: khun.t.iyo an uncastrated bull (Used in Ka_t.hia_wa_d.); khu_n.t.ad.um a bullock (used in Jha_la_wa_d.) (G.) khun.t.i ‘a post’ (Santali) khun.t.um a stump; portion of a tree or plant left in the ground; khu_n.t.iyum an upright support in the frame of a wagon (G.) khun.t.au ‘to tie or bind to a post’ (Santali) Glyph: khan:ghar, ghan:ghar, ghan:ghar gon:ghor ‘full of holes’ (Santali) Substantive: kan:gar ‘portable furnace’ (K.) kag deep pool in river (Ko.)(DEDR 1085).

m0519At

m0519Bt

1710

berga small of stature, under-sized, as an ox (berga d.an:gra okaenae? Where is the undersized ox? (Santali) [begri lapidary (H.)] 68

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d.an:gra an ox, a bullock; mun.d.ra d.an:gra a polled ox; ran:gia d.an:gra a red ox; d.an:gri cattle in general, a cow (Santali.lex.) [cf. kot.u (Ta.) > d.o_ng (Kuwi) bent, crooked (DEDR 2054). cf. mat.an:kal bending, being bent, crook, angle (Ta.)(DEDR 4645)]. d.ege old, weak (Wg.); d.a_g, d.ye_g old (Wot..); d.aga (Gaw.); d.a~_go lean (eg. of oxen)(Ku.); d.ha~_go lean; skeleton (Ku.); d.a~_go male of animals (N.); d.a_n. wicked (A.); d.a_n:ga one who is reduced to a skeleton (Or.); dan:gor lazy (Bashg.); d.angur, d.angaras fool (K.); d.an:gar stupid man (P.); d.a_n.re large and lazy (N.); d.in:gar contemptuous term for an inhabitant of the Tarai (N.); d.in:gar vile (B.); di~glo lean, emaciated (Ku.); d.in:gu crook; d.in:go crooked (S.); d.in:ga_ (L.P.); d.i~go, d.in:go abusive word for a cow (N.); d.hagga_ small weak ox (L.); d.han:garu lean emaciated beast (S.); d.hin:garu id. (S.)(CDIAL 5524). t.u_n.d.a_ decrepit (L.); t.un.d.a one who has a naturally crooked or withered arm (K.)(CDIAL 5468). d.ha~_kal., d.ha~_ku_l. old and decaying, bare of leaves etc. (M.); d.han:garu lean emaciated beast (S.); d.in:gu crook; d.in:go crooked (S.); d.in:ga_ (L.P.)(CDIAL 5524). ton:ku-kir..avan- decrepit, old man (Ta.lex.) Strong: tumra big, strong (RV.); trum, trom to dare; trom to be able (Gypsy)(CDIAL 5873). d.an:gur bullock (K.) horned cattle (L.); d.a~gar horned cattle (L.); d.an:gar cattle (P.); d.an:gara (Or.); d.a~_gar old worn-out beast, dead cattle (Bi.); dhu_r da~_gar cattle in general (Bi.); d.a_n:gar cattle (Bhoj.); d.a~_gar, d.a~_gra_ horned cattle (H.); da~_gar id. (H.); d.hagga_ small weak ox (L.)(CDIAL 5526). Bulls and other animals are represented in sitting posture, both a. in b. also seen from the front with their legs turned to either side. One bull horn is carrying daggers and tongs on either hand. Protol-Elamite seals c. 3000-2750 BCE. [After Amiet 1980: pl. 37, no. 570 and 569].

profile and with one from Susa,

d.an:gr.a (Sad.) = the time of youth; adj. With kor.a or hor.o, a young man, asul-dan:gr.a = to bring up to manhood; dan:gr.ane = like a young man; dan:gr.iko = collective noun, the youths and maidens (Mundari.lex.) = a stupid, a simple man (P.lex.)

a youth; dan:gr.ad.an:ggar

dhagun sagun = bristly, coarse (Santali.lex.) dandle = hair hanging loose, hair unfastened and unkempt (Santali.lex.) Sign 48 and variants [Orthography: seated skeletal person].d.ha~go = skeleton; lean (Ku.); d.a_n:ga = one who is reduced to a skeleton (Or.); d.a~_gar, d.a~_gra_ = starveling (H.); d.ha~_kal., d.ha_~ku_l. = old and decaying (M.); d.ege = old, weak (Wg.)(CDIAL 5524). Glyph: ur-ukku to jump, leap over (Ta.); uRk to run away (Kond.a); urk to dance (Kuwi)(DEDR 713). Substantive: urukku steel, anything melted, product of liquefaction (Ta.); urukku what is melted, fused metal, steel (Ma.); uk steel (Ko.); urku, ukku id. (Ka.)(DEDR 661).

Sumerian copper statue of a man carrying a brick (copper ingot or bronze casting), c. 2600 BCE. Metropolitan Museum of Art. nangar 'carpenter' is a Sumerian word with pre-Sumerian origins. Cognate: kaula mengro ‘blacksmith’ (Gypsy). 69

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bad.hi ‘worker in iron and wood’ (Santali) bar.hi, bar.hi_-mistri_, bar.u_i_, bar.u_i_-mistri_ (Sad.H. barha_i_) = a professional carpenter. Kh<baDhai>(B),<baDhai>(B),,<baDhi>(B) {NA} ``^carpenter''. #1841. So<bADi>(L) {V(lenay)} ``to ^work for wages''. !<bADi-a> laborer. Gu<baRoi> {N} ``^carpenter''. *Des.<baROi>(M) `id.'This class of artisans is not found in purely Munda villages because every Munda knows carpentry enough for all his own purposes; trs. caus., to make somebody become a professional carpenter; intr., to call someone a carpenter; cina ka_m koko bar.hi_akoa? What kind of artisans are called carpenters; bar.hi-n rflx. v., to train oneself for, or to undertake, the work of a professional carpenter; bar.hi_-o, v., to become a professional carpenter; bar.hi_ kami = the work, the proession of carpenter, carpentry; bar.hi_-mistri_ a professional carpenter (Mundari.lex.) bad.ohi = a worker in wood, a village carpenter; bad.hor.ia = expert in working in wood; bad.hoe = a carpenter, worker in wood; bad.horia = adj. Who works in wood; (as a scolding to children who use a carpenter’s implements) mischievous (Santali.lex.) ba_r. blade of a khukri (N.); badhri_, badha_ru_ knife with a heavy blade for reaping with (Bi.); ba_r.h, ba_r. = edge of knife (H.); va_d.h (G.); ba_r.h = book-binders papercutter (Bi.); brdha_n.u_ = to sheer sheep (WPah.)(CDIAL 11371). vardha a cutting (Skt.); vad.hu a cut (S.)(CDIAL 11372). bar.ae, bad.ae ‘blacksmith’ (Santali) ba~r.ia ‘merchant’ (Santali) i bari_ = blacksmith, artisan (Ash.)(CDIAL 9464). “Although their physique, their language and their customs generally point to a Kolarian origin, they constitute a separate caste, which the Mundas consider as inferior to themselves, and the Baraes accept their position with good grace, the more so as no contempt is shown to them. …In every Munda village of some size there is at least one family of Baraes…The ordinary village smith is versed in the arts of iron-smelting, welding and tempering, and in his smithy, which is generally under one of the fine old large trees that form the stereotyped feature of the Mundari village, are forged from start to finish, all the weapons and the instruments and implements the Mundas require. There are of course individuals who succeed better than others in the making of arrows and various kinds of hunting-axes and these attract customers from other villages… they dig the kut.i (smelting furnace), they prepare and lay the bamboo tubes through which the air is driven from the bellows to the bottom of the furnace, they re-arrange the furnace after the lump of molten metal has been removed from it, and then the smith starts transforming it into ploughshares, hoes, yoking hooks and rings, arrow-heads, hunting axes of various shapes and sizes, wood axes, knives, his own implements, ladles, neat little pincers to extract thorns from hands and feet, needles for sewing mats and even razors. Formerly, he was also forging swords…susun-kanda (dancingsword)…If it appears too bold to attribute the invention of iron smelting and working to some of the aboriginal inhabitants of this, in many respects so richly blessed part of India (Chota Nagpur), it is certain that no land in the world is better qualified to push man to this invention. The excavations made recently (in 1915) by Mr. Sarat Chandra Roy, the author of the Mundas and their Country have shown conclusively, that it was inhabited by man in the stone age, the copper age and the early iron age. Baraes are also found in the villages of Jashpur, Barwai, Biru, Nowagarh, Kolebira and Bano from which the Mundas have been either driven out by the Hindus or crowded out by the Uraons. There they have adopted the Sadani dialect but retained their own social and religious customs. In the districts named above they are called lohar or loha_ra, but in Gangpur they go under the name of Kamar. These Kamars are animists like the Lohars, but they use tanned hides for their single bellows, which they work by bulling, like the blacksmiths in Europe. The Lohars say that is is on account of this that they do not intermarry or eat with them any more. Baraes, Kamars and Lohars must not be confounded with the Aryan blacksmiths also called Lohars. These latter differ not only in race from the first but also in their methods of working. The Aryan blacksmith does not smelt iron, and uses only the single-nozzled hand bellows. He is met with only in such Chota Nagpur villages, where colonies of Hindu or Mohammedan landlords, merchants, money-lenders and native policement require his services, especially to get their bullocks and horses shod…The account the Baraes, Lohars and Kamars generally give of themselves is as follows: they say that they descend from Asura and Asurain, i.e., Asur and his wife, and that they were originally of one and the same caste with the Mundas. In this the Mundas agree with them… If the iron 70

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smelters and workers of the legend really belonged to the Munda race then their trade and art must in the beginning have given them a prominent position, such as is held in some ancient races by smiths…Like the Mundas they formerly burnt their dead, the bones of those dying out of their original village were carried back to it in a small earthen vessel into which some pice were placed, and this was then dashed to pieces against a rock in a river…Like the Mundas they practise ancestor worship in practically the same forms. Like them they worship Sin:bon:ga, whom the Lohars call Bhagwan… They also worship Baranda Buru whom the Sadani-speaking lohars call Bar Pahari…bar.ae-ili = the rice beer which has been brewed by the whole village, one pot per house, in honour of the Barae, and is drunk with him, at the end of the year; bar.ae-kud.lam = a country-made hoe, bar.ae-mer.ed = countrysmelted iron; in contrast to cala_ni mer.ed, imported iron; bar.ae-muruk = the energy of a blacksmith.” (Mundari.lex., Encyclopaedia Mundarica, Vol. II, pp. 410-419). bar, barea ‘two’ (Santali) Nahali bot.or ‘hare’ Munda kuala ‘hare’; kulai = hare (Santali) Go<badoRi>(ZA) {N} ``^bat''. badhor. ‘fish with bones’ (Santali) badhor ‘crossgrained’ (Santali)

Considering that many inscriptions are on seals and seal impressions, it is reasonable to hypothesise that the messages were intended for trade transactions.

Kalibangan089A14c

8101 Impressions of four different seals

on a clay tag.

m0012

3031

m0066AC 1052 “In contrast to the relatively simple systems of non-linguistic pot-marks, the Indus script has a great number of different signs, around 400, and they have been highly standardized. Moreover, the signs are usually neatly written in lines, as is usual in language-bound scripts. The normal direction of writing is from right to left; this is the direction of the impressions made with seal stamps, which were carved in mirror image. Occasionally the seal-carver ran out of space, and in such cases he cramped the signs 71

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at the end of the line to preserve the linear order - here on the right side seal, the single sign of the second line is placed immediately below the space which had proved to small. The three last signs thus have the same sequence as the last three signs in the seal impression on the left.” (Asko Parpola, 2007) Uniform sign sequences across the vast domain of the civilization Asko Parpola (2007) cites some sign sequences from different sites and notes, “But the most important characteristic of the Indus texts from the point of view of speech-encoding becomes evident if we do not limit the observation of repetition to single inscriptions as Farmer and his colleagues do. The fact is that the Indus signs form a very large number of regularly repeated sequences. The above discussed sequence of three signs (marked in this slide with blue underlining) occurs in Indus inscriptions about 100 times, mostly at the end of the text. The order of the three signs is always the same, and this sequence is recorded from nine different sites, including two outside South Asia, one in Turkmenistan and one in Iraq. If the Indus signs are just non-linguistic symbols as Farmer and his colleagues maintain, for what reason are they always written in a definite order, and how did the Indus people in so many different places know in which order the symbols had to be written? Did they keep separate lists to check the order? And please note that there are hundreds of regular sequences that occur several times in the texts. The text of eleven signs written on top of this slide can be broken into smaller sequences all of which recur at several sites. As this small example shows, the texts even otherwise have a regular structure similar to linguistic phrases. The Indus signs do not occur haphazardly but follow strict rules. Some signs are usually limited to the end of the text, and even when such a sign occurs in the middle of an inscription, it usually ends a recurring sequence. Some other signs are limited to the beginning of the text, but may under certain conditions appear also in other positions. And so forth…The Indus sign sequences are uniform all over the Harappan realm in South Asia, suggesting that a single language was used in writing. By contrast, both native Harappan and nonHarappan sign sequences occur on Indus seals from the Near East, the sequences usually beingin harmony with the shape of the seal: square seals are typical of South Asia, round seals are typical of the Gulf and cylinder seals are typical of Mesopotamia.”:

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From proto-writing to full-writing “Farmer and his colleagues claim that the Indus script is a system of non-linguistic symbols that can be understood in any language. They suggest that it belongs to the same category as “Ice Age cave art, Amerindian pictograms, many modern road signs, mathematical and scientific symbols and musical notation”, which Andrew Robinson proposes to call “proto-writing”. The speech-bound scripts or in Robinson’s terms “full writing “ came into being with the phonetization of written symbols by means of the rebus or picture puzzle principle… even short noun phrases and incomplete sentences qualify as full writing if the script uses the rebus principle to phonetize some of its signs” (Asko Parpola, 2007 citing Andrew Robinson, 2002, p. 30) Evolutionary Phases per Gregory Possehl: Neolithic phase: 7000 to 4300 BCE Chalcolithic phase: 4300 to 3200 BCE Early Harappan phase: 3200 to 2500 BCE Early Harappan Kot Diji phase: 2500 to 2200 BCE Indus script created Indus civilization or Mature Harappan phase: 2200 to 1900 BCE “The Indus Civilization came into being as the culmination of a long cultural evolution in the IndoIranian borderlands. From the very beginning this was the eastern frontier of a large cultural area which had Mesopotamia as its core pulsating influence in all directions. In Western Asia, the domestication of animals and plants started by 8000 BC. This revolution in food production reached the mountain valleys of western Pakistan by 7000 BC. From the Neolithic stage, about 7000-4300 BC, some twenty relatively small villages are known, practically all in highland valleys. People raised cattle, sheep and goats. They cultivated wheat and barley, and stored it in granaries. Pottery was handmade, and human and bovine figurines reflect fertility cults. Ornaments reflect small-scale local trade. (Cf. Possehl 2002.) “During the Chalcolithic phase, about 4300-3200 BC, the village size grew to dozens of hectares. Settlements spread eastwards beyond the Indus up the ancient Sarasvati river in India, apparently with seasonal migrations. Copper tools were made, and pottery became wheel-thrown and beautifully painted. Ceramic similarities with southern Turkmenistan and northern Iraq also suggest considerable mobility and trade. (Cf. Possehl 2002.) “In the Early Harappan period, about 3200-2500 BC, many new sites came into existence, also in the Indus Valley, whis was a challenging environment on account of the yearly floods, while the silt made the fields very fertile. Communal granaries disappeared, and large storage jars appeared in house units. Potter’s marks suggest private ownership, and stamp seals bearing geometrical motifs point to development in administration. Irrigation canals were constructed, and advances were made in all crafts. Mastery of air reduction in burning enabled making high quality luxury ceramics. Similarities in pottery, seals, figurines, ornaments etc. document intensive caravan trade with Central Asia and the Iranian plateau, including Shahr-i Sokhta in Seistan, where some Proto-Elamite accounting tablets have been discovered. There were already towns with walls and a grid pattern of streets, such as Rahman Dheri. Terracotta models of bullock carts attest to improved transport in the Indus Valley, which led to considerable cultural uniformity over a wide area, especially where the Kot Diji style pottery was distributed. (Cf. Possehl 2002.) “The relatively short Kot Diji phase between 2800 and 2500 BC turned the Early Harappan culture into the Mature Indus Civilization. During this phase the Indus script came into being, as the recent 73

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American excavations at Harappa have shown. Unfortunately we still have only few specimens of the early Indus script from this formative phase. At the same time, many other developments took place. “During the Indus Civilization or Mature Harappan phase, from about 2500 to 1900 BC, the more or less fully standardized Indus script was in use at all major sites. Even such a small site as Kanmer in Kutch, Gujarat, measuring only 115 x 105 m, produced during the first season of excavation in 2005-2006 one clay tag with a seal impression and three carefully polished weights of agate (Kharakwal et al. 2006: figs. 11-12). “During the transition from Early to Mature Harappan, weights and measures were standardized, another very important administrative measure suggesting that economic transactions were effectively controlled. Weights of carefully cut and polished stone cubes form a combined binary and decimal system. The ratios are 1/16, 1/8, 1/6, 1/4, 1/2, 1 (= 13 g), 2, 4, 8, 16, ... 800. “By about 2500 BC, the Harappan society had become so effectively organized that it was able to complete enormous projects, like building the city of Mohenjo-daro. The acropolis of Mohenjo-daro, a cultic and administrative centre, has as its foundation a 12 metre high artificial platform of 20 hectares. Just the platform is estimated to have required 400 days of 10.000 labourers. The lower city of at least 80 hectares had streets oriented according to the cardinal directions and provided with a network of covered drains. Many of the usually two-storied houses were spacious and had bathrooms and wells. The water-engineering of Mohenjo-daro is unparallelled in the ancient world: the city had some 700 wells constructed with tapering bricks so strong that they have not collapsed in 5000 years. ” The encoding method is: rebus. In rebus method, the glyptic meaning of sign itself is not to be 'read'. Its phonetic meaning is expressed "by means of the (depicted) things". Parpola cites an example from Sumerian language: ti ‘arrow’ ti ‘life’ ti ‘rib’ Nin-ti ‘Mistress of Life’ heals the rib (ti) of the sick god Enki "Rebuses were used very much from the earliest examples of the Egyptian writing. Around 3050 BC, the name of King Narmer was written with the hieroglyphs depicting ‘catfish’ (n'r) and ‘awl’ (mr). Egyptian rebus-punning ignored wovels altogether, but the consonants had to be identical. Other early logo-syllabic scripts too, allowed moderate liberties, such as difference in vowel and consonant length." (Asko Parpola, slide 9 at http://compling.ai.uiuc.edu/2007Workshop/Slides/parpola.ppt (2007) “The Egyptian script around 3000 BC was used in a number of very short inscriptions, often consisting of just two signs, which recorded proper names but with a very high percentage of the signs used as rebuses. King Narmer’s palette is a good example. This is definitely already a writing system, even if the texts are on average shorter than the Indus texts! Here two rebus signs express the proper name of King Narmer, whose feats are related in a non-linguistic way in the pictures taking up the rest of the palette, yet with many formalized conventions. This is fully parallel to the use of rebus symbols to express proper names in the non-linguistic communication system of heraldry or coats of arms. ” (Asko Parpola, 2007 on slide 69) Rebus principle as a remarkable innovation

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“These marks constituted a limited notation system, which in the beginning may only have served to remind the writer of what he had once already known…the result was a complete writing system, in which the Sumerians wrote down not just warehouse records, but poems, diplomatic treaties, letters, contracts and judicial decisions, dictionaries, and epic myths…Rebus principle…if you can't make a picture of something, use a picture of something with the same sound.” http://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Fall_ 2003/ling001/reading_writing.html As an example, in Sumerian one syllable, gi, was enough to communicate a message: the pictogram for reed was used to convey the semantically unrelated concept reimburse: In the Sumerian language, the word for reed and reimburse were both pronounced something like gi.

Daimabad Sign342 (1395) kan.d.kanka ‘rim of pot’; rebus: kan.d. = a furnace, altar (Santali); kan- ‘copper’ (Ta.) Hence, kan.d. kan-ka ‘copper furnace’. Alternative: khan = a mine (Santali) ?khani = mine (VarBr.S.); khan.i = mine (Pkt.); khani (A.); khan (H.); khan. = mine, quarry (M.)(CDIAL 3813). Rebus: med. iron, iron implements (Ho.) me~rhe~t ‘iron’; me~rhe~t icena ‘the iron is rusty’; ispat me~rhe~t ‘steel’, dul me~rhe~t ‘cast iron’; me~rhe~t khan.d.a ‘iron implements’ (Santali) (Santali.lex.Bodding) mer.ed, me~r.ed iron; enga mer.ed soft iron; sand.i mer.ed hard iron; ispa_t mer.ed steel; dul mer.ed cast iron; i mer.ed rusty iron, also the iron of which weights are cast; bicamer.ed iron extracted from stone ore; balimer.ed iron extracted from sand ore; mer.ed-bica = iron stone ore, in contrast to bali-bica, iron sand ore (Mu.lex.) pasra mer.ed, pasa_ra mer.ed = syn. of kot.e mer.ed = forged iron, in contrast to dul mer.ed, cast iron (Mundari.lex.) me~r.he~t iron; ispat m. = steel; dul m. = cast iron; kolhe m. iron manufactured by the Kolhes (Santali); mer.ed (Mun.d.ari); med. (Ho.)(Santali.lex.Bodding) me~r.he~t idena = the iron is rusty; dal me~r.he~t = cast iron; me~r.he~t khan.d.a = iron implements (Santali) Sa. mE~R~hE~'d ìron'. ! mE~RhE~d(M).Ma. mErhE'd ìron'.Mu. mERE'd ìron'. ~ mE~R~E~'d ìron'. ! mENhEd(M).Ho meD ìron'.Bj. merhd(Hunter) ìron'.KW mENhEd@(V168,M080) Substantive: med.o merchant’ clerk (Hem.Dec.); mehto a schoolmaster, an accountant, a clerk, a writer (G.) med.h = the helper of a merchant (Pkt.lex.) me_t.i, me_t.ari = chief, head, leader, the greatest man (Te.lex.) ?med.i (EI 9), also called meli, a kidnapper of victims for sacrifices (IEG). mehara = (EI 33) a village headman (IEG). mehto [Hem. Des. med.ho = Skt. Van.ik saha_ya, a merchant’s clerk, fr. mahita, praised, great] a schoolmaster; an accountant; a clerk; a writer (G.lex.) mel. = tallying, balancing of accounts; a cash book; mel.van. = a mixture, a composition; mixing (G.lex.) me_r..iyar = pu_vaiciyar, ve_l.a_l.ar, i.e. agriculturists, traders (Ta.lex.) 75

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me~t = the eye (Santali) mid.ikincu = to blink (Te.) me~t kut.i = the eye brows; me~t gad.a = the eye cavity (Santali) mendok, me~t = to suffer from inflammation of the eye and appendages, conjunctivitis (Santali) me~t me~t nepel = v. see face to face (Mu.) mer.hao = to entwine itself, wind round, wrap around, roll up (Santali.lex.) [Note the endless knot motif]. Speakers who called themselves kaulo-mengro ‘smiths’, created the metaphor of makara.

Pa. makara -- m. `sea -- monster'; Pk. magara -- , mayara<-> m. `shark', Si. muvara, mora, Md. miyaru. -NIA. forms with -- g -- (e.g. H. G. magar m. `crocodile') or -- ng<-> (S. mangar -- macho m. `whale', manguro m. `a kind of sea fish' } Bal. mangar `crocodile') are loans from Pk. or Sk. or directly from non - Aryan sources from which these came, e.g. Sant. mangar `crocodile'. m0305AC 2235 Pict-80: Three-faced, horned person (with a three-leaved pipal branch on the crown with two stars on either side), wearing bangles and armlets. The group of signs containing ‘fish’ record occurrences of almost 10% of sign occurrences in the entire corpus.

h329A

h329B

5496 Pict-68: Inscribed object in

the shape of a fish. It is suggested that an early word for fish in bharatiya languages: ayas. The word, jhasa, ‘fish’ used in S’atapatha Brahmana as a large fish, is realtable to ayo ‘fish’ in Austric: So. <i>Ayo</i> `fish'. Go. <i>ayu</i> `fish'. Hako ‘fish’ (Santali) This lexeme ayo ‘fish’ is relatable to jhasa ‘fish’ (Skt.) This ayas – jhasa link is justified; for example, Pk. ujjhasa— m. ‘effort’ is comparable to ya_sayati ‘to weary’; a_yas ‘to work hard’ (Skt.). Thus, ayas > jhasa (which may refer to the fish in the s’rivatsa glyph on top of Sanchi stupa torana) may be a chronological evolution. When ayo, ayas is correlated with jhasa (all denoting fish), the homonymous ayas, jhasa (yasa) might have connoted metal, wealth, prosperity. ayas metal, iron (RV.); ayo_ (Pali); aya iron (Pali.Pkt.); ya id. (Si.)(CDIAL 590). yahun.u iron filings (Si.)(CDIAL 589). yakad.a iron (Si.); ayaska_n.d.a a quantity of iron, excellent iron (Pa_n..gan..) In Pali, jhasa means ‘fish’. jhas a — an alligator; Bhagavatam 3.19.35 jhas a-kula-ullańghana — by the jumping of different fish; Bhagavatam 5.24.10 jhas a — as an aquatic (such as the fish and tortoise); Bhagavatam 7.9.38 jhas a-rāja-kun d ala — of the two earrings, made in the shape of sharks; Bhagavatam 8.18.2 jhas a-vrātah — schools of fish; Bhagavatam 12.10.5 jasa means: beauty, splendour fame, prosperity, wealth. (Skt. Yas’as ‘beauty, splendour, worth’; Pkt. ‘fame, success’; Si. adv./ yehen ‘well, prosperously’) asec, tasec = wealth (Santali) jos = fame, to succeed, praise (Santali) ja~k, ja~k jomok = splendour (Santali) monjok = beautiful (Santali) [See also: 76

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2422 ūrjas— n. ‘vigour, strength’ RV. Pk. ujja— n. ‘strength, brightness’; Md. uda ‘swell of the sea’; ojas ‘strength, vigour, vitality’ (RV); Pa. ōjā— f. ‘nutritive element in food’; Pk. ōya— n., ōyā— f. ‘strength, fame, glory’, KharI. oja—, NiDoc. oya—, Si. oda ‘strength’.] The decipherment problem is one of relating the clusters of pictorials/signs in inscriptions with the language of the civilization, considering the remarkable consistency and stability of the script for nearly a millennium spread across the most expansive civilization of its time, spanning considerable distances from the Sarasvati-Sindhu doab to the Tigris-Euphrates doab and with intimations of contacts with Ancient Iran and communities in South India. Sarasvati hieroglyphs as a writing system 'Indus Script' - two words are the received wisdom. Both words are inappropriate. Cumulative archaeological evidence has shown that about 80% of the sites of the civilization are on banks of River Sarasvati. A more appropriate word may be "Sarasvati" to replace the word 'Indus'. Reference to 'script' assumes that it is a representation of phonetics, morphology and other grammatical features of spoken language(s). The brevity of the inscriptions about 5 to 6 glyphs on an average (depending upon which corpus one looks at and distinction of glyphs, between 'sign' category and 'pictorial' category) points to the impossibility of the 'script' having been alphabetic or even syllabic, particularly because there are hundreds of inscriptions which do not have any 'signs' of the script at all, but only pictorial motifs or field symbols. A more appropriate word may be 'writing system' to replace the word 'script'. A more appropriate title for the corpuses of Mahadevan, Parpola and Hunter can be: Sarasvati writing system. The moment an assumption is made that 'script' by definition has to be alphabetic or syllabic, any decipherment effort collapses ab initio, unable to explain the 'meanings' or 'metaphors' conveyed by pictorial motifs or field symbols. Even the pundits who cry hoarse about 'harappan illiterates' have failed to explain what the glyphs 'meant'. If someone from Mars were to arrive at say, San Francisco international airport, he will think that the anti-hindu hate groups talking about 'illiteracy' should themselves be illiterates using forked-stick variants (with or without skirts) on toilet entrances to differentiate between men's and women's toilets. One way that any decipherment is validated is by the use of some type of multi-lingual inscriptions or the equivalent of 'rosetta stone' which enabled Champollion to crack the code of Egyptian hieroglyphs. Another fallacy introduced by critiques and decipherers alike is that there should be some type of 'universal' design imperative for a writing system. Just because a writing system, of say, Egyptian hieroglyphs, left long inscriptions (say, more than 5 or 6 glyphs). The world has seen many writing systems not excluding Kharoshthi or Brahmi or Coptic or Siddhamatrka, and not all of them are alike. Bharatiya tradition provides a clear enunciation of a 'writing system'. In Vatsyayana's Vidyasamuddes'a s'loka, three categories (out of 64) arts are prescribed as required knowledge for youth: des'a bhaashaa jnaana; akshara mushthika kathanam; mlecchita vikalpa. In this triad, mlecchita vikalpa refers to cryptography or writing system on 'coppered' media. [mleccha-mukha 'copper' (Skt.); milakkhu 'copper' (Pali)]. Thus, a writing system is a crypt using glyphs. This generic definition can be applied to all later-day writing systems, too. Some hindu-hate groups are reveling making serial attempts at a propaganda that the creators of inscriptions of Sarasvati civilization were 'illiterate'. This propaganda gimmick is again related to the definition of 'illiteracy' assuming that literacy is measured only by an alphabetic or syllabic writing 77

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system for a long string (longer than, say, five or six alphabets, syllables or words, as the case may be). The moment we look at the inscriptions organized in a corpus like that of Iravatham Mahadevan, one will be struck by the fact that repetitive use of some glyphs (including signs and pictorial motifs) may point to some commonly understood idiom sought to be conveyed by the inscriptions. There is also evidence that the inscriptions were stamped on packages traded across the Persian Gulf and along theRiver Basins which provided for long-distance interactions. See epigraphs on copper plates/weapons, sealings on tapering-bottom storage pots m0420 and m0421

Kalibangan122B

Kalibangan122B2

Kalibangan122A

Kalibangan122A2

8301

2901 Incised copper tablet 2903 Incised copper tablet Markhor.

2911 Incised copper tablets.

2915

m0475Atcopper

3247

Openwork stamp seals, late 3rd–early 2nd millennium B.C. Central Asia (Bactria-Margiana) Copper alloy; 3 5/8 in. (9.2 cm) ‘Openwork copper or bronze stamp seals, often called "compartmented" seals, were cast in both geometric and figural patterns in Bactria-Margiana and are distinctive to that region. This copper-alloy example represents a male figure dressed in a short kilt and mountain boots with upturned toes. If his horned headdress is similar in meaning to examples found in Mesopotamia and Iran, the figure may be divine. The arrow-shaped forms emerging from his shoulders and under his arm may represent snakes or lightning bolts.’ http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ho/03/nc/ho_1984.4.htm

m0420A1si

m0421A1si

m0420A2si

m0421A2si

3236

3237

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Stele of Ushumgal, 2900–2600 BCE; Early Dynastic periods I–II Umma (probably), southern Mesopotamia Alabaster (gypsum); H. 8.8 in. (22.4 cm) ‘Among the earliest written documents from Mesopotamia are records of land sales or grants, often carved in stone with associated images, perhaps for public display. The Sumerian inscription on this stele records a transaction involving three fields, three houses, and some livestock. Ushumgal, a priest of the god Shara, and his daughter are the central figures of the transaction, but because of the archaic script, it is not clear whether Ushumgal is buying, selling, or granting these properties. The smaller figures along the sides very likely represent witnesses to the transaction. In addition to their importance to understanding the development of writing, these early land documents provide evidence that land could be privately owned in early Mesopotamia, although a significant proportion was still owned by the gods and managed by their temples. While this development is not surprising from a modern point of view, in antiquity it represented a momentous conceptual and cultural shift.’ http://www.metmuseum.org/collections/view1.asp?dep=3&full=0&item=58%2E29

The glyph in front of Ushumgal is similar to signs on epigraphs of Sarasvati Civilization.

<salu>(B) {N} ``^space in front of the door of a house''. @B25170. #33661. Rebus: sala ‘workshop’ (Santali) On the Ushumgal stele, three fields and three houses, are marked by three horizontal lines and three vertical lines; on Sign 202 there is one horizontal line; this could denote ‘one field’. Similarly Sign 197 or Sign 201 may denote one house; and Sign 198 may denote one large house + 4 small houses. A comparable glyph is sometimes found on gold ta_li (man:gal.asu_tra) designs used in Tamilnadu. The des'a bhaasha jnaana of the Sarasvati civilization area is such that it was a linguistic area (that is, an area where many language speakers interacted and absorbed language features from one another and made them their own). How to validate any decipherment? Are there 'rosetta stones' available? My submission is that there are 'rosetta stones' within the corpus of inscriptions and inscribed objects. Let me cite a few. 1. Two tin ingots with glyphs found at Haifa [In the old Akkadian period, the ingots of tin are called s'uqlu [cf. s’ukla ‘white’ (Skt.)] and weigh about 25 kg. The two ingots found at Haifa weigh about 5 kg. each.] 2. A cylinder seal which contains many pictorial motifs including a pictorial of a unique plant, *tabernae montana*, identified brilliantly by Daniel Potts 3. A cylinder seal showing a pictorial motif of a meluhha (mleccha) merchant carrying an antelope (another pictorial motif) on his arm 79

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4. Presence of over 200 copper plates with inscriptions (using both 'signs' and 'pictorial motifs') confirming the brilliant insight of James Muhly that the advent of metallurgy and the invention of a writing system could somehow be related events 5. Sohgaura copper plate and punch-marked coins from Takshas'ila to Karur containing a legacy of glyphs from the Sarasvati writing system The brevity of the glyphs (signs and pictorial motifs) is a continuum in the metallurgical tradition of Bharatam. Surprise ! An average of 5 or 6 glyphs adorn the early punch-marked coins. Also, copper plates become the preferred medium for conveying economic transactions or messages related to the polity. Given other indicators of continuity of culture from the days of Sarasvati civilization and the abiding nature of some of the glyphs as venerated metaphors (example, svastika, dotted circle, standard device, zebu, tiger looking back, antelope looking back), it is not unreasonable to look for the matching of the writing system with the languages of the civilization area.

m1171

m1169a

2024

m0298).

m0271 Goat-antelope with horns turned backwards and a short tail

2554

Lothal123B

Banawali13a

m0505At

m0438atcopper

m0505Bt

Lothal123A

1702

m0353

kamar ‘looking back’; thus, an antelope looking backwards is: melh ‘goat’kamar (melukka kamar ‘copper-smith’); a tiger looking backwards is: kol ’tiger’ kamar (kolhe ‘smelters of iron’ + smith) Vikalpa: kammera_ku, kamme_era_ku = a kind of betel leaf darker and more pungent than the common one (Te.lex.) Animal and glyph groups; purpose of seal m0304

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m0304AC Pict-81 2420 Animals surrounding represent a variety of furnaces. Reading: five furnace (cu_l.a)-types: ra_n:ga 'buffalo'; ran: ka 'tin' ,badhia 'boar'; bar.ae 'blacksmith'; ibha 'elephant'; ib 'iron'; kol 'tiger'; kol 'alloy of five metals'; mlekh 'antelope'; milakkhu 'copper' The ‘standing person’ may be a sign, a part of the epigraph. ◄ten:go, ten:gon = to stand, upright position; tetenic ‘a weaver’; ten:goc = responsible person; t.en:goc = a small axe; t.a_n:gi stone chisel If this glyph of ‘a standing person’ (ten:go) is a stone chisel, it is likely that the other signs represent other tools of this bad.hoe, ‘artisan’, this owner of the seal. If so, the signs are used to represent two types of possessions: • through glyphs ‘furnaces and other major tools-of-trade’ ; and • through signs ‘tools and weapons’. ◄barha ‘boar’, bhar ‘oven’; badhia ‘castrated boar’; bad.hoe ‘carpenter’ ◄kad.ru ‘buffalo’; khan.d.ar.an:, khan.d.run: ‘pit (furnace)’

[sal = buffalo; e.g. kollan- sal = smith's workshop] sal = Indian Gaur, Bos Gaurus (or, Gavaeus Gaurus). Now extinct in the Santal Paragnas. Also called bir kad.a, forest buffalo. sal bitkil, the cow of the Gaur; sal sakwa, a horn made from the horn of the Gaur (Santali); saili, sakil (Mun.d.ari)(Santali.lex.Bodding) sail = the Indian Gaur of bison, Gavaeus Gaurus (Mundari.lex.) sal = v. open a smithy, work a smithy; open a beer-shop, a sugar-cane press; ale manjhi tolare kamarko sal akata = the blacksmiths have a smithy in that part of the village where our headman has his house; teken kamarko sal akata = the blacksmiths are working to-day (have started their forge)(Santali.lex.Bodding) t.an:kas’a_la_ mint (Skt.); t.aksa_l, t.aksa_r (N.); t.a~ksa_l, t.a~_ks_l. t.eksa_l (B.); t.aksa_r (Bhoj.); t.aksa_l, t.aksa_r (H.); t.a~ksa_l. (G.); t.a~_ksa_l (M.); t.aksa_l.i_ mint-master (G.); t.a_ksa_lya_ (M.)(CDIAL 5434). pan.ya article for sale (S'Br.); pan.iya to be sold or bought (Pali); article for trade (Pali); pan.n.a, pan.ia (Pkt.); pan.yas'a_la_ shop (Skt.Pkt.)(CDIAL 7719-7720). Wheel-right, weaver, trough, young buffalo ks.attr. attendant, door-keeper (AV.); khattar attendant (Pali)(CDIAL 3647). Charioteer: ks.attr. charioteer (VS.); khattar charioteer (Pali); kha_ti_ member of a caste of wheelwrights (H.)(CDIAL 3647). kattiri < khatri (G.) dialect of gujara_ti and the spoken language of the Saura_s.t.ras in the Tamil country (G.Madu.D. 74)(Ta.lex.) 1546.Weavers: kha_tri_ member of a caste of Hindu weavers (G.); khat.ri_ washerman, dyer (S.)(CDIAL 3647).

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kat.ra_, kat.r.a_ = piece of ground enclosed and inhabited, market town, market, suburb (H.); kam.t.i_ = space near a village, ground near a mountain, neighbourhood (Pkt.); kan.t.a = boudary of a village (Skt.); ka~_t.he = arable land near the edge of a hill (M.); ka_t.h = border, edge (M.) kar.ru, kad.ru_ buffalo calf (male or female)(Kur.); kat.a_ male of sheep or goat, he-buffalo (Ta.); male of cattle, young and vigorous; child, young person (Ma.)(DEDR 1123). kat.a_ri = young, plump bull, heifer (Ta.); kat.r.a_ = young buffalo (Ku.); kat.iya_ = buffalo heifer (H.); kat.hr.a_ young buffalo bull (H.) kar.a_ (Kur.) kat.a_r (P.), kat.ha_ri (Tu.), kat.t.a_ri_ = knife (Pkt.) karttr.ka_ = knife, dagger (Skt.) mus.kat.a_ri_ = dagger (Gaw.) ka_tr = scissors (L.)(IL 1674)

Signs 245, 246 + variants kat.ra_, kat.r.a_ = piece of ground enclosed and inhabited, market town, market, suburb (H.); kam.t.i_ = space near a village, ground near a mountain, neighbourhood (Pkt.); kan.t.a = boudary of a village (Skt.); ka~_t.he = arable land near the edge of a hill (M.); ka_t.h = border, edge (M.) cf. kat.ai shop, bazaar, market (Ta.); kat.a market (Ma.)(DEDR 1142). kat.hra_ = a tub, a platter, a trough; kat.a_ram = cauldron (Ta.); kat.a_ram, kit.a_ram cauldron, boiler (Ma.); kad.a_ya, kad.a_yi large round boiler of copper, bell-metal, or iron (Ka.); kad.a.ya large copper vessel (Kod.); kad.a_~yi boiler of bell-metal (Tu.); kat.a_ha boiler, cauldron, saucepan (Skt.)(CDIAL 2638);DEDR App. 22) kat.hli, kat.li a small wooden cup for holding oil (Santali) kat.oro a shallow cup (G.); kat.ora_ (Skt.) kat.hiya_ro a wood-cutter; one whose business is to split or sell fire-wood; kat.hlo household furniture(G.) A major problem has been created for many decipherers by an priori assumption that the glyphs are alphabets or syllables. They are simply morphemes, meaningful semantic units of a spoken language, the lingua franca. Yes, many glyphs are decipherable as commonly used objects or animals or identifiable phenomena. For example, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, alligator, scorpion, bulls of three types (hifer, zebu, ox), antelope, ram, man on tree-branch, lady holding back two rearing tigers, circle with spokes, svastika, rim of short-necked jar, rimless wide-mouthed pot, fish, fish with fins). There could be disagreements on what particular object was denoted by a particular 'sign'; but there could be little disagreement on the nature of or types of animals depicted. Vikalpa: Glyph: ad.ar attack (Ka.) Substantive, rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Santali) One way to approach the decipherment problem is to take off from the definition of mlecchita vikalpa provided by Vatsyayana. If it was indeed an alternative representation of commonly spoken terms related to objects, animals or phenomena, a search for homonyms of the words related to these categories may yield, read rebus, the 'meaning' of hieroglyphs. For example, every decipherer or critique who claims illiteracy as a cop-out has to explain why for example, a tiger or an antelope is shown with its head turned backwards, why a person is shown hiding on a tree branch, why an elephant and a tiger flank a svastika glyph. The problem melts away as soon as the list of homonyms is presented based on the languages of the 82

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civilization area. Rim of a jar is 'khan.d. kanka' (Santali); rebus: kan- 'copper'; khan.d. 'furnace'. Tiger looking back is: kol krammara (Munda); rebus: kol 'smithy'; karmaara 'smith'. Why tabernae montana? Tagaraka is 'fragrant jasmine, hair fragrance' (Skt.); tagara 'tin' (Tamil). Why a duck shown in a circle? There are two sets of homonyms related to 'duck': http://docs.google.com/File?id=ajhwbkz2nkfv_633cxm3nw In conclusion, Sarasvati hieroglyphs are a writing system. Each glyph (sign or pictorial motif) is a word. The word spoken to represent the object, or animal or phenomenon has a homonymous word (similar sounding word) which conveys the 'meaning' of the inscription. The inscriptions are an inventory of the smith and smithy's repertoire of minerals, metals, alloys, types of furnaces used (and perhaps also, metal artifacts produced from the smithy). Early metalsmiths and miners were the inventors of the early writing system of Sarasvati hieroglyphs. The simple answer to the well-known brevity of the glyphs (signs and pictorial motifs) is this: each glyph connoted a word whose homonym related to the repertoire of a metal-smithy. In a cultural continuum of Sarasvati civilization present even today in Bharatam, the glyphs are also present as abiding metaphors of a cultural legacy exemplified by the evolution of metallurgy contributed by the vis'vakarma artisans of the civilization. My finding is: Sarasvati hieroglyphs are a writing system, a mlecchita vikalpa remembered by Vatsyayana as cryptography. It is not a coincidence that Vidura and Khanaka (yes, khanana, miner) converse with Yudhishthira in mleccha language in the jaatugriha parvan of Mahabharata (jaatugriha = palace made of shellac to burn the pandava alive). This averment is founded on the evidence of Sarasvati civilization as hindu civilization continuum. The civilization did NOT die or vanish. Hieroglyphs and frequencies of occurrence on epigraphs Total objects presented in Parpola pictorial corpuses and Mahadevan concordance are a statistically small population, further fragmented due to the 400 to 500 signs (including variants and ligatures of basic signs) and over 100 (including variants and pictorial ligatures yielding the so-called 'fabulous' animals categories) : No. of inscribed objects discovered: India: 1537; Pakistan: 2138; West Asia: 17 (Asko Parpola’s sign list has 398 distinct ‘signs’ and orthographic variants, based on visual similarity and similary of contexts, have been identified. One clue emerges. The pictorials are as important as signs and must be 'deciphered' to understand the message conveyed by the inscription on an object. Another clue which may be surmised: A sign by itself may constitute a message and hence may be a lexeme. Considering that as many as 273 (111 + 42 + 120) inscriptions are communicated using two signs or less (with or without a pictorial motif or 'field symbol'), it may not be appropriate to assign syllabic or alphabetic values to each sign or each pictorial. Each pictorial or each sign may contain a 'word' or 'lexeme'. inscriptions on bronze implements/weapons (11) and copper tablets (135) could perhaps have been done only by a metal-smith-fire-worker. There is a reasonable inference here: many messages may relate to the 'economic activity' of metal-smiths. This inference is consistent with the emergence of the Bronze Age in neighbouring civilizations which have also attested to contacts with the Sarasvati-Sindhu 83

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civilization sites (witness, for e.g. the finds of cylinder seals in Indian sites and the finds of 'Indus' seals and artefacts in Mesopotamian sites.) Another inference may be drawn from the fact that copper was a valuable commodity in those times. The use of a copper tablet to convey a message would strengthen an inference that great importance was attached to the message conveyed through the inscription on such a copper plate. It should be noted here that two silver seals have also been discovered. The 'economic activity' of metal smith includes (sic) the production of metal objects such as vessels, tools and weapons. The inscriptions may (!) therefore constitute a record of 'objects' possessed by the owner of the inscribed object whether the 'owner' is a metal-smith or a customer serviced by the metal-smith. We have to be very cautious in interpreting the individual signs and individual pictorials; because, given the small size of the corpus, virtually ANY lexemic or phonemic or even artistic (cultural) value may be assigned and ANY language may be read into the inscriptions, if inscriptions they are in a language and do not merely represent artistic extravaganzas. It should also be noted that frequencies of occurrences of glyphs (pictorial motifs and signs) cannot be the deciding factor to conclude if the writing was syllabic or lexemic (that is, glyphs denoting spoken words). “The Egyptian words represented by the hieroglyphs could contain three or two consonants or just one. Eventually only the one-consonant signs were selected by the Egyptian-trained Semitic scribes for writing their own language, but they were used copiously also in Egyptian-language texts, and not only for writing foreign proper names. This easily explains the difference in the statistics between Egyptian cartouches and Indus seal inscriptions.” (Asko Parpola, 2007) For example, Mesopotamian seal inscriptions typically contain: a proper name ± descent ± occupation. An average of five glyphs can adequately represent noun-phrases.

Akkadian seal of Adda, the scribe. Greeting the Sun God, A modern clay

impression from a Mesopotamian cylinder seal, The Seal of Adda. Akkadian Period, 2350 BC - 2100 BC. The British Museum. http://www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Article/787375 Neo Sumerian sealing on clay, Umma, Sumer, reign of King Ibbi-Sîn, 2029-2004 BC, 1 tetrahedral bulla, h. 6,7 cm, 9,5x9,5x9,5 cm, single column, 39 lines in cuneiform script by the scribe Gududu son of Dadaga, standard presentation scene seal impression of the scribe's seal, with a Lamma goddess, gripping the wrist of the scribe behind her, and a 2-line inscription, with hole for the rope in the middle. 84

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MS 2077 http://www.schoyencollection.com/seals.htm

1400 m-314 seal impression About 25% of the 400 ‘signs’ of the script are attested only once, but often together with ‘signs’ of high frequency occurrence.

m0288

2518

Kalibangan049 8013 Kalibangan050c 8031 Pict-53: Composition: body of a tiger, a human body with bangles on arm, a pig-tail, horns of an antelope crowned by a twig. On these two seals, there is a remarkable association of short-numeral or linear strokes sequences with the ‘tiger’ motif.

m0373

2043 The ‘leaf’ sign and ‘comb’ sign are re-duplicated.

m0916

1204

h95-2485 (Obverse and reverse) Discovery by Harappa Project of Harvard U.

m382AC 1437

m0383

2240 The ‘squares’ are re-duplicated on these tablets.

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m375AC The ‘fish’ sign may not be a re-duplication since there is a slash infixed on one of the ‘fish’ signs.

m1382A1 m1382A2 Seal impression on a potsherd 3244 Example of a re-duplicated sign (‘eye’). The same re-duplication occurs on another 3-sided tablet: m1429At

m1429Bt

m1429Ct

Pict-125:

Boat.

3246 Gharial (or lizard) holding a fish in its jaws.

‘Fish’ glyph on gold pendant

m1123 A sign (‘sprout’) is repeated four times.

h150

4283 A sign is repeated three times. h764B The ‘wide-mouthed pot’ is repeated three times. Such a repetition may indicate a count of ‘three’ related to a word which is phonetically connoted by the similar-sounding word for the wide-mouthed-pot.

m0478At

m0478Bt

m0479At m0479Bt 3224 The ‘wide-mouthed-pot’ apart from being shown by itself, also gets ligatured to a kneeling person in front of a tree on the two tablets.

bat.i = rimless vessel.6

Sign 33

Sign 34

Sign 243

Sign 328

Sign 35

Sign 329

Sign 330

Sign 218

Sign

Sign 44

Sign 45 Sign 46 erugu = to bow, to salute or make obeisance (Te.) er-agu = obeisance (Ka.), ir_ai (Ta.) Rebus: era, eraka ‘copper’ (Ka.) eruvai copper, blood (Ta.); ere a dark-red or dark-brown

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colour (Ka.)(DEDR 817). ere black soil (Ka.)(DEDR 820). ke~r.e~ ko~r.e~ an aboriginal tribe who work in brass and bell-metal (Santali) ker.e sen:gel fire in a pit (Santali) mer.go = rimless vessels (Santali) Rebus: med. iron, iron implements (Ho.) Rebus: med. iron, iron implements (Ho.) me~rhe~t ‘iron’; me~rhe~t icena ‘the iron is rusty’; ispat me~rhe~t ‘steel’, dul me~rhe~t ‘cast iron’; me~rhe~t khan.d.a ‘iron implements’ (Santali) (Santali.lex.Bodding) me~rhe~t ‘iron’; me~rhe~t icena ‘the iron is rusty’; ispat me~rhe~t ‘steel’, dul me~rhe~t ‘cast iron’; me~rhe~t khan.d.a ‘iron implements’ (Santali) (Santali.lex.Bodding) bat.i = rimless vessel; Rebus: bat.hi ‘smelter’ (Santali) bat.i = a cup of metal; various sizes and shapes are distinguished by a prefixed word: adhoili bat.i = an eight-anna cup, of a middling size; car ana bat.i = a small size cup; baro ana bat.i = a cup originally costing twelve annas; bin.d.i bat.i = a cup with a rim below, to make it stand; chip bat.i = a small flattish cup or dish; dul bat.i = a cup made by casting, not by beating; jam bat.i = a large cup, mostly of ka_sa_, especially for drinking purposes; khan:ka bat.i = a cup with a flat rim (only the larger kinds, suitable for pouring out fluids; khora bat.i = cooking pot; laua bat.i = a cup similar to a lot.a, but without a neck; mi~r.u~ bat.i = a cup without an outstanding flat rim (khan:ka); sunum bat.i = a small cup used when anointing oneself with oil (Santali) bat.i (Desi) bat.i = a metal cup or basin; bhat.i = a still, a boiler, a copper; dhubi bhat.i = a washerman’s boiler; jhuli bhat.i = a trench in the ground used as a fireplace when cooking has to be done for a large number of people (Santali.lex.) bha~utic = a leaf cup, a cup made of leaves pinned together (Santali.lex.) kamat.hamu = a water-jar (Te.lex.) kamad.ha = pot for curds; Baladeva; face (Pkt.lex.) Rebus: kamat.amu, kammat.amu = portable furnace for melting precious metals (Te.) kampat.t.am = mint (Ta.) kammat.i_d.u = a goldsmith, a silversmith (Te.)

Smelting furnace, kut.hi kut.i_ hut (G.Skt.) kut.i = a nosegay (Ka.lex.) gun.d.ri = a quail (Santali.lex.) gun.d.agi = waterfowl (Te.lex.) kut.is = whitethroated munis, uroloncha malabarica (Santali.lex.) gund.ral = a kind of quail (Go.)(DEDR 1696). kut.hi ‘a furnace for smelting iron ore to smelt iron’; kolheko kut.hieda koles smelt iron (Santali) kut.hi, kut.i (Or.; Sad. kot.hi) (1) the smelting furnace of the blacksmith; kut.ire bica duljad.ko talkena, they were feeding the furnace with ore; (2) the name of e_kut.i has been given to the fire which, in lac factories, warms the water bath for softening the lac so that it can be spread into sheets; to make a smelting furnace; kut.hi-o of a smelting furnace, to be made; the smelting furnace of the blacksmith is made of mud, cone-shaped, 87

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2’ 6” dia. At the base and 1’ 6” at the top. The hole in the centre, into which the mixture of charcoal and iron ore is poured, is about 6” to 7” in dia. At the base it has two holes, a smaller one into which the nozzle of the bellow is inserted, as seen in fig. 1, and a larger one on the opposite side through which the molten iron flows out into a cavity (Mundari.lex.) kut.hi = a factory; lil kut.hi = an indigo factory (H.kot.hi)(Santali.lex.Bodding) kut.hi = an earthen furnace for smelting iron; make do., smelt iron; kolheko do kut.hi benaokate baliko dhukana, the Kolhes build an earthen furnace and smelt iron-ore, blowing the bellows; tehen:ko kut.hi yet kana, they are working (or building) the furnace to-day (H. kot.hi_)(Santali.lex.Bodding) kut.t.hita = hot, sweltering; molten (of tamba, cp. uttatta)(Pali.lex.) uttatta (ut + tapta) = heated, of metals: molten, refined; shining, splendid, pure (Pali.lex.) kut.t.akam, kut.t.ukam = cauldron (Ma.); kut.t.uva = big copper pot for heating water (Kod.)(DEDR 1668). gudga_ to blaze; gud.va flame (Man.d); gudva, gu_du_vwa, guduwa id. (Kuwi)(DEDR 1715). da_ntar-kut.ha = fireplace (Sv.); ko_ti wooden vessel for mixing yeast (Sh.); kot.ha_ house with mud roof and walls, granary (P.); kut.hi_ factory (A.); kot.ha_ brick-built house (B.); kut.hi_ bank, granary (B.); kot.ho jar in which indigo is stored, warehouse (G.); kot.hi_ lare earthen jar, factory (G.); kot.hi_ granary, factory (M.)(CDIAL 3546). kot.ho = a warehouse; a revenue office, in which dues are paid and collected; kot.hi_ a store-room; a factory (G.lex.) kod. = the place where artisans work (G.lex.) kor.o Has. Syn. of ged.e, ger.e Nag. A domesticated duck, anas domestica (Mundari.lex.) ged.e = a duck (Santali.lex.) ka_ran.d.avamu = a sort of duck (Te.lex.) ka_ran.d.ava = a duck (G.lex.) Rebus: kod. ‘workshop’

Lothal056

7100

h059

5120

put.a = an eyelid (Ka.) put.a = the purifying or calcining of metals etc. by fire (Tu.lex.); put.amu = refining a metal; calcining, calcinations (Te.) put.a = crucible; put.akke ha_ku = to put into a crucible in order to prepare drugs; to refine, as metals (Ka.); put.avikku = to apply fire in order to refine metals; to burn (Ka.lex.) put.- (-t-) to set fireto, kindle (Pe.); put.pa (put.t-), pur.pa (pur.t-) to roast (Kui)(DEDR 4260). put.abhedana = a town, a city (Ka.lex.) kut.i = the eyebrows (Santali.lex.) Rebus: kut.hi ‘a furnace for smelting iron ore to smelt iron’; kolheko kut.hieda koles smelt iron (Santali) ( ) The glyph of a curved line when mirrored becomes a ligature, an enclosure to other glyphs. 88

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kut.ila = bent, crooked (Skt.) kut.ila (Skt. Rasaratna samuccaya, 5.205) Humpbacked kud.illa (Pkt.) kut.ila, katthi_l = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) (Skt.) kor.o Has. Syn. of ged.e, ger.e Nag. A domesticated duck, anas domestica (Mundari.lex.) Rebus: kod. = the place where artisans work (G.lex.) eruvai copper, blood (Ta.); ere a dark-red or dark-brown colour (Ka.)(DEDR 817). ere black soil (Ka.)(DEDR 820). ke~r.e~ ko~r.e~ an aboriginal tribe who work in brass and bell-metal (Santali) ker.e sen:gel fire in a pit (Santali) Glyph: garud.a eagle (Skt.) [garud.a bar got.an two eagles duplicated; kod. place where artisans work; kot. fort] Substantive: gara_d.o, gara_d. a ditch, a pit (G.) Substantive: garad.o, garod.o A priest of the pariahs (G.) Dotted circle, eye ko_lu = an orifice, hole (Te.) kolo = a hole in a wall (G.); koravum = to bore a hole (G.) khol = hollow (Santali) Rebus: kol ‘metal, panchaloha (alloy of five metals)(Ta.) ko_l.e = the outer angle of the eye (Ka.Ta.) <kaNa>>: *De.<kana>(GM) à hole; perforated'. ??hole, to make a hole? #10761. <kaNa-gu-nu> {ADJ} ``^perforated''. |<gu> `?perfect/past', <nu> àdjective'. *De.<kana>(GM) à hole; perforated'. @N0989. #10770.

(40)

Sign 162 (212)

h352C Dotted circles. Field symbol 83 (10)

Grapheme: tamar = hole in a plank, commonly bored or cut; gimlet, spring awl, boring instrument; tavar = to bore, a hole; hole in a board (Ta.); tamar = hole made by a gimlet; a borer, gimlet, drill (Ma.); tamire, tagire = the pin in the middle of a yoke (Te.); tamiru = gimlet (Tu.)(DEDR 3078). tav to butt with both horns, gore (Ko.)(DEDR 3078). Substantive: ta_mra copper (Skt.) tamba copper (Santali) ta_mbum, ta_mra copper (G.) tabar = a broad axe (P.lex.) tambira = copper (Pkt.) tibira = merchant (Akkadian) tavaru, tavara, trapu, tavarinadu, tagara, tamara = tin, tra_pus.a (Ka.); tavaramu, tamaramu (Te.); tamara = tagara = tin, lead; trapu = id. (Ka.) trapulamu, trapuvu = tin; lead (Te.) Cassiterite (leax oxide: SnO2) is black and could be rebus for a black snake, na_ga (Skt.); anakku (Akkadian). While the metals are white, ores tend to be recognized by their colour, particularly in early metallurgical societies. Ore type and colour: native copper (copper colour) 89

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copper oxide: tenorite CuO (black) copper oxide: cuprite Cu2O (red) copper carbonate: azurite (blue) copper carbonate: malachite (green) copper silicate: chrysocolla (kupferpecherz) (Blue) copper silicates: tennantite, tetrahedrite, enargite, bournonite (Grey) copper sulphate: chalcanthite (blue) Copper sulphide: covellite CuS (blue) copper sulphide Chalcocite Cu2S (grey) copper sulphide: bornite CuFeS4 (peacock colour) copper/arsenic: whitneyite CuAs (reddish-white) [Which is perhaps the most used in Bha_rata to create hardened tools and weapons in SSVC] copper/arsenic: domeykite Cu3As (grey-white) Copper/arsenic: algodonite (grey-white) copper/arsenic: pseudomalachite (green) Pure arsenic As (WHITE) Arsenic oxide : Arsenolite As2O3 (grey) Arsenic sulphides: orpiment As2S3 (yellow); realgar As2S2 (red); arsenopyrite FESAs (white) In the old Akkadian period, the ingots of tin are called s'uqlu [cf. s’ukla ‘white’ (Skt.)] and weigh about 25 kg. The two ingots found at Haifa weigh about 5 kg. each. Terracotta cake with incised motif. Horned divinity on one side of the cake and a tied animal on the other side. Kalibangan. Period I c. 2800-2600 BCE. [After Lal, 1979, pl. XII; cf. Fig. 2.26 in: JM Kenoyer, 1998] A characteristic feature of the epigraphs is the use of glyphs. Since many glyphs most often occupy an entire side of an inscribed object and dominate the field on which epigraphs also occur, the glyphs are interpreted as constituting substantive messages. Kalibangan100A [The first Sign could be ‘fish’ glyph.] The orthography incised on the potsherd led KB Lal to surmise that the writing was from right to left. The sequence of three Signs occurs on over 24 epigraphs; the message is comparable to the epigraphs:

Lothal035

m1294

2291 or,

7101 or part of copper plate inscription (line 2):

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m0512At

m0512Bt

m0502At h853At

2906 or copper tablet (line 1)

m0502Bt h853Bt

3345or miniature tablet: h853Ct

5277

Glyphs and meanings The use of glyphs to convey messages of import is clearly seen in the stones of Mesopotamia and Elam.

boundary

"'The Staff of Nins'ubura'...The scene shows the sun-god as the chief justice of the world. He majestically places his foot on a hill, holding the saw with which he 'cuts decisions' (a translation of the Akkadian phrase for judging)...A godess with hands raised in supplication stands behind the king as a protective figure whose prayer may be directed for the benefit of the seal owner...A goat placed beside a woman, to the right, helps us identify the latter as a godess, inspirer of correct interpretations of omens appearing in sacrifices, who is mentioned in a Babylonian text on constellations, published by Christopher Walker and Hermann Hunger." (Edith Porada, 1995, Understanding Ancient Near Eastern Art: A Personal Account, in: Jack M. Sasson, ed. 1995, Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, Vol. IV, New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, pp. 2695-2705.) gurja = a mace; a club; a battle-axe (Persian.G.lex.) kuruju = a frame-work of bamboo-slits covered with paper or cloth or leaves, used to put idols in, or by the bride and bridegroom to sit in (Ka.); kuruji, gurji (Tu.)(Ka.lex.) kur-uma_d.u = the gable end of a house (Te.lex.) kurujute_ne = the most luscious of all kinds of honey, gathered by the smallest of bees (Te.lex.) [Note the framework, it appears like a bee-hive?]. gurji = a boundary pillar; gurji tehar.a, a boundary pillar marking the spot where the boundaries of three villages meet (Santali.lex.) kudurr (boundary stone) marking of Nebuchadnezzar I (1126-1050 BCE), marking the king's land grant to Ritti-Marduk for military service in the inscription (not shown). The symbols appear in six registers. The first register is the eight-pointed star of Ishtar, the crescent of Sin and the sun-disk of Shamash. The second register represents the shrines of Anu, Enlil, and Ea. The third register consists of serpent diases upon which are the hoe of Marduk, the wedge of Nabu, and an unidentified symbol. The fourth register includes an eagle-headed scepter, a double-lionheaded mace, a horse's head on a double base with 91

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an arch, and a bird on a rod. The firth register shows the goddes Gula seated on a throne, with a dog (her symbol) lying beside her, and a scorpion-man, with the legs and feet of a bird, holding a bow and arrow. The last register includes double lightning forks supported by a bull (Adad), a tortoise, a scorpion, and a lamp on a pedestal (the symbol of Nusku, the god of light). A snake twists along the side of the kudurr. Ht. 56 cm. London, British Museum (After the notes in: Karen Rhea Nemet-Nejat, 1998, Daily life in Ancient Mesopotamia, London, Greenwood Press, p. 262). The 'star' Sign denoted AN, sky god and also was the cuneiform Sign to represent the word and syllable: AN. Many of these logographs are found among the Harappan glyphs. It is notable that the pictorial motifs are associated with weapons. Rebus: kuduru = a goldsmith’s portable furnace (Te.lex.) kudru top of fireplace (Kuwi)(DEDR 1709). These ligatures and scenes are clear representation of the hieroglyphic nature of the pictorial motifs. It is indeed possible to read the logographs: the lion representing ARA_, a saw; similarly, the griffin and the one-horned bull are representations in logography of lexemes denoting other bronze-age weapons; the exact lexemes will emerge from a study of the homonyms in the ancient Indian Lexicon. This tradition of logography continues in the Cretan Hieroglyphic script. A single descendant of this script, Linear A, Linear B, and Cypro-Minoan survived in the first millennium on the island of Cyprus and was noted as the Classical Cypriot Syllabary. Table of Cretan pictographic Signs compared with Egyptian hieroglyphs, Phoenician and allied Sign lists and classical Greek and allied alphabets (After Fig. 1 in: F. Melian Stawell, 1931, A Clue to the Cretan Scripts, London, G. Bell and Sons Ltd.) Some soundvalues in Cretan and in Phoenician seem to correspond. Some Linear A ideograms, ligatures and fractions (After Fig. 6 in David W. Packard, 1974)

"The script begins at the time of the foundation of the first palaces in the MMI period (about 2000 BC) and continues into the early part of MM III (perhaps down to 1650 BC). Since the inscriptions are all extremely short, the prospects for decipherment are discouraging; and there is fundamental disagreement about so basic a question as whether the script is ideographic or phonetic. About two dozen of the Hieroglyphic Signs resemble Signs occurring later in Linear A and B, and the same sequence of Signs occurs both on Hieroglyphic seals and Linear A religious inscriptions. (Tables of parallel Signs: Ventris-Chadwick (1956,33), Pope (1968, opcit., 438), Raison-Pope (1971, Index du lineaire A. Rome. xiv). It is difficult to see how this could occur if the first script were purely ideographic and the second 92

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syllabic. In any case, the obvious ideographic use of four Signs to deSignate agricltural commodities on a Hieroglyphic tablet has an exact paralle in Linear B where these same Signs represent wheat, oil, olives and figs. They also occur (in the same order) on several Linear A tablets. (The Hieroglyphic table is P 121; the Linear A is HT 91; cf. HT 14,21,114,116). The second Cretan palace script is Linear A. Despite its obvious resemblance to the earlier script it is not easy to document a natural development from one to the other. Linear A was in use in Phaistos as early as 1850 BC, long before the disappearance of the first script; but the bulk of the surviving texts date from the destruction of the palaces at the end of LM Ib (around 1450 BC) with a smaller number asSignable to MM III and none securely dated after 1400 BC...Linear B script was used by the Mycenaean Greeks at Pylos, Mycenae, and Thebes for accounting documents in the Greek language. Its use in Crete is restricted almost entirely to Knossos at the time of the Greek occupation in the LM II period...A theory holds that the Greeks on the mainland had encountered Minoan writing earlier in their trade with Crete and had adapted it to their own language, perhaps already in the Shaft-Grave period." (David W. Packard, 1974, Minoan Linear A, Berkeley, Univ. of California Press). Kudurru recopied under Marduk-apla-iddina I, from Susa, 12th cent. BCE. A godess wearing a tunic with pleats in the back and elbow-length sleeves, a cone-shaped headdress, and quilted slippers. Top register: sun, moon, star, scorpion: In Babylonia, a replica of boundary stone placed in a temple, recording a land grant, usually involving the crown. Land grants were made to crown prince, princess, temple officials and priests, officers and generals, and courtiers. Personal names are accompanied by the phrase, ‘his (i.e. the king’s) servant’. Symbols of deities: 1 [Figure 1, Jack M. Sasson (ed.), Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, p. 1838]. 1. solar disk: Shamash; 2. winged disk: Shamash, sun-god; 3. cross: Shamash; 4. crescent: Nanna/Sin, moon-god; 5. 8-pointed star usually in disk (Akkadian kakkabu): Ishtar; 6. seven dots: Sebittu, the Pleiades; 7. lightning: storm-god, Ishkur in Sumer; 8. triangularheaded spade or hoe (Akkadian marru): Marduk; 9. plough: Ningirsu (on Kass kudurrus); 10. barley stalk: Shala, godess; 11. stylized tree: fertility? 12. vase with streams (Akkadian hegallu, ‘abundance’): water-god Ea or Marduk: 13. horned cap: sky-god Anu; 14. stylus: Nabu, scribal god; 15. lamp: fire-god Nusku; 16. omega: weighing scales or yoke of a chariot pole; Ninkhursag, birth-godess? 17. rhomb or lozenge: grain of corn, Ishtar; 18. bull: storm-god; 19. lion: Ishtar, godess; 20. horse: Shamash; 21. horse head: ? 22. dog, usually sitting: Gula, godess of healing; 23. turtle: Ea, water-god; 24. scorpion: Ishhara, godess; 25. horned snake (Akkadian bas’mu, nira_hu): Ishtaran, god; 26. striding brid: Papsukkal, messenger god; 27. bird with back-turned head: Harbe, Kassite god; 28. bird on low perch: Ninurta, war-god. 298. bird on high perch: Shuqamura and Shumalia, twin-gods; 30. (snake-)dragon (Akkadian mus’hus’s’u): ? 31. liondragon (lion’s forelegs, bird’s hindlegs and wings (?Akkadian u_mu na_’iru): Ishkur, storm-god or Adad; 32. goat-fish (Akkadian suhurmas’u_): Enki/Ea, water-god; 33. double lionheaded scepter: Nergal; 34. lion-headed staff: Nergal; 35. eagle-headed staff: Zababa; 36. ram-headed staff: Ea, water-god; 37. crook: Amurru, god of nomads; 38. ring-post with streamer: Inanna; 39. ringpost without streamer: Enki/Ea, water-god; 40. ring-post: Shamash, sun-god? [Note Symbol 31: the composite animal is a pattern seen on many composite animals of SSVC inscriptions]. Symbols of deities: 2 Principal apotropaic figures (representations of beneficent gods and demons, and natural and fantastic animals). Most were protectors of buildings (e.g. clay images buried in foundations; apkallus (Nos. 16-18) lived at a time before the Flood). [Figure 5, Jack M. Sasson (ed.), Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, p. 1848]. 1. human-headed winged or wingless bull: lamassu/s’e_du (or aladlammu_) or kusarrikku, ‘bison’; 2. human-headed winged lion: s’e_du (or aladlammu); 3. dog, sitting or standing: kalbu, ‘dog’; 4. horned snake: bas’mu/us’umgallu, ‘poisonous 93

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snake’; 5. (snake-)dragon: mus’hus’s’u, ‘furious snake’; 6. lion-dragon: u_mu na_’iru, ‘roaring weatherbeast’; 7. goat-fish: suhurmas’u, ‘carp-goat’; 8. long-haired ‘hero’: lahmu, ‘hairy’, Enki/Ea, water-god or Marduk; 9. bull-man: kusarikku, ‘bison(-man)’, Shamash, sun-god; 10. scorpion-man: girtablullu, ‘scorpion-man’; 11. lion-humanoid: uridimmu, ‘mad lion’; 12. lion-garbed figure: Latarak; 13. liondemon: ugallu, ‘big weather-beast’; 14. lion-centaur: urmahlullu, ‘lion-man’; 15. merman and mermaid: kulullu, ‘fish-man; kuliltu, ‘fish-woman’; 16. fish-garbed figure: apkallu, ‘sage’ (in fish-guise); 17. griffindemon: apkallu, ‘sage’ (in bird-guise); 18. anthropomorphic god with bucket and cone: apkallu, ‘sage’ (in human guise); 19. anthropomorphic godess with ring of beads: Narudu or Ishtar; 20. anthropomorphic god with axe and dagger: Sebittu, ‘seven gods’; 21. anthropomorphic god with axe and mace: Meslamtaea; 22. smiting-god: Lulal; 23. bowlegged dwarf: Ritual dancer? 24. gigantic monstrous human figure: Khuwawa/Khumbaba, demon; 25. canine/leonine demon: Pazuzu. Tigris and Euphrates were called idigna and buranun. Cities: Nippur, Ur, Kish are non-Sumerian words. Among other pre-Sumerian words are those for farmer, herdsman, fisherman, plow, metal smith, carpenter, weaver, potter, mason and merchant. “Perhaps the most striking element in ancient Mesopotamian religious art was the symbol. Generally, its Significance was simple and direct. Certain relatively uncomplicated images – such as phenomena in the sky, tools of the land, animals, animal hybrids or animal-headed and other standards – were used as direct substitutes for individual gods and godesses [Anthony Green, Ancient Mesopotamian religious iconography, in: Jack M. Sasson (ed.), Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, pp. 1837-1858]. Trade routes going northwest "The Harappan influence observed in southern Turkmenia, however, also indicates trade routes going northwest. It was apparently largely this northern trade of Harappa which led to the rise of Mundigak in southern Afghanistan, which was located advantageously to control the supply of copper and lapis lazui going to the towns of the Indus Valley. The close resemblance bewteen the unpainted pottery of southern Turkmenia, Seistan and southern Afghanistan is no coincidence. In Mundigak, this similarity with the Turkmenian sites extends to metal seals as well as to seals made of stone and baked clay, with their incised deSigns...The seals are an important pointer where social organization is concerned...Practically all the basic forms and motifs of these seals have their origin in the various magic symbols of the Late Chalcolithic. Seal impressions on clay in the Middle Bronze Age material indicate one of their functions: thus, one clay figurine of a bull had a brand, a symbol of property, incised on its flank. It is well known that livestock played an important part in the development of the institutuion of property; since only two seals were found in the collective tomb mentioned.., it is very likely that the valued property was that of the large clan, not personal property."" (V.M. Masson and V.I. Sarianidi, 1972, Central Asia: Turkmenia before the Achaemenids, New York, Praeger Publishers, p. 125, 129; pl. 46 shows the ligatured three-headed animal seal of silver).

h176A

h176B

h176bb showing holding a wide-mouthed-pot).

4303 Tablet in bas-relief h176a (On h176A, a person is

Person standing at the centrebetween a two-tiered structure at R., and a short-horned bull (bison) standing near a trident-headed post at L. h176b 94

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From R.—a tiger (?); a seated, pig-tailed person on a platform; flanked on either side by a person seated on a tree with a tiger, below, looking back. A hare (or goat?) is seen near the platform. kand.o seal, stool (Malt.); kan.d.o_ a stool (Kur.)(DEDR 1179). Is the two-tiered structure a kuruju? Glyph: kuruju framework of bamboo slats covered with paper or cloth or leaves, used to put idols in, or by the bride and bridegroom to sit in (Ka.); kuruji, gurji a temporary halting place for idols, decorated with leaves, flags; a temporary shed covered with awning for offering oblations to the manes of deceases s’u_dras (Tu.); gurykat. funeral car, the bed on which the corpse is placed under the tail, storied framework (Ko.)(DEDR 1786). kha_ti_ member of a caste of wheelwrights (H.); ks.attr.- carver, distributor (RV.)(CDIAL 3647). kat, kaitha = the Hindu caste of Kayasth; kat. bad.hoe = a worker in wood, a carpenter (Santali) katkianari = soldiers (Kuwi); katk- = to cut with axe (Nk.) ka_t.hi_ a stick, a staff; five-cubits; five hand-breadths (G.) ka_s.t.ha wood (Skt.) ka_t.hiyo the wooden frame of a wagon (used in Ba_baria_wa_d)(G.)

Reading epigraph

4303:

There is a seal which combines the features of a one-horned bull and a rhinoceros (boar): vara_ha metath. va_kar or va_har. May explain this ligatured animal on Seal m1135. badhor, badhor.ia = crooked, cross grained, knotty (Santali.lex.) vardhaka, 'carpenter, mason' What could have been the early phonetic form of words connoting, 'artisan' or workers in stone, wood and metal (ores)? Were there distinct words connoting a differentiation of functions among, say, a wood-worker, a stone-worker and a metal-worker? bad.dha_ = pl. stumps of stalks of the last harvest standing ina field (G.lex.) vad.lu = unhusked rice, paddy (Te.lex.) bad = thid class rice land; bad hor.o = rice grown on third class land (Santali.lex.) ba_t.u = pl. stalks of corn with their ears; ban.t.i_ = a kind of corn (G.lex.) buda = stalk, stock, root, clump; mit buda khonbo hec akana = we all come from the one stock (Santali.lex.) vad.d.h = ears of corn remaining in a field after sheaves have been removed (L.); vad.d.h, bad.d.h = a cut in a piece of wood, chip, stubble of grain (wheat, maize etc.); vad.d.ha_, bad.d.ha_ = cut, mark (P.); va_d.h = cut, wound, reaping a field (G.)(CDIAL 11372). bu~t.ha_ = reduced to a stump (M.); bu~t.han. = stump, stub (M.)(CDIAL 9268). There is another semantic stream, vad.d.e (Telugu), vad.d.haki (Pkt.), connoting, respectively, a digger of tanks (perhaps the same group of people who had the competence to create a rock-cut reservoir in Dholavira) and carpenter, mason.

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Substantive: bad.hoe ‘a carpenter, worker in wood’; badhoria ‘expert in working in wood’(Santali) vad.d.e = the tank-diggers’ caste; of the country of Oriya; vad.d.eva_d.u = a man of the tank-digger’s caste; a native of Oriya; vad.d.emu = Oriya language; vad.la, vad.ramu, vad.d.ran:gamu = carpentry, joinery; vad.langi, vad.ran:gi, vad.lava_d.u = a carpenter, a joiner; vad.lan:gipit.t.a = a wood-pecker (a bird); vad.lata = a woman of the carpenter caste or class (Te.lex.) bad.aga = a servant; Tbh of vat.uka? (boy) (Ka.lex.) bad.agi, bad.a_yi, bad.iga, bad.ige, bad.igya_, bad.d.agi Tbh. of vardhaki = a carpenter (Ka.; bad.agitana = carpentry (Ka.lex.)

The wide-mouthed pot also gets ligatured to a pair of ‘ficus leaves’ or variant glyphs (with an in-fixing of ‘crab’ or ‘claws’ sign on some variants). In a remarkable comparison, Asko Parpola finds a homograph – ‘archer’ – on copper plates, for this ligatured sign of pot+fig leaves+claws or crab. He identifies this monograph based on the use of the same sequence of signs on the obverse side of the copper plate inscriptions.

h99-3819 Harappa Project. Incised steatite seal (pincers ligatured with an oval glyph).

V217 Pict-59:Composite motif

m0126

m0042a

2311 Kalibangan043

1096

Kalibangan091A

m393AC

m0119a h007 V214

8039

8212 [Pottery]

2120

2018 4008 V219

V224

V228

V229

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h099

4223

m1134

2469

2651

m0628

1033

Surkotada 2

9092

Glyph: kapci scissors, to clip with scissors; up kapci gidikataeme cut off his hair (Santali) Substantive: kapi a battle-axe (Santali) Types of battle axe: bhalua kapi [bhalua: a battle axe, so named from its resemblances to a swallow with outstretched wings; bhalwa ‘used by blacksmiths when punching holes in iron’; the punch passes through this iron into a hole in the bhalwa] ; hoekok kapi; khupa kapi; kherco kapi (small) [lit. kherco ‘chipped, having a piece out of the rim’]; ayar kapi [lit. ayar ‘oblique’]; hado kapi [lit. hado ‘bony and big’]; gudia kapi (broad); sikria kapi; potam cupi ten:goc [lit. tail of pigeon axe](Santali) Brazier’s pincers, artisan’s workshop kut.t.a-k-kur-at.u a kind of brazier's pincers; cf. kut.t.am smallness, littleness (Ta.lex.) Image: vice: khod. vice (M.); khod.a_ cramp (M.); khod.um. (G.); khom.d.a_ (B.); khora paralytic (Si.); khod. vice (G.); khori_ vice (H.); khod. malediction, disease (H.); khod.a (Pkt.); khod.o ... khajah- (OM.); khod.i(dos.a-) (Ap.); khod.a khora (Skt.)(Bloch, p. 324). cf. kot.ukki vice (Ta.lex.) kot.ir-u pincers (Ta.); kot.il tongs (Ma.); kor. hook of tongs (Ko.); kut.ilika_- smith's tongs (Skt.)(DEDR 2052). kur-at.u, pincers; kot.ir-u cheek, jaw; marks of elephant's must (Ta.lex.); kot.icci jaws (Ta.); kot.uppu cheek, jaw (Ta.); kot.ia temples (Ma.); kod.eji the inside of the cheeks (Tu.); ku_dr.u_, ku_d.ru jaw (of human beings)(Kuwi)(DEDR 2051). [Note the second and third glyphs of a pair of ‘tongs’ on text 2420.]

Kalibangan015

8056

Seal 160. Seal fragment of a man with double bun and three fingered hand or trident. Trench 39 North, upper levels, Harappa Phase..

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Source: http://www.harappa.com/script/indusscript.pdf ‘Study of the Indus Script’ -- Paper read at the 50th ICES Tokyo Session on 19 May 2005 in Tokyo. I have shortened the text distributed at the conference and made a few additions (in particular, note 14 and consideration of two papers by Massimo Vidale that I received in a preliminary form in July 2005). After the critique presented in this paper in July 2005, Farmer, Sproat and Witzel back down from their earlier 2004 pronouncement of ‘illiterate’ thesis. (Farmer, Steve, Richard Sproat & Michael Witzel 2004. “The collapse of the Indusscript thesis: The myth of a literate Harappan Civilization.” Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies 11 (2): 19–57). Asko Parpola reports in the (unpublished) slides – but available for download – http://www.compling.ai.uiuc.edu/2007Workshop/Slides/parpola.ppt at the Stanford Workshop of 2007 and the presentation of the same slides made in Chennai on 16 Feb. 2008: Kimmo Koskenniemi, Professor of Computer Linguistics, Helsinki University, e-mail to Sproat: “It appears that we agree that plain statistical tests such as the distribution of sign frequencies and plain reoccurrencies can (a) neither prove that the signs represent writing, (b) nor prove that the signs do not represent writing. Falsifying being equally impossible as proving. But, do I interpret you correctly?” Dr Richard Sproat in reply (27 April 2005): “Yes.” FARMER in his abstract of today’s paper:“the so-called Indus script was not a speech-encoding or writing system in the strict linguistic sense, as has been assumed” (emphasis AP’s) WITZEL in his abstract of today’s paper: “Even if Indus signs do not encode FULL phrases or sentences of a spoken language, as recent studies suggest... Indus symbols... may...contain occasional PUNS even without SYSTEMATICALLY encoding language” (emphases AP’s) BUT: even short noun phrases and incomplete sentences qualify as full writing if the script uses the rebus principle to phonetize some of its signs Thus, two of the three ‘illiteracy’ proponents seem to concede that: (1) the sign frequencies do not prove ‘illiteracy’; and (2) some of the signs may contain ‘puns’ (that is encoded speech).

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“Since the appearance of my criticism, Farmer and his colleagues have underlined that the rebus principle is occasionally used also in symbol systems not so tightly bound to language. The use of rebus puns to express proper names in the otherwise clearly non-linguistic communication system of heraldry is mentioned as an example. But by definition any ancient or modern symbol system which consciously uses rebuses and which therefore at least partially can be read phonetically counts as full writing. Now, from the abstracts of today’s papers I get a very definite impression that at least one of the three authors wants to back out from the original thesis and change it into something else. While Farmer repeats the claim that “the socalled Indus script was not a speech-encoding or writing system in the strict linguistic sense, as has been assumed”, Witzel writes as if he and his colleagues had only claimed that the Indus script does not SYSTEMATICALLY encode language in the sense that [quote] “Indus signs do not encode FULL phrases or sentences”. Witzel also admits that [quote] “Indus symbols... may... contain occasional puns” [unquote]. Or maybe when speaking of recent studies which suggest this he is referring to me, since these have been my very assumptions, namely that the Indus seals hardly contain complete sentences and that they contain puns. In any case, I am happy that Witzel has changed his previously more radical view and now agrees with me.” (Asko Parpola, slide 66, 2007) There is a moral in this story. Indologists should not rush to pontificate without first verifying the facts or without agreeing on definition of terms (for e.g., what is a ‘writing system’). Farmer et al seem to have originally assumed that every sign has to represent ‘sound’ of a syllable or an alphabet (consonant or vowel) to constitute a writing system. Little did they realize that representation of pictures or glyphs using the ‘sounds’ of words used in speech also constitute a writing system, simply, encoding of speech. Do pictorial motifs matter? The second major assumption was that only ‘signs’ matter for the writing system and not ‘field symbols or pictorial motifs’ which occur on many inscriptions. These field symbols or pictorial motifs are also glyphs and constitute representation of encoded speech. This fact explains why only some animals are selected for encoding on inscriptions and why these glyphs representing animals also continue to be used as ‘devices’ or ‘symbols’ on later-day punch-marked coins and on Sohgaura copper plate of PreMauryan times. Farmer et al, Iravatham Mahadevan and Asko Parpola have made assumptions on both counts and tried to read ‘syllables’ in each glyph and also did not read speech-sounds represented by ‘field symbols or pictorial motifs’. So, who is illiterate? The Sarasvati people who created the writing system or the present-day claimants of decipherment of the writing system or those who are unable to ‘read’ the glyphs of the writing system?

h598A

h598D

sign of the second line may be Sign 54

5073 [The ligature in-fixed on the last ] 99

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Lothal011

7026

m0172

1071

m0414A

m0414B Seal with incision on obverse

2004

m1169a 2024 Pict-58: Composite motif: body of an ox and three heads: of a one-horned bull (looking forward), of antelope (looking backward), and of short-horned bull (bison) (looking downward). This inscription with 11 signs. The two-long-linear-strokes sign is shown on two lines.

m0357 1401 This tablet seal has 8 signs. The ligatured sign (sheaf in oval) is repeated but in distinct sign sequences. m375 has 7 signs, 6 of which are the most frequently occurring signs.

h598A h598D Sign 54

5073 [The ligature in-fixed on the last sign of the second line may be

]

Kalibangan010 8006 Text has 10 signs. Note the repetition of the pair of signs (flag + superscript two linear strokes).

m0355

2654 This is a seal with 14 signs.

100

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m0634 wheel’ gets repeated with distinctly unique pairings.

2069 The sign denoting ‘nave of

m0682 m0682A2 2690 Repetition of signs does occur in the same inscription. On this seal with 10 signs, the X sign is repeated three times and the rim-of-jar sign is repeated twice. Egyptian writing system shows that many Egyptian inscriptions were very short, often consisting of just two or three signs and used to record proper names, using rebus method. Two Ligatured hieroglyphs --- Standard --- One-horned heifer Summary Analysing orthographic variants in design of hieroglyphs and surveying many lexemes of bharatiya languages, the following hypothesis is proposed and tested: Both the one-horned heifer and the standard in front of it found on many epigraphs of Sarasvati civilization are ligatured hieroglyphs. The ligaturing elements are: Dotted circles (khangar ‘furnace’) Portable furnace (kammat.a ‘mint’) Nest (kod. ‘artisans’ workshop’) Gimlet (sanghad.o, ‘lathe’) Carrying on shoulder (d.ek ‘hindu artisan’) Heifer [tam(b)ra ‘copper’] One horn (kod. ‘artisans’ workshop) Neck-rings (kod.iyum, ‘place where artisans work’) Pannier (kamarsa_la ‘smith’s workshop’) There could be vikalpa (alternative) interpretations of glyphs which are also presented, but all are surprisingly only in the context of a mint or smithy. Background Out of a total of 2906 inscribed objects (according to Mahadevan concordance), the one-horned, young bull occurs on 1159 objects; on 900 of these objects, the young bull is shown in front of a standard device. If the inscribed objects ‘without texts’ are also taken into reckoning, the number of inscribed objects discovered according to Parpola concordance are 3692: Collections in India: 1537; Collections in 101

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Pakistan: 2138; West Asia: 17. There are also a few hundred cognate epigraphs listed in Schoyen and other collections which are likely to be included in the pictorial corpus volumes 3 and 4 of Asko Parpola. For a complete corpus, see or download from http://www.filefactory.com/file/972bb9 Standard The device in front of the one-horned heifer is read as: sangada = furnace, gimlet of a lathe. The device is thus a ligature of a portable furnace (shown on the lower part) and a lathe (shown on the upper part). Sangada is a furnace. sangada also means a joined animal (Marathi). This hieroglyph occurs 19 times on the epigraphs and is present on many seals and sealings in front of the one-horned bull (the most frequently-occurring hieroglyph-combination in about 1,150 epigraphs). It is also shown in front of a rhinoceros on a seal. The standard device normally shown in front of the one-horned heifer (bull) is a ligatured hieroglyph. This ain’t no cult object as originally interpreted by early excavators (Marshall, Vats). This is a ligatured hieroglyph. So is the ‘unicorn’ a ligatured hieroglyph. Vikalpa: Standard device (portable furnace, lathe): kammat.a, sagad.i_, saghad.i_ a pan to hold live coal or embers; a fire-pan; a portable iron grate (G.) san:gha_d.o a lathe (G.) Rebus kampat.t.a ‘mint’ ; janga_d.iyo ‘guard carrying worker on a lathe (G.)

treasure’ (G.) san:gha_d.iyo

There are 57 objects with the hieroglyph ‘dotted circles’ the hieroglyph on the standard device.

apart from the depiction of

Ivory rod, ivory plaque with dotted circles. Mohenjodaro. [Musee National De Arts Asiatiques Guimet, 1988-1989, Les cites oubliees de l’Indus Archeologie du Pakistan.]

2949 Text. Dotted circles (on obverse, not illustrated) Dotted circle on a Dilmun seal Obverse of steatite Dilmun stamp seal from Failaka Island (c. 2000 BCE). A human figure and a variety of animals – two antelopes one with its head looking backward; possibly a scorpion at the feet of the human figure. A dotted circle is seen above one antelope and a vase in between the antelope and the human figure. Kuwait National Museum. French Archaeological Expedition in Kuwait. Several inscriptions at Failaka mention the Dilmunite god Enzak and his temple or Mesopotamian deities. [Remi Boucharlat, Archaeology and Artifacts of the Arabian Peninsula, in: Jack M. Sasson (ed.), Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, pp. 13351353]. d.han:ga = tall, long shanked; maran: d.han:gi aimai kanae = she is a big tall woman (Santali.lex.) Rebus: d.han:gar 'blacksmith' Hieroglyphs on a bone comb: (1) Dotted circles and (2) five-petal motif

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Tell Abraq comb (TA 1649; 11x8.2x0.4 cm); decorated bone comb in a context datable to ca. 2100-2000 BCEat Tell Abraq, emirate of Umm al-Qaiwain, United Arab Emirates, on the southern coast of the Arabian Gulf (Fig. 2 a and b in: D.T. Potts, 1993, A new Bactrian find from southeastern Arabia, Antiquity 67 (1993): 591-6) Two logographs used are: dotted circles (3) and two flowers, longstemmed, with lanceolate-linear leaves with undulate margins (like Tulipa montana, Lindl. or mountain tulip). The flower motif occurs on a Bactrian flask (See picture).

h337A

h337B

4417 Pict-79: shape of a leaf. Dotted circle on obverse.

h338A h338B leaf (?). Dotted circles on obverse. h972Ait circles on obverse.

h972Bit

h352A

4426 Pict-39: Inscribed object in the shape of a tortoise (?) or

4418 Pict-128: Inscribed object in the shape of a leaf? Dotted

h352B

h352C

4575 Pict-120: One or more dotted

circles.

h353A

h353B

h354A

h354B

h355A h359a

h353C

5416

h354C

h355B

5499

h355C

h359B

5413

h359C

h360A

h360B

h360C

4584

h361A

h361B

h361C

5476

h362A

h364A

h362B

h362C

h364B

h364C

5466

h364E

4635

Dotted circle as hieroglyph (drilled hole or die?) 103

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Vikalpa: khangar, ghanghar, ghanghar gonghor ‘full of holes’ (Santali) Rebus: kangar = portable furnace (Kashmiri) Vikalpa: Hole: kud.e (Tu.); got.aru (Ka.), khod.ar (H.) [Note the glyphs of dotted circles]. Rebus: kut.ha_ru ‘writer, armourer’ khu~t.ro = entire bull; khu~t. = bra_hman.i bull (G.) khun.t.iyo = an uncastrated bull (Kathiawad. G.lex.) kun.t.ai = bull (Ta.lex.) cf. khu~_dhi hump on the back; khui~_dhu~ hum-backed (G.)(CDIAL 3902). The zebu is: khu~t., a bra_hman.i_ bull, a bull found even today in many parts of Gujarat, roaming the streets of Ahmedabad, for instance. The word may connote the rebus of kut.ha_ru, armourer or weapons maker (metal-worker), also an inscriber or writer. khu~_t.ad.um a bullock (used in Jha_la_wa_d.)(G.) khu~_t.iyum an upright support in the frame of a wagon (G.) Vikalpa : pasaramu, pasalamu = an animal, a beast, a brute, quadruped (Te.lex.) cf. pasu = animal; ato posu = domestic animal; bir pasu = wild animal (Santali); pas'u = animal (Skt. Ta.) Vikalpa : Another homonymous word is pa_so ‘die’ (orthography: dotted circle). pa_so = a die (Skt. pa_s’a]; pa_rasa = the philosopher’s stone [Skt. spars’, to touch]; pa_ras-pi_pal.o = a kind of pipal tree (G.lex.) [Note the glyph, ‘dotted circle’] pa_s'aka, pa_cike, pa_san:gi, ha_san:gi, pa_s'a = a die used in playing (Ka.) pa_so = a die (G.) Rebus: pa_s'o = a silver ingot; pa_s'a_ta_n.iyo = one who draws silver into a wire (G.) pa_slo = a nugget of gold or silver having the form of a die (G.) H. pāsā m. ‘lump, cube, lump of metal’; M. pās f. ‘silver ingot, iron share of harrow’(CDIAL 8132) Pkt. pasaḷḷi- gold.(DEDR 3821).

Pict-49 Uncertain animal with dotted circles on its body, a boar’s tusk ligatured to the nose and a dotted circle for the eye. 1385

Glyph: merom a goat; merom hopon a kid; merom me~t the goat’s eye, name of two plants: izora parviflora and olax naua (Santali) hon, hopon child, young of any animal (Santali) Substantive: me~r.he~t iron (Santali) Glyph: son.d. ‘tusk of boar’ (Santali)

V205

h901Ait

4535

m0740

1090

2079

Chanhudaro20

6210

h901Bit

4460

m0809

h902Ait

h902Bit

2548

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Glyph: cun.t.u, con.t.u bill, beak (Ta.Ma.); cun.d.u a bird’s beak (Ka.); sud.a mouth, beak, brim (Kui); sond.e lip (Go.); cond.i beak of bird (Pe.)(DEDR 2664). Glyph: cot.t.a ornamental dot on knife-handles etc. (Ma.); cot.t.ai a knob-like contrivance for hanging anything (Ta.)(DEDR 2839). Glyph: son.t.a hip, loins, waist (Ka.); son.t.a, on.t.a id. (Tu.); ton.t.i loins, hip (Te.)(DEDR 2840). Glyph: sun.d. ‘trunk of elephant’ Substantive: sund ‘pit (furnace)’; sum, sumbh a mine, a pit, the opening into a mine, the shaft of a mine; sum bhugak the entrance to a mine, pit’s mouth (Santali). sun.d.i a semi-hinduised aboriginal caste; this caste are the distillers and liquor sellers; sun.d.i gadi a liquor shop (Santali) cun.d. to boil away (Ko.); sun.d.u to evaporate (Ka.); cun.d.u to be evaporated or dried up (Te.); s’un.t.hi to become dry (Skt.)(DED 2662). Glyph: su_nd gat. knot of hair at back (Go.); cundi_ the hairtail as worn by men (Kur.)(DEDR 2670). Glyph: to seize: sum to seize (Kol.Nk.); cumm to seize, catch hold of (Pa.)(DEDR 2679). Alternative: Substantive: eruvai copper, blood (Ta.); ere a dark-red or dark-brown colour (Ka.)(DEDR 817). ere black soil (Ka.)(DEDR 820). ke~r.e~ ko~r.e~ an aboriginal tribe who work in brass and bell-metal (Santali) ker.e sen:gel fire in a pit (Santali) Substantive: araka a plough with bullocks complete (Ta.); are a plough (Malt.)(DEDR 198). Glyph: garud.a eagle (Skt.) Substantive: gara_d.o, gara_d. a ditch, a pit (G.) Substantive: garad.o, garod.o A priest of the pariahs (G.) Substantive: kut.hi ‘a furnace for smelting iron ore, to smelt iron’; kolheko kut.hieda koles smelt iron (Santali) Glyph: kur.it the pariah kite, mivus migrans govinda (Santali)

105

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Dotted circles and Standard sa~gad. = lathe component (drill); san:ga_d.o = cutting stone; san:gatara_s'u_ = stone cutter; san:gatara_s'i = stone-cutting; san:gsa_ru karan.u = to stone (S.), can:katam = to scrape (Ta.), san:kad.a (Tu.), san:kat.am = to scrape (Skt.) agud.e = brazier (Tu.) s'agad.i_ (G.); saghad.i_, s'aghad.i = a pot for holding fire (G.) Firepan: san:gha_d.o, saghad.i_ (G.) [cula_ sagad.i_ portable hearth (G.)] sangha_d.o (G.) (things) given for approval; (goods) taken from a shop to be bought if approved; taken without definite settlement of purchase. Dotted circle7 Glyph: khan:ghar, ghan:ghar, ghan:ghar gon:ghor ‘full of holes’ (Santali) Vikalpa: Grapheme: tamar = hole in a plank, commonly bored or cut; gimlet, spring awl, boring instrument; tavar = to bore, a hole; hole in a board (Ta.); tamar = hole made by a gimlet; a borer, gimlet, drill (Ma.); tamire, tagire = the pin in the middle of a yoke (Te.); tamiru = gimlet (Tu.)(DEDR 3078). tav to butt with both horns, gore (Ko.)(DEDR 3078). Substantive: ta_mra copper (Skt.) tamba copper (Santali) ta_mbum, ta_mra copper (G.) Substantive: kan:gar ‘portable furnace’ (K.) pa_sa = die (G.) pa_sa_ lump of metal (H.)(CDIAL 7951).

san:gr.a, san:gr.i (Santali) = a pole with slings carried on the shoulders of two men bharata = embroidery; working flowers on cloth (G.lex.) Substantive: bharatiyo a caster of metals; a brazier; bharata casting metals in moulds; bharatara, bharatala, bharatal.a adj. moulded; bharavum to pour into; to fill in; to put in; to fill; bharatiyum an invoice (G.) Priest statue (DK 1909), Mohenjodaro; four views; white steatite, with remnants of red paint inside the trefoils of the robe; height 17 cm.; National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi; After Marshall 1931a:pl.98; Parpola, 1994, p. 212.

106

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Trefoil motif and dotted circle motif on the worn on the stone statuette. A buffaloheaddress perhaps was added to the back of depict him as a chief. (After JM Kenoyer/Courtesy Dept. of Archaeology and of Pakistan).

uttari_yam horned the head, to Museums, Govt.

bharan.d.a = master, lord: Un. 1.128; a bull bharan.yu = a protector, master (Skt.lex.) world protector (= 3.115); a king; fire

(Skt.lex.) bharatha = a loka pa_la: Un. (Skt.lex.) bharad = in comp. for bharat: bharadva_ja = bearing speed or strength (of fight); a skylark (Skt.lex.) bharad-va_ja = name of a R.s.i (with the patronym ba_rhaspatya, supposed author of RV 6.130; 37-43; 53-74; 9.67, 1-3; 10.137.1 and Purohita of Diva-da_sa, with whom he is perhaps identical; name of a district: Pa_n. 4.2.145; name of an Agni (MBh.)(Skt.lex.) Three dotted circles appear on the robe of the sculpture in the round of a ‘robed priest’. A dotted circle is also depicted as the eye of a fish or hare (Fish: H-329, H-330 and Hare: H-335). potr. = priest of Vedic yajn~a (RV) po_tra = the Potr.'s soma vessel (RV.), pot = jeweller's polishing stone (Bi.) po_tramu = snout of a hog; po_tri = a hog; a boar (Te.) po_tramu = a cloth; a ploughshare (Te.) pot glass bead (P.); potti_ glass (Pkt.); pu_ti glass bead (S.); pote long straight bar of jewelry (N.); pot glass bead (B.); puti, pu_ti small bead (B.); puti necklace of small beads (Or.); pot glass bead (H.G.M.)(CDIAL 8403). pot.i-vet.t.i goldsmith's shears or scissors (to cut gold wire); pot.i solder, metallic cement; particle, fragment; that which is small (Ta.lex.) potti a kind of gem (S.I.I. iii,143)(Ta.lex.) Image: to perforate: cf. potir-ttal to pierce (Ci_vaka. 2778); potu-tal to be perforated (Tiv. Tiruccan. 73)(Ta.lex.) po~ti bead (B.)(CDIAL 4205). bud.hi mala a bead with wide hole (Santali.lex.) t.hakkaru, t.hakkarud.u = a deity; an idol; an honorific title same as t.ha_ku_ru, t.ha_ku_ru = a father; a religious preceptor (Te.lex.) ta_varam = lingam; ta_vara-lin:kam = lingam set up in tables for general worship; ta_varan- = God (Ta.lex.) tambal.a = a certain caste among s’u_dra, who are worshippers of S’iva and are priestlings in temples; tambal.i = a man of the tambal.a caste (Te.lex.) tammad.i = an attendant on an idol (Ka.); tambal.ava_d.u, tammal.a, tammad.i, tammali, tammal.ava_d.u (Te.)(Ka.lex.) tagidar = an overseer (Santali.lex.)

107

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tamar = counselors, men guiding one’s affairs: tammir- periya_r tamara_ vor..ukutal :(Kur-al. 444); tamar = servants (teva_ 907.1); tamar = relations, kindred (Ta.Ka.Ma.); friends, well-wishers (Pur-ana_. 157); tamarmai = friendship (Ta.); tamal. A female relative or friend (Ta.); taman- = a male relative or friend: cu_l.a_. araci. 182); tavan- < tapas = ascetic (Periyapu. Pura_n.aca_. 22); tavan- = religious austerity (Ta.lex.) tamaru (collo. pl. of ni_vu) you: used in respectful or polite address or to persons of higher station (Te.lex.) tavattar = ascetics; tavam < tapas = penance, religious austerities : Kur-al. 266 (Ta.) tameru, tamar, tamari, tamare = one who gives a bride away in marriage; a guardian (Tu.lex.) ta_mbu themselves (Kuwi); tamaru they, themselves (Kol.); ta_vu (Ka.); tamar = one’s own people, relatives (Ta.)(DEDR 3162).tabe = dependent, subject; tabedar = a dependent, a follower, a subject; taben = your (dual); tabol, tabon = ours, our, belonging to us (inclusive of person addressed)(Santali.lex.) tabej = an ornament worn on the upper arm (Santali) tavam < stava = praise, adoration: Ko_yir-pu. Iran.iya. 81 (Ta.lex.)

Bull with trefoil inlays; statue, Uruk (W.16017), c. 3000 BCE; shell mass with inlays of lapis lazuli; 5.3 cm. long; Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin; Parpola, 1994, p. 213. Trefoil-decorated bull; traces of red pigment remain inside the trefoils. Steatite statue fragment; Mohenjodaro (Sd 767);. After ArdeleanuJansen 1989: 196, fig. 1; Parpola, 1994, p. 213. Trefoils painted on steatite beads, Harappa (After Vats, Pl. CXXXIII, Fig.2)

Tre-foil inlay decorated base (for s’iva linga); smoothed, polished pedestal of dark red stone; National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi; After Mackay 1938: I, 411; II, pl. 107:35; Parpola, 1994, p. 218. Two decorated bases and a lingam, Mohenjodaro. Lingam, grey sandstone in situ, Harappa, Trench Ai, Mound F, Pl. X (c) (After Vats). "In an earthenware jar, No. 12414, recovered from Mound F, Trench IV, Square I... in this jar, six lingams were found along with some tiny pieces of shell, a unicorn seal, an oblong grey sandstone block with polished surface, five stone pestles, a stone palette, and a block of chalcedony..." (Vats, EH, p. 370). Dotted circles betwixt standard device on a tablet 8093a.Image: to perforate; center: bhog the centre, the middle; bhogtetre ubpe empty in the center (Santali.lex.) bogoc to make a hole in, to open, to slit; pin.d.hako bogockeda they cut the dam; bhugak, bhuk a hole, an opening, a cave; bha~ora bhugak a window opening, an opening to admit light (Santali.lex.) bhokvum. to pierce; to perforate; to bore; to puncture; to drive in or through; to stab; 108

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bhok a perforation, a hole; a bore; bhoka_vu hollowness; emptiness (G.lex.) bon:ku adj. hollow, empty; bon:g hollow inside; boga_ri copper-smith (Tu.lex.) bokko, bokkea_ blister, pustule (Kon.lex.) h855At

h855Bt

h855Ct

Kalibangan057

m1260

h978Ait h888Abit

h832At

Kalibangan058

h974Ait

h974Bit

h978Bit

h978Cit

4466

m1259

h974Cit

4592

5412

h889Abit

5477

h832Bt Tablet in bas-relief

h638

h352A h352B h352C 4575 Pict-120: One or more dotted circles. [54 out of 67 objects on which this glyph occur, are miniature tablets] The text on top line occurs mainly on miniature tablets of Harappa over 46 times. Top line of text 4575; third Sign from left: Glyph, comb kangha (IL 1333) ka~ghera_ comb-maker (H.) Rebus, substantive: kan:g = brazier, fireplace (K.)(IL 1332) Portable brazier; ka~_guru, ka~_gar (Ka.) whence, large brazier = kan:gar (K.)

h353A

h353B

h354A

h359a

h354B

h359B

h361A

h362A h365A

h353C

5416

h354C

5499

h361C

5476

h359C

h361B

h362B

h362C

h365B

h365C

5466 h365E

109

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h367A

h367B

h367C

h367E 4401

Tablet in bas-relief, Mohenjodaro m490: inSignia carried in procession: standard, unicorn, ?pennant +? Styles and structure of the standard and the top portion (cage?); cf. Mahadevan 1984: 185; Rissman 1989: 162 The top portion resembles a drill-lathe and a drill-head (gimlet). The wavy lines inscribed are a stylised depiction of 'turning motion' of the lathe. The style depicted as G is related to the practice of inserting the upper pivot of the drill-head into a coconut-shell; see below. Phtanite drill-heads from the surface of MNSE area, Moenjodaro (Massimo Vidale, 1987, p. 147).

h098

4256 Pict-122 Standard device which is normally in front of a one-horned bull. h228A h228B Standard device which is normally in front of a one-horned bull. The device is flanked by columns of dotted circles. 19 out of 19 occur at Harappa. [See h225 to h228].

h292A

h292B

m4443 Standard.

h293A

h293B

4441 Standard.

h887Ait

h887Bit (Incised tablet)

m1408At [The standard device is part of the tablet with a text containing four Signs.]

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m0008a and m0009a [Note the orthography on the device: The top portion ends in a pointed end, shaped like a gimlet [tamiru (gimlet); rebus: tavaru, ‘tin’] has wavy lines indicating churning motion of a lathe: san:gad.a; the bottom portion is ligatured with dotted circles, indicating drilled beads; smoke emanates from the bottom pot held on a rod, indicating it to be a portable furnace: san:gad.a]. Combined with tavaru, the device connotes: tavaru san:gha_ta, (i.e. tin + composite material) alloyed with tin! The bill of materials indicated by the inscription is a list of metal weapons and tools made with tin alloy.

m0008a

1038

m0009a

2616

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(Note the churning motion using a gimlet and emanating smoke depicted on the upper register of the lathe device and the dotted circles on the bottom vessel; both are mounted on a central 'stele') The dotted circles which appear on the bottom vessel on m008 are also seen on miniature tablets and other inscribed objects. h353A h353B h353C miniature tablet, incised with 3 dotted circles similar the ones found on the bottom vessel. [Reconstruction after I. Mahadevan, 1984, pp.165-86] [Note the 'stele' found in fire-places in Kalibangan, Banawali and Dholavira and other Sarasvati River ancient settlement sites.] Carved Ivory Standard in the middle har501 Harappa 1990 and 1993: representations of ‘standard device’ a. faience token (top portion ends in a sharp edge like a gimlet); b. standard device (top portion has cross-hatches, perhaps to denote a churning motion; the bottom portion has dotted-circles, perhaps to denote perforation using a gimlet); c. faience token. “Although this object is split in half, it was clearly made on a lathe and probably was cylindrical in shape. The top of the object is finished and incised with a circle motif, while a broken spot on the lower portion indicates where the stand shaft would have been.” [From Richard H. Meadow and Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, Harappa Excavations 1993: the city wall and inscribed materials, in: South Asian Archaeology ; Fig. 40.11, p. 467. Harappa 1990 and 1993: representations of 'standard'; 40.11a: H90-1687/3103-1: faience token; 40.11bH93-2092/5029-1: carved ivory standard fragment (split in half, made on a lathe and was probably cylindrical in shape; note the incisions with a circle motif while a broken spot on the lower portion indicates where the stand shaft would have been (found in the area of the 'Mughal Sarai' located to the south of Mound E across the Old Lahore-Multan Road); 40.11c H93-2051/3808-2: faience token]

A stylized standard device? san:gad.a, ‘portable furnace’. Hundreds of orthographic representations match this description of this ligatured device. See for example m0021, m0029, m0035

m0029a

m0021a 2103

2033

112

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Pict-123 Standard device which is normally in front of a one-horned bull. The device is flanked by columns of dotted circles. Glyph: khan:ghar, ghan:ghar, ghan:ghar gon:ghor ‘full of holes’ (Santali) Substantive: kan:gar ‘portable furnace’ (K.)

Rupar1A Rupar1B 9021 Dotted circles appear on all sides of a seal or tablet (for e.g., M-352, M-1256, M-1260, H-128) or get inscribed on the ‘cult object’. h353C miniature tablet, incised with 3 dotted circles similar the ones found on the bottom vessel. Dotted circles also adorn inscribed ivory objects.

Kalibangan, Ivory comb with three dotted circles; Kalibangan, Period II; Thapar 1979, Pl.XXVII, in: Ancient Cities of the Indus. After Vats, Pl.CXIX,.No.6 An ivory comb fragment with one preserved ornamented with double incised circles (3.8 in. long).

tooth

and

h1017ivorystick

4561 Ivory rod, ivory plaque with dotted circles. Mohenjodaro. [Musee National De Arts Asiatiques Guimet, 1988-1989, Les cites oubliees de l’Indus Archeologie du Pakistan.] m1651Aivory stick m1651F ivory stick

cube

m1654B ivory cube

m1651D ivory stick

2947

m1652A ivory stick

m1654A ivory

m1654D ivory cube

Amulet (?) Sonkh, Mathura, early 3rd cent. BCE.Bone. 5.7X3.4 cm. (MIK I 3242). The dotted circles are a motif dominant in inscribed objects of the civilization. The motif occurs on ivory objects and also on the 'standard device' in front of the 'one-horned heifer bull'. Elsewhere, it has been interpreted as, 'd.ha_l' connoting a shield; it is natural that this symbolism gets perpetuated on a 'protective device' such as an amulet made of bone. "Cracks at the tip of this plaque indicate that this object has only been preserved in a rather fragmentary condition... A comparison with a piece from Prabhas Patan (Gujarat) which is relatively intact leads to the conclusion that this amulet represents the torso of a human, possibly female, figure. Originally, there must have been two 113

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horizontally stretched arms attached to the top of this torso as well as an inverted triangle which represented the face of the figure (see Ghosh 1957: 17 to pl. XVIII B5 and comp. Ghosh 1956: 14 to pl. XXIV B; see also Dwivedi 1976: 55f. and 59). Incised on the polished front side of the plaque there are parallel lines arranged in horizontal and diagonal patterns, as well as five circles, each with a dot in the centre. On the plaque from Prabhas Patan similar motifs were applied to suggest eyes (perhaps also a nose or a mouth), breasts and fingers. The remaining incisions, as seen on this fragment from the Museum of Indian Art, Berlin, may not be indicative of anything in particular: their purpose appears to be decorative -- to create a harmonious deSign. The workmanship with its uniform execution and sharp edged cuts reveals a high degree of precision... simple lines-and-circles... Identical workmanship is apparent on relics of the Indus Valley Civilization (Marshall 1931: pl. CXXXII; Mackay 1937-38 pl. CXXV, CXXVIII, CXLIII; Vergessene Stadte am Indus Fruhe Kulturen in Pakisttan 1987: fig. 107). The dating of this particular piece is established from the stratum where it was found in the excavation site at Sonkh (Haertel 1993: 277)." (Heino Kottkamp, Exhibit 1 in: Saryu Doshi, ed., 1998, Treasures of Indian Art: Germany's tribute to India's cultural heritage, Delhi, National Museum, p.19). Finds at Altyn-depe: ivory sticks and gaming pieces (?) obtained from Sarasvati Sindhu civilization; similar objects with dotted circles found in Mohenjodaro and Harappa. Bhagawanpura is a site located on the right bank of the River Sarasvati_ in Dist. Kuruks.etra. Remains of semicircular huts leaving behind only post-holes and rammed floors have been found. From Period IB levels bones of true domesticatd horse, equus caballus have been found. Intersecting dotted circle deSigns are found on pottery of Painted Grey Ware which overlap the Late Harappan ware. Mohenjo-daro. Dotted circle decoration on a steatite bowl (DK 3178), DK-B, house 3, room VIII (Jansen and Urban, 1985, RTWH, Aachen). Vessel fragments with dot-in-circle deSign from Susa. Louvre Museum. At the Royal Cemetery of Ur, Woolley 1934: 558-59 found a small container with a narrow neck and sides decorated with three dot-in-circle deSigns. Terracotta female adorned with 'dotted circles'; Period Namazga II; Yalangach Tepe, Geoksyur (Weiner, 1984, Fig. 183) khan.d.i = a sar.i, a full dress for a woman, a piece of cloth twelve cubits long by two in width; khan.d.a = a piece of cloth suitable for the dress of a woman’s sar.i; khan.d.i bande, bande = to dress, of women binding round waist (Santali)

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Inscribed objects showing the ligature of a serpent-like tail and the depiction of hooded snake Ligaturing components resulting in the composite motif: artisan’s workshop and hearth (bed.a) for: copper, steel, beads, iron pagela_ a harmless snake (Ka.); pagele a kind of harmless snake (Tu.)(DEDR 3809). [Ligaturing element in a composite animal; hence, rebus substantive: paghal ‘steel’.] damr.a ‘heifer, steer’; ta_mbra ‘copper’ sun.d. ‘elephant trunk’; rebus: sun.d. ‘a pit (furnace)’ Glyph: kan.t.hla_ (H.) kan.d.hli_ (P.) = ring round the neck; necklace of beads(See the rings on the neck of the bull) kot.iyum a wooden circle put round the neck of an animal (G.) Substantive: kan.d.hli_ (P.) = necklace of beads kandi = necklace, beads; kandl = beads (Ga.) kol ‘tiger’; kolhe ‘smelters of iron’ kol metal (Ta.) kol = pan~calo_kam (five metals) (Ta.lex.) Thus, the entwined figures of 3 or more tigers may connote an alloy of 3 or more metals. bhed.a ‘ram’; bed.a ‘either of the two ends of a hearth’ (hence, hearth) kod. ‘horns’; kod., kod.iyum ‘place where artisans work’ Vikalpa: Pa. pasata—miga— m. ‘spotted deer’; Pk. pasaya— m. ‘a kind of deer’. 2. Pk. pusia— m. ‘id.’. (CDIAL 8364). pisera_ = a small deer brown above and black below (H.)(CDIAL 8365). pr.s.ata = spotted; spotted deer (VS.); pr.s.ita = spotted (n. ‘rain’ Gobh.); pr.s.at = spotted (AV); spotted antelope (R.); pasata-miga = spotted deer (Pali); pasaya = a kind of deer (Pkt.); pusia id. (Pkt.)(CDIAL 8364). paha_ru (P.); pa_hr.a_ = stag (P.) pa_ri_ (G.), paha_r, paha_ray (M.) Spotted antelope pa_r.ho hogdeer or cervus porcinus (S.); pa_hr.a_ (L.); pa_r.ha_ = spotted antelope, hogdeer (P.H.) pr.s.ata = spotted deer (VS.) prasta_ra = a process in preparing minerals (Skt.); prastara = anything strewn, grass to sit on (RV); rock, stone (Skt.); pa_thar = stone (Ku.A.b.); patthal = hailstone (Bi.)(CDIAL 8857). pathraut.i_ = clay mixed with fine gravel (Bi.)(CDIAL 8861). pasa_re, pasa_ra = a grocer’s shop (Ka.Te.); pasarike, pasara = articles of a shop (Ka.lex.) pasaramu, pasalamu = an animal, a beast, a brute, quadruped (Te.lex.) Thus, the depiction of animals in epigraphs is related to smithy, pasra.

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Kalibangan033

8025

m0527Bt

3336

m0573Bt

3415 Bastion, kottala, trough Glyph: trough: kottala trough (Tu.); kottal.am trough (Ma.)(DEDR 2090). Rebus: kottala bastion (Tu.); kottal.amu k(r)ottad.amu bastion (Te.); kottal.am bastion (Ta.); bastion stone pavement (Ma.); kottal.a kottala bulwark, bastion (Ka.)(DEDR 2090). kot.ho a warehouse; a tower (in Ka_t.hia_wa_d.); a revenue office, in which dues are paid and collected; kot. a nest, a fort; kot.d.i_ a small room; kot.d.a_m pl. houses, walls; kot.va_li_ the office of a magistrate; kot.hi_ the residency of a political officer (G.) Rebus: pasra ‘smithy’. pasra = a smithy, a place where a blacksmith works; to do a blacksmith's work; kamar pasrat.hene sen akantalea = our man has gone to the smithy; pasrao lagao (or ehop) akata = he (the blacksmith) has started his work (Santali ); pasra (Mundari)(Santali.lex.Bodding) pasra, pasa_ra (Sad.; Or. pasra_, a blacksmith's implements) = a blacksmith's forge; the place where a brazier (t.ent.era, malar.a) makes his bowls, armlets; ne pa_l t.apuakana pasarate idiime = this ploughshare is blunt, take it to the smithy; the set of a blacksmith working in his forge; pasra o = of the blacksmith's work in the forge; pa nasra = the length of a blacksmith's work n the forge; pasraili = rice beer offered for sale; pasra mer.ed , pasa_ra mer.ed = syn. of kot.e mer.ed = forged iron, in contrast to dul mer.ed, cast iron (Mundari.lex.) pan~ja_va_, pa~ja_va_ = brick kiln (P.); pa~_ja_ kiln (B.); paja_vo (G.)(CDIAL 7686). paya_n = potter’s kiln (B.)(CDIAL 8023). paja_vo = a kiln; cf. paca_vavum, to digest in the stomach (G.lex.) pa_car-ai = pa_t.i vi_t.u, i.e. town house or army house (Pur-ana_.) Vikalpa: san:gha_d.o [Hem. Des. sagha_ri_ = a yugalam a couple] = lathe (G.lex.) Vikalpa: sangad.a ‘drill-lathe’ (G.) Vikalpa: san:gad.a = jointed animal (M.); Rebus: jan:ga, jhan:ga = a war, a battle; jan:gad.iya_ m. pl. military guards who carry government treasury from one place to another (G.lex.) Rebus : sa~gad. ‘part of a turner’s apparatus’ (M.) saghad.i_ ‘pot for holding fire’ (G.)

m0490At

m0490BCt

1605

m0491Atm0491BCt 1608 Pict-94: Four persons in a procession, each carrying a standard, one of which has one-horned bull on top.

the figure of a An artist’s drawing of the hieroglyphs:

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Mohenjo-daro. A procession depicted on a terracotta tablet. [After Marshall 1931, Pl. CXVIII,9; cf. Fig. 5.6 in JM Kenoyer, 1998]. Is this a representation of a public ceremony which included carrying standards topped by objects representing important motifs of the civilization? Not all animals with which the people of SSVC were familiare are used as pictorial motifs; for example, they were familiar with peacocks, hooded cobras, monkeys, squirrels, mongooses and onagers (wild asses); the pictorial representations of these animals are not found on the square stamp seals. There is a ‘fish’ shown on the Elamite epigraph of Susa, in front of a lady spinner, on a pedestal with tiger’s paws. The six pellets on top of the fish makes this an emphatic ‘hieroglyph’ to be read rebus. What was the word used by mleccha to connote the numeral ‘six’? And, what is the association of the sound of this numeral-word with the sound of the word for ‘fish’? (Source: Relief spinner Louvre Sb2834.jpg) kut.hi = a furnace for smelting iron ore, to smelt iron (Santali.lex.) Spindle whorls Spindle-whorls have been found in many sites of the Sarasvati Sindhu Civilization attesting to the widespread practice of spinning and weaving. [Plates CLVI and CLVII, MIC]. "Spindle-whorls are found in such numbers at Mohenjo-daro that the art of weaving must have been practised extensively. We know for a certainty that cotton was one of the materials used for this purpose, and there can be no doubt that wool was also employed as the sheep was well known, being one of the many animals portrayed in clay... Spindle-whorls were mostly made of pottery, but there are some shell and many of faience...The spindle-whorls made of shell (Pl. CLVI, 8-10) are somewhat rare. They range in size from 1.5 inches to 1.85 inches in diameter and the single hole in the centre averages 0.18 inch in diameter...Faience whorls... Pl. CLVII No. 36, 40, 41, 47...Nos. 41 and 47 wer evidently made in the same mould... Small faience spindle-whorls very similar to those just described have been found in pre-Sargonic graves at Kish. One found in a grave of that period was mounted on a copper shaft." (John Marshalkl, ed., Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization, London, 1931, pp. 468-470). R.gveda uses taks. to denote a variety of creative skills: composing hymns and praises (RV 5.73.1; 6.32.1; 9.97.22; 10.80.7); framing oc chariots (RV 1.111.1; 4.33.8; 7.32.20; 8.64.5); making armour for deva-s (RV 4.34.9); carving of a yu_pa (RV 1.162.6; 3.8.6); 117

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wooden vessels (RV 10.53.10; 101.10); fashioning of vajra (RV 1.32.3; 52.7; 61.6; 121.3; 10.48.3; 99.1). Rebus: takoe = to spin on the charkha or spinning wheel; sutamko takoekeda = they spun the thread; takkoe kanae = she is spinning (Santali). Avestan refers to Ahura-Mazda as the fashioner of the earth, as Geus-tas.a_ (lit. carpenter of the Mother-Earth Yasna 29.1; 31.11; 44.6; 51.7). Homer refers to tekton as a worker in wood, a carpenter or a joiner (Iliad 5.59; 6.315; 13.390; Odyssey 9.126; 17.384; 21.430). t.an:ka leg (Pkt.); t.an:ga (S.); t.a_n:ka leg, thigh (Or.); t.a_n:ku thigh, buttock (Or.)(CDIAL 5428). t.aku = the spinning axle of a spinning wheel, on which the thread is wound as it is spun (Santali.lex.) Ancient Phoenician Spindle Whorl

"I recently purchased a stone spindle whorl from a dealer who dates it to Phoenicia somewhere between 1200-800 B.C. I was interested in creating a working tool with it. Here are some shots of what I rigged up. "Whorl: smooth black stone, about 1 inch in diameter. Weight .5 oz (?) Shaft: 3/16-inch birch dowel, about 6 inches long Hook: steel wire cut from a safety pin and bent into shape. The shaft was wound with layers of sewing thread until the whorl could sit securely with a pressure fit. I left the sharp safety-pin point on the end of the hook, which made it easy to wedge into the shaft. "This little spindle works wonderfully. It's extremely fast (speeds comparable to a takli), spins for a long time, and produces thread-sized yarn with little effort. I've experimented and found that so far, it does best with fine fibers such as silk and fine Merino. If the wool is too coarse the spindle starts to backspin too quickly. I have not tried it with linen yet. " http://people.ne.mediaone.net/benfatto/phoenicia/index.html Worker in wood, metal and leather: spindle, fish with six curls and tiger stool A lady is era (Santali); rebus: era, ara = copper (Ka.) Wooden stool is gan.d.o ‘a small piece of wood from 6 to 12 inches long and 3 or 4 high, used as a stool to sit on’(Santali) Rebus: khan.d.a = instrument, implement, weapon (Santali) kan.d. ‘altar, furnace’ (Santali); Rebus: gan.d.a = hero (Ka.) cf. takta = a plank, a board (Santali) The worker makes implements and weapons of wood and iron! He has a furnace for working with copper and (other) metals!

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The stool on which the lovely Elamite lady sits has the legs of a lion or panther; the fish is also placed on a similar stool in front her. The glyphs are a representation of a worker in wood and metal and also leather. He is taks.aka. bad.hi = a caste who work both in wood and iron (Santali) bad.hoe, bad.horia = a carpenter, expert in working in wood (Santali) badha = wooden sandals (Santali) badhor. = knotty; noa kat. do ad.i badhor.a = this wood is cross grained (Santali) badhor., badhor. hako = a species of fish with many bones (Santali) Homonym glyph: bad.hia = a castrated boar, a hog (Santali) ca_mara = fly whisk (Skt.) Rebus: camar, chamar = a semi-aboriginal caste who deal in hides and make shoes (Santali) metath. carma = skin (Skt.) The fish is ornamented with six circles arching around. pot.ha hako = a species of fish; rebus: pota = six (G.) potam tengoc, ‘a type of small axe’. Alternative: khat.a ‘six’ (G.) kata = a pit saw (Santali) kat.a kat.i = cutting; to slash, kill (Santali) kat, kaitha = the hindu caste of kayasth; kat. bad.hoe a worker in wood, a carpenter (Santali). tan:ga = a large axe; ten:goc = a small axe (Santali) t.an:k = a hatchet (Skt.); t.a_n:k [Hem. Des. t.an:ka_ = Skt. chinnam cut up] a nib; a stel nib of a pen (G.lex.) t.an:ka spade, hoe, chisel (R.); t.an:ga sword, spade (Skt.); t.an:ka stone mason’s chisel (Pali); t.am.ka stone-chisel, sword (Pkt.); t.ho_ axe (Wot.); t.hon: battle-axe (Bshk.); tanger axe (Tor.); t.ho_n:gi (Phal.); t.onguru a kind of hoe (k.); t.a_~n:gi adze (N.); t.a_~ki chisel (H.); t.a~_k pen nib (G..H.); t.a_ki_ chisel (H.); t.a_n:gi stone chisel (A.); t.a_n:g, t.a_n:gi spade, axe (B.); t.a_n:gi battle-axe (Or.); t.a~_n:ga_ adze (Bi.); t.a_n:I axe (Bhoj.); t.a_~gi_ hatchet (H.)(CDIAL 5427). t.an:kita-man~ca a stone (i.e. chiseled) platform (Pali); t.a~_kvu~ to chisel (G.); t.a~_kn.e~ (M.)(CDIAL 5433). t.an:kas’a_la_ mint (Skt.)(CDIAl 5434). taks.an.i = a carpenter’s axe; taks.akud.u = a carpenter; name of one of the kings of the na_ga or serpents of pa_ta_l.a (Te.lex.) If the spinner connotes takoe ‘carpenter’ (taks.aka), the fish in front of the spinner placed majestically on a stool ligatured with tiger’s legs may connote: hako ‘axe’; kol (tiger, rebus: metal). Cf. ten:gra hako = a species of rive fish (Santali) [Homographs: kut.hi ‘tree’; kut.he ‘leg of chair’; ku_di_, ku_t.i_ (Skt.lex.) ku_di_ (Vedic) ‘bunch of twigs’] kol ‘tiger’; rebus: kol ‘metal, pancaloha or alloy of five metals’ (Ta.) Ta. katir spinner's spindle. Ma. katir id. Ka. kadir, kadaru, kaduru id. Tu. kadůrů, kadirů, kadrů id. Te. kaduru id. Ga. (S.3) kadur an instrument used to spin threads from cotton.(DEDR 1195). karttr̥— 2 m. ‘spinner’ MBh. [√kr̥t 2] H. kātī f. ‘woman who spins thread’; — Or. kãtiā ‘spinner’ with ã from verb kā̃tibā (CDIAL 2861). Rebus: ka_ti_ ‘shell-cutter’s saw’ (B.) 119

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kanda kondo ‘with lumps’; rebus: kand. ‘fire altar, furnace’ (Santali) bat.a ‘six’; rebus: bhat.a ‘furnace’. The significance of number-word ‘six’ may also be seen on the six hair-knots of the woman holding back two rearing tigers. The six knots are similar to the six pellets ligatured to the ‘fish’ in front of the Elamite spinner.

m0308AC Pict-105: Person grappling with two tigers standing on either side of him and rearing on their hindlegs. 2075 [The third sign from left may be a stylized ‘standard device’?] Could the ‘fish’ and ‘woman’ glyphs be homographs? Harappa. Standard device shown on faience tablets (left: H90-1687, right, H93-2051) and carved in ivory (centre, H93-2092). [After Fig. 5.12 in JM Kenoyer, 1998]. The miniature replica object has been recovered in 1993 from excavations at Harappa. This may be an ivory replica of a device made of basketry and wood. This replica shows a hemispherical lower basin with dotted circles and a cylindrical top portion with cross-hatching. The shaft extending from the base seems to be broken on this replica. Is this a yu_pa carried in processions? Gold fillet depicting the standard device, Mohenjo-daro, 2600 BCE. [Source: Page 32 in: Deo Prakash Sharma, 2000, Harappan seals, sealings and copper tablets, Delhi, National Museum]. At a Marshall,

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MIC, Pl. CLI are specimens of fillets consisting of thin bands of beaten gold with holes for cords at their ends.

Fillet on the fore-head of the priest statuette, 2700 BCE. Stone. Mohenjo-daro. Karachi Museum. The priest wears a fillet similar to the two fillets of gold which bears the standard device embossed on them. The fillets of gold were discovered at Mohenjo-daro. Similar gold ornaments with embossed standard devices were also reported from an Akkadian burial site in West Asia. [Source: Page 22, Fig. 12 in: Deo Prakash Sharma, 2000, Harappan seals, sealings and copper tablets, Delhi, National Museum]. The central ornament worn on the forehead of the famous "priest-king" sculpture from Mohenjo-daro appears to represent an eye bead, possibly made of gold with steatite inlay in the center

h098

4256 Pict-122 Standard device which is normally in front of a one-horned

bull.

h194A

h194B

h195A

h195B

h196A h196B 4309 Tablet in bas-relief h196b the standard. h196a The standard.

h197A

h197B h226A

5333

h198A h226B

h198B

Pict-91: Person carrying

5331

5243 Standard.

h227A h227B 4322 Standard. Pict-123 Standard device which is normally in front of a one-horned bull. The device is flanked by columns of dotted circles. 121

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h228A

h291A

h292A

h293A

h228B

h291B

5244 Standard.

4440 Standard.

h292B

4443 Standard.

h293B

4441 Standard.

har612 faience tablet, bas-relief.

8.03 Moulded tablet 2 sides

8.04 Moulded tablet 3 sides H90-1600/3166-01: Steatite seal, Period 3A. 2. H95-2491/4690-01: Steatite seal, Period 3B. 3. H99-4064/8796-01: Steatite seal, Period 3C. 4. H95-2482/4419-05: Incised steatite tablet, Period 3B/3C. 5. H95-2485/5719-02: Molded terracotta tablet, Period 3B/3C. 6. H94-2177/4999-01: Molded faience tablet, Period 3B/3C. 7. H94-2184/4999-216: Molded faience tablet, 3B/3C. 8. H98-3491/8322-21: Steatite seal, Mound AB, Period 3C. 9. H99-3814/8756-01: Button seal, molded faience, Period 3C. Figure 5. Harappa 1997, Mound AB, Trench 42, Wheeler¹s Fortification Wall. Figure 6. Harappa 1999, Mound F, Trench 41, southeast corner of the "Great Granary" or "Great Hall". 122

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Figure 7. Harappa 1999, Mound F, Trench 41: southeast corner of the "Great Granary" or "Great Hall." Figure 8. Harappa 1998, Mound F, Trench 43: A) plan view of circular platforms; B) section of sediments above platform [22] and section through central pit. Figure 9. Harappa 1999, Mound F, Trench 43: Period 5 kiln, plan and section views. http://www.harappa.com/indus4/print.html (June 2003) Vikalpa: kamat.amu, kammat.amu = a portable furnace for melting precious metals (Te.); ka~pr.aut., kapr.aut. jeweller's crucible made of rags and clay (Bi.); kapr.aut.i_ wrapping in cloth with wet clay for firing chemicals or drugs, mud cement (H.)[cf. modern compounds: kapar.mit.t.i_ wrapping in cloth and clay (H.); kapad.lep id. (H.)](CDIAL 2874). kapar-mat.t.i clay and cowdung smeared on a crucible (N.)(CDIAL 2871). Vikalpa: Ficus glomerata: loa, kamat.ha = ficus glomerata (Santali); rebus: loha = iron, metal (Skt.) kamat.amu, kammat.amu = portable furnace for melting precious metals (Te.) kampat.t.am = mint (Ta.) kammat.i_d.u = a goldsmith, a silversmith (Te.) Rebus: kammat.i_d.u = a goldsmith, a silversmith (Te.lex.) kamat.ha_yo = a learned carpenter or mason, working on scientific principles; kamat.ha_n.a [cf. karma, ka_m, business + stha_na, tha_n.am, a place fr. Skt. stha_ to stand] arrangement of one’s business; putting into order or managing one’s business (G.lex.) Rebus: kampat.t.tam coinage, coin (Ta.); kammat.t.am, kammit.t.am coinage, mint (Ma.); kammat.i a coiner (Ka.)(DEDR 1236) kammat.a = coinage, mint (Ka.M.) kampat.t.a-k-ku_t.am mint; kampat.t.a-kka_ran- coiner; kampat.t.a- mul.ai die, coining stamp (Ta.lex.)

h006

m0018Ac

h010a

4003

1548

Slide 326 Large unicorn seal

m1203A m1203B 1018 Note the gimlet precisely indicated on the standard device on m1203A, the sharp point is drilling into a disc-shaped bead].

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Vikalpa: ko_d.i = a kind of flag, an image of garud.a, basava, or other demi-god set upon a long post before a temple; cf. gud.i, temple (Ka.lex.) [Note the flag in front of a procession on an inscribed tablet]. kot.i = a flag (Ta.lex.) ko_d.i_ habba = a certain festival (Ka.); ko_d.adabbu, ko_d.idabbu, ko_d.edabbu = a demon worshipped by Pariahs (Tu.lex.) Vikalpa: ko_d.e du_d.a = young bull (Te.lex.) Vikalpa: ku_t.u nest, coop (Ta.); ku_n.t.u hen-coop (Ma.); gu_d.e nest (Ga.)(DEDR 1883). m0026a coop?]

2074 [Note the top part of the standard device, shaped like a

Note the imagery of a coop or cage on some orthographic styles of the 'device' in front of the one-horned bull. ku_t.u top of the drill for boring holes; mortise, groove, in carpentry (Ta.lex.) [Note some variants of the standard device depicted like a coconut shell]. gud.iga_re a turner and a cabinet maker (Tu.lex.) gud.ga_r turner (Kon.lex.) gud.iga_re a turner and a cabinet maker (Tu.lex.) ku_t.ud.u = a stone cutter (Te.lex.) kut.ha_ri = an axe-bearer, a chief of the door-keepers (Ka.lex.) khu~t. = a community, sect, society, division, clique, schism, stock; khu~t.ren per.a kanako = they belong to the same stock (Santali) khu_t. Nag. khu~t., ku_t. Has. (Or. khu_t.) either of the two branches of the village family. These are paha_r.khu_t. Nag. pa_r.a_ku_t. Has. The elder branch, to which the official village sacrificer must belong, and the mund.akhu_t., the younger branch, in which the position of village chief is hereditary. (Mundari.lex.) ku_t.a a house, dwelling (Skt.lex.) kaut.a living in one's own house, hence, independent, free; kaut.ika-taks.a (opp. to gra_ma-taks.a) an independent carpenter, one who works at home on his own account and not for the village (Skt.lex.) gra_ma-ku_t.a = village chief (Skt.lex.) Sumer, cylinder seal depicting a row of one-horned bulls and ears of corn (H. Frankfort, Cylinder Seals, London, 1939, pl. Vb). "...the 'unicorn' appears to be a watered-down, much recopied version of the Sumerian and Proto-Elamite one-horned bovine tradiiton." (During Caspers, Harappan Temples-- fact of fallacy? South Asian Archaeology 1987, p. 248). During Caspers also sees parallel between the ear of corn shown on cylinder seals and the 'standard' shown on the Harappan inscriptions in front of the 'unicorn'. Orthography of the one-horned bull (ibex, urus) and the standard device Heifer, pannier, one curved horn, rings on the neck A vivid orthographic determinant of a one-horned bull is the ‘pannier’ which sets the context in which the ligatured animal should be ‘read’ rebus for the ligatured components: heifer pannier, one curved horn rings on the neck Rebus: kod. = place where artisans work (G.lex.) kod. = a cow-pen; a cattlepen; a byre (G.lex.) gor.a = a cow-shed; a cattleshed; gor.a orak = byre (Santali.lex.) got.ho [Skt. kos.t.ha the inner part] a 124

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warehouse; an earthen vessel in wich indigo is stored (G.lex.) kot.t.amu = a stable (Te.lex.) a_ca_ri kot.t.ya = forge, kamma_rasa_le (Tu.) Rebus: kot.al = watchman (Santali.lex.) kot.t.ika_d.u, ko_t.ika_d.u, kot.ika_d.u = watchman (Te.lex.) Vikalpa: kot.iyum = a wooden circle put round the neck of an animal; kot. = neck (G.lex.) [cf. the orthography of rings on the neck of one-horned young bull]. Vikalpa: ko_d.iya, ko_d.e = young bull; ko_d.elu = plump young bull; ko_d.e = a. male as in: ko_d.e du_d.a = bull calf; young, youthful (Te.lex.) ko_d.eka_d.u = a young man (Te.lex.) Vikalpa: ko_d. (pl. ko_d.ul) horn (Pa.); ko_t.u (in cmpds. ko_t.t.u-) horn (T*a.); ko.r. (obl. ko.t.-) horns (one horn is kob), half of hair on each side of parting, side in game, line marked out (Ko.); kwi.r. (obl. kwi.t.-) horn (To.); ko_d.u horn (Ka.); ko_r.. horn (Ka.); ko_d.u horn (Tu.); ko_d.u rivulet (Te.); ko_r (pl. ko_rgul) id. (Ga.); ko_r (obl. ko_t-, pl. ko_hk) horn of cattle or wild animals (Go.); ko_r (pl. ko_hk), ko_r.u (pl. ko_hku) horn (Go.); kogoo a horn (Go.); ko_ju (pl. ko_ska) horn, antler (Kui)(DEDR 2200). Tailless he-buffalo; ox with blunt horns: ku_r..ai that which is short; dwarf snake, calamaridae; ku_r..aik-kit.a_, ku_r..ai-k-kat.a_ tailless he-buffalo (Ta.)(DEDR 1914). 1787.Image: horn: ku_t.a any prominence: a horn (Ka.); ko_d.u, ko_r.. a horn of animals; a tusk (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) ko_r.., ko_d.u a horn; ko_r..ke, ko_r..kil., ko_r..kil.im, ko_r..ge id. (Ka.); ko_d.u kut.t.u to strike or gore with the horn or with the tusk (Ka.); ko_d.u a horn of animals; a tusk (Ka.); ko_d.u-vi_sa the allowance of a vis of corn etc. for every bullock-load that comes into town etc.; kud.u the state of being crooked, bent (Ka.); kod.u (Ma.)(Ka.lex.) ku_t.a horn, bone of the forehead, prominence (Vedic); prominence, top (Pali.lex.) ku_t.a a horn; an ox whose horns are broken; ku_n.ika_ the horn of any animal (Skt.lex.) sin:ghin horn projecting in front (Santali.lex.) ku_n.ika_ the horn of any animal; ku_t.a bone of the forehead with its projections, the crown of the head; end, corner (Skt.lex.) Not a mythical bovine That it is a heifer (and not some mythical bovine) is surmised from (1) a differentiated orthography when compared to an old ox looking down; and (2) an orthographic variant, depicting a bull with two horns which is depicted on Seals m1077 and m0232. Since the semantic accent is on the curved horn, only one horn is shown, kod., ‘artisan’s workshop’.

m1077a 2359 m0232 2234 'Unicorn' with two horns! "Bull with two long horns (otherwise resembling the 'unicorn')", generally facing the standard. That it is the typical ‘one-horned bull’ is surmised from two ligatures: the pannier on the shoulder and the ring on the neck. [The existence of a two-horned ‘unicorn’ provides a reasonable basis to infer and decode the ‘one-horned’ bull as a young heifer.] The enigmatic orthography of the one-horned bull and the standard device is made further complex by the variety of styles used on inscribed objects. It would, however, appear, consistent with the orthographic patterns on many ligatured signs used for inscriptions, that the two pictorial motifs are also ‘ligatures’. Glyph of a one-horned bull on a Lydian coin

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The world's first coins, made of electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver, were minted in Lydia during the seventh and sixth centuries B.C. (American Numismatic Society) Ephesus, Lydia (time of Gyges (687-652 BCE). The earliest known coin. After N. Angell, The story of money, 1929. One of the glyphs is comparable to a bun-shaped copper ingot found in Lothal. Lydian coins One coin shows an antelope with its head turned backwards comparable to the glyphs which appear on many epigraphs of the Sarasvati Civilization. [Daniel C. Snell, Methods of

exchange and coinage in ancient Western Asia, in: Jack M. Sasson, ed., 1995, Civilizations of the ancient Near East, New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, pp. 1487-1497]. Late seventh century BCE Electrum Stater from western Turkey561-547 BCE Silver stater attributed to Croesus, King of Lydia (ca. 560-547 BC) (After Kurt Regling, 1959, Ancient Numismatics, Chicago, Argonaut Inc.) Opposition between the Lion and the One-horned Bull depicted on early silver coins The opposition beween the lion and the one-horned bull is a representation of ara_ (war, lion); rebus: ara = copper (Akkadian). Damr.i ‘copper, one-eighth of a pice’ (Te. Santali); damr.a = heifer, steer (Santali) Iconography of ‘unicorn’; the head and neck are decorated in three different styles: a collar, a hatched face and a hatched neck; the hatched face style is associated with Harappa and Sarasvati sites; collared neck style is found around Mohenjodaro: Paul C. Rissman, 1989, The organization of seal production in the Harappan Civilization, in: Jonathan Mark Kenoyer Ed., Old Problems znd New Perspectives in the Archaeology of South Asia, Madison, Wisconsin Archaeological Reports, 2: 159-70. Sibri-damb02a Zebu Cylinder seal. A lion attacks a zebu bull; a person with upraised arms [A lion attacking a onehorned bull is a motif shown on early Lydia coins.] Sibri-damb03a Zebu on Sibri cylinder seal. Sumerian Jemdet Nasr seal with 13 unicorns (Sarasvati seal style)(Frankfort, ‘The Indian civilization and the near East, Annual Bibliography of Indian Archaeology, 1932, 126

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p.3, and pl.1) Is this comparable to a pictograph on a Jamdet cylinder seal?: Cylinder Seal; Louvre, ca. 3000 BCE Decorations on the head and neck of the 'unicorn' The one-horn on a bull is found on Mesopotamian pictorial motifs. Two bisons standing face to face is a recurring pictorial motif on many tablets and inscribed objects. This motif has a parallel from Nippur plaque of Mesopotamian civilization.

figure of the hero +Gilgamesh, holding a vase from which two streams flow. (British Museum No. 21204) The glyptic theme of an pot’ is also seen on Mohenjodaro pectoral.

Clay relief stamped with the Babylonian of water ‘overflowing

Fragment of limestone sculptured in relief with vases from which streams of water flow. (British Museum No. 95477) [Leonard W. King, 1916, A History of Sumer and Akkad, London, Chatto and Windus, p.73) Animals depicted on a gaming board (Mesopotamia) Engraved shell plaques, Telloh, 3rd millennium BCE (London) [Note the trident, spears and the lion biting into the neck of the one-horned bull]. Three groups of 'unicorn' seals; cf. Franke-Vogt 1992: fig. 13.3 Group 1: hatched face animal (with zig-zag or straight cage on the standard) is associated with the north, around Harappa and the Sarasvati river Group 2: (with collared necks and straight cage on the standard) is found in the south, around Mohenjodaro cf. Rissman, 1989: 168. [After Table 1-2 (p. 433) iconographic criteria applied in arranging the ‘unicorn’ seals in Parpola corpus-2 Collections in Pakistan]. One-horned heifer (damr.a), artisan’s workshop Ligaturing components of the composite motif: kamarsa_la = waist zone, waist-band, belt (Telugu); kammaru = the loins, the waist (Kannada.Telugu.Malayalam); kamara (Hindi); kammarubanda = a leather waist band, belt (Kannada.Hindi); kammaru id. (Telugu); kammarincu = to ver (Telugu); kamari = a woman’s girdle (Telugu) 127

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kamarsa_la ‘workshop of smith’ (Te.) Rebus: karma_ras’a_la = workshop of blacksmith (Skt.) kamar = a semi-hinduised caste of blacksmiths; kamari = the work of a blacksmith, the money paid for blacksmith work; nunak ato reak in kamarieda = I do the blacksmith work for so many villages (Santali); ka_rma_ra = metalsmith who makes arrows etc. of metal (RV 9.112.2): jarati_bhih os.adhi_bhih parn.ebhih s’akuna_na_m ka_rma_ro as’mabhih dyubhi hiran.yavantam icchati_; kammara, kamma_ra, kammaga_ra, karma_ra, karmaka_ra, kammaga_ra, kamba_ra = one who does any business; an artisan, a mechanic; a blacksmith (Kannada); kamma_l.a = an artisan, an artificer; a blacksmith, a goldsmith (Tamil.Kannada); a goldsmith (Kannada); kammara = the blacksmith or ironsmith caste; kammaramu = the blacksmith’s work, working in iron, smithery; kammarava_d.u, kammari, kammari_d.u = a blacksmith, ironsmith; kammarikamu = a collective name for the people of kamma caste (Telugu); kamma_r-asa_le = workshop of a blacksmith (Kannada); kamasa_lava_d.u = a blacksmith (Telugu); kamarsa_ri_ = smithy (Maithili); kamba_r-ike, kamma_r-ike = a blacksmith’s business (Kannada. Malayalam (DEDR 1236). Cf. khambat. in Gulf of Khambat; cf. also kampat.t.am ‘mint’ (Tamil) kamar kami mit bar hor.ko cet akata = a few Santals have learnt blacksmith work (Santali).kamarsa_yar = smithy (Bihari)(CDIAL 2899). Karuman- = blacksmith; karumakan- = id. (Tamil. Kamparamayanam.Pampa_. 37) kama_~wun = to smelt (metal)(Kashmiri) kammai = does barber’s work (Pkt.)(CDIAL 2897). Kamun.a = artisan (Sinhala)(CDIAL 2893). Kra_mi_n = low-caste labourer as a d.om (Sh.); karmi_n.a = competent (S’Br.); kami_n. = laboure (man or woman)(WPah.)(CDIAL 2902).ka_mi = blacksmith (Nepali)(CDIAL 2900). Ka_ma_t.i = a caste of Hindu who are generally labourers and palanquin bearers (Gujarati); komat.i_ (Marathi) ka_ma_t.i, ka_ma_t.a = a day-labourer (Kannada.Malayalam.Telugu. Marathi. Tamil) damr.a ‘heifer, steer’; ta_mbra ‘copper’ go~r.e~ a pannier, a bag slung across a bullock’s back, one on either side (Santali) gote, gotle wry, oblique (Santali) got.i_ ‘lump of silver’ (G.) Glyph: pakha_l (Skt. payah, water + khala, skin] a double water-skin carried on a bullock [Ligaturing element, hence, rebus substantive: paghal ‘steel’.] Glyph: kan.t.hla_ (H.) kan.d.hli_ (P.) = ring round the neck; necklace of beads(See the rings on the neck of the bull) kot.iyum a wooden circle put round the neck of an animal (G.) Substantive: kan.d.hli_ (P.) = necklace of beads kandi = necklace, beads; kandl = beads (Ga.) kod. ‘horn’; kod. ‘artisan’s workshop’; kod.iyum, kod. place where artisan’s work (G.) bali iron stone sand, iron ore (Santali) bali bullock (Skt.) damr.a a steer, a heifer (Santali) ta_mbra copper (Ka.); damr.i, dambr.i one eighth of a pice (Santali) damd.i_, damd.o lowest copper coin (G.) ta_mbad.a copper plate; ta_mbad.i_, ta_mbad.o a copper pot; ta_mbum copper (G.) Thus, another animal may be ligatured to indicate another types of mineral treated in the furnace/hearth: melukka ‘copper’; melh ‘goat or antelope’ 128

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The zebu bull is a unique case since it connotes native metal: aduru ‘native metal’; adra ‘bra_hman.i bull’ Vikalpa: vahur.o young bullock (S.); vohur. heifer (L.); vahar., vahir. heifer (P.);(CDIAL 11459). paghaia d.an:gra a pack bullock (Santali) Rebus: va_d.iyo, vha_d.iyo = a ship-builder; a carpenter; a title given to housebuilders and shipwrights; va_d.havum = to cut; va_d.ha = the edge of an instrument for cutting; a cut, a wound; reaping a field (G.) [Skt. vr.tta, varta = Latin verto ‘to turn); va_t.a = an iron circle put round the wheel of a carriage; a tire (G.)] berga small of stature, undersized, as an ox; berga d.an:gra okaenae? Where is the undersized ox? (Santali.) Substantive (trader) [begri lapidary (H.)] vahoro, vohharo: vahoro, voro (Hem. Des. vohharo = Skt. ma_gadha a mixed tribe, a bard) a trader, a bora_; an individual of a particular sect of Indian Muhammadans (G.) vaha_n.a a ship, a vessel; vaha_n.avat.i_ a merchant who carries his merchandise in ships to a foreign country; a great merchant (G.) vahivat. Business, traffic; vaheva_r transaction, dealings; vaheva_riyo a dealer; a man of credit (G.) Glyph: vaheravum to saw (wood); to cut timber with a saw; vahera sawdust (G.) veggal.a, veggal.e, eggal.a, heggal.a a great man (Ka.); veggali~_d.u a great or extraordinary man (DEDR 5467) Substantive: garn.d.a_lu a stalwart man, giant (Kod.); gan.d.a~_d.u a brave, strong man (Te.); gan.d.i_ra, gan.d.a hero (Skt.); gan.d.a a strong, manly male person (Ka.); gan.d. male (Ko.); kan.t.anwarrior (Ta.); gan.d.u manliness (Ka.)(DEDR 1173) Glyph: kan.t.ha_li a bag having opening in the middle (M.); kan.t.a_l.am traveling sack placed on a bullock, pack-saddle (Ta.); kan.t.a_l.a, kan.t.le double bag carried across a beast (Ka.); kan.t.alamu, kan.t.lamu bullock-load consisting of two bags filled with goods (Te.)(DEDR 1174). kan.t.ha_l. a doublesack (G.) Place where artisans work, lump of silver The one-horned bull is shown with rings on the neck.

1330 Text. zebu bull field symbol. [This inscription starts with a sign (rightmost sign on the inscription, read from right to left) which is a variant of the 'roof or canopy or cattleshed' pictograph included in Sign 393; on the roof is a 'flag?' (dhvaja or a synonym, kolmo ‘rice-plant’; rebus: kolimi ‘forge’.) Substantive: kod., kod.iyum, kahod.iyum the place where artisans work; a cow-pen; a cattlepen, a byre; (G.) kahod.a fr. Skt. gos.t.ha fr. go a cow + stha_ to stand], kod.a, kahod.a a cow-pen (G.) got., got.h the place where the village cattle rest at mid-day (Santali); got.hao to collect cattle together for their midday rest; ad.a id., a group, a herd; gor.a a cow-shed, a cattle-shed; gai gor.a a cow-shed (Santali) got.ho a cattle-yard, particularly for cow kind; got.ho a nest (G.) go.t. wall (Ko.); ko.t. castle (Ko.)(DEDR 2207). Cf. kole.l smithy, temple in Kota village (Ko.); kolmi smithy (Go.)(DEDR 2133).

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got.i_ a lump of silver (G.); god. a boil, a tumour (G.) kuro silver (Kol.)(DEDR 1782). got.hiyo a male companion or friend (G.) gor.o to assist, to accompany; kami gor.o to assist in work (Santali) god.i_, gaud.i_ a magician, a juggler, a Bengali gaud. (G.) gond.a man of Gond tribe (Kol.); go_nd. (Pe.); go_nd.a (Kui); gon.d.a a man of low tribe (in the Vindhya mountains), a mountaineer (Skt.); a forest, jungle (Pkt.)(DEDR 2077; CDIAL 4276). Substantive: gon.d.a out-lying hamlets of a village, suburbs of a town; out-lying fields of a village; ga~ gon.d.ape dar.ana you visit villages and their outlying hamlets; ga~o gon.d.a villages and hamlets (Santali) Glyph: gon.d.a a set of four (Santali) Glyph: go~r.e~ a pannier, a bag slung across a bullock’s back, one on either side (Santali) xon.d.xa_, xo~_r.xa_ deep; a pit, abyss (Kur.); qond.e deep, low lands (Malt.)(DEDR 2082). Cf. kol.l.a a deep place, a depth, the cleft in a rock, a cave (Ka.); kolame a very deep pit, abyss, hell (Tu.)(DEDR 2157). got.h, got.hd.i_ a secret and confidential talk (G.) Heifer, vahar., ‘a helper’ of the smithy, kod. vahar., vahir. heifer (P.); vahur.o young bullock (S.)(CDIAL 11459). paghaia d.an:gra a pack bullock (Santali.lex.) bal.ada (G.); baled = herd of bullocks (L.) Bull vayilo (Hem.Des.); bel (G.); waihra_, wair.ka_ = bull calf (P.) va_hr.ka_, vehr.ki_; vehir., vehar., va_har., vohur. = young bull, heifer (L.); vehr.ki_ = heifer (L.); vahar. , vahir.a_, bahir.a_ (P.); bahar. = young bullock (Ku.) High, crooked horn(s) ara_la = crooked (TS); ara_d.yau divyau (S'Br.); ara_d.ya (KS. v.10.1) ara_lam (Ta.) ra_d.i = battle (Pkt.) va_huru_ helper (S.); va_har, vahar crowd of people, help (P.); va_ha_ra help (OG.); vaha_r, vha_r, va_r help (G.)(CDIAL 12217). va_ura_d.i, va_ura_d.ia_, ‘workman’ (Kon.lex.) kod.ken~ can also be depicted by the kot.ukku, ‘claws’ of a crab. va_ur kar, va_ur = work (Kon.lex.) Uruk IV. Seal and sealing. Cylinder seal with loop at the top shows the king with a netted skirt; the attendant behind the king has branches to supplement the king's offerings to two rows of animals. Ht. 63 mm (seal 46 mm), dia. 37 mm. New Haven, Yale Babylonian Collection (See B. Buchanan, Early Near Eastern Seals in the Yale Babylonian Collection, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1981), no. 134. In the early 3rd millennium BCE, the Sumerians suddenly switched to the Persian Gulf trade for copper. A text from Ur, dated to the reign of Rim-Sin of Larsa (1822-1763 BCE), recorded the receipt of copper in Dilmun (perhaps from Magan), which weighed, according to the standard of Ur, 18333 kilograms. Onethird of this copper was earmarked for delivery to Ea-nasir of Ur, a merchant with close copper trade contacts with Dilmun and Magan. The logographs on this cylinder seal are comparable to the logographs on Harappan inscriptions. 130

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va_karan- = warrior (Ta.lex.) vahatu = a bridal procession (to the husband’s house) nuptial ceremony (RV.AV.AitBr.); pl. the objects constituting a bride’s dowry (TBr.)(Skt.lex.)(CDIAL 11455) va_hini_ = an army, host, body of forces (AV.MBh.); a particular division of an army (consisting of 3 gan.as, i.e. 81 elephants, 81 cars, 243 horses, 405 foot (Skt.lex.) kun.d.i-a = village headman; kun.d.i_ = waterpot Spoked wheel glyph on the neck of (1) ) a lion ; and (2) a one-horned bull Ligaturing a glyph depicting a nave of a spoked wheel occurs in a bronze plaque from Haft Tepe: "…a deity, possibly the god Nergal…standing on the back of a lion with a nude female kneeling in front of him and a praying figure behind him." The person is carrying a bow on his left hand, wearing a horned hat and a saw (ara_?) on his right hand. The lion has a six-spoked wheel inscribed on its shoulder. The pictorial motif of a six-spoked wheel is paralleled on SSVC inscribed objects. On one seal, the spokedwheel (ara_?) is inscribed on the neck of the one-horned bull. ara_ is a lion in Akkadian. [After EO Negahban, 1990, The Haft Tepe bronze plaque: an example of Middle Elamite art, in: F. Vallat, ed., 1990, Melanges Jean Perrot, Paris, Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 137-42; EO Negahban, 1991, Excavations at Haft Tepe, Iran, Philadelphia: University Museum Monograph 70: III.48; D.T. Potts, 1999, The Archaeology of Elam, Cambridge University Press, p. 200] The texts from Haft Tepe temple complex (Table 7.2 in DT Potts, 1999) refer to accounts of silver paid for bracelets, of silver and gold, commodities such as flour, linen, chariot parts, lapis lazuli, bronze, armour plates, belts, weights of talents and minas; reference to guards and funerary offerings. A similar ligature occurs on a Mohenjodaro seal, m0712: 1091 Note Sign391 ligatured on the animal’s neck. m0712 era, eraka = nave of wheel (Ka.); rebus: era, eraka ‘copper’ (Ka.) gun.d.ige = thorax, chest (Ka.lex.) va_han.a_ = neck, throat (Pkt. Lex.) vahas = the shoulder of a draught animal (S’Br.)(Skt.lex.) vaha = shoulder of an ox (AV.Pkt.); ba (A.)(CDIAL 11459) va_kara = warrior; va_hin.a_h = commander of an army; va_har. = young bull va_karan- = warrior; learned person; va_kan- = beautiful person; watchman; porter (Kathirvelpil.l.ai Tamil lexicon) va_haka = a driver or attendant of cattle (EI3, IEG); va_hali = official designation explained as ‘the lord of horses’ (BL, IEG) va_hini_pati = leader of forces; a general (EI 28; IA 10, IEG) va_hini = a self-sufficient division or unit of an army (Te.lex.) va_hin.i_ = army, a force; a troop; a number, multitude; va_hin.a_ha [va_hin.i_ + n.a_h or na_tha], va_hin.i_s’a = sena_pati, commander of a force or commander of an army (Pt. Hargovind Das T. Seth, 1928, Pa_ia-sadda-mahan.n.avo, a comprehensive Prakrit-Hindi dictionary, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass – Pkt.lex.) vaha_n.avat.i_ = a sailor; a merchant who carries his merchandise in ships to a foreign country; a great merchant; vaha_n.avat.um = voyaging in ships; a sea-voyage (G.lex.) va_hana = an army (S’is. Xix.33)(Skt.lex.)

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garn.d.a_l.u = stalwart man, giant (Tu.); kan.t.an- = warrior (Ta.); kin.t.an = big; a stout, bulky fellow (Ma.); gan.d.a = a strong, manly male person (Ka.); gand.u~d.u, gan.d.a~d.u = a brave, strong man (Te.); gan.di_ra hero (Skt.)(DEDR 1173). gan.d.a_d.u = to copulate (Te.)(DEDR 1173). [Note glyphs showing copulation]. kandala = a new shoot or sprig (Ka.lex.) kandal.amu = a germ or shoot, a sprout (Te.lex.) [Note the sprig on the headdress of standing persons]. kan.d.ike = a stalk or stem (Ka.lex.) kandala = skull (Ka.lex.) kan.t.ha_l.a, kantha_l.a = a double sack with which asses, mules etc. are laden (G.lex.) kandal.amu = a pack-saddle; kandarikamu = a pad put under the pack-saddle; kantha = a patch-work quilt; a rag (Te.lex.) kan.t.a_l.am travelling sack placed on a bullock, pack-saddle (Ta.); kan.t.ale, kan.t.a_l.a, kan.t.a_l.e, kan.t.l.e double bag carried across a beast (Ka.); kan.t.a_lamu, kan.t.lamu bullock-load consisting of two bags filled with goods (Te.)(DEDR 1174). kan.t.ha_l.i_ a bag having opening in the middle (Mara_t.hi_). kan.t.a_l.averutu = pack-bullock (TED. Ta.lex.) kan.t.ale, kan.t.a_l.a, kan.t.le = a double bag carried across a beast (Ka.); kan.t.ha_l.a (M.); kan.t.a_la, kan.t.la (Te.); kan.t.a_l.am (Ta.)(Ka.lex.) kantal.am coat of armour, armour for the body (TED. Ta.lex.). kattal.amu = armour for th ebody, coat of mail (Te.lex.) kan.t.a_l.am, kantal.am = battle, war (TED. Ta.lex.) cf. kantar..i = theme of celebrating the destruction of Ba_n.a's fortress by Kr.s.n.a (TED. Ta.lex.) ka_du to kill, murder; murder (Ta.)(DEDR 1447). kandala = war, battle (Ka.lex.) ka_da_d.uni = to fight; ka_d.a_t.a = a fight, war, battle (Tu.lex.) kadanamu = battle, combat, an encounter; slaughter (Te.lex.) ka_du = to war, to fight; to fight, to contend with (Ka.Ta.Tu.); ka_duha = fighting (Ka.); ka_disu = to cause to fight (Ka.) kandali = a species of deer (Ka.lex.) kandal.i, kadal.i = a small deer (Te.lex.) [Note the dotted circle, kandi, orthographically emphasized on the eye of the deer]. kander-a = the eyelid (Te.lex.) kan.d.ali = a kind of billhook or cleaver (Ka.M.)(Ka.lex.) kan.dla gold or silver wire; kan.dle kash one who draws silver thread (P.lex.) kot.t.u spade (Ta.) [kot.t.u-k-kan-n-a_r = coppersmiths using drill; braziers who work by beating plates into shape, not by casting; kot.t.u-ccempu = copper pot mad eby beating plates into shape; kot.t.u = perforate (Ta.)] kot.t.uva_n- = brazier who works by beating plates into shape (Ta.) kor.a_ = to dig, bore through, pierce (B.); ko_t.ayate_ = breaks (Dha_tup.); kor.na_, korna_ = to dig up, scrape out, carve (H.) kot.iyum [kot., kot.i_ neck] a wooden circle put round the neck of an animal (G.) ko_d.iya, ko_d.e young bull; adj. male (e.g., ko_d.e du_d.a bull calf), young, youthful; ko_d.eka~_d.u a young man (Te.); ko_d.e_ bull (Kol.); khor.e male calf (Nk.); ko_d.i cow; ko_r.e young bullock (Kond.a); ko_d.i cow (Pe.); ku_d.i id. (Mand.); ko_d.i id., ox (Kui); ko_di cow (Kuwi); kajja ko_d.i bull; ko_d.i cow (Kuwi)(DEDR 2199). kor.a a boy, a young man (Santali) go_nde bull, ox (Ka.); go_da ox (Te.); konda_ bull (Kol.); ko_nda bullock (Kol.Nk.); bison (Pa.); ko_nde cow (Ga.); ko_nde_ bullock (Ga.); ko_nda_, ko_nda bullock, ox (Go.)(DEDR 2216).

132

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kot.i banner, flag (Ta.); top, extremity, flag, banner, sprout (Ma.); kod.i point, end, sprout, flag (Tu.); tip (Te.)(DEDR 2049). kot.i-dhvaj a man on the top of whose house there is a banner to show that he possesses a crore of rupees, a millionaire (G.) karol.iyo, karoliyo a seller of earthen pots (G.); skt. kaula_laka kot.i_ the highest point (G.) kot.ho the upper part of an angarkha (G.) kot.i creeper (Ta.Ma.)(DEDR 2050). kho~edak, kho~edok a pit, a mine (Santali)

Spoked-wheel sign: has 203 occurrences in the corpus of texts (Mahadevan).

h992 Bangle fragment

h598A

ligature in-fixed on the last sign of the second line may be Sign 54?

h506

h598D

5073 [The

]

4097

Kalibangan016

m1264a

m1109

8044

m0288

2518

1405

m0390

1327Zebu

m0662

1061

m0225

2199

3080

m1105

m0006a

2422

m1103colour.

m0256

1337

1332

m0633

1444

m0137

1016

133

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2261

m0649

m0998

m1088

2530

2176

2268

Pirak24

backwards

m0272 Goat-antelope with horns bending backwards and neck turned

2554 [Is it a four-spoked wheel?]

m1101

2651

Rangpur

Surkotada 4

2431

m1139

9094

m1005Bovid

1341

Surkotada 7

m1066

1001

m1134

1547

Chanhudaro30 6111The sign occurs at Surkotada, another fortified settlement close to Dholavira Two jointed one-horned heifers, jointed to a standard m0296 Two heads of one-horned bulls with neck-rings, joined end to end (to a standard device with two rings coming out of the top part?), under a stylized tree with nine leaves. Out of the top register of the ‘standard’ or ‘portable furnace’ emerge two rings (dotted circles?) 1387 The two necks of the heifer are shown as emanating from the top portion of variant of standard device identified with several dots. Glyp: kanda kondo ‘with lumps’; rebus: kand. ‘fire altar, furnace’ (Santali) 134

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From the same top portion of the device, two rings on a fetter emanate on either side. Glyph: be_d.i = a chain, a fetter (Ka.Te.); rebus: bed.a ‘either end of a hearth’ (G.) Zebu and nine leaves. In front of the standard device and the stylized tree of leaves, are the black buck antelopes. Black paint on red ware of Kulli style. Mehi. Second-half of 3 rd millennium BCE. [After G.L. Possehl, 1986, Kulli: an exploration of an ancient civilization in South Asia, Centers of Civilization, I, Durham, NC: 46, fig. 18 (Mehi II.4.5), based on Stein 1931: pl. 30. med.hi, ‘pillar’ is also shown, apart from nine ficus leaves: lohar kamar: lo, ‘nine’; kamat.ha, ‘ficus’. me_dha = a sacrifice; medho_ho_ta = a sacrificial priest; name of a brahmara_ks.asa; me_dhya fit for sacrifice; me_dha_vi, me_dha_vanta learned man; me_de, me_dha_ understanding, wisdom (Ka.lex.) [cf. the name Ahura Mazda in Avestan tradition]. Rebus: lo ‘iron’ (Assamese, Bengali); loa ‘iron’ (Gypsy) loha = iron utensils and implements (Santali.lex.) loha = red, copper-coloured (S’rS.); made of copper (S’Br.); copper (VS); iron (MBh.); lo_ha metal, esp. copper or bronze (Pali); iron (Pkt.); liha, lihi, elhas, loa (Gypsy); loa steel (Wg.); loh copper (Kho.); lohu iron (S.); loha_, loa_ (L.); loha_ (P.K.); lo~u, lo_, lo_h, luha_, loha_ (WPah.); luwa_ (Ku.); lohu, loha_ (N.); lo (A.B.); no (B.); loha_, luha_ (Or.); loh (Mth.); loha_ (Bhoj.H.); lo_h (Aw.); loh (H.G.M.); loho, lo_ metal, ore, iron (Si.); ratu-lo_ copper (Md.)(CDIAL 11158). Lo_haka_ra iron-worker (Skt.); coppersmith, ironsmith (Pali); loha_ra blacksmith (Pkt.); luha_ru (S.); loha_r, loha_ri_, luha_r (L.); luha_r (WPah.); loha_r (N.B.Bi.Bhoj.Aw.H.); lova_r (G.); lo_varu coppersmith (Si.)(CDIAL 11159). lohsa_ri_ smithy (Bi.)(CDIAL 11162). Loh large baking iron (P.); luhiya_ iron pan (A.); lohiya_ iron or brass shallow pan with handle (Bi.); frying pan (G.)(CDIAL 11179). lauha made of copper or iron (Gr.S’r.); red (MBh.); iron, metal (Skt.); lo_ha made of iron (Pkt.); loha_ iron-coloured, reddish (L.); reddish-brown (of cattle)(P.)(CDIAL 11172a). Note the following riddle, the answer to which is loa: gar.a japare nao~a cat.uko hakatada, near the stream they have hung up new pitchers (Mundari.lex.) John Hoffmann and Arthur Van Emelen, Encyclopaedia Mundarica, Vol. 16, Pl. XVI, New Delhi, Gian Publishing House, 1990. lo_hala made of iron (Skt.); lohar, lohariyo self-willed and unyielding man (G.)(CDIAL 11161). Tool-bag: lokhar bag in which a barber keeps his tools (N.); iron tools, pots and pans (H.); lokhar. iron tools (Ku.); lokhan.d. iron tools, pots and pans (H.); lokha~d. tools, iron, ironware (G.); iron (M.)(CDIAL 11171). lod.hu~ pl. carpenter's tools (G.)(CDIAL 11173). karuvi-p-pai instrument-case; barber's bag (Ta.lex.) cf. karuvu-kalam treasury, treasure-house (Ta.lex.) Cobbler's iron pounder: lohaga~ga_, lahau~ga_ cobbler's iron pounder (Bi.); leha~ga_ (Mth.); luha~_gi_ staff set with iron rings (P.); loha~_gi_ (H.M.); lavha~_gi_ (M.); laha~_gi_, loha~gi_ (M.)(CDIAL 11174). Image: frying pan: lohra_, lohri_ small iron pan (Bi.)(CDIAL 11160). lo_hi_ any object made of iron (Skt.); pot (Skt.); iron pot (Pkt.); lo_hika_ large shallow wooden bowl bound with iron (Skt.); lauha_ iron pot (Skt.); loh large baking iron (P.); luhiya_ iron pan (A.); lohiya_ iron or brass shallow pan with handles (Bi.); lohiyu~ frying pan (G.)(CDIAL 11170). lauhabha_n.d.a iron pot, iron mortar (Skt.); lo_habhan.d.a copper or brass ware (Pali); luha~_d.ir.i_ iron pot (S.); luha~_d.a_ (L.); frying pan (P.); lohn.d.a_, lo~_hd.a_ (P.); luhu~r.e iron cooking pot (N.); lohora_ iron pan (A.); loha~r.a_ iron vessel for drawing water for irrigation (Bi.); lohan.d.a_, luhan.d.a_ iron pot (H.); lod.hu~ iron, razor (G.)[cf. xolla_ razor (Kur.); qole id. (Malt.); hola'd razor (Santali)(DEDR 2141)]; lod.hi_ iron pan (G.)(CDIAL 11173). lohar kamar = a blacksmith, worker in iron, superior to the ordinary kamar, a Hindu low caste (Santali.lex.) Vikalpa: lo = nine (Santali); no = nine (B.) on-patu = nine (Ta.) There is an intriguing lexeme nyoh in Khotanese which connotes ‘nine’. [Whence y? –h from Persian? Belvalkar Vol. 94]. Is it possible that nin nyoh was derived from loh? The transformation lohe > nohe is attested in Santali. lohe, nohe = v.a.disregard, disown, disobey (Santali); nohe = is not (B.)(Santali.lex.) lo = nine (now often 135

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heard)(Santali); lo (desi); noe (B.)(Santali.lex.Bodding) nava = nine (RV.Pali); n.ava (Pkt.); nau (D.); no, nu_ (Ash.); nu~_ (Wg.); nu_ (Pr.); no~_ (Dm.); na_h (Tir.); nawa, na_u, na_ (Pas’.); nu_ (Shum.); nu~_ (Gaw.); no_ (Kal.); nyoh (Kho.); nah, num (Bshk.); nom (Tor.); nau_ (Kand.); nau_ (Mai.); no_u (Sv.); nau, nu_, nu~_ (Phal.); nau~, na_u_ (Sh.); nav, nau, nam, na_u (K.); na_va (S.); no~_, nau_, nao~ (L.); nau~, nau (P.); nao (WPah.); nau, no (Ku.); nau (N.);; na (A.B.Or.); naa (Or.); nau (Bi.Mth.Aw.H.); nam (H.); nova (Omarw.); nav (G.); nav, nau_ (M.); nav (Kon.); nava (Osi.); namaya (Si.); nuva (Md.)(CDIAL 6984). Navaka consisting of 9 (RV Pra_t.); collection of 9 (R.); n.avaga (Pkt.); nomu (K.); nawwa_, namma_ (H.); navvo the 9 in cards (G.)(CDIAL 6985). Vikalpa: lo ‘a species of fig tree, ficus glomerata’ (Santali) loa = a species of fig tree, ficus glomerata, Roxb. (Santali.lex.) loa = the fig tree, ficus glomerata and its fruit. Loa bele jom dela = come along to eat figs; loa talsa jomteko bancaoena they were saved (kept alive) by eating fig-flour. The unripe figs are steamed and when dried husked in a mortar; a small vessel is heated, whereupon some oil is poured in; when this is boiling the figs are thrown in, salt and spices are added; when ready this is eaten as curry. The juice of the tree is used as a remedy against boils, also as a kind of lime. Bahu loa = a kind of fig tree, the figs of which expand and break like a flower. ? ficus tiela, Roxb. (Santali.lex. PO Bodding) loa = the fruit of ficus glomerata, ficus lanceolata or ficus carica; loa-daru (Sad. Dumair) ficus glomerata (Mundari.lex.) kamat.ha ‘ficus religiosa’; rebus: kampat.amu ‘furnace’. khu~t.a_, khu~t.i_ wooden post, stake, pin, wedge; kut.hara, kut.a_ram = post around which the string of a churning stick winds; churning pot ad.rna_ to twist back one’s limbs or bend the body inward (as under threat of a blow)(Kur.); ad.re to strut; ad.ro a swaggerer (Malt.)(DEDR 108). [cf. the glyphs of antelope and tiger with their heads turned backwards.] ad.aru twig; ad.iri small and thin branch of a tree; ad.ari small branches (Ka.); ad.aru twig (Tu.)(DEDR 67). Goblet, black on red slip, Nausharo ID, Kachi Plain, Baluchistan (After Samzun, A., 1992, Observations on the characteristics of the pre-Harappan remains, pottery, and artifacts at Naudsharo, Pakistan (2700-2500 BCE) in: C. Jarrige, ed., South Asian Archaeology 1989, 245-252, Madison, Wisc.: 250, fig. 29.4, no.2, Mission Archeologique de Indus. Goblet. Mundigak IV, 1, eastern Afthanistan (After Casal, J.M., 1961, Fouilles de Mundigak, I-II, Memoires de la delegation archeologique francaise en Afghanistan 17, Paris. II: fig. 64, no.171, Delegation Archeologique Francaise en Afghanistan. A twig of three ficus leaves are shown on the Nausharo kolmo ‘three’; kolami ‘furnace’ (Te.) Vikalpa: sagal.a = pair (Ka.) Vikalpa: OSi. do, de, Si. deka, Md. de.Skt. dva— ‘two’: m. dvaú (duvaú), dvā́ (duvā)́ , f.n. dvḗ (duvē)́ RV. Pa. (CDIAL 6648). Rebus: deko ‘hindu’.

1387 The fifth sign (left-most) on Text 1387: kole.l = smithy, temple in Kota village (Ko.)(DEDR 2133). This sign also appears on a unique seal with three ligatured tigers (kol). The first sign is a ligature of four-corners and a spoked-wheel: 136

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The emphatic rings on the neck of the two heifers: kod.iyum, reinforces the kod., ‘horn’; rebus: kod., ‘artisan’s workshop’. Glyph: sal a gregarious forest tree, shorea robusta; kambra a kind of tree (Santali) Second sign from the right on the text is a composite with a slanted line and a short linear stroke: Substantive: kan.t.am iron style for writing on palmyra leaves (Ta.); gan.t.amu id. (Te.)(DEDR 1170) [The owner of the seal had the tool to engrave such an exquisite seal!] gan.d.e ‘to place at a right angle to something else, cross, transverse’; gan.d. gan.d. ‘across, at right angles, transversely’ (Santali) The last sign is a ‘wheel’ glyph ligatured with (inlaid within) four cornered rombus: kanda kondo ‘with lumps’; rebus: kan.d. ‘furnace’ Glyph: square ‘khon.d.’ (Santali) Glyph: kanac konoc, kana kona, kana kuni ‘the corners, in the corners’ (Santali) Substantive: kan~cu ‘bronze’ (Te.) Glyph: kanas ‘ambush, direction, aside; kanasre okoeye tabena? ‘Who will lie in ambush? (the person who keeps out of sight near the net into which hares are driven is said to be ‘kanasre’); khanca ‘a cage, a large basket’ (Santali) Glyph: kamsa kamsi, kamsa kadak ‘to jump,to frisk, to gallop’; kamsao ‘to cause a horse to gallop’ (Santali) [cf. the imagery of a jumping tiger. Hence, kamsa kol lit. ‘jumping tiger’; rebus: copper/bronze furnace] [Note the orthographic style showing the tiger jumping] Hence, the tiger shown may be a kamsi-kula = rebus, bronze kol or bronze furnace. kso = bell-metal tray for food (OMarw.); kenzu = clay or copper pot (K.); ka~_hi = bell-metal dish (A.); kam.sa = bell-metal (Skt.); metal cup (AV); kam.sa = bronze dish (Pali); kan~jho = bell-metal (S.); ka_~h gong (A.); ka~sa_ big pot of bell-metal (Or.)(CDIAL 2576). sisa ear of paddy; bae daklette sis ban: od.oklena = no paddy-ears came out, because it did not rain (Santali.lex.Bodding) sis = an ear of dhan (Santali.lex.) si_rs.a = head (AV); sisa, sisaka head (Pali); s.i_s. = ear of maize (Bshk.); s.i_s.a ear of corn (Phal.Sh.); s.i_s.u = fir-cone, ear of wheat (Sh.); sisa_ ear of rice emerging from stalk (Or.); sis-kat.ni_ cutting ears without stalks (Bi.); si_s, si_sa_ ear of wheat (Mth.); s’i_s, s’i_~s just-formed fruit of cucurbitaceous plants appearing as a knob behind the flower (M.)(CDIAL 12497). s’i_rs.aka = an ornament of flowers on the head (Ka.lex.) sisa = lead (Santali.lex.) si_sa = lead; adj. Leaden (VS); si_saka (Ya_jn~.); si_sa lead (Pali.Pkt.); si_saya (Pkt.); si_ho (S.); si_so_ (WPah.); si_so (Ku.); siso (N.); xih (A.); sisa_ (B.); sisa_, si~sa_ (Or.); si_sa_ (H.P.G.); s’ise~ (M.)(CDIAL 13445). sisa = lead; banduk guli do sisa reak = gun bullets are of lead (Santali); si_sa_ (H.)(Santali.lex.Bodding) sisa [Persian she_sha_] lead; solder; a lead pencil (Mundari.lex.) si_sa, si_su, si_saka, si_sapatra, na_ga = lead (Ka.lex.) [Note: the representation of s’es.asa_yi_ as Vis.n.u reclining on the serpent’s body; synonym of s’e_s.a = na_ga which also means lead; hence, the rebus representation of si_sa lead can also be a snake]. S’e_s.a = the thousand-headed serpent s’e_s.a (Ka.lex.) lo = nine; rebus: lo = iron (Santali) 137

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So, sisa lo (lead, iron); pasra 'sprout'; pajhar. 'furnace'. Nine cobs of corn (?flowering shrubs). A cob of corn (sprout from a tuber or a flowering shrub?) is stylized like the five fingers of the palm of person (lady?) in the centre. There is a tree to the left. Ram, markhor, antelopes (looking backward) are shown. A standing person has horns. Shahda_d. Impression of a cylinder seal. [After Pl. 209 in: BB Lal and SP Gupta, eds., Frontiers of the Indus Civilization]. Steatie vessel. Ur. Two horned bulls and ears of corn (L. Woolley, Mesopotamia and the Middle East, London 1961, pl. on p. 50]. Sumer, cylinder seal depicting a row of one-horned bulls and ears of corn (H. Frankfort, Cylinder Seals, London, 1939, pl. Vb). "...the 'unicorn' appears to be a watered-down, much recopied version of the Sumerian and ProtoElamite one-horned bovine tradiiton." (During Caspers, Harappan Temples-fact of fallacy? South Asian Archaeology 1987, p. 248). During Caspers also sees parallel between the ear of corn shown on cylinder seals and the 'standard' shown on the Harappan inscriptions in front of the 'unicorn'. Susa, Iran; steatite cylinder seal . A bison with head lowered, feeding from a basin. A second bison figure is seen. Inscription on top. Louvre Sb 2425, Musee du Louvre and Pierre and Maurice Chuzeville. sangad.a ‘joined animals’ (M.) [This seal demonstrates the lapidary’s artistic technique of ‘jointing’ or ‘ligaturing’ of hieroglyphs.]

Amri06 Ligatured animal Cylinder seal and modern impression: hunting scene, 2250–2150 B.C.; late Akkadian period Mesopotamia Chert; H. 1 1/16 in. (2.8 cm) This seal, depicting a man hunting an ibex in a mountain forest, is an early attempt to represent a landscape in Mesopotamian art. It was made during the Akkadian period (ca. 2350–2150 B.C.), during which the iconographic repertory of the seal engraver expanded to include a variety of new mythological and narrative subjects. The owner of the seal was Balu-ili, a high court official whose title was Cupbearer. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ho/02/wam/hod_41.160.192.htm

The bulls flank a mountain topped by a leaf. Scene representing Gilgamesh and Ea-bani in conflict with bulls in a wooded and mountainous country; Cylinder seal impression, Mesopotamia British Museum No. 89308. ku_t.amu = the summit of a mountain (Te.lex.) ku_t.akamu = mixture (Te.lex.) [Used in compounds to connote alloys such 138

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a_raku_t.a ‘brass’ (Skt.)] ku_d.ali, ku_t.ami, ku_d.ika = junction (Te.lex.) ku_t.a_mu = a hall in a house (Te.lex.) ku_t.ud.u = a stone-cutter (Te.lex.) ku_t.uva = an army, a host; a collection; ku_t.uvamu_ka = an army consisting of untrained rabble, or irregular troops (Te.lex.) ku_t.avarusalu = a necklace of four to eight thin gold chains hanging together (Te.lex.) kamar.kom ‘ficus’ (Santali); rebus: kampat.t.am ‘mint’ (Ta.) Vikalpa: me_d.i glomerous fig tree, ficus racemosa; opposite-leaved fig tree, ficus oppositifolia [Te. = udumbara] (Ka.) ficus glomerata (Te.); me_r.i id. (Kol.)[Ficus glomerata Roxb. = Ficus racemosa Wall.](DEDR 5090). met.t.u mound; me_t.u hillock (Ta.); me_t.u rising ground, hillock (Ma.); me_d.u rising ground, hillock (Ka.)(DEDR 5058). met.t.a_ = hillock (Or.)(CDIAL 10308). mer = mountain (Kho.); me_ruve = pyramid (Ka.)(CDIAL 10330). [The leaf sign is associated with a hill and also an ‘antelope’ pictorial motif on inscribed objects]. med. Iron, iron implements (Ho)(Santali.lex.Bodding) men.d.a_ = lump, clot (Or.)(CDIAL 10308). mer = a kind of large copper or brass pot (G.lex.) mer.ed., me~r.ed., me~r.e~d. iron; en:ga mer.ed. soft iron; sand.i mer.ed. hard iron; ispa_t mer.ed. steel; dul mer.ed. cast iron; bicamer.ed. iron extracted from stone ore (Mundari.lex.) balimer.ed. iron extracted from sand ore; mer.ed. niga an iron cart axle; mer.ed-o of ore, to be reduced to iron; of iron, to be produced from ore; mer.ed.-bica = diribica iron stone ore, in contrast with balibica iron sand ore (Mundari.lex.) me~r.he~t = iron; me~r.he~t icena = the iron is rusty; ispat me~r.he~t = steel; dul me~r.he~t = cast iron; me~r.he~t khan.d.a = iron implements (Santali.lex.) mehro = a pa_lki_ bearer (G.lex.) me_t.i, me_n.i = the plough-tail (Ka.); me_di (Te.); me_r..i (Ta.Ma.)(Ka.lex.) ra_yi = a stone, rock (Te.lex.) san:gatara_su = stone cutter (Te.) Image: turner's point for hollowing with: rachi_ turner's point for hollowing with (S.); racch tools, implements (L.); racch that part of loom to which web is attached and along which shuttle plays (P.); rachu treddles of a loom, fish net, vessel or utensil for holding or cooking food etc. (S.); ra_ch instrument, implement, apparatus, weaver's toothed instrument (H.); ra_c tools, implements, furniture, materials (G.); rathya pertaining to a chariot (RV.); collection of chariots (Pa_n..); chariot with its team or equipment (RV.); rathaka_ra chariot-builder, carpenter (Skt.); rahaa_ra id. (Pkt.); radhe'aro shoemaker (Dhp.)(CDIAL 10607). re~ples tongs (Lith.); rapas (demon of) injury (RV.)(CDIAL 10607). art(arty-) to pursue (men, game, etc.)(Ko.); carp- (cart-) to drive (Pa.); sarp- (sart-) to drive, chase (Ga.); sarc- (sart-) to chase (Ga.)(DEDR 2362). cf. sa_rathi charioteer (RV.); saratha with a chariot (S'Br.); cf. ratha chariot, cart (RV.)(CDIAL 10602). Barber's case of tools: richa_han., raccha_n.i_, richa_hn.i_ barber's case of tools (L.); racha_n.i_ (P.)(CDIAL 10608). 139

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rajas = dust; rajasa = dusty, unclean (Vedic.lex.) rajas = dust, powder, any small particle of matter (Ka.lex.) rajassu = any small particle of dust, as a mote in a sunbeam (Te.lex.) ni_raja = free from dust (MBh.); n.i_raya = free from dust, pure (Pkt.); niro = pure, unalloyed (S.) rajas = menstrual excetion; rajasvale = a menstruating woman (Ka.lex.) ra_ji = a striped snake; ra_jimat, ra_jila = a species of snake (Sus’r.); ra_ji_va = a kind of striped deer (Skt.lex.)

m1135 the standard device.

2140 Pict-50 Composite animal: features of an ox and a rhinoceros facing

Rhinoceros (boar) Substantive: bad.hi ‘a caste who work both in iron and wood’ (Santali) Glyph: badhia ‘castrated boar’; bhator ‘boar’(Santali) pan.d., pan.d.u hog, pig (Ga.); pandi (Kod.Te.)(DEDR 4039).

Kalibangan039

8011

m0669

2686

Rebus: deko = a Hindu; deko per.a = a courteous term applied to Hindus (Santali.lex.) Rebus: Sa. deko `foreigner'.Mu. diku `foreigner'.KW di`ku`@(M070) Vikalpa: t.ekkemu, t.ekkiyamu flag, banner (Te.); t.akkiyam, t.akkayam, it.akkiyam flag, swallo-tail banner, standard hoised on a car (Ta.); t.akke, t.ekke, t.ekkeya, t.heke banner, standard (Ka.)(DEDR 2938). d.en:kan.i, d.en:kan.a, d.hen:kan.i = the flag-staff (with or without its flag) on the bastion of a fort (Ka.lex.) Vikalpa: ba~ont.ia, a species of deer; a homonym is: ba_vut.a_ = flag, a banner, a standard (Te.); ba_vat.a_ = flag (H.); ba_vut.e, ba_vat.a, ba_vat.i, ba_vat.e (Ka.M.) Vikalpa: ko_d.i = a kind of flag, an image of garud.a, basava, or other demi-god set upon a long post before a temple; cf. gud.i, temple (Ka.lex.) [Note the flag in front of a procession on an inscribed tablet]. kot.i = a flag (Ta.lex.) ko_d.e du_d.a = young bull (Te.lex.) Sailing boat

ko_t.ya, ko_t.iya = sailing vessel (Tu.), ko_t.t.iya = a sea-boat (Ceylon)(Ma.)

Vikalpa: daeka = wide-spreading horns (Santali.lex.) krammara = to turn, return (Telugu); krammar-ilu, krammar-illu, krammar-abad.u = to turn, return, to go back; krammar-u = again; krammar-incu = to turn or send back (Telugu) kraman.a = act of walking or going (Gujarati) karma = step, series (AV); krame_n.a by degrees (Ramayana); kama = step, way (Pali); foot, series (Pkt.); -krem in oi-n-krem and u~_-krem = upper and lower teech (Wg.); krem = 140

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the back (Khotanese)(CDIAL 2776) parikama_ = behind the shoulder (Ash.)(CDIAL 7799) kamak = back (Sang.); com = back of an animal (Shgh.); kama = neck (Yghn.)(CDIAL 14356). Vikalpa: Sa. DEkE `pointed, knotted'.Mu. DEkE `pointed, knotted'.KW DEkE @(M079) Vikalpa: Manḍ. ḷēk- to carry on the shoulder. Kui ḷēnja (ḷēnji-) to be raised, uplifted, weighed; n. an uplift; pl. action ḷēska (ḷēski-); ḷēspa (ḷēst-) to raise, lift, uplift, rear, build, praise, flatter, weigh; n. act of raising, erection, flattery, weighing; ḷehka (ḷehki-) to carry on the shoulders; n. act of carrying, etc.; (K.) ḷēka to carry on the shoulder. Kuwi (F.) dekali, (S.) dēki'nai, (Isr.) ḷēk- (-it-) to carry (DEDR 851). On seal m0308, the woman is also shown with one left-eye: d.a_kannu = the left eye (Te.lex.) d.a_kini, d.a_kin.i = a kind of female demon attending Ka_l.i (Ka.lex.) d.a_kan., d.a_kan.i_ [Skt. d.a_kini_] a witch; a sorceress; a monstrous woman; an old hag; d.a_kan.um, d.a_kiyum adj. Wicked; monstrous; horrible (G.lex.) d.a_gin.i_ = Pkt. Form of d.a_kini_; cf. d.a_kini_ka in Pa_n. 4.2.51, Pat. (Skt.lex.) Substantive: d.a_kin.i, d.a_kini, d.a_hin.i = the sword of a female demon (Ka.lex.) darkha_n. = adze; taks.an.a = cutting and paring (Skt.) dak, dakh = a vine (Santali.lex.) d.ak = the Indian moorhen, gallinula chloropsis indicus (Santali.lex.) d.aeka = long, widespread, with an upward turn, as horns; d.akd.aka = long, tall, high, projecting (Santali.lex.) d.a_n:k, d.a_n:kh = a large green wasp; d.an:kh, dam.s’a [Skt. dam.s’ to sting, to bite] a sting; a bite ntali.lex.) d.a_n:k, d.a_n:kh = a bright piece of metal placed under a precious stone to make it shine brighter; a metallic cement (Santali.lex.) d.a_ku, d.a_gu = a spot, stain, bot; a mark put on cattle with a red-hot iron; inoculated cow-pox (Ka.M.); d.a_ga (H.); d.a_gu (Ta.Te.)(Ka.lex.) d.an:ko = a large kettle-drum; d.a_kalum, d.a_khalum [Skt. d.hakka+ a kind of drum] a kind of drum; d.a_khalum besa_d.avum to get a drum beaten before a person by a spirit or ghost (G.lex.) d.an:ke, d.akke = a pretty large double drum (Ka.); d.an:ke (Te.); d.an:ka_, d.a_n:ka_, a large kettle drum (M.)(Ka.lex.) Kur. kūl belly, stomach, womb; kūlas offspring, descendant. Malt. kóli abdomen. Br. xōl womb, offspring, entrails, woof, weft; xōlaxū, xōxū entrails, woof and warp.(DEDR 2244). Cf. H. kol breast, bosom; kaulā, kolā, kaulī id., lap (CDIAL 3607) kulāý a— n. (m. Pañcat.) ‘woven texture, web, nest’ AV. WPah.kḷg. kóḍḍh, kc. kolho m. ‘bird's nest’ (CDIAL 3340). ghol ‘nest’ (Ku.N.)(CDIAL 4525). Tam. kūḍu, Kan. Tel. Tu. gūḍu (DED 1883) Skt. kūḷa- trap for catching deer, Pkt. kūḷa- snare; S. koḍko m., °kī f. ‘trap for catching birds’ (CDIAL (3397). 141

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kula_la ‘potter’ (VS. Pa_n.); kula_l.a (Or.)(CDIAL 3341). M. koḍī m. ‘a caste of water- carriers (CDIAL 3535). Ka. kol, kolu, kollu (kond-) to kill, murder; kolisu, kollisu, kolsu to cause to kill; kole killing, murder, slaughter; kolega murderer; kolluvike killing; kuli a killer. Koḍ. koll- (kolluv-, kond-) to kill. Tu. kolè murder (DEDR 2132). H. kulnā ‘to hurt, ache’.(CDIAL 3334). P. kullā m. ‘hip, buttock’; H. kulā m. ‘hip, buttock, waist’; G. kulḍ m. ‘hip, buttock’; M. kulā, kullā, °āḍā, kulhā, °āḍā m. ‘buttock’, kolẽ n. ‘hump of buffalo’. (CDIAL 3353). Ta. kol working in iron, blacksmith; kollaḷ blacksmith. Ma. kollan blacksmith, artificer. Ko. koll smithy, temple in Kota village. To. kwall Kota smithy. Ka. kolime, kolume, kulame, kulime, kulume, kulme firepit, furnace; (Bell.; U.P.U.) konimi blacksmith; (Gowda) kolla id. Koḍ. kollë blacksmith. Te. kolimi furnace. Go. (SR.) kollusānā to mend implements; (Ph.) kolstānā, kulsānā to forge; (Tr.) kōlstānā to repair (of ploughshares); (SR.) kolmi smithy ( Voc. 948). Kuwi (F.) kolhali to forge.(DEDR 2133). There is an intriguing lexeme nyoh in Khotanese which connotes ‘nine’. [Whence y? –h from Persian? Belvalkar Vol. 94]. Is it possible that n- in nyoh was derived from loh? The transformation lohe > nohe is attested in Santali. lohe, nohe = v.a.disregard, disown, disobey (Santali); nohe = is not (B.)(Santali.lex.) lo = nine (now often heard)(Santali); lo (desi); noe (B.)(Santali.lex.Bodding) nava = nine (RV.Pali); n.ava (Pkt.); nau (D.); no, nu_ (Ash.); nu~_ (Wg.); nu_ (Pr.); no~_ (Dm.); na_h (Tir.); nawa, na_u, na_ (Pas’.); nu_ (Shum.); nu~_ (Gaw.); no_ (Kal.); nyoh (Kho.); nah, num (Bshk.); nom (Tor.); nau_ (Kand.); nau_ (Mai.); no_u (Sv.); nau, nu_, nu~_ (Phal.); nau~, na_u_ (Sh.); nav, nau, nam, na_u (K.); na_va (S.); no~_, nau_, nao~ (L.); nau~, nau (P.); nao (WPah.); nau, no (Ku.); nau (N.);; na (A.B.Or.); naa (Or.); nau (Bi.Mth.Aw.H.); nam (H.); nova (Omarw.); nav (G.); nav, nau_ (M.); nav (Kon.); nava (Osi.); namaya (Si.); nuva (Md.)(CDIAL 6984). Navaka consisting of 9 (RV Pra_t.); collection of 9 (R.); n.avaga (Pkt.); nomu (K.); nawwa_, namma_ (H.); navvo the 9 in cards (G.)(CDIAL 6985). Since the rebus uses Santali lexeme it is apparent that the numeric counting (often indicated by short linear strokes to connote the count of countable objects) uses Munda substrate. The Santali numerals are: mit eka one; bar barea don two; pea pe pene three; pon, ponea, car four; mo~r.e~ five; turui six; eae, sat seven; iral eight; are, lo nine; gel ten. lo = nine (Santali.lex.) loe (longe) the penis; loe!-go to have a penis; cakurako kako loeakana, hermaphrodites have no penis (Mundari.lex.) loa = a species of fig tree, ficus glomerata, Roxb. (Santali.lex.) loa = the fig tree, ficus glomerata and its fruit. Loa bele jom dela = come along to eat figs; loa talsa jomteko bancaoena they were saved (kept alive) by eating fig-flour. The unripe figs are steamed and when dried husked in a mortar; a small vessel is heated, whereupon some oil is poured in; when this is boiling the figs are thrown in, salt and spices are added; when ready this is eaten as curry. The juice of the tree is used as a remedy against boils, also as a kind of lime. Bahu loa = a kind of fig tree, the figs of which expand and break like a flower. ? ficus tiela, Roxb. (Santali.lex. PO Bodding) loa = the fruit of ficus glomerata, ficus lanceolata or ficus carica; loa-daru (Sad. Dumair) ficus glomerata (Mundari.lex.) 142

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loha = iron utensils and implements (Santali.lex.) loha = red, copper-coloured (S’rS.); made of copper (S’Br.); copper (VS); iron (MBh.); lo_ha metal, esp. copper or bronze (Pali); iron (Pkt.); liha, lihi, elhas, loa (Gypsy); loa steel (Wg.); loh copper (Kho.); lohu iron (S.); loha_, loa_ (L.); loha_ (P.K.); lo~u, lo_, lo_h, luha_, loha_ (WPah.); luwa_ (Ku.); lohu, loha_ (N.); lo (A.B.); no (B.); loha_, luha_ (Or.); loh (Mth.); loha_ (Bhoj.H.); lo_h (Aw.); loh (H.G.M.); loho, lo_ metal, ore, iron (Si.); ratu-lo_ copper (Md.)(CDIAL 11158). Lo_haka_ra iron-worker (Skt.); coppersmith, ironsmith (Pali); loha_ra blacksmith (Pkt.); luha_ru (S.); loha_r, loha_ri_, luha_r (L.); luha_r (WPah.); loha_r (N.B.Bi.Bhoj.Aw.H.); lova_r (G.); lo_varu coppersmith (Si.)(CDIAL 11159). lohsa_ri_ smithy (Bi.)(CDIAL 11162). Loh large baking iron (P.); luhiya_ iron pan (A.); lohiya_ iron or brass shallow pan with handle (Bi.); frying pan (G.)(CDIAL 11179). lauha made of copper or iron (Gr.S’r.); red (MBh.); iron, metal (Skt.); lo_ha made of iron (Pkt.); loha_ ironcoloured, reddish (L.); reddish-brown (of cattle)(P.)(CDIAL 11172a). Note the following riddle, the answer to which is loa: gar.a japare nao~a cat.uko hakatada, near the stream they have hung up new pitchers (Mundari.lex.) John Hoffmann and Arthur Van Emelen, Encyclopaedia Mundarica, Vol. 16, Pl. XVI, New Delhi, Gian Publishing House, 1990. lohar kamar = a blacksmith, worker in iron, superior to the ordinary kamar, a Hindu low caste (Santali.lex.) lo_hala made of iron (Skt.); lohar, lohariyo self-willed and unyielding man (G.)(CDIAL 11161). Tool-bag: lokhar bag in which a barber keeps his tools (N.); iron tools, pots and pans (H.); lokhar. iron tools (Ku.); lokhan.d. iron tools, pots and pans (H.); lokha~d. tools, iron, ironware (G.); iron (M.)(CDIAL 11171). lod.hu~ pl. carpenter's tools (G.)(CDIAL 11173). karuvi-p-pai instrument-case; barber's bag (Ta.lex.) cf. karuvu-kalam treasury, treasure-house (Ta.lex.) Cobbler's iron pounder: lohaga~ga_, lahau~ga_ cobbler's iron pounder (Bi.); leha~ga_ (Mth.); luha~_gi_ staff set with iron rings (P.); loha~_gi_ (H.M.); lavha~_gi_ (M.); laha~_gi_, loha~gi_ (M.)(CDIAL 11174). Image: frying pan: lohra_, lohri_ small iron pan (Bi.)(CDIAL 11160). lo_hi_ any object made of iron (Skt.); pot (Skt.); iron pot (Pkt.); lo_hika_ large shallow wooden bowl bound with iron (Skt.); lauha_ iron pot (Skt.); loh large baking iron (P.); luhiya_ iron pan (A.); lohiya_ iron or brass shallow pan with handles (Bi.); lohiyu~ frying pan (G.)(CDIAL 11170). lauhabha_n.d.a iron pot, iron mortar (Skt.); lo_habhan.d.a copper or brass ware (Pali); luha~_d.ir.i_ iron pot (S.); luha~_d.a_ (L.); frying pan (P.); lohn.d.a_, lo~_hd.a_ (P.); luhu~r.e iron cooking pot (N.); lohora_ iron pan (A.); loha~r.a_ iron vessel for drawing water for irrigation (Bi.); lohan.d.a_, luhan.d.a_ iron pot (H.); lod.hu~ iron, razor (G.)[cf. xolla_ razor (Kur.); qole id. (Malt.); hola'd razor (Santali)(DEDR 2141)]; lod.hi_ iron pan (G.)(CDIAL 11173). med.hi, ‘pillar’ is also shown, apart from nine ficus leaves: lohar kamar: lo, ‘nine’; kamat.ha, ‘ficus’. me_dha = a sacrifice; medho_ho_ta = a sacrificial priest; name of a brahmara_ks.asa; me_dhya fit for sacrifice; me_dha_vi, me_dha_vanta learned man; me_de, me_dha_ understanding, wisdom (Ka.lex.) [cf. the name Ahura Mazda in Avestan tradition]. 1387 The fifth sign (left-most) on Text 1387: kole.l = smithy, temple in Kota village (Ko.)(DEDR 2133). This sign also appears on a unique seal with three ligatured tigers (kol). The first sign is a ligature of four-corners and a spoked-wheel: The emphatic rings on the neck of the two heifers: kod.iyum, reinforces the kod., ‘horn’; rebus: kod., ‘artisan’s workshop’. Glyph: sal a gregarious forest tree, shorea robusta; kambra a kind of tree (Santali) Second sign from the right on the text is a composite with a slanted line and a short linear stroke:

143

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Substantive: kan.t.am iron style for writing on palmyra leaves (Ta.); gan.t.amu id. (Te.)(DEDR 1170) [The owner of the seal had the tool to engrave such an exquisite seal!] gan.d.e ‘to place at a right angle to something else, cross, transverse’; gan.d. gan.d. ‘across, at right angles, transversely’ (Santali) The last sign is a ‘wheel’ glyph ligatured with (inlaid within) four cornered rombus: kanda kondo ‘with lumps’; rebus: kan.d. ‘furnace’ Glyph: square ‘khon.d.’ (Santali) Glyph: kanac konoc, kana kona, kana kuni ‘the corners, in the corners’ (Santali) Substantive: kan~cu ‘bronze’ (Te.) Glyph: kanas ‘ambush, direction, aside; kanasre okoeye tabena? ‘Who will lie in ambush? (the person who keeps out of sight near the net into which hares are driven is said to be ‘kanasre’); khanca ‘a cage, a large basket’ (Santali) Glyph: kamsa kamsi, kamsa kadak ‘to jump,to frisk, to gallop’; kamsao ‘to cause a horse to gallop’ (Santali) [cf. the imagery of a jumping tiger. Hence, kamsa kol lit. ‘jumping tiger’; rebus: copper/bronze furnace] [Note the orthographic style showing the tiger jumping] Hence, the tiger shown may be a kamsi-kula = rebus, bronze kol or bronze furnace. kso = bell-metal tray for food (OMarw.); kenzu = clay or copper pot (K.); ka~_hi = bell-metal dish (A.); kam.sa = bell-metal (Skt.); metal cup (AV); kam.sa = bronze dish (Pali); kan~jho = bell-metal (S.); ka_~h gong (A.); ka~sa_ big pot of bell-metal (Or.)(CDIAL 2576).

Sign 267

Variants of Sign 267 Sign 286 seems to ligature sign 267 and sign 391

Glyph: kod.a_m shells; kod.i_ a small cowry; kod.um a sea-shell; kod.o a large cowry (G.) Rebus: kod. ‘artisan’s workshop’ Vikalpa: kanac ‘corner; rebus: kancu ‘bronze’; eraka ‘nave of wheel’; rebus: eraka ‘copper’

Sign 48 and variants h0374 a,b,c An incised prism tablet with frequently recurring sign sequences; one side shows the 'vessel' preceded by three long strokes. h0764 a,b Moulded tablet. The 'U-shaped pot' is repeated thrice on one side.

m0330A

0330B

m0329

1477

144

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me_n.te = a couple (Tu.lex.) mel.ai = couple (Kon.lex.) m330A, reading: kamar, kan.d., kamat.ha_yo = smith, furnace, carpenter; m330B, m329: barea kammat.a, kanac med. = two portable furnaces, bronze copper (med. 'copper') (glyphs: two U’s, corner, splinter) [The splinter glyph can also be read as: s’al, splinter, i.e. m329 can be read alternatively as: kanac s’al (bronze workshop) barea kammat.a = two portable furnaces]. Glyph: dholo ‘fat and lazy, applied to women’

m1428At

m1428Bt

m1428Ct

2842

m0493At m0493Bt m0493Ct Three dancing figures in a row. Side C may be a motif of ‘lizard + fish’.

m1428At

2843 Pict-93:

m1428Bt

m1428Ct 2842 Side B may be a motif of ‘lizard + fish’. khod = a step in a dance (Santali.lex.) [Or, khel = to play, dance (Gy.)(CDIAL 3918) and khe_r. shield (Phal.)]. kod.a, kor.a = in arithmetic one; 4 kor.a or kod.a = 1 gan.d.a = 4 (Santali.lex.) kod. ‘artisan’s workshop’ (G.) kolmo ‘three’; rebus: kolami ‘furnace’ (cf. the glyph of 3 dancers). khod = a step in a dance (Santali.lex.) [Or, khel = to play, dance (Gy.)(CDIAL 3918) and khe_r. shield (Phal.)]. kod.a, kor.a = in arithmetic one; 4 kor.a or kod.a = 1 gan.d.a = 4 (Santali.lex.) kod. ‘artisan’s workshop’ (G.) kud.rau, kudrau = to strike with the heel of the fist, not with the knuckles (Santali.lex.) kudra kudri = to fight by striking each other with the heel of the fist (Santali.lex.) Rebus: kudra than ‘the place where the Pargana bon:ga is worshipped’ (Santali) kudrau = to propitiate, to appease; ma bon:geko kudraukotam = propitiate the objects you worship (Santali.lex.) kod.hok = bent, stooping (Santali.lex.) kud.bur = to hand or bow the head (Santali.lex.) kudur. kudur. = sound of footsteps (Santali.lex.) [Note three persons in dancing steps]. kudra = one of the Santal godlets; kudri = a female godlet of the Santals; kudra than = the place where Pargana Bonga is worshipped (Santali) 145

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dun:ger. ‘a dance danced at the place where the night is spent when out at one of the annual hunts’; don:ger. ‘a dance by men only on the evening of the first day of an annual hunt’ (Santali) belcad.e a devil-dancer (Tu.) The glyphs showing three fat, dancing persons may connote three dolan ‘brick-houses.’ (with) dokhra ‘smithy’ Glyph; ghera ‘a ring, circle, enclosure’; gerwel ‘ring on underside of neck, said of birds such as the Ring dove, the quail etc.; gun.d.ri doko gerwelana ‘quails have a ring round the neck’ (Santali) Glyph: baggare thorax (Kod.); baggari id. (Ka.)(DEDR 3815). Substantive: bakher ‘homestead’; cf. pangal di_na the plains country (Kui); pangenga plains people; panga ra_ji the plains (Kuwi)(DEDR 3819). Substantive: ke.r, ke.ry street, exogamous division in Kota village (Ko.); ce_ri town, village, hamlet; street, quarters of the Pariahs (Ta.); assemblage, village street (Ma.); ke_ri street (Ka.); ke.ry street of Badaga village (To.); ge_ri street, passage (Te.); se_ri street, quarter; s’e_ri lane, alley (M.)(DEDR 2007). [Note: kentum phase of the languages] Glyph: ko.t. castle, palatial mansion (Ko.); kwa.t. bungalow (To.); kot.e fort, rampart (Ka.); ko.te palace (Kod.); ko_t.a fort (Te.); kot.t.a, kot.a fort, stronghold (Skt.)(DEDR 2207). Substantive: kod., kod.iyum place where artisans work (G.) Glyph: kod.a_m shells; kod.i_ a small cowry; kod.um a sea-shell; kod.o a large cowry (G.) Glyph: ko_t.u horn (Ta.); ko.r. horns (Ko.); kwi.t. horn (To.); ko_d.u horn (Ka.Tu.Pa.); ko_r horn of cattle (Go.)(DEDR 2200). Thus, the orthography of the one-horned bull is made up of: Glyphs: Pannier (kan.t.ha_l.am), rings on neck (gera), one horn (ko_t.u); heifer (ver.ha) Substantives: garn.d.a_lu ‘warrior’, ke.ry ‘street’, kot.e ‘rampart, fort’, ve_la ‘worker’ [i.e. fort-street warrior-worker]. Glyph: ve_l petty ruler, chief, hero (Ta.); be_las king (Kur.)(DEDR 5545). Glyph: bela_ [Dh. Des. beli_ = Skt. stambha a pillar, a support Glyph: bela, the sun, time

m0428At

m0428Bt

1607 Pict- 132: Radiating solar symbol.

On this tablet, the rebus interpretation of the radiating solar symbol can be that it relates to arka (akka) or copper metal. The inscription on the obverse can thus be interpreted as a list of tools made of copper (metal). The two 'man' signs on the inscription may relate to the representation of a (copper-) metal-smith. 5561.Sun: a_r..va_n- the sun (Ta.)(DEDR 396). aru sun (Skt.); yor (Kho.)(CDIAL 612). ravi sun (Mn.Pali.Pkt.); rivi (Si.)(CDIAL 10646). ilaku (ilaki-) to shine, glisten, glitter (Ta.); el sun, light, splendour (Ta.); lustre, splendour, light (Ma.); ilakuka to shine, twinkle (Ma.); ilankuka to shine (Ma.)(DEDR 829). arka flash, ray, sun (RV.); a_k sun (Mth.); akka sun (Pali.Pkt.); aka lightning (Si.); vid-aki lightning flash (Si.Inscr.)(CDIAL 624). aks.an.a_ lightning (Skt.); akkhan.a_ id. (Pali); akan.a, akun.a id., thunder (Si.)(CDIAL 27). pakal sun, the morning sun, day, daytime (Ta.)(DEDR 3805). an:ki sun (Tirukka_l.at. Pu. 30,14); fire; agni (Kantapu. Pa_yira. 53); an:kicuma_li a deity representing the sun, one of the tuva_taca_tittar (Ta.lex.)axrna_ to warm oneself (by the fire, in the sun)(Kur.); awge to expose to the heat of the sun or fire; awgre to bask in the sun, warm oneself to a fire (Malt.)(DEDR 18). 146

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kona_rka is a compound: kona, 'corner'; arka, 'sun'. arka also connotes fire in Skt. Metal: akka, aka (Tadbhava of arka) metal; akka metal (Te.) arka = copper (Skt.) cf. arh, argha a collection of twenty pearls (having the weight of a Dharan.a) VarBr.S.; worth , value , price , Mn. Ya_jn~.; arghya = valuable (Skt.) akka-ca_lai metal works (Cilap. 16,126, Urai); mint; akkaca_laiyar goldsmiths, jewellers (Ta.lex.) 5952a.Workshop of a goldsmith: aka-sa_la, aga-sa_la, aka-sa_liga, aka-sa_le a gold or silversmith; akasa_like the business of a gold or silver smith; akka-sa_le, aka-sa_le the workshop of a goldsmith; a goldsmith; akka-sa_liti a woman of the goldsmith caste (Ka.); akka-c-ca_lai a shop where metals are worked (Ta.)(Ka.lex.) arka connotes the sun and also saturn in Skt. This an equivalence is noticed in Greek manuscripts: "...as Boll discovered, this practice of "correcting" the name of Saturn, from Helios to Kronos, was quite common among later copyists. Based on his reading of the most original Greek manuscripts, Boll drew a startling conclusion: the sun god Helios and the planet-god Saturn were "one and the same god." Now if this only seems to accentuate the puzzle, there is more. Hindu astronomical lore deemed the planet Saturn as Arka, the star "of the sun." And certain wise men of India often asserted that the "true sun" Brahma, the central light of heaven, was none other than Saturn. This in turn, reminds us of a rarely-noted teaching of the alchemists, preservers of so many ancient mysteries. The planet Saturn, they recalled, was not just a planet; it was "the best sun"!" http://www.kronia.com/thoth/thoth10.txt

m0317silver

2016

Silver m1199Acolour 2520 Mohenjo-daro. Copper seal. National Museum, New Delhi. [Source: Page 18, Fig. 8A in: Deo Prakash Sharma, 2000, Harappan seals, sealings and copper tablets, Delhi, National Museum]. h868ABt h869ABt h859At the more frequently occurring sequence of epigraphs; tablets in bas relief.] Kalibangan069A

h859Bt [One of

8109 [Another frequent tablet

epigraph.]

h598A

h598D

5073 [The ligature in-fixed on the

last sign of the second line may be Sign 54

]

h1018copperobject Head of one-horned bull ligatured with a four-pointed star-fish (Gangetic octopus?)

147

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m0297a Head of a one-horned bull attached to an undentified five-point symbol (octopuslike?)

2641

ver.ha_ octopus, said to be found in the Indus (Jat.ki lexicon of A. Jukes, 1900) This may be interpreted as a determinative of the grapheme: 'young bull'. [Could be a phonetic determinant for the substantive delineated by the one-horned heifer-bull, va_hur.o]. The star-fish glyph is viewed as a phonetic determinant of the one-horned animal which is a young male bull calf. The imagery of 'surrounding' is denoted by val.ai to surround (Ta.); val.aiyam ring (Ta.); val.a bracelet (Ta.); bal.e bracelet, hoop (Tu.); val to turn, turn round; valaya bracelet, ring, girdle, circle (Skt.)(CDIAL 11405, 11407; DEDR 5313). cf. val. sharpness, pointedness (Ta.); val.i (knife) to have cutting edge (Pa.); var.s to be sharp (Kond.a)(DEDR 5306). [A phonetic determinant for the substantive delineated by the one-horned heifer-bull, vehar.] va_har., vohur., vehar. young bull (L.); vehir. heifer; va_hr.ka_, vehr.ki_ (L.); vahar., vahir.a_, bahir.a_; vahir., bahir., vahir.i_, bahir.i_ (P.); bahar. young bullock (Ku.); bahar (N.); vahas shoulder of an ox (S;Br.); vaha shoulder of an ox (AV); vahata, vahatu = ox (Skt.); vaha shoulder of an ox (Pkt.); ba (A.); vahad.a calf to be trained (Pkt.); vahur.o young bullock (S.); vahur.i_ heifer (S.)(CDIAL 11459). Pack-bullock: pahur. animal for sacrifice (Santali.lex.) paghaia pack-bullock (Santali.lex.) phe~t.ar. a heifer (Santali. lex.) ka_ma_rkod.ken~ = forge, i.e. artisan’s workshop (Kon.); kod. = artisan’s workshop (which is depicted by a curved horn); hence, va_ura_d.i, va_ura_d.ia_, ‘workman’ (Kon.lex.) kod.ken~ can also be depicted by the kot.ukku, ‘claws’ of a crab. va_ur kar, va_ur = work (Kon.lex.) A phonetic determinant (of the one curved horn, kod.u) very vividly shown on the shoulder of the onehorned bull is a pannier. go~r.e~ = a pannier, a bag slung across a bullock’s back, one on either side (Santali.lex.) gon.d.a, kon.d.a = fire-pit (Kon.lex.) [Associated with vahur., worker of the artisan’s workshop depicted by a one-horned bull: vahur., ‘heifer’; kod. ‘one horn’. The decoding of the one-horned bull and the orthographic ligatures is thus re-inforced: the owner of the seal is a worker of a fire-pit workshop. got.i_ ‘lump of silver’ (G.) god.et = one of the officials of a Santali village; serma god.et = heavenly messenger, angel (Santali.lex.) ko_d.eka_d.u = a young man (Te.lex.) kot.al = watchman (Santali.lex.) kot.t.ika_d.u, ko_t.ika_d.u, kot.ika_d.u = watchman (Te.lex.) va_holo = adze; vahola_ = mattock; bahola_ = a kind of adze (P.lex.) Mattock, adze:bahola_ adze (P.); basulo (N.Ku.< P.); basu_la_ (Bi.); basula_ (Mth.); basola_, basu~_la_ (H.); va_hola mattock (S.); vahola_ mattock (L.)(CDIAL 11588). 7477a.Spade, mattock, hoe: phaur.o a kind of mattock, spade (Ku.); pharuwa_ mattock, hoe (N.); phya_uri long-handled implement for levelling rice-field (N.); pha_ura_, pho~r. spade, hoe (B.); pha_ur.a_ digging hoe (Or.); phahuri, pharuhi_, phar.ua_, phar.uhi_ scraper for making banks of irrigation beds (Bi.); pha_wr.a_, phaur.a_, pharuwa_ mattock, hoe; pharu_ha_ a kind of rake or hoe (H.); pha_vd.a_ large hoe (esp. a wooden one)(M.); pha_vd.i_ wooden hoe-shaped instrument for skimming molasses, large hoe; pha_vd.e~ hoe or scraper (M.)(CDIAL 13839). 148

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Fish

vaguli (Ta.), va_gu (Ka.), baggad.e (Ka.); va_gat.e_ (M.)

vanju = seer fish (Te.) va_holo (S.), bahola_, basula_ (P.), basilo (N.), behalo, behil (WPah.), basulo (Ku.) Stream: vaho_la (Pkt.); va_hur.u = backwater (S.) va_gal.amu, va_gal.l.amu = circular space round a threshing floor (Te.lex.) m0232 2234 'Unicorn' with two horns! "Bull with two long horns (otherwise resembling the 'unicorn')", generally facing the standard. That it is the typical ‘one-horned bull’ is surmised from two ligatures: the pannier on the shoulder and the ring on the neck. Orthography of the one-horned bull (ibex, urus) and the standard device Heifer, pannier, one curved horn, rings on the neck A vivid orthographic determinant of a one-horned bull is the ‘pannier’ which sets the context in which the ligatured animal should be ‘read’ rebus for the ligatured components: heifer, pannier, one curved horn, rings on the neck. Damr.a ‘heifer’; rebus: dammidi ‘a pice, copper’; ta(m)bra ‘copper’; kammarsa_la ‘pannier’; rebus: kamar ‘smith’ + sala ‘workshop’; kod. ‘horn’; kot.iyum a wooden circle put round the neck of an animal (G.) rebus: kod., kod.iyum ‘artisan’s workshop’ (G.) Homograph: kod.a_m shells; kod.i_ a small cowry; kod.um a sea-shell; kod.o a large cowry (G.) Rebus: kod., kod.iyum place where artisans work (G.) Homograph: Ta. kor̤untu tender twig, tendril, tender leaf, shoot, anything young, tenderness; Ka. koḍa tenderness, tender age, youth; Pa. koṛ very young; koṛuŋg new shoot, sprout; koṛc- to sprout; koṛol bride; Ga. (Oll.) koṛal son's wife, younger brother's wife; (S) koḍus-, koḍc- to sprout; (P.) koṛuŋ young shoot. Go. (Tr.) kōṛsānā, kōrsānā to sprout, grow (of trees, plants, etc.); (A. Mu. Ma. S.) koṛs- to sprout ( Voc. 945); (Mu.) koṛk-ila new leaf; (Ko.) koṛi leaf-shoot ( Voc. 934); Pe. koṛiya gāṛ son's wife, younger brother's wife; kṛogi fresh, new (of leaves). Manḍ. kṛugdi id.; Kui koṛgi newly sprouted, green, immature, unripe; koṛgari (pl. koṛgai) new shoot, fresh stalk, something green, immature, or unripe; kōṛu new shoot, fresh stalk, stem, or bud; new, green, immature; kōṛa a shoot, sprout, first sprout (of paddy after planting); kōṛa koḍa to sprout (of paddy); kōna bud; gōṇi sprout, offshoot; Kur. xōr leaf-bud, new leaves, fresh and tender leaves of vegetables; xōrnā (xūryā) to shoot out new leaves; korrā fresh (recently made, prepared, or obtained), pure. Malt. qóro infant, Indian corn when green; qóroce to sprout. Br. xarring to sprout; xarrun green, blue, black and blue; fruitful; xarrunī greenness; wife (DEDR 2149). Skt. kora-, koraka- bud (Turner, CDIAL, no. 3527); kuṇaka- a new-born animal; kuḍaka- child (epic; Burrow, Belvalkar Felicitation Volume, pp. 6 f.; cf. Turner, CDIAL, no. 3245); kuḍmala-, kuṭmala- filled with buds, bud (epic, kāvya; Turner, CDIAL, no. 3250); Turner, CDIAL, no. 3249, *kuḍma- bud. Homograph: WPah.kṭg. kóṭṭhI f. ‘house, quarters, temple treasury, name of a partic. temple’, J. koṭhā m. ‘granary’, koṭhī f. ‘granary, bungalow’; Garh. koṭhu ‘house surrounded by a wall’; Md. koḍi ‘frame’, koři ‘cage’ (X KŌṭṭA—). — with ext.: OP. koṭhārī f. ‘crucible’, P. kuṭhālī f., H. kuṭhārī f.; — Md. koṭari ‘room’. (CDIAL 3546) 149

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Homograph: Ta. koṭi creeper, umbilical cord. Ma. koṭi creeper, what is long and thin, umbilical cord, etc. Ko. koṛy creeper; koc binding (for firewood, etc.) made from plant. To. kwïṛy creeper. Koḍ. koṛi ele betel leaf. Pe. goṛi creeper. Manḍ. kuṛi id. (DEDR 2050). Homograph: Ta. koṛi banner, flag, streamer; kōṛu summit of a hill, peak, mountain; kōṛai mountain; kōṛar peak, summit of a tower; kuvaṛu mountain, hill, peak; kuṛumi summit of a mountain, top of a building, crown of the head, bird's crest, tuft of hair (esp. of men), crown, projecting corners on which a door swings. Ma. koṛi top, extremity, flag, banner, sprout; kōṛu end; kuvaṛu hill, mountain-top; kuṛuma, kuṛumma narrow point, bird's crest, pivot of door used as hinge, lock of hair worn as caste distinction; koṛṛu head of a bone. Ko. koṛy flag on temple; koṛ top tuft of hair (of Kota boy, brahman), crest of bird; kuṛ clitoris. To. kwïṛ tip, nipple, child's back lock of hair. Ka. kuṛi pointed end, point, extreme tip of a creeper, sprout, end, top, flag, banner; guṛi point, flag, banner; kuṛilu sprout, shoot; kōṛu a point, the peak or top of a hill; koṛṛu a point, nipple, crest, gold ornament worn by women in their plaited hair; koṛṛa state of being extreme; koṛṛa-kone the extreme point; (Hav.) koṛi sprout; Koḍ. koṛi top (of mountain, tree, rock, table), rim of pit or tank, flag. Tu. koṛi point, end, extremity, sprout, flag; koṛipuni to bud, germinate; (B-K.) koṛipu, koṛipelů a sprout; koṛirè the top-leaf; koṛṛu cock's comb, peacock's tuft. Te. koṛi tip, top, end or point of a flame; koṛṛa-kona the very end or extremity. Kol. (Kin.) koṛi point. Pa. kūṛor cock's comb. Go. (Tr.) koṛṛī tender tip or shoot of a plant or tree; koṛṛi (S.) end, tip, (Mu.) tip of bow; (A.) koṛi point ( Voc. 891). Malt. qoṛġo comb of a cock; ? qóru the end, the top (as of a tree) (DEDR 2049).

Vikalpa: vahur.o (alt. damr.i), kan.t.a_l.a, kod., kod.iyum: va_kara, ‘soldier’ [alt. tam(b)ra ‘copper’]; kan.t.a_l.a, ‘battle’; kod., ‘artisan’s workshop’. Message: copper (battle weapons) from artisan’s workshop; alt. soldier with weapons from artisan’s workshop. kot.iyum = a wooden circle put round the neck of an animal; kot. = neck (G.lex.) [cf. the orthography of rings on the neck of one-horned young bull]. ko_d.iya, ko_d.e = young bull; ko_d.elu = plump young bull; ko_d.e = a. male as in: ko_d.e du_d.a = bull calf; young, youthful (Te.lex.) ko_d.eka_d.u = a young man (Te.lex.) kot.al = watchman (Santali.lex.) kot.t.ika_d.u, ko_t.ika_d.u, kot.ika_d.u = watchman (Te.lex.) kod. = place where artisans work (G.lex.) kod. = a cow-pen; a cattlepen; a byre (G.lex.) gor.a = a cowshed; a cattleshed; gor.a orak = byre (Santali.lex.) got.ho [Skt. kos.t.ha the inner part] a warehouse; an earthen vessel in wich indigo is stored (G.lex.) kot.t.amu = a stable (Te.lex.) ko_d.i = a kind of flag, an image of garud.a, basava, or other demi-god set upon a long post before a temple; cf. gud.i, temple (Ka.lex.) [Note the flag in front of a procession on an inscribed tablet]. kot.i = a flag (Ta.lex.) ko_d.i_ habba = a certain festival (Ka.); ko_d.adabbu, ko_d.idabbu, ko_d.edabbu = a demon worshipped by Pariahs (Tu.lex.) ko_d. (pl. ko_d.ul) horn (Pa.); ko_t.u (in cmpds. ko_t.t.u-) horn (Ta.); ko.r. (obl. ko.t.-) horns (one horn is kob), half of hair on each side of parting, side in game, line marked out (Ko.); kwi.r. (obl. kwi.t.-) horn (To.); ko_d.u horn (Ka.); ko_r.. horn (Ka.); ko_d.u horn (Tu.); ko_d.u rivulet (Te.); ko_r (pl. ko_rgul) id. (Ga.); ko_r (obl. ko_t-, pl. ko_hk) horn of cattle or wild animals (Go.); ko_r (pl. ko_hk), ko_r.u (pl. 150

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ko_hku) horn (Go.); kogoo a horn (Go.); ko_ju (pl. ko_ska) horn, antler (Kui)(DEDR 2200). Tailless hebuffalo; ox with blunt horns: ku_r..ai that which is short; dwarf snake, calamaridae; ku_r..ai-k-kit.a_, ku_r..ai-k-kat.a_ tailless he-buffalo (Ta.)(DEDR 1914). 1787.Image: horn: ku_t.a any prominence: a horn (Ka.); ko_d.u, ko_r.. a horn of animals; a tusk (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) ko_r.., ko_d.u a horn; ko_r..ke, ko_r..kil., ko_r..kil.im, ko_r..ge id. (Ka.); ko_d.u kut.t.u to strike or gore with the horn or with the tusk (Ka.); ko_d.u a horn of animals; a tusk (Ka.); ko_d.u-vi_sa the allowance of a vis of corn etc. for every bullockload that comes into town etc.; kud.u the state of being crooked, bent (Ka.); kod.u (Ma.)(Ka.lex.) ku_t.a horn, bone of the forehead, prominence (Vedic); prominence, top (Pali.lex.) ku_t.a a horn; an ox whose horns are broken; ku_n.ika_ the horn of any animal (Skt.lex.) sin:ghin horn projecting in front (Santali.lex.) ku_n.ika_ the horn of any animal; ku_t.a bone of the forehead with its projections, the crown of the head; end, corner (Skt.lex.) va_har., vohur., vehar. young bull (L.); vehir. heifer; va_hr.ka_, vehr.ki_ (L.); vahar., vahir.a_, bahir.a_; vahir., bahir., vahir.i_, bahir.i_ (P.); bahar. young bullock (Ku.); bahar (N.); vahas shoulder of an ox (S;Br.); vaha shoulder of an ox (AV); vahata, vahatu = ox (Skt.); vaha shoulder of an ox (Pkt.); ba (A.); vahad.a calf to be trained (Pkt.); vahur.o young bullock (S.); vahur.i_ heifer (S.)(CDIAL 11459).vahu_ = working bullock (L.)(CDIAL 11455). ba_han = draught animal (N.A.B.); va_hana (Pali); va_han.a = driving (Pkt.); ba_han draught or riding animal (Mth.H.)(CDIAL 11610). va_hanika = living by draught animals (Pa_n.gan.a)(CDIAL 11611). va_ha = draught animal (RV)(CDIAL 11607). va_hamu = ox; any beast of burden or draught animal; a horse; drawing, carrying, pulling the shoulder (Te.lex.) va_han.a id. (Pkt.lex.); vaha_n. id. (G.lex.) va_hani_ya = a beast of burden (Skt.lex.) va_kam = va_hana (Skt.)(an animal carrying loads, a conveyance, a carriage, car, chariot, a horse; image of an animal used in temples to carry the idol upon (Te.lex); vahama_na hala bali_varda = bullocks used in ploughing land (LP, IEG); va_hana = load carrier; a cart, ship (LP, IEG) va_hanika = living by (tending or dealing in) draught animals (Skt.lex.) Not a mythical bovine That it is a heifer (and not some mythical bovine) is surmised from (1) a differentiated orthography when compared to an old ox looking down; and (2) an orthographic variant, depicting a bull with two horns which is depicted on Seals m1077 and m0232. Since the semantic accent is on the curved horn, only one horn is shown, kod., ‘artisan’s workshop’.

m1077a 2359 m0232 2234 'Unicorn' with two horns! "Bull with two long horns (otherwise resembling the 'unicorn')", generally facing the standard. That it is the typical ‘one-horned bull’ is surmised from two ligatures: the pannier on the shoulder and the ring on the neck. [The existence of a two-horned ‘unicorn’ provides a reasonable basis to infer and decode the ‘one-horned’ bull as a young heifer.] Out of a total of 2906 inscribed objects (according to Mahadevan concordance), the one-horned, young bull occurs on 1159 objects; on 900 of these objects, the young bull is shown in front of a standard device. If the inscribed objects ‘without texts’ are reckoned, the number of inscribed objects 151

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discovered according to Parpola concordance are 3692: Collections in India: 1537; Collections in Pakistan: 2138; West Asia: 17. The enigmatic orthography of the one-horned bull and the standard device is made further complex by the variety of styles used on inscribed objects. It would, however, appear, consistent with the orthographic patterns on many ligatured signs used for inscriptions, that the two pictorial motifs are also ‘ligatures’. Glyph ligatures Relief of two Big-weather-beasts, UGALLU, a human figure with a lion's head and eagle's feet, guarding the doorway to the North Palace, Nineveh. British Museum, London The North Palace of Asurbanipal had a room which Richard Barnett called the 'Susiana room'. This room had a single entrance and had "reliefs on three walls depicting the assault and capture of the Elamite city of Hamanu (Khamanu) and the exodus of prisoners from it, as well as apotropaic figures in the large recess in the northwest wall. The doorjambs had identical pairs of apotropaic figures. In a Babylonian text about such figures, which F.A.M. Wiggermann called Big-weather-beasts, a person who may have been a conjuration priest is ordered to draw two figures of Big-weather-beasts (UGALLU) on the gate and to invest them with the power to defend the gate against aggressors. The same procedure and the effect may be assumed for the gate in this room of Assurbanipal's palace. In addition, in the lower register under the Big-weather-beasts there was the relief showing a lion-man identified by Wiggermann as an URMAHLULLU, a creature thought to protect lavatories and bathrooms against Shulak, a lion or lioness-demon who haunted such rooms (Babylonian Prophylactic Figures, p. 332)...by eternalizing the effect of the enemies' defeat and misery, they were also expected to influence future events... Cylinder-seal impression of a lion attacking a mountain sheep, Middle Assyrian period. Pierpont Morgan Library, New York "The seals of the fourtheeenth to twelfth centuries BCE in northern Mesopotamia represent the art of the Middle Assyrian period. To appreciate the deSign engraved on a slender stone cylinder, it must be rolled over a flat surface of impressionable material such as Plasticene or some other product that can be hardened by baking. To illustrate how to appreciate a scene on a seal, I have chosen an example that shows a lion menacing a fallen mountain sheep. The heavily muscled lion extends his body to touch the back of the sheep with one paw. He raises the other paw menacingly over his victim's head. A pine tree terminates the scene. A star fills what would otherwise be an empty space, but it may also be a meaningful symbol...The meaning of scenes in which a lion or a hybrid monster attacks a horned game animal, which represent the majority of Middle Assyrian seal deSigns, is unknown. Perhaps they represent battles that were pictured with human soldiers...

152

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Cylinder-seal impression portraying a griffin and lion attacking horned animal, Syro-Mitannian, fifteenth to fourteenth centuries BCE. Pierpont Morgan Library, New York The seals of northern Mesopotamia and Syria in the fifteenth and early fourteenth centuries, the time of the Mitannian Empire, largely manifest a striking abstract style produced by mechanically rotating cutting wheels and drills. Cylinder-seal impression of a king positioned before the sun-god and other deities, Old Babylonian, circa 1800 BCE. Pierpont Morgan Library, New York Eagle, lion Eagle incised on a ceremonial axe made of chlorite. Tepe Yahya. (After Fig. 9.6 in Philip H. Kohl, 2001, opcit.) Eagle incised on the lid of perhaps a compartmented box made of chlorite. Tepe Yahya. (After Fig. 9.7 in Philip H. Kohl, 2001, opcit.) hila a kite (S.); hill, hili (L.); ill kite, a kind of hawk (P.); ill kite, vulture (WPah.)(CDIAL 1593). i_lagradda = a species of vulture (Te.lex.) illala = a species of bird; hilla = a kind of aquatic bird (Skt.lex.) hil = a kite (P.lex.) illi = lion, tiger (Pkt.); i_l a wild animal (H.)(CDIAL 1593). il.a_ a curved instrument for cutting grass (M.) ili_ a kind of weapon, a cudgel or short sword; i_li id. (Skt.); illi_, illiya_ short one-edged sword (Pali); ili_ a sort of sword; illa sickle, harrow (Pkt.); ili cudgel, short sword (B.); il.i dagger, knife; ira_ scythe (Or.); il.i_ a blade set obliquely in a stock for slicing vegetables; il.a_ curved instrument for cutting grass; il.at ploughshare scraper (M.)(CDIAL 1592). i_l.ige (Tbh. of i_lika) a curved instrument for cutting grass (Ka.); il.a_ (M.); a blade set in a stock, used in slitting up vegetables (Ka.); il.i_ (M.)(Ka.lex.) ila_l, ila_li = an iron bowl grated or open-mouthed, containing oil and rolls of cloth, etc.; it is attached to the end of a stick, and kindled upon holidays (Ka.); hila_la (M.)(Ka.lex.) ile, ila_, id.e, ire, il.e, el.e = the earth; ile_s’a = a king; ileya piriya = a bra_hman.a (Ka.lex.) ila = the earth (Te.lex..) ila_val.aya = the circumference of the earth (Ka.lex.) ila_ = earth (Pkt.G.lex. Skt. fr. i_l, i_s. to go, to move (TS 6.4.2.6) bali gitil, gitil bali = grains of magnetic iron resembling sand; gitil = sand; gitlaha ot = sandy soil (Santali.lex.) hila_, hilla_ sand, va_luka_, ba_lu_, reti (Pkt.lex.) illari = a house tax or hearth-tax (Te.lex.) Split, crack hil.a = a crack; hil.i = to crack, to burst, to split; hil.l.e = a small piece of wood or a piece of a stick used in the game of tip-cat (Ka.lex.) id.iyu = to fall to pieces; split, crack; id.upu = a breach, crack, hole 153

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(Te.lex.) illi small hole (as in a pitcher), orifice in the teat; cilli leak, hole, crack (Ta.); cilli-kkuttu a little hole (Ma.); jilli small hole in an earthen vessel (Ka.); cilli small hole as in a pot, paper (Te.)(DEDR 2575). hi_li = a peacock’s tail; pi_li, hilli = a feather of a peacock’s tail; an eye in a peacock’s tail; navila hi_liya kan.n.u (Ka.lex.) kanso il = the first three or four large feathers in the wing of a bird; il = a feather (Santali.lex.) id.a_ (in R.gveda) il.a_, ila = refreshing draught, refreshment, animation, recreation, comfort, vital spirit, RV; AV; AitBr.; offering, libation (especially a holy libation, offered between the Pra-ya_ga and Anu-ya_ga, and consisting of four preparations of milk, poured into a vessel containing water, and then partially drunk by the priest and sacrificers; personified in the cow, the symbol of feeding and nourishment), S’Br. 1.8.1.1; AitBr. (metaphorically) stream or flow of praise and worship (personified as the godess of sacred speech and action, invoked together with Aditi and other deities, but especially in the A_pri_ hymns together with Sarasvati_ and Mahi_ or Bha_rati_), RV; AV; VS; the earth, food, Sa_yan.a; a cow; the godess Id.a_ or Il.a_ (daughter of Manu or of man thinking on and worshipping the gods; she is the wife of Budha and mother of Puru_-ravas; in another aspect she is called Maitra_varun.i_ as daughter of Mitra-Varun.a, two gods who were objects of the highest and most spiritual devotion); name of Durga_; speech, BhP.; heaven; earth, MBh.; id.a_ya_s-pade (il.a_ya_spade), ind. At the place of Il.a_, i.e. of worship and libation, earth, RV; AV; id.a_vas = refreshing, granting fresh vital spirits; possessed of refreshment, refreshed; possessed of sacrificial food (Sa_yan.a), RV; containing the word id.a_, Ta_n.d.yaBr. (Skt.lex.) ili synonym of bod.e = beer brewed with any grains generally cultivated in Chota Nagpur; beer brewed from grains is divided into ar.e-ili, which is simply poured off from the dregs; eipaili, which is squeezed out from the dregs after addition of water; ili = to brew into beer, to brew beer; ili-n rflx. V., to indulge in drinking beer; ili-o to receive beer to drink ilibat.i = a rice beer shop; ili-got. = a gathering for drinking beer, all sitting; ili-arki_ collective noun for all spirituous drinks; ili-mand.i – a banquet (Mundari.lex.) hi_luka = a kind of rum or spirit distilled from molasses (Skt.lex.) i_d.a = a date tree; i_d.ara-va_ru, i_d.iga-va_d.u (CITD), Telugu: a toddy-man or arrack-drawer (IEG). i_d.igeva_d.u = man of the toddy-drawer caste; i_d.iga = the toddy-drawer caste (Te.lex.) Cylinder seal. Akkadian. Enki, water-god with streams of water with fish ; symbols of mountain and eagle; Person standing with bow and arrow with a lion looking up to him. . sen:gel gidi = the male of the Indian king-vulture, ologyps calvus (Santali.lex.) sen:gel = fire; sen:gel kut.ra = a spark of fire, a burning bit of wood; sen:gel ku_n.d. = a heavy fire (Mundari) gitil bali = grains of magnetic iron resembling sand (Santali) sen:gel gidi rebus: sen:gel gitil = (furnace) fire for meteoric iron fragments. san:gil = to look up, raise or throw back the head (Santali); san:gil (Ho.) (Santali.lex.) san:gin = a bayonet (Santali.P.H.) (Santali.lex.)

154

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The ligature on the Nal pot ca 2800 BC (Baluchisan: first settlement in southeastern Baluchistan was in the 4th millennium BC) is extraordinary: an eagle's head is ligatured to the body of a tiger. In BMAC area, the 'eagle' is a recurrent motif on seals. Ute Franke-Vogt: "Different pottery styles link this area also to central and northern Balochistan, and after about 2900/2800 BC to southern Sindh where, at this time, the Indus Civilization took shape. The Nal pottery with its particular geometric and figurative patterns painted in blue, yellow, red and turquoise after firing is among the earliest and most dominanstyles in the south." ugalu or urmahlullu = mythical weather-bird, 'eagle'. [See the pictograph of a lion ligatured with eagle's feet]. Could this connote cassiterite, 'tin-stone' alloy used to harden the bronze axe to make it a battleaxe?

m0464At

m0464Bt

3216

m0465At

m0465Bt

m0466At

m0466Bt

m0467At

m0467Bt

m0468At

m1390At

m0451At

3220

m0468Bt

m1390Bt

m0451Bt

3209 3249

2868 Pict-74: Bird in flight.

3235 h166A, h166B Harappa Seal; Vats 1940, II: Pl. XCI.255.

Two delta; dark eagle engraved on one

seals from Gonur 1 in the Murghab brown stone (Sarianidi 1981 b: 232-233, Fig. 7, 8); face.

Seal impression. Louvre Museum; Luristan; light yellow stone; one side shows four eagles; the eagles hold snakes in their beaks; at the center is a human figure with outstretched limbs; obverse of the seal shows an animal, perhaps a lion striding across the field, with a smaller animal of the same type depicted above it; comparable to the seal found in Harappa, Vats 1940, II: Pl. XCI.255. 155

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BM 22962; Wiseman, opcit, 1962, Pl. 22d; Above: Bull-men crouch beside triple-plant on mountain. Vultures on their backs. Hero and bull-man: In field: snake, scorpion. Below: Bulls bow below eagle: Stag and goat. In field: bird. Wiseman, Cylinder Seals, 21. Lazulite. Glyph of a one-horned bull on a Lydian coin

Map of Ancient Turkey showing the location of Lydia, Cyzicus and Phocaea Drawings of ancient impressions of the cylinder seals of Lugalanda of Lagash, circa 2360 BCE. H. Frankfort, 1939, A documentary essay on the art of cylinder seals. The seal depicts an opposition between the lion and the one-horned bullo; the lion is biting into the neck of the bull. This opposition is explained in the logographs on the early silver coin of Croesus, the King of Lydia. The earliest coins were all made of electrum, an alloy of gold and silver which occurs naturally in some of the rivers of western Turkey, including Pactolus, which ran through Sardes, the capital city of the ancient Lydian kingdom. The electrum coin of the seventh century BCE was a blob of metal distinguished by a single punchmark on one side and a basic pattern often consisting of little more than scratched lines, on the other. The early identifiable designs are animal shapes, including a lion's head, which became the standard badge of the Lydian kingdom, and a seal, known to be the badge of the city of Phocaea. Croesus, King of Lydia was reported to have issued the earliest pure gold and silver coins. One coin has the pictures of the foreparts of a lion and a bull and is dated to a period after the Persian conquest of Lydia in 547 BCE. The Persians issued, by the end of the sixth century, silver sigloi and gold darics (20 sigloi = 1 daric), depicting a royal archer. The cities of Cyzicus and Phocaea continued to issue electrum coins until the fourth century BCE. Mesopotamians began casting and coiling the world's first cash, silver ring money, at least 4,500 years ago. (Courtesy Oriental Institute, University of Chicago); convenient form of cash: pieces of silver cast in standard weights. These were called har in the tablets, translated as "ring" money. At the Oriental Institute, the nine largest coils all bore a triangular ridge, as if they had been cast and then rolled into 156

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spirals while still pliable. The largest coils weighed almost exactly 60 shekels, the smallest from onetwelfth to two and a half shekels. [cf. Skt. sarat, thread; Hindi zari , Tamil carikai = gold or silver thread in textiles; carat.u = twisted thread, cord, twine; 2. a necklet of plaited gold thread (Tamil) Silver rings: moneylike objects [ghanagolaka = alloy of gold and silver (Skt.); ru_pya = formerly in the possession of or possessed by Pa_n. 5-3 , 54; wrought silver or gold (Skt.)] The word, ru_pa (later rupee during British colonial regime) becomes a coin in the Bharatiya tradition. Silver rings and coils from Mesopotamia. After Marvin A. Powell, p. 1489. “There are objects of metal that have been suggested as precursors of coinage. They may have embodied some aspects of later coins. From the Ur III period comes a group of rings of silver to favourites of the king, usually on the occasion of their arrival from a journey. The rings numbered from one to five and weighed between 5 and 10 shekels (between about 40 and 80 grams, or about 1.5 and 3 ounces). We do not, however, see that these rings were used in other ways as money. Their production may have been a convenient way to distribute and to keep silver. “Text references from the Old Akkadian period through the Old Babylonian refer to the casting of precious metals into rings, and it is certain that such objects were used at least for storing the metals and possibly served other functions of money. The Ur III texts about casting show that the ring did not always contain the full weight of the silver that was supposed to go into it, but such objects were weighed when they were exchanged anyway. The ring as a kind of money appears in the old Babylonian period when one of the wheeling-and-dealing priestesses in the northern city of Sippar referred to land she bought as paid for with her ‘ring (money).’ As with the silver rings of Ur III, there does not seem to have been any other use for the items, if in fact silver rings physically existed and the term did not refer to freely disposable spending money (English ‘pin money). After the old Babylonian period there is no further textual evidence of rings used as money. “Other terms continued to be used in ways suggestive of a systematization of exchange. Some silver may have circulated as s’ibirtu (broken) pieces, and beginning with the Middle Babylonian period the term bitqu (a cutting, one-eighth shekel) was used. Other bits were termed nuhhutu (trimmed?) from a verb meaning ‘to trim or clip’; shaving rather than coining may be intended. Some metals were said to have ginnu on them, perhaps a mark indicating weight or purity. (Skt. cinha = token, mark)... “In Old Babylonian Mari and also in the late second millennium at a number of sites there was an exchange of gold and silver cups that may have had a standardized weigh, though exts show that they had to be weighed when they were exchanged. These cups may have had the function of a specialpurpose money. At Mari it is clear that the distinction was made between the actual weight of such actual weight of such objects and their value, which usually was higher. “Two literary texts from Ugarit on the Syrian coast contain comparisons of tears to shekels and to quarters and fifths of shekels, presumably of silver. These references may imply that silver weights were recognizable and had some of the characteristics of later coins. “At Asshur (modern Qala Sharqat) in northern Iraq, leaden ‘roundels,’ little round bits o lead stamped with a decoration on one side only, from the Middle Assyrian period have been found. It has been proposed that they were used as small change in a system approximating coinage. But we do not have 157

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references to them in very large numbers. They may have been more decorations than a means of exchange. “Texts from Neo-Assyria times refer to stamped ingots of bronze that embody fixed, governmentcertified weights and may have served as a means of exchange in very large denominations. When mentioned in actual documents, ingots were usually connected with loans from temples, and they may have been issued with loans from temples, and they may have been issued by the temples. Silver ingots of this period from Zincirli (pronounced Zinjirli) in Turkey have incised or stamped inscriptions reading ‘belonging to Bar-rakkub, son of Panamuwa,’ a king known from other documents. Though the inscription might indicate that the objects belonged to the royal treasury, it might mean that the weighs of the silver were guaranteed by the king. Three such objects are known; they are disks about 9 centimetres (about 3.5 inches) in diameter and weighing, respecively, 497, 450, and 255 grams (17, 16 and 9 ounces), equivalent to about 60, 50 and 30 shekels. The two found in archaeological contexts were in a palace. “Another group of ingots that is nearly contemporaneous comes from Nushi-i Jan, southeast of Hamadan in Iran. It includes silver bars, two of which weigh 12 shekels each (about 100 grams). Though ingots with no inscriptions certainly circulated, the existence of the inscribed variety suggests that one of the advantages of later coinage may have been envisaged, the notion that an official certification in the form of a stamped or incised inscription might reduce the need for weighing. Similar ingots of copper have been found without decipherable stamp impressions, and several stamped ones were found in a ship-wreck from around 1300 BCE off Cape Gelidonya in southern Turkey. These are called oxhide ingots because, to facilitate heir hanging and transport, they were shaped to look like the cured skin of an ox. Since they varied in size and weight, it is unlikely that those ingots formed part of a monetary system... Ingot from Cape Gelidonya, Turkey. After: Institute of Nautical Archaeology, Texas A&M University, College Station. “We can infer that because of their heavy weight and their rarity, none of the ingots, and probably none of the rings, served as a common currency for ordinary people. The ingots may have served as standards of value, as a mode of payment for big purchases, and certainly as stored wealth, but it is unlikely that they were a widespread means of exchange. Had they served as such, we would probably have found many smaller ingots in excavated sites. Even though the ingots cannot be regarded as a form of coinage, it is nevertheless important not to claim that ‘true’ coinage developed only in Greece. Here, as in other areas of cultural endeavour, the Greeks were building on ancient near eastern experience. Coinage was not another ‘Greek miracle’ but a development from earlier practices, and various moneylike objects may have been foreruners. “Metallic exchanges. Metallic exchange and exchanges using other money systems are much better attested. For modern people used to economies that function on a single standard, the variety of media for exchange can be confusing. Metals were imported to Mesopotamia but were available on its periphery, and copper, bronze, gold, and silver were all used as money in the sense at least that they were paid for other things. In most periods the money preference was silver, probably because of its greater variability than gold and, hence, its relatively lower value. “Silver and other metals, were weighed on a scale to determine the amount, and if smaller amounts were needed, the metal block or wire was broken into smaller pieces that were then weighed. Ancient texts do not describe the physical process of weighing, though it is constantly referred to. We derive some of our notion of the process from the etymology of the Akkadian word for silver, kaspum, 158

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meaning ‘the broken thing’; cognate words are found in most of the other Semitic languages, including Biblical Hebrew’s kesep. [kaiyacital = to be broken-hearted, to be disabled]. “Other terms in Akkadian indicate that broken bits of silver were frequently used, and the process of breaking metals and weighing them is widely attested for precoinage eras in many language. Though this process seems cumbersome to people used to dealing with coins, it continued long after coinage was introduced. “For example, an Ur III text shows the purchaser of a slave weighing silver: 1 [man?], his name Itur-i[lum], his price 6 shekels of silver, the supervisor of the house of the godess Inanna weighed out to Lugal-usar, the merchan. (Translation by Piotr Steinkeller, Sale Documents of the Ur-III Period, 1989, pp. 172-173). “During the third millennium BCE, traders from Early Dynastic Shuruppak (Fara) used metals as money; Enkhegal, prince of Lagash-Girsu, used copper and grain; and Uru-inimgina (Urukagina), a later ruler of Lagash-Girsu, required some taxes and fines to be paid in silver. “In the middle of the third millennium BCE, Ebla (modern Tell Mardikh) in northern Syria had huge amounts of silver, which probably indicates that the metal there was used not just as a unit of value but also as a means of payment. The texts appear to distinguish between amounts of silver used as equivalents of goods, and those that were prices; we do not know what that distinction really meant. “In other instances before Sargon of Akkad, grain was used as money, and in the obelisk of Manishtushu, recording that kin’s land purchases, the price was calculated both in grain and in silver. Officials were paid in silver, and even workers sometimes got silver in the Old Akkadian period. Copper was used less and less as money and apparently came to be valued solely for its industrial uses. “In the Ur III period in southern Mesopotamia the government at the city of Lagash-Girsu used barley as a standard to evaluate goods it distributed, but it used silver to pay for gods bought from persons not directly under government control. Rations or salaries were thus paid in grain, and funds, stated in terms of grain, were moved from one government to another. When goods were purchased from private individuals and groups, though, slver was the money of choice. A conversion ratio was conventionally assumed of one shekel (8.33 grams or .3 ounces) of silver being equal to one gur (about 306 litres or 8.5 bushels) of barley; this conversion was a frequently attested price in the period, but it was not the only price. The scribes chose it for its convenience and relative constancy for their internal accounting; by using it, they did not have to refer constantly to the current market price... “In the same period (third millennium) in another southern city, Umma (modern Tell Jokha), silver was used by merchants on government purchasing missions o buy both domestic and foreign products. The merchant overseers recorded the prices in silver boh o goods regarded as capital and of the goods purchased. The capital frequently consisted of grain and other agricultural goods the government produced; the merchants apparently changed it into silver to make their purchases... An Old Akkadian King buys land “A monumental text from about 2260 BCE records the king purchasing land from several families. He paid in grain, the price of which was then calculated in silver, along with miscellaneous objects and articles of clothing. But the latter appear only as part of the additional gift to family members selling fields. The firs section of the text is as follows: 159

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[ ] Manishtushu, the king...bought\ [ 439 iku of land] [its price] [1463.1.2 of barley] [---the price of] [1 shekel of silver] [being 1] measure of barley -its silver (price) is 1.463 1/3 shekels of silver, the price of the field, 219 2/3 shekels of silver, additional payment of the field. (From Ignace Jay Gelb et al., Earliest Land Tenure Systems in the Near East: Ancient Kudurrus. 2 vols., 1991). “The Old Assyrian trade used silver as a money when trading textiles and tin, imported via Elam, for Anatolian silver and gold. The traders were apparently private entrepreneurs who made tremendous profits, usually without government interference... “The ratio between the values of silver and grain continued (upto the first half of the second millennium) to be approximated at one shekel of silver to one gur of grain... “In the Akkadian correspondence preserved at al-Amarna in Egypt, a great deal of exchange is recorded among royal courts of western Asia. Gold was the major commodity Egypt was trading. By then, gold had become the standard of value in international affairs, perhaps due to its increasing availability when Egypt could extract it from deserts east of the Nile and acquire it in tribute and exchange from peoples in Nubia and farther south... A Third-Millennium Merchant’s Account “The merchants of Umma in the Ur III period reported their capital and their purchases, and gave the silver values of each commodity.” An excerpt from one of their texts follows: 79 shekels, 97 grains of silver, balance carried forward of the sixth year of Amar-Suen 630 pounds of wool, its silver worth 69 shekels 50 pounds wool, its silver worth 58 shekels (registered?) the first time 300 pounds KU.GI-wool, its silver worth 30 shekels its loss is 10 shekels via Lu-Enlila 30 gur of dates, it silver 25 shekels Total: 265 shekels, 88 grains of silver It is the capital. Expended from within the above: 89 pounds of a resin, its silver worth 6 shekels, 160 grains 29 1/2 pounds of another resin, its silver worth 2 shekels, 80 grains ...Total 130 shekels: 43 1/2 grains silver. It is what was expended. Remainder 135 shekels, 44 1/2 grains. Balanced account of Ur-Dumuzida, the merchant. (From D.C. Snell, Ledgers and Prices: Early Mesopotamian Merchant Accounts, 1982). 160

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Clay tokens.These clay tokens from Susa, Iran, around 3300 B.C., represent (clockwise from top left): one sheep, one jar of oil, one garment, one measure of metal, a mystery item, one measure of honey, and one garment. (Courtesy Denise Schmandt-Besserat) The world's first coins, made of electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver, were minted in Lydia during the seventh and sixth centuries B.C. (American Numismatic Society) Ephesus, Lydia (time of Gyges (687-652 BCE). The earliest known coin. After N. Angell, The story of money, 1929. One of the glyphs is comparable to a bun-shaped copper ingot found in Lothal. Lydian coins One coin shows an antelope with its head turned backwards comparable to the glyphs which appear on many epigraphs of the Sarasvati Civilization. [Daniel C. Snell, Methods of exchange and coinage in ancient Western Asia, in: Jack M. Sasson, ed., 1995, Civilizations of the ancient Near East, New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, pp. 1487-1497]. Late seventh century BCE Electrum Stater from western Turkey561-547 BCE Silver stater attributed to Croesus, King of Lydia (ca. 560-547 BC) (After Kurt Regling, 1959, Ancient Numismatics, Chicago, Argonaut Inc.)

Opposition between the Lion and the One-horned Bull depicted on early silver coins The opposition beween the lion and the one-horned bull is a representation of ara_ (war, lion); rebus: ara = copper (Akkadian). Damr.i ‘copper, one-eighth of a pice’ (Te. Santali); damr.a = heifer, steer (Santali) Mohenjo-daro. Copper tablet DK 11307 (SC 63.10/262). “To the incunabula of the Harappan script belongs a hitherto unrecognized depiction scratched into a rectangular reddish ‘copper’ tablet on deposit in the Study Collection of the Archaeological Survey o India in Delhi…the tablet did not appear in EJH Mackay’s excavation report of 1938 for Mohenjo-daro… On the obverse the position of the hooves, legs and the drawin gof the shoulders leave little doubt as to the iconography. Two front halves of conjoined bovids point respectively to the left and right. Moreover, flanking this phantastic creature are two ‘altars’ which otherwise only appear in front of the creature depicted on Harappan seals 161

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and copper tablets. The right head is well-preserved. Visible are horns, ears, and vertical stripes, as in the case of the unicorns which appear on Harappan sealstones….Reverse…four signs are intact and legible…” Paul Yule, Bochum, A new copper tablet from Mohenjo-daro (DK 11307) in: Interim Reports Vol. 1: Reports on Field Work carried out at Mohenjo-daro, Pakistain 1982-83 by IsMEO-Aachen University Mission, ed., Michael Jansen and Gunter Urban (Aachen: RWTH-IsMEO, 1984), 69-70]. The copper tablet DK 11307 Mohenjodaro shows conjoined bovids (with 'unicorn' stripes on the face) with two 'altars' in front. Four signs on reverse. (Jansen and Urban, 1987, p. 71). [The stylised pannier on the bovids is an indicator that a 'unicorn' (ibex/urus) is depicted with two horns. The 'altars' may be 'troughs' which normally appear in front of other animal pictorials such as the bison, tiger, elephant or rhinoceros.] Cylinder seal; Louvre, ca. 3000 BCE

The so-called 'royal standard' from a tomb at Ur: a mosaic of shell figures on a background of lapislazuli; height 20 cm. The object is perhaps the sounding-box of a musical instrument. Side 1: victory celebration; the vanquished bring tribute, wild asses, bales of goods, meat and fish; the king wears his sheepskin shirt and sits on his throne; scenes of drinking and rejoicing; agricultural activity.[Note the one-horned bull and ibex] Side 2: top register shows prisoners being led before the king; some are naked, others wear kilts with a zig-zag hemline; the king stands on the ground, towering above the others (primus inter pares); top: infantry soldiers wearing helmets and stiff cloaks march to war with spears and battle-axes; bottom: a 162

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row of four war chariots going into battle; a leading chariot has its wheels rolling over bodies of fallen enemy soldiers; the charioteer and men with light spears ready to hand in quivers. Detail from the Standard of Ur depicting the one-horned bull and other scenes. Sind Ibex (Capra aegagru, Erxleben or Capra hircus, L.);Yellow limestone statue; U 81036; Mohenjodaro Museum (H: 16.5 cm.; L: 22 cm; B: 12.3 cm.) [loc. cit. Jansen and Urban, 1987, p. 67]. Ram's body and the elephant's trunk; SD 1109; Stone statue; Mohenjodaro Museum 430 (H 25.5cm; L: 19.5 cm; B: 13 cm.) Kalibangan: copper bull (ca. 2300 to 1750 BCE, Period II); Pl. XXV, Possehl, ed., 1979, Ancient Cities of the Indus. Mehrgarh; stone bull, Period I, Neolithic (5378+/- 290 and 5182+/-80 BCE); Jarrige, Jean Francois, Towns and Villages of Hill and Plain, in Frontiers of the Indus Civilization, 1984, Fig. 33.3 Inlay of a bull; Tell El-obeid, ca. 3300 BCE Bull-god and godess, Susa, 2nd millennium BCE (Paris) [Note the high quiver holding 5 spears indicating a hieroglyphic semantic link between the bull icon and weapons]. There are ligatured pictorials on the seals and tablets of the Sarasvati Sindhu civilization depicting a horned person with hoofs and tail. Image of the Ishtar gate. From the Babylon of Nebuchadnezzar Dr. Koldewey recovered the erected in the horned bull.

magnificent Ishtar Gate. It has been restored and Berlin Museum. Note the depiction of the one-

One-horned bulls. Terracotta figures from Chanhujo-daro. The representation of this animal continued till early historic period in Central Asian art. [Source: Page 22, Fig. 11B in: Deo Prakash Sharma, 2000, Harappan seals, sealings and copper tablets, Delhi, National Museum].

White limestone statue fragment from Susa, possibly representing the god Napirisha, patron deity of Untash-Napirisha. (Sb 67 = Pl. 7.4) Detail of the inscribed forearm of Sb 67. Musee du Louvre, Antiquites Orientales The statute of, or commissioned by, Untash-Napirisha are thought to have been brought to Susa by the later Middle Elamite III ruler Shutruk-Nahhunte, who says in one of his inscriptions, ‘I (am) Shutruk-Nahhunte, son of Hallutush-Inshushinak (the beloved servant) of (the god Inshushinak). I removed the statues which Untash-Napirisha had placed in the siyankuk when 163

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Inshushinak, my god, demanded it of me, and at Susa dedicated them to Inshushinak, my god’ (Konig 1965: 75-6, #21). “The siyan-kuk where Untash-Napirisha originally displayed these works was at Al Untash-Napirisha, modern Choga Zanbil, an entirely new city founded by the king approximately 40 km. Southeast of Susa.” [cf. Amiet 1973a: 18, Spycker 1981: Fig. 75, p.307; Pl. 7.4 and 7.5 and Fig. 7.5 in: DT Potts, 1999; F. Vallat, 1988, Legendes elamites de fragments de statues d’Untas’-Napiris’a et Tchogha Zanbil, IrAnt 23, 169-77] One-horn motif on Mideast bulls (bos primigenius). A relief of a hunting scene at King Ashurnasipal’s palace. Nimrud. [After Fig. 21.1 in: Caroline Grigson, Some thoughts on unicorns and other cattle depicted at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, in: Bridget Allchin, 1984, South Asian Archaeology 1981, Cambridge University Press]. A Babylonian seed-drill; from a Kassite seal impression. University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. That one-horn on the bull is an artistic style is apparent from this seal impression and a similar style is apparent in many inscribed objects of SSVC depicting the onehorned bull.

One-horned heifer (damr.a), artisan’s workshop

Ligaturing components of the composite motif:

Heifer (steer), pannier, rings (on neck), one horn: damr.a, pakha_l, kan.d.hli_ (kot.iyum), kod.

Artisan’s workshop for: copper, steel, beads: ta_mbra, paghal, kandl, kod. (kod.iyum) damr.a ‘heifer, steer’; ta_mbra ‘copper’ go~r.e~ a pannier, a bag slung across a bullock’s back, one on either side (Santali) gote, gotle wry, oblique (Santali) got.i_ ‘lump of silver’ (G.) Glyph: pakha_l (Skt. payah, water + khala, skin] a double water-skin carried on a bullock [Ligaturing element, hence, rebus substantive: paghal ‘steel’.] Glyph: kan.t.hla_ (H.) kan.d.hli_ (P.) = ring round the neck; necklace of beads(See the rings on the neck of the bull) kot.iyum a wooden circle put round the neck of an animal (G.) Substantive: kan.d.hli_ (P.) = necklace of beads kandi = necklace, beads; kandl = beads (Ga.) kod. ‘horn’; kod. ‘artisan’s workshop’; kod.iyum, kod. place where artisan’s work (G.) A characteristic ligature on a one-horned heifer is the pannier. 164

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Glyph: pakha_l (Skt. payah, water + khala, skin] a double water-skin carried on a bullock; pakha_la_, pakha_laci_ = the driver of a bullock carrying a pakha_l, a water-carrier (G.lex.) [Note the accent on the pannier ligatured to the one-horned bull-heifer]. paghaia d.an:gra a pack bullock (Santali) [Note the pannier on a one-horned bull]. pakka_l.i ma_t.u ‘water-carrier bullock’ (Ta.) Substantive: paghal = steel; paghal me~r.he~t lagaoatinme t.an:ga dharre = apply some steel to the edge of my axe (Santali); pagha_l (H.)(Santali.lex.Bodding) pa_kala = quite black (TS.)(CDIAl 8024). paghal pig-iron (Santali.lex.) Thus, the ligatured heifer + pannier connotes two minerals: ta_mbra (copper) (glyph: damr.a ‘heifer, steer’) + paghal (steel)(glyph: pakha_l ‘pannier’) pagela_ a harmless snake (Ka.); pagele a kind of harmless snake (Tu.)(DEDR 3809). [Ligaturing element in a composite animal; hence, rebus substantive: paghal ‘steel’.] pagal.i, pagari arrow, dart (Tu.); pakar..i arrow (Ta.Ma.)(DEDR 3806). pagad.e = a die (or cowry) for playing; a kind of back-gammon; a mark on a die (Ka.); pagad.a_ (M.); pakat.ai (Ta.); pagad.e, pagid.e (M.); pagad.e = an ace on a die (Ka.lex.) pagad.a = one (at dice), an ace; same as pad.aga (a snake’s crest or hood; a flag, a banner (Te.lex.) pagad.amu = coral (Te.lex.) pa_gad.amu = a silver ornament worn by women round the ankle (Te.lex.) pan:gat.i = forked, bifurcated, bifurcate, pronged, placed wide apart; pan:gat.i ka_l.l.u = widely separated legs, bandy legs (Te.lex.) pa_gal, pa_gara, pa_gala, pa_ga_ra (Tbh. of pra_ka_ra) = an encircling wall, a surrounding wall elevated on a mound of earth, a rampart, a fence, an enclosure (Ka.lex.) [Note the glyph of an enclosure ligatured with a wide-mouthed pot]. pagad.e = a tree, frequently cultivated, mimusops elengi (Ka.); pogad.e (Ka.Te.); a small tree, wild and cultivated, nyctanthes arbor tristis (Ka.Te.)(Ka.lex.) bali iron stone sand, iron ore (Santali) bali bullock (Skt.) damr.a a steer, a heifer (Santali) ta_mbra copper (Ka.); damr.i, dambr.i one eighth of a pice (Santali) damd.i_, damd.o lowest copper coin (G.) ta_mbad.a copper plate; ta_mbad.i_, ta_mbad.o a copper pot; ta_mbum copper (G.) Thus, another animal may be ligatured to indicate another types of mineral treated in the furnace/hearth: melukka ‘copper’; melh ‘goat or antelope’ Amri06 Ligatured animal san:gad.i = joined animals (M.) sagad.i_, saghad.i_ a pan to hold live coal or embers; a fire-pan; a portable iron grate (G.) san:gha_d.iyo worker on a lathe; san:gha_d.o a lathe (G.) 165

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The zebu bull is a unique case since it connotes native metal: aduru ‘native metal’; adra ‘bra_hman.i bull’ Glyph: vahur.o young bullock (S.); vohur. heifer (L.); vahar., vahir. heifer (P.);(CDIAL 11459). paghaia d.an:gra a pack bullock (Santali) berga small of stature, undersized, as an ox; berga d.an:gra okaenae? Where is the undersized ox? (Santali.) Substantive (trader) [begri lapidary (H.)] vahoro, vohharo: vahoro, voro (Hem. Des. vohharo = Skt. ma_gadha a mixed tribe, a bard) a trader, a bora_; an individual of a particular sect of Indian Muhammadans (G.) vaha_n.a a ship, a vessel; vaha_n.avat.i_ a merchant who carries his merchandise in ships to a foreign country; a great merchant (G.) vahivat. Business, traffic; vaheva_r transaction, dealings; vaheva_riyo a dealer; a man of credit (G.) Glyph: vaheravum to saw (wood); to cut timber with a saw; vahera sawdust (G.) veggal.a, veggal.e, eggal.a, heggal.a a great man (Ka.); veggali~_d.u a great or extraordinary man (DEDR 5467) Substantive: garn.d.a_lu a stalwart man, giant (Kod.); gan.d.a~_d.u a brave, strong man (Te.); gan.d.i_ra, gan.d.a hero (Skt.); gan.d.a a strong, manly male person (Ka.); gan.d. male (Ko.); kan.t.anwarrior (Ta.); gan.d.u manliness (Ka.)EDR 1173) Glyph: kan.t.ha_li a bag having opening in the middle (M.); kan.t.a_l.am traveling sack placed on a bullock, pack-saddle (Ta.); kan.t.a_l.a, kan.t.le double bag carried across a beast (Ka.); kan.t.alamu, kan.t.lamu bullock-load consisting of two bags filled with goods (Te.)(DEDR 1174). kan.t.ha_l. a doublesack (G.) Place where artisans work, lump of silver The one-horned bull is shown with rings on the neck. Substantiv: kod., kod.iyum, kahod.iyum the place where artisans work; a cow-pen; a cattlepen, a byre; (G.) kahod.a fr. Skt. gos.t.ha fr. go a cow + stha_ to stand], kod.a, kahod.a a cow-pen (G.) got., got.h the place where the village cattle rest at mid-day (Santali); got.hao to collect cattle together for their mid-day rest; ad.a id., a group, a herd; gor.a a cow-shed, a cattle-shed; gai gor.a a cow-shed (Santali) got.ho a cattle-yard, particularly for cow kind; got.ho a nest (G.) go.t. wall (Ko.); ko.t. castle (Ko.)(DEDR 2207). Cf. kole.l smithy, temple in Kota village (Ko.); kolmi smithy (Go.)(DEDR 2133). [There seems to be an elongation of the vowel o and replacement of d. with l in Tamil, Telugu and Kannada. Other examples are cited in this section.] got.i_ a lump of silver (G.); god. a boil, a tumour (G.) kuro silver (Kol.)(DEDR 1782). got.hiyo a male companion or friend (G.) gor.o to assist, to accompany; kami gor.o to assist in work (Santali) god.i_, gaud.i_ a magician, a juggler, a Bengali gaud. (G.) gond.a man of Gond tribe (Kol.); go_nd. (Pe.); go_nd.a (Kui); gon.d.a a man of low tribe (in the Vindhya mountains), a mountaineer (Skt.); a forest, jungle (Pkt.)(DEDR 2077; CDIAL 4276).

166

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Substantive: gon.d.a out-lying hamlets of a village, suburbs of a town; out-lying fields of a village; ga~ gon.d.ape dar.ana you visit villages and their outlying hamlets; ga~o gon.d.a villages and hamlets (Santali) Glyph: gon.d.a a set of four (Santali) Glyph: go~r.e~ a pannier, a bag slung across a bullock’s back, one on either side (Santali) xon.d.xa_, xo~_r.xa_ deep; a pit, abyss (Kur.); qond.e deep, low lands (Malt.)(DEDR 2082). Cf. kol.l.a a deep place, a depth, the cleft in a rock, a cave (Ka.); kolame a very deep pit, abyss, hell (Tu.)(DEDR 2157). got.h, got.hd.i_ a secret and confidential talk (G.) 1330 zebu bull field symbol [This inscription starts with a sign (right-most sign on the inscription, read from right to left) which is a variant of the 'roof or canopy or chariot-box' pictograph included in Sign 393; on the roof is a 'flag?' (dhvaja or a synonym). Heifer, vahar., ‘a helper’ of the smithy, kod. vahar., vahir. heifer (P.); vahur.o young bullock (S.)(CDIAL 11459). paghaia d.an:gra a pack bullock (Santali.lex.) bal.ada (G.); baled = herd of bullocks (L.) Bull vayilo (Hem.Des.); bel (G.); waihra_, wair.ka_ = bull calf (P.) va_hr.ka_, vehr.ki_; vehir., vehar., va_har., vohur. = young bull, heifer (L.); vehr.ki_ = heifer (L.); vahar. , vahir.a_, bahir.a_ (P.); bahar. = young bullock (Ku.) High, crooked horn(s) ara_la = crooked (TS); ara_d.yau divyau (S'Br.); ara_d.ya (KS. v.10.1) ara_lam (Ta.) ra_d.i = battle (Pkt.) va_huru_ helper (S.); va_har, vahar crowd of people, help (P.); va_ha_ra help (OG.); vaha_r, vha_r, va_r help (G.)(CDIAL 12217). va_ura_d.i, va_ura_d.ia_, ‘workman’ (Kon.lex.) kod.ken~ can also be depicted by the kot.ukku, ‘claws’ of a crab. va_ur kar, va_ur = work (Kon.lex.) Uruk IV. Seal and sealing. Cylinder seal with loop at the top shows the king with a netted skirt; the attendant behind the king has branches to supplement the king's offerings to two rows of animals. Ht. 63 mm (seal 46 mm), dia. 37 mm. New Haven, Yale Babylonian Collection (See B. Buchanan, Early Near Eastern Seals in the Yale Babylonian Collection, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1981), no. 134. In the early 3rd millennium BCE, the Sumerians suddenly switched to the Persian Gulf trade for copper. A text from Ur, dated to the reign of Rim-Sin of Larsa (1822-1763 BCE), recorded the receipt of copper in Dilmun (perhaps from Magan), which weighed, according to the standard of Ur, 18333 kilograms. One-third of this copper was earmarked for delivery to Ea-nasir of Ur, a merchant with close copper trade contacts with Dilmun and Magan. The logographs on this cylinder seal are comparable to the logographs on Harappan inscriptions. va_karan- = warrior (Ta.lex.) vahatu = a bridal procession (to the husband’s house) 167

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nuptial ceremony (RV.AV.AitBr.); pl. the objects bride’s dowry (TBr.)(Skt.lex.)(CDIAL 11455) va_hini_ = an army, host, body of forces particular division of an army (consisting 81 elephants, 81 cars, 243 horses, 405

constituting a

(AV.MBh.); a of 3 gan.as, i.e. foot (Skt.lex.)

kun.d.i-a = village headman; kun.d.i_ = waterpot Spoked wheel glyph on the neck of (1) ) a lion ; and (2) bull

a one-horned

Ligaturing a glyph depicting a nave of a spoked wheel occurs in a bronze plaque from Haft Tepe: "…a deity, possibly the god Nergal…standing on the back of a lion with a nude female kneeling in front of him and a praying figure behind him." The person is carrying a bow on his left hand, wearing a horned hat and a saw (ara_?) on his right hand. The lion has a six-spoked wheel inscribed on its shoulder. The pictorial motif of a six-spoked wheel is paralleled on SSVC inscribed objects. On one seal, the spokedwheel (ara_?) is inscribed on the neck of the one-horned bull. ara_ is a lion in Akkadian. [After EO Negahban, 1990, The Haft Tepe bronze plaque: an example of Middle Elamite art, in: F. Vallat, ed., 1990, Melanges Jean Perrot, Paris, Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 137-42; EO Negahban, 1991, Excavations at Haft Tepe, Iran, Philadelphia: University Museum Monograph 70: III.48; D.T. Potts, 1999, The Archaeology of Elam, Cambridge University Press, p. 200] The texts from Haft Tepe temple complex (Table 7.2 in DT Potts, 1999) refer to accounts of silver paid for bracelets, of silver and gold, commodities such as flour, linen, chariot parts, lapis lazuli, bronze, armour plates, belts, weights of talents and minas; reference to guards and funerary offerings. A similar ligature occurs on a Mohenjodaro seal, m0712: m0712

1091 Note Sign391

ligatured on the animal’s neck.

The ‘one-horned’ bull with two horns and two heads ligatured to the body of a bull! bal.ad = an ox; a bullock; a bull (G.lex.) baredi_ = herdsman (H.); baldi_ = oxherd (P.); baldiya_ cattle-dealer (Ku.)(CDIAL 9177). balivarda = ox, bull (TBr.); baleda_, baled = herd of bullocks (L.); baledo (S.); bald, baldh, balhd = ox; baled, baleda_ = herd of oxen (P.); bahld, bale_d = ox (P.); balad, bald = ox (Ku.); barad (N.); balad(h) (A.); balad (B.); bal.ada (Or.); barad(h) (Bi.); barad (Mth.); barad (Bhoj.);. bardhu (Aw.); balad, barad(h), bardha_ (whence baladna_ to bull a cow (H.); bal.ad (G.)(CDIAL 9176). Cf. Naha_li_ baddi_ = ox ; pa_d.o_ = bull (Sikalga_ri_, mixed Gypsy language.)(CDIAL 9176). pa_r-al = bull (Ta.)(DEDR 4020). bare itat = a bullock given at marriage by bridegroom to bride’s brothers (Santali.lex.) baro barabbar = opposite, face to face; baro, baron. = provisions, food rations, supplies (P.lex.) barotwa_la_ = a partner (K.)(P.lex.) Steatite ornament, a pectoral with just one ligatured sign An alternative view from Huntington archive. Scan Number: 0052393 http://tinyurl.com/2y3rcd m1656 168

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Steatite ornament. On this pectoral, a pot is depicted as overflowing in two streams. [The standard device in front of the bull will be analysed in a separate section.] The depressed edge of the pectoral indicates that the object could have been encased in metal and worn like a pendant on a necklace. The dominant orthographic features of this pectoral which can be interpreted as an inscribed object are: One-horned heifer, young bull with a pannier on the shoulder and ligatured with a single, curving horn, with rings on the neck An over-flowing pot shown on top of the heifer bull A standard device in front of the heifer bull Each of these pictorial motifs can be elaborated using lexemes of Proto-Indo-Aryan languages and using the rebus method of decoding (i.e. the use of pictures to denote similar sounding, substantive words). bharat. bharat., bar. bhar. = to issue uninterruptedly, to come away continuously (Santali.lex.) bharati_ = the flux of the ocean; the tide (G.M.lex.) bharn.d.o = a whirlwind (Santali.lex.) bharta, bharti, bharata = the high tide, flow (Tu.lex.) bharad.avum = to scribble; to scrawl; to write in paste (G.lex.) bharia = stick with slings at each end in which anything to be carried is placed, carried over one shoulder (Santali.lex.) bha_rayas.t.i = bearer of a ka_vad.i (Te.lex.); bharakud.u, bharat.ud.u = a porter, a servant (Te.lex.) bharia_ (Mth.); bha_ria_ (Or.); bha_ri (A.B.); bhariya_ (N.); bha_ri_ porter (Ku.)(CDIAL 9464). bha_rakud.u = one who carries a load; bha_rava_hud.u = id., a porter (Te.lex.) bha_rat.iyo, bha_ro, bha_rat.iyum, bha_ravat.iyo = a beam; bha_ra, bha_ro = a load, a burden (G.lex.) bharad.o = cross-beam in the roof of a house (G.lex.) bha_rat.iyum, bha_rvat.iyo, bha_rot.iyo = a beam (G.lex.) ba_ri = bamboo splits fastened lengthwise to the rafters of a roof from both sides (Tu.lex.) ba_rapat.t.e = chief beam lying on pillars (Te.lex.) bharata = casting metals in moulds; bharatiyo = a caster of metals; a brazier; bharatar, bharatal, bharatal. = adj. Moulded; an article made in a mould; cf. bharavum = to fill (G.lex.) bha_ravum = to keep live coals, buried in the ashes (G.lex.) ?furnace. Suffixed o-grade form *gwhor-no-. a. fornax, furnace, hornito, from Latin furnus, fornus, forna_x, oven; *gwhr-. a. burn from Old English beornan, byrnan (intransitive) and bærnan (transitive), to burn; ?forge. Middle English, from Old French, from Vulgar Latin *faurga, from Latin fabrica, from faber, worker. ?hearth. Middle English herth, from Old English heorth. bharata = a factitious metal compounded of copper, pewter, tin etc.; green carbonate of lime (M.lex.) barad., barhat. = rough; not hard; brittle (G.lex.) bharata = fire in which the rice for bra_haman-s is boiled; name of Rudra (the Maruts are called his sons: RV 2.36.8); name of an A_ditya: Nir. 8.13); name of Agni (kept alive by the care of men)(RV); of a particular Agni (father of Bharata and Bharati_)(MBh.); a priest (r.tvij: Naigh. 3.18)(Skt.lex.) bharta = a method of cooking fish, mushrooms and vegetables by 169

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wrapping up in leaves and roasting in ashes (Santali.lex.) bara_t.a = a kind of firework (Tu.lex.) bharta = bake in live coals (Santali); bharta (Desi)(Santali.lex.) bharan.yu = fire (Skt.lex.) bhat.hia_r, bhat.ia_la_ grainparcher’s shop (P.))(CDIAL 9658). bhart-i_ya_ = a barzier, worker in metal (Gujarati.) vara_ha = boar (Skt.) bara_ha, barha_, ba_riha_, ba_ria_ boar (Or.); ba_ra_h (H.); vara_ (Si.); vara_ha wild boar (Pali.Pkt.RV.); vara_hu (RV.); bara_ boar (A.B.); sow, pig (A.)(CDIAL 11325). Vara_hamu_la name of a place in Kashmir (Ra_jat.); warahmul = a town at west end of the valey of Kashmir (K.)(CDIAL 11326). varaha (Tadbhava of vara_ha), varaha_, vara_ a boar, a hog; a gold coin with a boar-stamp, a pagoda (Ka.); ora, oraha boar (Tadbhava of varaha)(Ka.)(Ka.lex.) varaha_, varaha_si, vara_ boar, hog (Te.); vara_kan- (Ta.); vara_ha (Ma.); varaha_-kat.t.u a brush made of hog's bristle (Ka.); vara_kat.t.e (Te.); vara_ha a boar, a hog; the third or boar-incarnation of Vis.n.u; vara_ha-timmappa the Venkat.araman.a of Tirupati (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) vara_kam boar, swine (Tiruva_ca. 30); the boar-incarnation of Vis.n.u, one of taca_vata_ram; vara_kan- id.; pagoda, a gold coin = 3 1/2 rupees, as bearing the image of a boar; arhat; vara_kan-et.ai weight of a pagoda, a unit of weight = 5/16 rupee = 54 gms. (Ta.lex.) bir sukri the wild pig, sus indicus (Santali.lex.) a_ru hog (Skt.); airia_s. (Dm.)(CDIAL 1321). vara_ki va_ra_ki, a divine energy (Tiruppu. 179); vajra-vara_hi a godess worshipped by the Jains (Ta.lex.) Rebus: [bhar an oven; bharan to spread or bring out from a kiln (P.lex.) bhaha_ra_, bhaha_ri_ little earthen furnace (P.)(CDIAL 9482). bari_ ‘blacksmith, artisan (Ashmolean)(CDIAL 9464). bha_r grain-parcher’s fireplace (Bi.); bharsa_ri_ furnace, oven (Hindi)(CDIAL 9685).] The term, bharan, evokes two semantic interpretations: 1) an asterism represented by pudendum muliebre and ‘bearing in the womb’; 2) act of filling as in creating mixed alloys.A semant. Expansion occurs in the following lexemes: bhart = a mixed metal of copper and lead; bhart-i_ya_ = a barzier, worker in metal; bhat., bhra_s.t.ra = oven, furnace; bari_ = blacksmith; bha_ran. = to bring out from a kiln bharan.i_ 7th asterism (figured by pudendum muliebre)(AV.); bharan.a bearing in womb (RV.); bhara carrying, booty (RV.)[bhr. bear] Mixed Alloys or bharan To make agricultural implements and utensils carpenter’s tools or weapons are referred to: svadhiti (RV 3.8.6); va_s’i_ (RV 10.53.10; 101; 10); paras’u (RV 1.30.4; 3.53.22; 6.3.4; 7.104.21; 10.28.8). The tools and weapons were made of as’man (stone) and ayas (metal). Ja_taka teles refer to 18 guilds of workers and to work of metalsmith who manufactures agricultural implements, weapons of war in various metals like copper, brass, bronze and iron. [RL Mehta, 1939, Pre-Buddhist India, Bombay, p. 199; cf. Cowell, FB, ed., Ja_takas, I, p. 343; III, p.93; IV, p. 105; V, p.282]. Jaina Pras’na Vya_karan.a lists 18 guilds which includes bronze-smiths (Ka_m.syaka_ra) (Pras’na Vya_karan.a, pp. 193-194). Jaina texts describe the processes used by a metalsmith: smelting of ore, forging and casting techniques. [JC Sikdar, 1964, Studies in the Bhagavati Sutra, Muzaffarpur, p. 268; JC Sikdar, 1947, Jaina Canon, Bombay, p. 187). Pa_n.ini refers to the tools and implements made of copper and other metals used by a metal smith. [Pa_n.ini’s As.t.a_dhya_yi, 2nd edn., Varanasi, 1963, p. 234]. Patan~jali comments on Pa_n.ini’s su_tra (ji_vika_rthe ca_pan.ye: v.3) in Maha_bha_s.ya and notes that Mauryas had made images of Gods for obtaining gold. This may be a reference to metal images. (Kielhorn, ed., Mah_bha_s.ya, vol. II, Bombay, 1906, p. 429]. Pa_n.ini uses the term lohita_yasa (5.4.94) for copper. "...the question arises that if ayas stood for copper in R.gvedic times why it was called lohayas during the later Vedic age. The answer lies in the semantic changes of the word ayas resulting from the technological developments in the society. In early Vedic age metallurgy was in its primitive stage and varieties of baser metal were not known. The words hiran.ya and rajata denoted precious metals and ayasa denoted baser metals. Thus theoretically ayas was a general name for baser metal. But as 170

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copper was the popular metal for use, ayas practically meant copper. By later Vedic age when other varieties of baser metal such as iron, tin, and lead came to be known, the copper was called lohayas in order to distinguish it from other metals. As bronze was a mixed metal, combining both copper and tin and having a distinct colour, it was probably simply called ayas during the later vedic times. This is suggested by a passage of Va_jasneyi Sam.hita_ (XVIII.13) where ayas has been mentioned in contrast with hiran.ya, loha, s'ya_ma, si_sa and trapu. Such semantic changes are not strange because we know that the word loha which definitely stood for copper during the later Vedic age became popular name for iron in historical times." (DN Tripathi, 'Ayas' in the R.gveda--A note, in: Vibha Tripathi, 1998, Archaeometallurgy in India, Delhi, Sharada Publishing House, pp. 347-348). Loha may be interpreted as copper because of the red colour associated with it. [cf. Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_ 4.7.5; Keith 1914, I: 381; Weber 1871: 404]. Si_sa and trapu connote lead and tin in Atharva Veda (Si_sa: AV 12.2.1, 20; trapu: AV 11.3.8). In Atharva Veda, both loha and ta_mra are used. (AV 11.3.7-8; Griffith 1896, II:61; Whitney 1905, II:61; Roth and Whitney 1924: 247). Atharva Veda (AV 18.3.17) uses the term, kasye, to denote bell metal or bronze; this is apparently concordant with the lexeme, kam.sa (Skt.) Tin is called taua, zinc is jasada and lead is sisaga in Jaina literature (Jain, 1947). Cilppatika_ram (V.24-39; VRR Dikshitar, 1939, The Silappadikaram, Milford: 111) mentions coppersmiths of Puha_r city; and furnaces for metal smelting, copper and bronze workers in Madura (Dikshitar 1939: 206). Pali rendering of trapu is tipu (Vinaya, Parrivara Patha VI.2). Bharant (lit. bearing) is used in the plural in Pan~cavim.s’a Bra_hman.a (18.10.8). Sa_yan.a interprets this as ‘the warrior caste’ (bharata_m – bharan.am kurvata_m ks.atriya_n.a_m). Weber notes this as a reference to the Bharata-s. (Indische Studien, 10.28.n.2) In the Punjab, the mixed alloys were generally called, bharat (5 copper, 4 zinc and 1 tin). In Bengal, an alloy called bharan or toul was created by adding some brass or zinc into pure bronze. Sometimes lead was added to make it soft. Substantive: basla ‘a small adze’ (Santali) Glyph: basla ‘a fish’ (Santali) m0477At 2844

m0477Bt

m0477Ct

Two rhinoceroses, one at either end of the text (Pict-29).

Swedish Bronze Helmet Plate Matrix Depicting Warrior with Boar-Crested Helmet. 8th Cent. kat.akam (Ta.)(IL 1519)

metal helmet

khad.ga = rhinoceros, boar (Skt.lex.) khad.aga ‘a rhinoceros’ horn’ (G.) Boar's tusk; kha~_g (H.) kha_g (B.H.Ku.N.); khagga = rhinoceros (Pali.Pkt.) khagaha_ (OAw.) khagauto = bowl made of rhinoceros horn or hide used in offering water to the manes (N.) gan.d.a garur. ‘Boar, rhinoceros’ (Santali); karu, garu, karavi a mould (Tu.); garra form, mint (Kuwi)(DEDR 1280). kat.uvan-pan-r-i boar (Ta.)(DEDR 1140) ka_n.t.a_mirukam boar (Ta.) kholaka = helmet (Skt.lex.) [koli-sarpa, name of a degraded warrior-tribe (MBh. 13.2104; Hariv. 782: kolispars'a); a kind of weapon (Skt.lex.) cf. kol, kolhe = the Koles, an aboriginal tribe of iron smelters speaking a language akin to that of the Santals (Santali.lex.) kho_la = a kind of hat; helmet (Skt.); kur cap (Kt.); kereti (Avestan); wol.ik (Pr.); kho_lat.a_ 171

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(Pas'.); xolat.ek cap (Pas'.); khu (Kal.); khoi pointed cap (Kho.); kho_i (Sh.); khol. hooded cloak (M.); holu cloth cap covering the cheeks, helmet (S.); xo_l (Psht.)(CDIAL 3942). cf. khol covering (Ku.); sheath (N.B.H.)(CDIAL 3944). kola = boar (Skt.lex.) kola = a hog (Ya~jn~. 3.273); name of a degraded warrior-tribe (Skt.lex.) Corrupted from krod.a, a hog, chest; krod.a_sya, having a snout like a hog? (Hala_yudha 2.71: kola = hog). cf. kul = the tiger (Santali.lex.) kro_d.a breast, bosom (AV); kor.i_ breast of a quadruped (L.); koli_ chest of an animal (L.)(CDIAL 3607).

Kalibangan039

8011

m446At

m446Bt

2854

Glyph: t.akkiyam, t.akkayam, it.akkiyam flag, swallo-tail banner, standard hoised on a car (Ta.); t.akke, t.ekke, t.ekkeya, t.heke banner, standard (Ka.); t.ekkemu, t.ekkiyamu flag, banner (Te.)(DEDR 2938). d.en:kan.i, d.en:kan.a, d.hen:kan.i = the flag-staff (with or without its flag) on the bastion of a fort (Ka.lex.) Substantive: dak ‘possessions, occupancy’. The two signs on line 1 of text 8011: coppers (pot.h, put.hia) + trapu ‘tin’. The sign connoting ‘tin’ appears on a tin ingot from a marine archaeological find, perhaps from Crete.

m447At m0573At

m447Bt

m0573Bt

3415

Glyph: tapu ‘to overflow as water’ (Santali) Substantive: trapu ‘tin’ (Skt.) Glyph: kan.d.a ‘waterpot’ (Santali) Substantive: kan.d. ‘furnace’ (Santali) vahoro ‘trader’ vahur.o ‘heifer’ Backbone , caster of metals, devotee Substantive: bharatiyo a caster of metals; a brazier; bharata casting metals in moulds; bharatara, bharatala, bharatal.a adj. moulded; bharavum to pour into; to fill in; to put in; to fill; bharatiyum an invoice (G.) The orthographic accent is apparently on depicting the backbone of the kneeling adorant which has been stylized as a sign. Depicting a pair is a unique orthographic feature in Sarasvati writing, e.g. a pair of ‘one-horned heifers’, a pair of ‘shor-horned bulls’, a pair of ‘naves-of-six-spoked-wheels), a pair of two linear strokes. 172

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Duplicated and paired glyphs A characteristic feature of use of glyphs to compose epigraphs is the duplication of glyphs or pairing of the same glyph. Some examples are: Duplicated and paired one-horned heifer Duplicated and paired shor-horned bull Duplicated and paired antelope looking back Duplicated and paired scorpions Duplicated and paired fishes Duplicated and paired bangles (or millstone)

m0296 Two heads of one-horned bulls with neck-rings, joined end to end (to a standard device with two rings coming out of the top part?), under a stylized tree with nine leaves.

1387

kamat.ha ‘ficus religiosa’; rebus: kampat.amu ‘furnace’. Substantive: lo ‘iron’ (Assamese, Bengali); loa ‘iron’ (Gypsy) Glyph: lo = nine (Santali); no = nine (B.) [Note the count of nine ‘ficus’ leaves depicted on the epigraph.] damad.i, dammad.i = a ka_su, the fourth part of a dud.d.u or paisa (Ka.M.); damad.i_ (H.) damr.i, dambr.i = one eighth of a pice (Santali) dammid.i = pice (Te.) Grapheme: damad.i, dammad.i = a small tambourine with gejjes (Ka.) Grapheme: damr.a m. a steer; a heifer; damkom = a bull calf (Santali) Rebus: damha = a fireplace; dumhe = to heap, to collect together (Santali) m440AC Two short-horned bulls facing each other on the top register. Rebus: samanom = gold (Santali) Glyph: samna samni = face to face (Santali) Rebus: hom = gold (Ka.); soma = electrum (RV) Glyph: homa = bison (Pengo) kuduru = lizard (Santali) Rebus: kuduru = portable furnace for gold (Te.)

badhia = castrated

boar (Santali) Rebus: bar.ae = blacksmith (Ash.)

ibha = elephant (Skt.) tagara = antelope (Skt.)

Rebus: ib = iron (Santali) Rebus: t.agromi = tin (Kuwi)

ga~r.i = a monkey long-tailed monkey;

(Santali.lex.) gar.i = the macaque, macacus sinicus, a smaller than sara, the hanuman ape (Mundari.lex.)

ga~r.i (Has.); syn. of kulhu (Nag.); an oil-press; trs. To shape into an oil-press; gar.i-o = to be shaped into an oil press (Mundari.lex.) ga~r.i = oil press. A. end of pestle crushing into the hollowed tree trunk; B. komcon, curved piece; C. keoar, plank serving as a handle; D. ground level[After Pl. XV, 2, Encyclopaedia Mundarica] ga~r.i = oil-press (Santali)

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Glyph: cur.i a bracelet, a bangle (Santali) Glyph: millstone: san:ghat.i = a millstone, that crushes (Ka.) Rebus: cu_l.ai, ‘kiln’ (Ta.) culli = a fireplace (Ka.) Rebus: saghad.i_ = furnace (G.) (34)

(21)

Sign 403 (93)

(10)

(17)

(26)

Sign 407 (48) The pairing can be explained by a lexeme: san:gad.a = two; san:gad.am double-canoe (Ta.); jan:gala (Tu.); san:gala pair; han:gula, an:gula double canoe, raft (Si.)(CDIAL 12859). Rebus: san:gha_d.o, saghad.i_ (G.) = firepan; saghad.i_, s'aghad.i = a pot for holding fire (G.)[cula_ sagad.i_ portable hearth (G.)] Thus, the pairing or duplicating a glyph is a way of connoting a saghad.i_ ‘a portable hearth’ (G.) Each of the paired glyphs can be explained as a hearth, saghad.i for (1) copper; (2) native metal; (3) tin alloy; (4) axe; and (5) bangle: Rebus: damr.i = copper; tamb(r)a = copper (Skt.); tamba = copper (Santali) Glyph: one-horned bull damr.a ‘steer, heifer’ Rebus: aduru = native metal (Ka.) Glyph: ad.ar = bull (Santali) Rebus: t.agromi = tin metal alloy (Kuwi) Glyph: tagara = antelope, ram (Skt.) [Looking back: krammarincu (Te.) Rebus: kamar = blacksmith (Santali)] Rebus: kanca, kancu = bell metal (Ka.); kan~ca = id. (Ta.); kamsa = id. (Ka.) kanca_ = a marble (made of stone or lac)(Ka.) Glyph: kaca kupi = scorpion (Kuwi) kaccu = biting, a bite (Ka.) Rebus hako = axe (Santali); bed.a = hearth (G.) Glyph: bed.a hako = fish (Santali) Rebus culli = furnace, kiln (Ka.) Glyph: cur.i = bangle (Santali) Homograph: Twenty-four short linear strokes or a pair of twelve short linear strokes may be a grapheme analogous to the duplicated glyphs of twelve short linear

bed.a = twelve (pies)(Te.); san:gad.a = pair; rebus: strokes. bed.a 'hearth', san:gad.a 'furnace. The dots within a square on one side of the tablet. Slide 205 (harappa.com) Faience tablet or standard. This unique mold-made faience tablet or standard (H2000-4483/2342-01) was found in the eroded levels west of the tablet workshop in Trench 54. On

174

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one side is a short inscription under a rectangular box filled with 24 dots (or one pairs of 12 dots). The reverse has a narrative scene with two bulls fighting under a thorny tree. On one side of the tablet is depicted a pair of butting (or fighting, dan:ga) bulls, d.an:gra (blacksmith) [d.an:gra janum = prickly plant bare of leaves depicted as a phonetic determinant; janum is a thorn, thorny tree or bush]. He is also a san:gatara_su stone-cutter; san:gad.i = pair. Often, the bull is shown feeding from a trough (again, a phonetic determinant): d.a_n:gra = wooden trough or manger sufficient to feed one animal. Thus, when a bull with a trough is shown, the substantive is d.an:gra, blacksmith. A synonym is a tree bare of leaves, d.an:gra. When two butting bulls are shown, he is a d.an:gra (blacksmith) who is also a san:gatara_su, stone-cutter. baddi_ = ox (Nahali); bad.hi = worker in wood and metal (Santali) Vikalpa: <bagu>(ZA),,<bag>(Z) {NUM} ``^two''. {N} ``a ^pair''. {ADJ} ``^both''. ^0002. <bagu>(SL) {NUM} ``^two''. #14841. <miggAl-bagu>() {NUM} ``fourteen (twelve and two)''. #14852. <bO-koRi bagu>() {NUM} ``twenty-two (one-score and two)''. #14862. <bagu-sOa>() {NUM} ``two hundred''. #14870. <bagu-tAra>,,<bagu-turu>(L) {X} ``twice''. #14880. <ba>() {NUM} ``^two''. !var. of <bagu> found in common compounds before velars. #14890. <ba-koRi>(L) {NUM} ``forty (two-score)''. #14662. <ba-gari>(L) {N} ``two measures''. !<bagu-gari>>. #14672.<bar.ta>(L) {N} ``substitute of <bagu> two''. #14900. Rebus : bhaga ‘divinity’. Representation of ‘divinity’ is the reason why a pair of or two fish-tails are joined together to create the ‘S’rivatsa’ glyph on the Barhut stupa torana. Fish-tail is: kol; a pair is: bag; rebus: kole.l ‘temple, smithy’; bhaga ‘divinity’. Rebus: DEDR 3802 Ko. bagn, bagbagn blazing with sudden flame. Ka. baga, baga baga sound used to express suddenly blazing up, the crackling of flames, shining brightly, and also burning of the body; bagabagane, baggane with the sound of bagabaga. Tu. bagabaga the crackling noise of conflagration. Te. bagguna suddenly (of burning or flaming); baggumanu to burn, flame, catch fire suddenly. It is not mere coincidence that the stupa which is a temple, is so-shaped. The dome-shape is gummat.a as in Sign 395 of Sarasvati writing system discussed in reference to 1330 Text below, an emphatic legacy of a writing system of the people who participated in creating the Sarasvati civilization. The shape is also comparable to the apsidal Toda house or Iraqi mudhif shown on a Mesopotamian cylinder seal together with nine one-horned heifers.

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Panini refers to ‘lipi’ (3.2.21). Lalitavistara states that Buddha as a boy went to lipisa_la_ (a school where writing was taught). Parpola (2007) notes: Alexander’s admiral Nearchus mentions “thickly woven cloth” used for writing letters in the Indus Valley c 325 BC; Sanskrit sources mention cotton cloth, (ka:rpa:sa-) paTa, as writing material around the beginning of the Christian era; earliest preserved examples date from the 13th century AD; …manuscripts on birch bark, palm leaves and wooden blocks date from the 2nd century AD and come from the dry climate of Central Asia; …from painted Indus texts on Harappan pots and bangles we know that Indus people used brushes to write, although the brushes have not survived or been recognized — and in North India palm leaf manuscripts have been painted with brushes; some of the provisional identifications for Harappan writing equipment were published fairly recently (Mackay 1938, Dales 1967, Konishi 1987, Lal 2002), and Konishi and Lal are themselves still active researchers. Cracking the code of Sarasvati hieroglyphs To quote, Tolka_ppiyam, "ella_c collum porul. kur-ittan-ave_" (Tol. Col.Peya. 1); Trans. all words are semantic indicators. For each morpheme conveyed by a pictorial motif, a similar sounding ‘substantive’ morpheme (homonym) will be identified. The formula in this rebus methodology is: Image = Sound = Meaning Ockham’s razor! Use a rebus glyph and ligature it to generate a writing system. The result is a stunningly compact and precise writing system. Many-sided tablets with epigraphs Inscriptions are recorded on many ‘tablets’ with upto six sides. Harappan ‘miniature tablets’ are incised flat plates of steatite. Mohenjodaro has yielded engraved copper tablets. Moulded terracotta or faience tablets occur with many repeated texts produced in bas-relief. "On one particular moulded tablet (existing in several identical copies), we see an anthropomorphic deity sitting on a low dais, flanked on either side by a kneeling man and a snake; one of these supplicant men has both his hands raised in worship, while the other is giving what looks like a sacrificial vessel to the deity. Another moulded tablet (again available in several copies) has a similar offering scene, except that here the kneeling worshipper holds out the pot towards a tree. On both tablets the sacrificial vessel looks exactly like the U-formed Indus sign." (Parpola, 1996). The vessel shown on the tablet is a rimmed, narrow-necked pot; the vessel shown on Sign 45 is a rimless, wide-mouthed pot. Triangular terracotta amulet, one side Mohenjodaro; seated horned person hoofed legs, surrounded by fishes, gavials and Museum, Oxford; Parpola, 1994,. p. 186.

(Md 013), surface find on a throne with snakes; Ashmolean

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Glyph ligatures http://kalyanaraman.net/signs/Cylind~5.jpgThere are many pictorial ligatures exemplied by such compositions of animals, further exemplified by the composition referred to as the 'fabulous animal'. m0300

2521

m0300 (Body of a ram, horns of a bull, trunk of an elephant, hindlegs of a tiger and an upraised serpent-like tail). Ligatures are basic signs and/or pictorials in inscriptions super-imposed on one another to compose a composite representation of components. Ligaturing is a of field symbols (e.g. or leaf images) into

procedure for attaching two signs or field symbols or parts combining heads of unicorn, short-horned bull, antelope, one composite motif.

Concept of ligaturing and parallels in Mesopotamian civilization: provide clues to an understanding of logography used in inscribed objects of Sarasvati Sindhu Civilization Form The form of the writing system is governed by a remarkably economical use of glyphs (both pictorial motifs and signs); an average of 5 signs are used in a message with or without pictorial motifs. This economy of use is ompensated by a system of ligaturing glyphs (both pictorial motifs and signs, exemplified by ligatures of multiple animal motifs and ligatures of, say, rimless pot with such as taberna montana).

a five-petalled plant Thus the form is Egyptian heiroglyphs, Egyptian heiroglyphs many glyphs of the civilization *occur in ligatured forms.

essentially glyptic, not unlike the with the variation that unlike which are presented in ‘sequence’,

Function One of the functions performed by the writing system is to record information about traded commodities. This is surmised from the presence of sealings (i.e. clay tablets with impressions of seals) with impressions of straw-mats used to pack the traded commodities. A remarkable epigraph with ten signs occurs on a monolithic board which should have been mounted atop the gate of Dholavira stone fortification.A function performed by the writing system used on weapons is to record ownership. The function of the writing system can thus be related to the early concepts of private property – to record personal possessions of tools, tools-of-trade or even, products produced or professions of the person who possesses the object recording the epigraph. Copper plate has been used in Bharatiya 177

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civilization, even during historical times, to record property transactions and as a record of possession of the recorded property. The rebus system of writing, thus, is governed by the organizing principle: all glyphs are phonetic indicators or phonetic determinants. Evolution of writing Early writing systems were related to counting of objects. One of the signs in this group of Uruk tablets is a circle with four segments, perhaps representing four felloes of a wheel. Tablets. Uruk, Sumer. Numbers and fish signs. [After JV Kinnier Wilson, 1987, Fish rations and the Indus script: some new arguments in the case for accountancy, South Asian Studies 3: 41-6: 43, fig. 2 based on photographs in Adam Falkenstein, 1936, Archaische Texte aus Uruk, bearbeitet und herausgegeben, Ausgrabungen der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft in Uruk/Warka,2, Berlin: texts 256, 68 and 336.] It is likely that the fish signs connoted some countable objects. Note that on tablet a there is a device which may be comparable to the standard device on many SSVC inscribed objects in front of the one-horned bull. Recording property items Any number of reasonable speculations may be made given the object types such as tablets which may have had many duplicates and objects such as seals and bangles which could have been carried on the person possessing the object perhaps worn on the wrist. If the script was intended to serve a personal marker in a disciplined cultural group there is a possibility that the script was used not to record personal names but to record personal items of property or OTHER items of value entrusted to the person by the collective cultural group. The script could thus be hypothesized to have served the purpose of recording the name of a commodity or product and the quantities or VALUE of such products. Double-axe Axe in epigraphy and in archaeology tabar = a broad axe (P.lex.) tambira = copper (Pkt.) tibira = merchant (Akkadian) Rebus: Tu. tamarů, tamara, tavara tin Ta. takaram tin, white lead, metal sheet, coated with tin. Ma. takaram tin, tinned iron plate. Ko. tagarm (obl. tagart-) tin. Ka. tagara, tamara, tavara id. Te. tagaramu, tamaramu, tavaramu id. Kuwi (Isr.) ṛagromi tin metal, alloy. / Cf. Skt. tamara- id. (DEDR 3001)

Vikalpa: Glyph: Ta. tamar hole in a plank, commonly bored or cut; gimlet, spring awl, boring instrument; tavar (-v-, -nt-) to bore a hole; n. hole in a board. Ma. tamar hole made by a gimlet; a borer, gimlet, drill. ? Ko. tav- (tavd-) to butt with both horns, gore. Tu. tamirů gimlet. Te. tamire, (VPK) tagire the pin in the middle of a yoke (DEDR 3078). [cf. glyph of two short-horned bulls face-to-face butting.] Rebus: One’s own people. Ka. tamar, tavar those who are his, hers or theirs, one's own people tām (obl. tam-), tāvu (obl. tav-) they, themselves; you (hon.); tamatu, tamattu, tammatu, tammutu, tammadu theirs; Ta. tām (obl. tam; before vowels tamm-) they themselves; you (hon. pl.); tāṛkaṛ you (hon. pl.); tamar one's own people, relatives, kindred, friends, servants; tamarmai friendship; tamaṛ a male relative or friend; fem. tamaṛ; tami solitude, loneliness, destitution; (-pp-, -tt-) to be alone, 178

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lonely; tamiyaṛ solitary, lonely man, destitute person; fem. tamiyaṛ; tam-appaṛ father. Ma. tām (obl. tam-, tamm-) themselves; tāṛkaṛ, taṛṛaṛ they, themselves; you (hon.); tamar one's own people; tamappan father. Ko. tm (obl. tam-) themselves. To. tam (obl. tam-) id.; tadam each his own, separate, different (< tam-dam; *Nd > d); tada(m) mṛ separately (for mṛ, see 4717). Koḍ. taŋga (obl. taŋga-) themselves. Te. tāmu (obl. tam-, tamm-), tamaru, tāru they, themselves; you (hon.). Kol. *tm (obl. tam-) they, themselves; tamne their own; tam bn his, her, their own father. Nk. tām they, themselves. Pa. tām (obl. tam-) id. Ga. (Oll.) tām (obl. tam-) id. Go. (Tr.) tammā, tammaṛ id. ( Voc. 1661). Konḍa (BB) tām id. Kui tāru (masc.), tāi (neut.) (obl. tāṛan-) id. Kuwi (F.) tambū (obl. tam-), (S.) tāmbu (obl. tam-) id. Kur. tām (obl. tam-) id. Malt. tám, támi (obl. tam-) id. (DEDR 3162) So. tO'OD/ tAm `mouth'Go. toD(RR) `mouth'Gu. tummo: `mouth'Re. tom `mouth' in kur-tom(RR) `beard'Kh. tOmO"d `mouth'Ju. Tamar ~ tamon ~ tamoni ~ tomor `mouth'. Substantive: ta_mra copper (Skt.) tamba copper (Santali) ta_mbum, ta_mra copper (G.) The double-axe is found at Harappa and in the copper hoards of Orissa. A.: Double-edged axe, deeply curved, Bhagarapir, Orissa; B. Double-edged axe, less curved, Bhagarapir, Orissa; C. Doubleedged axe from Harappa; D. Double-edged axe from Harappa. [After S.P. Gupta, 1963, The copper hoards: the problems of homogeneity, stages and development, origin, authorship and dating, Journal of the Bihar Research Society, Vol. 49, Patna, pp. 17]. Vase with relief double axe. Mallia. MM II Sanctuary: Room 2 (Cat. 76). Courtesy of the French School of Archaeology. Athens. (Compare the axe pictograph with the one shown at Chanhudaro C23 at the top of the page). Gold double axes. Arkalokhori. Cave. Herakleion. Archaeological Museum. Courtesy of Alison Frantz (Fig. 83 in: Geraldine Cornelia Gesel, 1985, Town, palace, and house cult in Minoan Crete, Goteborg, Paul Astroms Forlag). Bull, double-axe, sacral knot "The double axe, the most common of the cult symbols, occurred only in tombs in the Prepalatial period. In the Protopalatial period pottery marked with the double axe symbol was found in a town sanctuary, though the double axe itself has not appeared in such a cult room. An extant stand of this date, however, indicates that the double axe was put on display then. The stand and the double axe grew larger in the Neopalatial period. Elaborate incised and reduplicated blades of gold, silver, and bronze have been found. The symbol became more popular as a pottery motif, sometimes in connection with the bull and the sacral knot. The connection of the double axe with the bull suggest that the double axe is the axe of sacrifice and that as such it became the symbol of the divinity to whom the bull was sacrificed...The sacral knot, an object rarely found but often depicted on pottery together with the double axe, first appeared in a tomb deposit ranging from Prepalatial to Protopalatial in date...The horns of consecration, which probably represents the horns of the bull, rarely appears in the same sanctuary as the double axe and the bull...The snake, like the bird, became more prominent in the Postpalatial period. Unlike the bird it was always an attribute on a godess or a cult object...The meaning of the double axe is uncertain, but it seems to have been connected particularly with the 179

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palace at Knossos, which was known in mythology as the labyrinth. This word is derived from ḷḷḷḷḷḷ, a Lydian word meaning double axe according to Plutarch." (Geraldine Cornelia Gesel, 1985, Town, palace, and house cult in Minoan Crete, Goteborg, Paul Astroms Forlag). Cretan bronze tools: a, double adze; b and c, double axes; d, single-bladed axe; 3, axe-adze; f, sickle; g, chisel.(After Fig.45 in: Sinclair Hood, 1971, The Minoans: Crete in the Bronze Age, Thames and Hudson) "The general all-purpose tool of the Bronze Age Cretans was an axe-adze with a shaft hole for mounting on a wooden handle. The same tool, but made of iron, is still used throughout Crete today; the axe blade for cutting trees and clearing undergrowth, the adze for hoeing and weeding. Another standard tool in Bronze Age Crete was the double-bladed axe. Single-bladed axes and double adzes were also employed. At first the shaft holes for these tools were circular, but later they were made oval. The oval shaft hole was an improvement, because the wooden handle could not twist round in it." (Sinclaid Hood, opcit., p. 84). Seal-inscriptions; the logograph of an axe is central to these four samples (Source: Scripta Minoa; After Fig. 65G, 26,31,159, p 33 and p 7a in Fig. 3: F. Melian Stawell, 1931, A Clue to the Cretan Scripts, London, G. Bell and Sons Ltd.) Shrine of the Double Axes Godess with attendants from the Shrine of the Double Axes at Knossos (After Fig.117 in: Sinclair Hood, 1971, The Minoans: Crete in the Bronze Age, Thames and Hudson) "...a small room with a bench at the back on which stood little clay images of a godess and a god and their attendants or worshippers, together with two pairs of horns of consecration with holes in the top for inserting cult objects: either bronze double axes, as Evans thought, or leafy twigs or branches...Set into the floor was a circular tripod altar...The godess from the Shrine of the Double Axes has arms raised in the customary manner, and is wearing a long skirt and many necklaces and bracelets. On each wrist she carries a seal stone. Marks on her hands may be meant for fishes. On her head is a dove...Animals associated with Cretan godesses apart from snakes and doves included goats, lions, and imaginary sphinxes and griffins which were merely lions, usually with wings, and with the heads of women or of birds." (Sinclair Hood, opcit., pp. 134-135). It is notable that the images of gods and godesses in the Hindu pantheon in historical periods are adorned with weapons on their multiple hands. A pair of fishes is depicted on the as.t.aman_galakaha_ra on Yaks.i sculptures of Sa_n~ci. The fishes associated with the godess of the Shrine of the Double Axes are also associated with a shorthorned bull on inscribed objects ku_t.amu = summit of a mountain (Te.lex.) kut.t.ta_ra = a mountain (Skt.lex.) kudharamu = a mountain, a hill (Te.lex.) kut.haur.i = a heap, a pile (of Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization. The fish is rebus for an axe: hako; the double-axe (hako) is depicted by two fishes, which further gets stylised as s’ri_vatsa glyph.

180

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hake = middle-sized axe for cutting wood (Mund.a); hake = axe (Ho.); go = axe (Bond.a.); vake (Kw); ak(h)ey (Mowasi); akh (Korku) (cf. Skeat and Blagdens' Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula. A-3: gak, he:g etc. 'adze'; hak to split (Bahnar); hak to tear (Stieng); jik to cut (Stieng) ['Bonda Etymologies' in: Sudhibhushan Bhattacharya, 1968, A Bonda Dictionary, Poona, Deccan College, p. xxxi]. ah-ku-tal = to become sharp, acute (Ta.); cf. L. acu_tus, 'sharp', lit. 'sharpened', pp. of acuere, 'to sharpen', which is to acus, 'needle' (Ta.lex.) It is surmised that two distinct ancient lexemes had been used by the artisans who inscribed the objects of the civilization to denote property items possessed by warriors or items of metal weapons and tools traded: hako could, using the rebus method, be orthographically pictured by 'fish' and atka by 'leaf'. It is also surmised that hako and atka connoted to distinct pieces of armour: hako, middle-sized axe to hew wood; and atka, breast-plate as part of coat of mail of a warrior. hakka_-hakka = calling on, challenging (Skt. lex.) [heko = to brag, to boast, to chatter; ha~k = to call to cattle when driving them (Santali.lex.); akaval = calling, addressing (Ta.)(DEDR 10).] hako = a fish (Santali.lex.) kut.t.a_ra = sexual intercourse (Skt.lex.) ku_t.amu = copulation (Te.lex.) kut.aru = cock (According to the commentator Mahi_dhara (VS 25.4.4), the word is synonymous with kukkut.a, cock. The word is found in the Yajurveda Sam.hita_ only (TS 5.5.17.1; Maitra_yan.i_ S. 1.1.6; 3.14.4.20; 4.1.6; VS 24.23.39; cf. Zimer, Altindischen Leben, 93; cf. Vedic Index, I, p. 160). kut.ru, gut.ru = cooing of a pigeon (Ka.Te.)(DEDR 1667). kut.ha_ru = a monkey (Skt.lex.) gun.d.an:gi = the white-faced black ape (Te.lex.) kut.ha = crooked, bent (Santali.lex.) kut.i = id. (Skt.lex.) kut.ha_ra = axe (Vedic.lex.) cutter 'knife' (Latin); kut.ha_rais. t.an:kais = with axes and spades; kut., kut.t. = to split (Vedic) (Surya Kanta, 1989, A grammatical dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic), Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, p.72). kut.ha_raka = an axe (Ra_ma_yan.a); a small axe (Bhartrr. 3.23); kut.ha_rika = a wood-cutter (Skt.lex.) kut.t.a_ka = cutting (Pa_n. 3.2.155). gun.d.ra = to cut into pieces, to make fine or small (Santali.lex.) kut.a_ri, ko_t.a_ri, ko_t.a_li axe (Ta.); ko_t.a_li, ko_t.a_l.i id. (Ma.); kod.ali (Ka.); kod.ari, kud.ari (Tu.); god.d.ali, god.d.eli, god.d.e_li, god.d.e_lu, god.ali (Te.); golli, goli_ (Kol.); ghol.i (Nk.); kod.li (Nk.); god.el (Go.); gor.el(i) (Kond.a); ku_r.el (large variety axe)(Pe.); kra_d.i (? for kr.a?li, gla'li large axe (Kuwi)(DEDR App. 32). kut.ha_ra, kut.ha_ri (Beng. Or. forms have l for r)(CDIAL 3244; cf. Burrow, BSOAS 35.541). kudda_ramu, kudda_lakamu, kudda_lamu = a sort of spade (Te.lex.) kut.ha_ra axe (R.); kut.ha_raka (VarBr.S); kut.ha_ri_ (Pali); kud.ha_ra, kuha_d.a (Pkt.); kuha_r.o (S.); kuha_r.a_ (L.P.); kulha_r.a_ (P.); kurha_r.i_ (WPah.); kulya_r.o, kulya_r. (Ku.); kur.a_l, kur.ul (B.); kur.a_la, kura_r.ha, kurha_r.i, kura_ri (Or.); kulha_ri large axe for squaring logs (Bi.); kulha_r.a_ axe (H.); kuha_r.o, kuva_r.i_ (G.); kurha_d. (M.); ken.eri (Si.); ket.eri, ket.e_riya long-handled axe (S.)(CDIAL 3244). kud.i = a large hoe, the Indian digging implement, the kudali; t.amni kud.i = a narrow bladed kudali; guji kud.i this pattern has the hoe in the middle of the handle; kat.a kud.i a pronged hoe; t.had.ia kud.i the pattern handled like a hoe; saheb kud.i, angreji kud.i the English pattern of kudali; kud.i sakam the blade of the kudali (Santali.lex.) [Note the pictorial of 'leaf'; it may be read as 'sakam' or leaf, i.e. the 181

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metal blade of a weapon].guji kud.i = a kod.ali or hoe worked by taking hold of both ends of the handle (Santali.lex.) kat.a kud.i = pronged hoe; kat.a kat.i = cutting; to slash, kill (Santali.lex.). kata = a pit saw; kat = a steel spur put on a fighting cock; kat.i = a screw, nail (Santali.lex.) kat.a = leg and foot from the knee downwards; sim kat.a = a fowl's foot; bhid.i kat.a = sheep's trotters; hor. kat.a = a man's foot (Santali.lex.) Glyph: bhed.a hako, hako ‘a species of fish’ (Santali) Rebus: bed.a ‘hearth’; hako ‘axe’ (that is, a hearth for axe). Substantive: hako ‘an axe’ (Mundari) hake kud.lam (Has.) hake-kud.i (Nag.) = collective noun for all implements for work in the fields and jungles; hakekud.laman = adj. Possessed of such implements; hakekud.lamanae = he has all the implements necessary for field and juncle work (Mundari.lex.) kudlam, Pl. XIII, 7, Encyclopaedia Mundarica. kud.lam, kulam (Has.) synonym of kud.i (Nag.) = a hoe either imported (cala_ni kud.lam) or forged by the village blacksmith (bar.aekud.lam). The latter, kud.lam is shaped as shown in Pl. XIII,7, is from 10 to 11” at its broadest part. Down to two thirds of its length it is ¼” thick and then thins down. The handle-ring is made separately and welded to the blade. The two wings joining the ring to the blade are about 4” long and 4 ½” broad. The handle, whether of bamboo or other wood (generally, of a hesel sapling), is nearly 3’ long. The Mundas have no spades, no shovels, and yet in the cultivation of rice they have often to throw quantities of earth from one spot to another, either to level the field or to make or repair its ridges. As it must be done with the hoe, it is no wonder that they like a broad-bladed instrument. (Mundari.lex.) hake, Pl. XX, 7 Encyclopaedia Mundarica. hake (cf. English to hack; Dutch hakken) = a middle-size for the larger one being called har.amhake, and the smaller one contrast to kapi, tabala, pharsi and gan.das, which are battle (Mundari.lx.)

cutting wood, kond.e, in axes.

kond.e, Pl. XX,6 Encyclopaedia Mundarica. Rebus, homonym: kond.e kose = to turn away the face sullenly; kon.d.e kose bar.aedae = she turns her head to one side (Santali.lex.) kon.d.e = crooked, bent; kon.d.et, kon.d.et kon.d.et = bent, twisted, off the straight (Santali.lex.) [Note the orthography of an antelope or a tiger with its head turned back].

Dagger and axes found in an Ur grave Sumerian double-bladed axe, Ur [V. Gordon Childe, 1929, The Most Ancient East: the oriental prelude to European prehistory, London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co. Ltd., Fig. 72 b.] Double-bladed Sumerian axe, Ur. Copper tablet (Double-edged battle-axe): Mohenjodaro M 0592B

182

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m0592At m0592Bt 3413 Pict-133: Double-axe (?) without shaft. [The sign is comparable to the sign which appears on the text of a Chanhudaro seal: Text 6422, Chanhudaro Seal 23]. Bandicoot Deer

ko_d.el (Pa.) [kod.el = rat (Go.)]

kod.al (Go.) [god.lu, go_dalu = horned cattle (Te.); gud.va = nilgai (Pa.)]

god.el axe (Go.) kod.ari (Tu.)

Chanhudaro23 of the goat-antelope is a double-axe.

6402 Goat-antelope with a short tail. The object in front

'A third type of axe that now appears for the first time has two blades; it is in fact the oldest doubleaxe.' (Childe, opcit., p. 179).

9845 Ur Seal impression; UPenn; steatite; bull below a scorpion; dia. 2.4cm.; Gadd, PBA 18 (1932), p. 13, Pl. III, no. 15; Legrain, MJ (1929), p. 306, pl. XLI, no. 119; found at Ur in the cemetery area, in a ruined grave .9 metres from the surface, together with a pair of gold ear-rings of the double-crescent type and long beads of steatite and carnelian, two of gilt copper, and others of lapis-lazuli, carnelian, and banded sard. The first sign to the left has the form of a flower or perhaps an animal's skin with curly tail; there is a round spot upon the bull's back. [The first sign looks like an animal with a long tail – as seen from the back and may have been the model for the orthography of Sign 51 as noted in Mahadevan corpus]. "...the most remarkable sign being the first one to the left (in the impression) having the form of a flower or perhaps an animal's skin with curly tail...the round spot upon the bull's back is also curious." (C.J. Gadd, Seals of Ancient Indian Style Found at Ur', in: G.L. Possehl, ed., 1979, Ancient Cities of the Indus, Delhi, Vikas Publishing House, p. 119).

The emphasis of the last glyph (as evolved from the back-view of the field-rat of the Ur seal) is on the sting of the scorpion-like ending: kot.ukka scorpion’s sting (Ta.); kod.k to peck (Nk.); kod.gi hoe (Go.)(DEDR 2064).

183

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The round spot upon the bull’s back can be compared with another hieroglyph, the ‘eye’ or ‘oval representation of a bun ingot’: Chanhudaro Seal obverse and reverse. The oval sign of this Jhukar culture seal is comparable to other inscriptions. Fig. 1 and 1a of Plate L. After Mackay, 1943. A similar glyph of an oval appears together with a scorpion. lat.t.ho = a lump of gold (G.lex.) la~_do = clammy lump (G.); laddi_ = elephant’s dung (Pkt.)(CDIAL 10933). lad.um = a goldsmith’s tool (G.lex.) kandhi = lump (Santali.lex.) [Glyph: Antelope + (bun) ingot: melh ‘antelope’; rebus: melukka ‘copper’; kandhi ‘ingot’] Field rat, bandicoot: kot.t.il cowstall

Kalibangan068A Kalibangan068B 8117 [The reading of the first sign from right on the top line as a ‘bird’ glyph may not be correct; it may connote the early orthography of a field-rat, shown as a seated animal with a pronounced tail.] Vikalpa: Sign 51 corresponds to Pictorial motif 83 of Parpola’s sign list:

[After Parpola, 1994, p. 71: Sign list of the Indus Script, with principal graphic variants.] That Sign 51 is ligatured to a scorpion [and to be distinguished from a bird] is surmised from the orthography, emphasizing the tail with the pointed 'sting' in most of the variants and on Sign 51 and also from the pictorial motifs which are field-symbols on inscribed objects dominated by the 'scorpion'

motif. See, for example, the Nindowari-damb seal: Nindowari-damb02 bakhor., ‘toothed comb’; rebus: bakhor., ‘knife, splicer for tassar cocoons’; kamat.ha, ‘crab’; rebus: kamat.ha_yo, ‘carpenter’ or kammat.a, ‘furnace, coiner, mint’; kod.el, ‘bandicoot’; rebus: kole.l, ‘smithy’. Alternative decoding of Sign 176: Comb kangha (IL 1333) ka~ghera_ comb-maker (H.) Comb kangha (IL 1333) ka~ghera_ comb-maker (H.)

184

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kan:g = brazier, fireplace (K.)(IL 1332) Portable brazier brazier = kan:gar (K.)

h305A

4595

h305B Text 5460

m1549Act

1400

Sign 51

h703At

h305BText 5460

1262

4296

h703Bt

m1549Bct

h305A

m0954

ka~_guru, ka~_gar (Ka.) whence, large

m0222

m0001a

1067

h788At

1194

m0146

h788Bt

4683

m0314

1100

6304

) recurs in a seal:

m0414A m0414B Seal with incision on obverse 2004 The middle sign could be interpreted as a ligature of a ‘stele’ found in the center of a fire-pit on many sites of the civilization and the most frequently occurring glyph denoting the rim of a narrow-necked jar. m0606At

m0606Bt

2918

Two identical ligatures on two signs It should be noted that Sign 51 has ligatures on top similar to the ligatures affixed on the 'leaf' sign; only these two signs get such identical ligatures:

Sign 51

and Sign 327 Special ligatures, are like the claws of the 'scorpion' or the 'ears' of a field-mouse (See variant on Text No. 9845: Gadd seal No. 13). Bandicoot = ko_d.el (Pa.) [kod.el = rat (Go.)] kole.l = smithy, temple in Kota village (Ko.)

If the superscripted ligatures render the Sign 51 to be read as: kole.l ‘smithy’, Sign 32 (ligatured leaf) can also be related to a smithy: kammat.a ‘furnace’ (Te.); kamat.ha ‘ficus religiosa’; lo ‘ficus’; rebus, lo ‘metal’. 185

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Sign 326 and Sign 327 (Sign 326 ligatured with special markers on top). This connotes: lo, ‘fig leaf’; loh, ‘metal’. Sign 327 (ligatured leaf) appears on a copper plate epigraph (m1534; text 1703): m0578At

m0578Bt

2908

m1534Act m1534Bct 1703 Composition: Two horned heads one at either end of the body. Note the dottings on the thighs which is a unique artistic feature of depicting a rhinoceros (the legs are like those of a rhinoceros?). The body apparently is a combination of two rhinoceroses with heads of two bulls (or, nilgai, blue bull?) attached on either end of the composite body. Nilgai, blue bull: god. = bison (Go.); gud.va = nilgai (Pa.); kod.al (ma_v_= a kind of deer; khod.d.a ma_v = blue bull (Go.); gura = bison (Kond.a) (DEDR 1664) go_dalu = pl. horned cattle of any kind; as in: god.d.ugo_dalu (Te.lex.); god.lu = horned cattle; go_da = an ox (Te.lex.) The rings on the neck of the ligatured head: kot.,iyum ‘a wooden circle put round the neck of an animal. Clearly, this glyptic element can be seen as a phonetic determinant. Substantive: got.i_ a lump of silver (G.) The ligaturing elements of two faces of a blue bull can be read as god. ‘bison’; rebus substantive kod. ‘artisan’s workshop’. Thus, Sign 51 and Sign 327 can be interpreted respectively as: (1) kole.l ‘smithy’ for bica ‘iron ore’; and (2) kole.l ‘smithy’ for lo ‘metal’. Leaf

h243B Tablet in bas-relief Pict-78: Rosette of seven pipal (?) leaves. 4664 lo ‘ficus glomerata’; lo ‘iron’; er..u ‘clubs’; Rebus: seven iron clubs. bakhor. ‘comb’; bakher ‘homestead’; d.ol ‘arrow’; dul ‘cast iron’ [cf. Fish signs analysed elsewhere.] ten:gra hako ‘ a species of fish’; t.an:gi ‘stone chisel’ (cast iron chisel?) eae ‘seven’ (Santali); e_d.u (Te.); e_r..u (Ta.) The circumgraph of four short linear strokes may be a synonym of the ‘arrow’ glyph:

h888Abit

4466

186

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h168

m0602At

m0602Bt

m1430Bt m1430C m1430At Pict-101: Person throwing a spear at a buffalo and placing one foot on its head; three persons standing near a tree at the centre.

2819 Pict-60: Composite animal with the body of an ox and three heads [one each of one-horned bull (looking forward), antelope (looking backward) and bison (looking downwards)] at right; a goat standing on its hindlegs and browsing from a tree at the center.

m0299 Composite animal with the body of a ram, horns of a bull, trunk of an elephant, hindlegs of a tiger and an upraised serpent-like tail. 1381

m0300 Pict51: Composite animal: human face, zebu's horns, elephant tusks and trunk, 2521 ram's forepart, unicorn's trunk and feet, tiger's hindpart and serpent-like tail.

m0301 Composite motif: human face, body or forepart of a ram, body and front legs of a unicorn, horns of a zebul, trunk of an elephant, hindlegs of a tiger and an upraised serpent-like tail.

2258 m0302 Composite animal with the body of a ram, horns of a bull, trunk of an elephant, hindlegs of a tiger and an upraise serpent-like tail.

1380

m0303 Composite animal.

2411

m0453A m453BC 1629 Pict-82 Person seated on a pedestal flanked on either side by a kneeling adorant and a hooded serpent rearing up. 187

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m448t

m449Bt

m449AC

2836 m0481At

m0481Bt

m0481Ct

m0481Et

on a low platform under a tree

2846 Pict-41: Serpent, partly reclining

m0488At

m0488Bt m0488Ct 2802 [See side b showing the composite animal with an upraised serpent-like tail] m0492At

m0492Ct

m0492Bt Pict-14: Two bisons standing face to face.

2835 Pict-99: Person throwing a spear at a bison and placing one

foot on the head of the bison; a hooded serpent at left. m0571At m0571Bt 2913 Horned elephant. Almost similar to the composition: Body of a ram (with inlaid ‘heart’ sign), horns of a bull, trunk of an elephant, hindlegs of a tiger and an upraised serpent-like tail

m1175a

2493

m1176

m1177

Ox-antelope with a long tail; a trough in front.

Kalibangan026 8071 with a long tail; a trough in front.

m0233

2450

6121

1804

Pict-39 Ox-antelope

188

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m0258a.

1340

m0371 4004 Chanhudaro Pict-40

h289A

m0213

2461

h289B

m0173

1161

h005

m0889

5467

5462 m1128a 3163 h972Ait the shape of a leaf? Dotted circles on obverse.

1244

1150

1126

h290A

h972Bit

m0273

h290B

4418 Pict-128: Inscribed object in

2673

Kalibangan067

8121 Ox-antelope with a long tail; sometimes with a trough in front.

m0889

1126

h005

m0371

2461

4004

m0213

1150

m0258a.

1340

h290B 5462 m1128a 3163 h972Ait 128: Inscribed object in the shape of a leaf? Dotted circles on obverse.

1244

m0173

1161

m0273

2673

h972Bit

4418 Pict-

Kalibangan067

8121 Ox-antelope with a long tail; sometimes with a trough in front. 189

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m0889

h005

1126

m0371

2461

4004

m0213

190

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“The invention of a writing system is very different from the use of abstract symbols in rituals or for identification. Neolithic and chalcolithic artisans painted and incised symbols on pottery and other material goods. Some symbols are simplified pictures of plants, animals or sacred mountains; otheres are abstract geometric shapes, lines, circles and triangles…On the basis of recent excavations of the Period 2 occupation levels at Harappa (2800-2600 BCE), along with discoveries at other such early sites as Nausharo, it appears that there may have been one or more Early Indus scripts. “At Harappa, we find increasing evidence for the use of multiple abstract symbols that were inscribed on pottery prior to or after firing. Some of these symbols are identical to characters used in the later Indus script and even occur in the same sequence, suggesting that they represented the same sounds or meanings. The Early Indus script was probably distinct from the more widespread use of poters’ marks, because such marks continued to be used even after the invention of the script. This pattern of use suggests that their function was different and to some extent, independent of writing itself…The invention, acceptance and eventual adoption of the Indus script by all of the regional settlements should be seen as a process stimulated primarily by local needs and fulfilled using a culturally meaningful set of signs. “Many inscriptions consist of only one sign: in these cases, the grapheme must represent a word or an idea. The most common sign ‘horned U’ is often used alone, but it also can be combined into other sign sequences. This sign may be a pictograph of a bull with horns, or a handled container, but it undoubtedly represents a very important word or idea…Although it is generally agreed that the Indus script is not an alphabetic form of writing, it does not have enough different signs to be a logographic script…The Indus script was carved, incised, chiseled, inlaid, painted, molded, and embossed on terracotta and glazed ceramic, shell, bone and ivory, sandstone, steatite and gypsum, copper and bronze, silver and gold… “The wide variety of materials and techniques involving the Indus script is unparalleled in the mid-third millennium BCE….It is interesting to note that no seal has ever been found with a human burial in the Indus Valley, whereas in Egypt and Mesopotamia the person’s seal was usually included with the burial offerings…Incised and molded tablets…In one area two groups of identical incised steatite tablets (nine with one set of inscriptions and four with another set) were found along with seals, weights and pendants. (Madho Sarup Vats, Excavations at Harappa, Delhi, Govt. of India Press, 1940, 58-59). In area G, south of the recently discovered gateway on Mound ET, Vats found a concentration of thirty-one identical cylindrical terracotta tablets of unknown use…The Indus tablets may have been used as tokens, made up in advance and distributed when goods were brought into the city as tribute or for sale.“ [JM Kenoyer, 1998, pp. 69-74]. Smelting furnace, kut.hi kut.hi ‘a furnace for smelting iron ore to smelt iron’; kolheko kut.hieda koles smelt iron (Santali) kut.hi, kut.i (Or.; Sad. kot.hi) (1) the smelting furnace of the blacksmith; kut.ire bica duljad.ko talkena, they were feeding the furnace with ore; (2) the name of e_kut.i has been given to the fire which, in lac factories, warms the water bath for softening the lac so that it can be spread into sheets; to make a smelting furnace; kut.hi-o of a smelting furnace, to be made; the smelting furnace of the blacksmith is made of mud, cone-shaped, 2’ 6” dia. At the base and 1’ 6” at the top. The hole in the centre, into which the mixture of charcoal and iron ore is poured, is about 6” to 7” in dia. At the base it has two holes, a smaller one into which the nozzle of the bellow is inserted, as seen in fig. 1, and a larger one on the opposite side through which the molten iron flows out into a cavity (Mundari.lex.) kut.hi = a factory; lil kut.hi = an indigo factory (H.kot.hi)(Santali.lex.Bodding) kut.hi = an earthen furnace for smelting iron; make do., smelt iron; kolheko do kut.hi benaokate baliko dhukana, the Kolhes build an earthen furnace and smelt iron-ore, blowing the bellows; tehen:ko kut.hi yet kana, they are working (or 191

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building) the furnace to-day (H. kot.hi_)(Santali.lex.Bodding) kut.t.hita = hot, sweltering; molten (of tamba, cp. uttatta)(Pali.lex.) uttatta (ut + tapta) = heated, of metals: molten, refined; shining, splendid, pure (Pali.lex.) kut.t.akam, kut.t.ukam = cauldron (Ma.); kut.t.uva = big copper pot for heating water (Kod.)(DEDR 1668). gudga_ to blaze; gud.va flame (Man.d); gudva, gu_du_vwa, guduwa id. (Kuwi)(DEDR 1715). da_ntar-kut.ha = fireplace (Sv.); ko_ti wooden vessel for mixing yeast (Sh.); kot.ha_ house with mud roof and walls, granary (P.); kut.hi_ factory (A.); kot.ha_ brick-built house (B.); kut.hi_ bank, granary (B.); kot.ho jar in which indigo is stored, warehouse (G.); kot.hi_ lare earthen jar, factory (G.); kot.hi_ granary, factory (M.)(CDIAL 3546). kot.ho = a warehouse; a revenue office, in which dues are paid and collected; kot.hi_ a store-room; a factory (G.lex.) kod. = the place where artisans work (G.lex.) What does the 'swan' in a circle signify in the script of the Bharatiya Civilization? It occurs just once in the inscriptions. The lexemes for 'swan' are many; a few of them are presented here with a list of possible homonyms. A remarkable semantic cluster emerges. The homonyms for lexemes such as nemi, cakka, ta_ra_, pariti are relatable to the 'wheel' of a vehicle. Another semantic cluster: plava = a duck is homonymous with a float or boat. Tamil lexemes (which are concordant with Sanskrit lexemes) attest a compound: cakra-va_l.am or just, va_l.am. The association of 'cakra' with the apparent movement of the Sun in Indian literature is wellknown. R.gveda su_kta (1.164) elaborates on the 'wheel' imagery while expounding on cosmic 'time'. The homonym (of -va_l.am in cakra-va_l.am) is va_l. = a sword! (which is perhaps what this pictograph is intended to convey). This hypothesis has to be confirmed further, with reference to the entire inscription within which this Sign 82 is sequenced. If other pictographs in the inscription constitute a 'weapons' set, the interpretation of the Sign as 'sword' will hold; if they constitute a set of 'ratha' or battle car parts, the Sign may be read as nemi or pariti (tire of a solid disc wheel or a spoked-wheel). As a ligature, the pictograph may connote: circle + swan, i.e. cakra + va_l.am; in which case, the homonyms may be cakra + va_l. = discuss + sword. At this stage, it is apposite to point to the 'association' of the pictograph with the 'ratha'; as further progress is made in deciphering other pictorials such as 'six-spoked wheel' (single and duplicate) and -six-spoked wheel followed by " -- (perhaps a short-hand for duplicate or double or two-wheeled), it may be possible to pin-down the bon mot which matches the pictograph so vividly depicted in Sign 82: either a sword or a 'ratha' with 'pavi' javelin-like paridhi which is also depicted on a solid disc wheel model in Mesopotamian civilization. 7367.Image: two: bar, barea two; bar gel twenty; bar isi forty (Santali.lex.) vira, ira two (Ka.); -vir an affix for the plural, masculine and femine, e.g. tande-vir, ta_yvir, sosevir fathers, mothers, daughtersin-law (Ka.lex.) i_r = two (Tamil.lex.) i_rva_l. = sword to cut trees and wood; i_rvu = to cut, to cleave, to hew (Tamil.lex.)

Sign 82 Sign 62 (Mahadevan) 192

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Mohenjodaro MIC, Pl. CVI,93

1093 Set 1: Te.Ka.lex. kor.o 'duck' Mu. kod. workshop'

Set 2: Mundari.lex. vartaka =a duck (Skt. batak =a duck; vat.t.aka_ quail (Pali); vat.t.aya (Pkt.); bat.t.ai (N.)(CDIAL 11361). varta = *circular object; *turning round (Skt.); vat.u = twist (S.)(CDIAL 11346) bat.er = quail (Ku.B.); bat.ara, batara = the grey quail (Or.)(CDIAL 11350). Rebus: bat.a; rebus, bat.a 'iron'; bat.a = quail (Santali) Rebus: bhat.a = furnace, kiln (Santali). vartaloha a kind of brass (Skt.); vat.t.alo_ha a partic. Kind of metal (Pali); valt.o_a_ metal pitcher (L.); valt.oh, balt.oh (P.); bat.lohi_, bat.loi brass drinking and cooking vessel (H.); vat.loi(G.)(CDIAL 11357). Bar stone (Gypsy); bar. Stone ( eur. Gypsy) ; bot. Stone (D.); wa_t. (Ash.Wg.); wot. (Kt.); bo_t. (Dm.); bat. (Tir.Wot.); wa_t. (Gmb.); wa_t. stone, millstone (Gaw.); bat stone (Kal.); bort (Kho.)(CDIAL 11348). Cf. va_ttu ‘duck’ (Tamil) Rebus: vartaka = bell-metal, brass (Skt.)(CDIAL 11347). Vikalpa: pattar merchants; perh. vartaka; Goldsmiths: pattar a caste of goldsmiths (Ta.); battud.u id. (Te.);Goldsmith's trade; storehouse: bha_n.d.as'a_la_ storehouse (S'atr.); bhar.asa_ra cupboard for keeping food in (OH.); bha_d.sa_l, bha_d.sa_r, bhansa_l storehouse, granary (H.); bad.ahala pottery (Si.); bad.ahal, bad.a_la_ goldsmith; bad.al-vad.a goldsmith's trade (Si.); bad.ahl potter (Si.); bha_n.d.a treasure (Skt.); bha_n.d.aka goods (Skt.); bhan.d.a stock-in-trade, goods (Pali); -bhan.d.aka = articles, implement; bhan.d.ika_ collection of goods, heap, bundle (Pali); bham.d.a = utensils, goods (Pkt.); bham.d.ia_ bag (Pkt.)(CDIAL 9440). pat.t.at.ai piece of board temporarily used as a seat (Ta.lex.) [?pat.u + at.ai : pat.u to hit or strike against (Ta.)(DEDR 3853) pratika_ya target (Skt.); pariya_t.ha_ wooden framework over a well on which the drawer stands; carpenter's block, anvil block; paret.ha_ anvil block (Bi.); pariat.h, parait.h, parhat.a_ fodder chopping block (Mth.)(CDIAL 8544). Rebus: Guild of workmen: pat.t.ar-ai community; guild as of workmen (Ta.); pat.t.ale id. (Ka.)(Ta.lex.) pat.t.ar-ai factory, rice-hulling machine, machine (Ta.)(Ta.lex.) 6472.Workshop: pat.t.ad.e, pat.t.ad.i anvil, workshop (Ka); pat.t.at.ai, pat.t.ar-ai, anvil, smithy, forge (Ta.); pat.t.ika, pat.t.ed.a anvil (Te.); pat.t.ad.a workshop (Te.)(DEDR 3865). Goldsmith's small hammer: bhar.i goldsmith's small hammer (N.); bham.d.a barber's utensils (Pkt.); bha~_r.i, bha~_ir. razor case (B.)(CDIAL 9440). pan.t.akkalam gold ornament (Man.i. 26,23); pan.t.am gold; wealth, riches (Tiv. Tirukkur-un. 11); pan.t.akka_ran- rich man; owner of goods (Ta.lex.) Goldsmith: bad.ahal, bad.a_la_ goldsmith (Si.); bad.al-vad.a goldsmith's trade (Si.); bad.ahal potter (Si.); bha~d.sa_l, bha~d.sa_r, bhansa_l storehouse, granary (H.); bad.ahala pottery (Si.)(CDIAL 9441). pala-pat.t.at.ai store room in which diverse articles are kept; people of various castes; a general tax on merchants and artisans (Ta.lex.) For semant. 'artisan' X 'workshop' : Workshop; anvil; smithy: pat.t.ar-ai, pat.t.arai machine; rice-hulling machine; factory; pat.t.at.ai smithy, forge (Ta.); pat.t.ad.i id. (Ka.) (Ta.lex.) pat.t.at.ai anvil (Kur-al., 821); pat.t.ar-ai anvil (Ta.); pat.t.ad.e, pat.t.ad.i anvil, workshop (Ka.); pat.t.ika, pat.t.ed.a anvil; pat.t.ad.a workshop (Te.)(DEDR 3865). pat.t.at.aiya_r master of a shop; overseer (Ta.lex.) bha_n.d.ika_ an implement, a tool, utensil; bha_n.d.am any tool or instrument, an implement (Skt.lex.)

193

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bat.a = a quail, or snipe, coturuix coturnix cot; bon.d.e bat.a = a large quail; dak bat.a = the painted stripe, rostraluta benghalensis bengh; gun.d.ri bat.a = a small type, coloured like a gun.d.ri (quail); ku~k bat.a = a medium-sized type; khed.ra bat.a = the smallest of all; lan.d.ha bat.a = a small type (Santali.lex.) bat.ai, (Nag.); bat.er (Has.); [H. bat.ai or bat.er perdix olivacea; Sad. bat.ai] coturnix coromandelica, the black-breasted or rain-quail; two other kinds of quail are called respectigely: hur.in bat.ai and gerea bat.ai (Mundari.lex.) vartaka = a duck (Skt.) batak = a duck (G.lex.) vartika_ = quail (RV.); wuwrc partridge (Ash.); barti = quail, partridge (Kho.); vat.t.aka_ quail (Pali); vat.t.aya (Pkt.); bat.t.ai (N.)(CDIAL 11361). varta = *circular object; *turning round (Skt.); vat.u = twist (S.)(CDIAL 11346) bat.a; rebus, bat.a ‘iron’; bhat.a ‘furnace’ (Santali) In such mlecchita vikalpa, writing system of smiths, the duck in circle may have connoted a workshop with a furnace for smelting bat.a 'iron'. Hence, the depiction of a duck, batak (Skt.)

Some alternative homonyms to match the pictograph (? a ligature of circle + swan): khera_ = large duck (Jat.ki_); ker.a = shield; geri = fish-hook ta_ra_ = duck; ta_rai = discus weapon (Ta.); ta_ru = the arrows of weavers which hold the yarn (Ma.) 8056.Image: duck: plava a kind of duck (Skt.Ka.)(Ka.lex.) cf. plu float (Skt.)(CDIAL 9025).Image: 4755.Image: duck: ta_ra_ duck (Pata_rtta. 890)(Ta.lex.) ta_r-a_vu duck (Ma.)(DEDR 3169). tarat. a kind of duck (Skt.)(Skt.lex.) cf. ta.r, t.a_reng (hen) cackles (Kol.); tarp- to cackle (Pa.)(DEDR 3173). a_ri duck (Dm.Kal.); a_ri_ (Gaw.); al.i (Kho.); e_r (Bshk.); a_r (Tor.); he_r.i_ (Phal.); a_r.i_ (S.); a_r.i turdus ginginianus (B.); a web-footed bird (Or.); a_r. turdus ginginianus (H.); a_d.l.i_ (M.); a_d.i_ (M.); a_reli_ duck (Gaw.); a_ti an aquatic bird (RV.); a_t.a a partic. kind of bird (Pali); a_d.i (Pkt.); a_r.i duck (Wg.); warg-a_r.i_ lit. 'water-duck'(Ash.)(CDIAL 1127). tarad a kind of duck (Skt.lex.) cf. taran:ga wave (R.Pali); taram.ga (Pkt.); taran:g (P.); taran. brook, current, stream of water (Ku.); taran:ga, tagara wave (Si.)(CIDAL 5699). 4349.Image: goose: ta_d.igya the barred-headed goose, anser indicus (Ka.lex.) 3057.Image: goose: cakkaram ruddy goose, anas cascara; cakra-va_ka-p-pul. (Ta.lex.); kal.akam kalahamsa, hamsa, swan; lime mortar; sheaf of paddy (Ta.lex.) cakrava_ka the ruddy goose anas casarca (RV.); cakkava_ka (Pali); cakava_e (As'.); cakkava_ya, cakka_a (Pkt.); c.a_kav the ruddy sheldrake casarca (K.); cakuo a. casarca (K.); cakva_, cakvi_ (P.); c.ekkro~, pl. c.ekkru (WPah.); cakhewa_ (N.); sakowa_, sa_kai (A.); caka_ (B.); cakua_ (Or.); cakui (Or.); cakawa_, cakewa_ (Mth.); cakawa_ (Aw.); cakai_ (Aw.H.); cakwa_ (H.); cakvo, cakvi_ (G.); c.akva_, c.akvi_ (M.); sakva_ (Si.)(CDIAL 4551). cf. cako_ra the red partridge, perdix rufa (MBh.Pali); cako_raka (Skt.); cker (Wkh.); cago_ra, cao_ra, cao_raga (Pkt.); siyura_, sivura_ (Si.); cakoru (S.); cakor (P.); cakro, ca_kura_, ca_kuri_ (WPah.); ca_khoro (Garh.); ca_khur.o (Ku.); ca_khuro (N.); cakor (B.Mth.H.G.M.); can:ko_ra (Pali)(CDIAL 4536). sa~k a goose (Santali.lex.) 86.Image: swan: a_s, a_sa_ duck (Kon.lex.) ajam < ham.sa swan (Tiva_.); ham.sa mantra, ajapa_mantiram (Ka_cippu. Tiruve_ka. 28)(Ta.lex.) ham.sa goose (RV.); ham.saka (Skt.); ham.sa goose (Pali.As'.Pkt.); hanza (Sh.); unzu, anzi (K.); haju (S.); ha~_s duck (N.); ha~_h duck, goose (A.) Substantive: ta_ra_m a copper coin, ½ pice or ½ fanam (Ma.); ta_ra a copper coin of two ka_su (Ka.); two pie (Tu.)(DEDR 3168). Glyph: ta_ra_ duck, heron (Ta.); ta_r.a_vu duck (Ma.)(DEDR 3169). 194

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karkara = a hammer (Skt.lex.) karkara = a sort of duck or goose (Ka.lex.) kor.o Has. Syn. of ged.e, ger.e Nag. A domesticated duck, anas domestica (Mundari.lex.) ged.e = a duck (Santali.lex.) ka_ran.d.avamu = a sort of duck (Te.lex.) ka_ran.d.ava = a duck (G.lex.) Rebus: kod. ‘workshop’. phut.a = the hood or expanded neck of a snake (Skt.)

Lothal056

7100

h059

5120

kut.i = the eyebrows (Santali.lex.)

kut.i = a slice, a bit, a small piece (Santali.lex.Bodding) sal stake, spike, splinter, thorn, difficulty (H.); sal.i_ small thin stick; sal.iyo bar, rod, pricker (G.); s'ol. reed (Kho.)(CDIAL 12343). salleha, selleha = splinter (Ka.lex.) sal ‘workshop’ (Santali); s’a_la id. (Skt.) bed.a ‘either of the sides of a hearth’ (G.) bhin.d.a a lump, applied especially to the mass of iron taken from the smelting furnace (Santali) hako = axe (Santali) hak to split (Bahnar); hak to tear; jik to cut (Stieng); gc? axe (Bonda) cf. paku (pakuv-, pakk-) to be split, divided (Ta.) (DEDR 3808). hako, bed.a hako a fish (Santali) kut.he = leg of bedstead or chair (Santali.lex.) kampat.t.tam coinage coin (Ta.); kammat.t.am kammit.t.am coinage, mint (Ma.); kammat.a id.; kammat.i a coiner (Ka.)(DEDR 1236) kotar [Skt. kot.ara = a hollow, a hole; cf. kot.aravum = to dig, to carve] a den; kotaran.i_ an engraving; an instrument for engraving; kotaravum [Skt. kr.d cut] = to engrave, to carve (G.lex.) kut.am = hub of a wheel (Ta.lex.) 195

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kut.i = the upper end of a husking pole (Mundari.lex.) kot.ho = the upper part of an an:garakha (G.lex.) ku_t.u nest, coop (Ta.); ku_n.t.u hen-coop (Ma.); gu_d.e nest (Ga.)(DEDR 1883). m0026a 2074 [Note the top part of the standard device, shaped like a coop?] Note the imagery of a coop or cage on some orthographic styles of the 'device' in front of the one-horned bull. ku_t.u top of the drill for boring holes; mortise, groove, in carpentry (Ta.lex.) [Note some variants of the standard device depicted like a coconut shell]. gud.iga_re a turner and a cabinet maker (Tu.lex.) gud.ga_r turner (Kon.lex.) gud.iga_re a turner and a cabinet maker (Tu.lex.) Headman kor-r-avan- (Ta.)(IL 1829) Naked woman kot.a_ri = naked woman (IL 1829a) Branch of a tree ko_t.u, ko_t.aram (Ta.) khu~t. kat.a = land reclaimed by the cultivator (Santali) khu~t. = a community, sect, society, division, clique, schism, stock; khu~t.ren per.a kanako = they belong to the same stock (Santali) khu_t. Nag. khu~t., ku_t. Has. (Or. khu_t.) either of the two branches of the village family. These are paha_r.khu_t. Nag. pa_r.a_ku_t. Has. The elder branch, to which the official village sacrificer must belong, and the mund.akhu_t., the younger branch, in which the position of village chief is hereditary. (Mundari.lex.) ku_t.a a house, dwelling (Skt.lex.) kaut.a living in one's own house, hence, independent, free; kaut.ika-taks.a (opp. to gra_ma-taks.a) an independent carpenter, one who works at home on his own account and not for the village (Skt.lex.) gra_ma-ku_t.a = village chief (Skt.lex.) kut.ha_ru = writer (G.) kut.ra = to make into pieces; khutur = sound of crunching; khutri = to shred, to make into small pieces (Santali) khot.rao = to scrape, to cut by a scraping action, to scrape out of a hollow, to gouge (Santali.lex.) kut.aga, kut.ika, kut.aka = one who beats; kalukut.iga = one who beats stone (Ka.lex.) khun.t.iyo = a man versed in witchcraft (Surat.G.lex.) kot.t.eti hews, breaks, crushes (Pali); ku_t.ab to roughen a millstone with a chisel (Bi.)(CDIAL 3241).ku_t.ud.u = a stone cutter (Te.lex.) kut.ha_ri = an axe-bearer, a chief of the door-keepers (Ka.lex.) kot.t.i = going one's rounds as a watchman; ko_t.ika_d.u, kot.t.ika_d.u = watchman (Te.lex.) as.t.a_das'apradha_na = the eighteen nobles in close attendance on a king: paurohita, dan.d.ana_tha, adhyaks.a, adhika_ri, mantri, pradha_na, maho_gra_n.i, bhan.d.a_ri, sena_na_yaka, sandhivigrahi, pratiha_ri, antasthita, dva_rapa_la, karan.ika, dan.d.apa_n.i, kut.ha_ri, sthalava_ra, yuvara_ja (Ka.lex.) go_dari = a man of the Moochi caste, who live by lacquer work, painting toys (Te.lex.) god.a_ri, god.agari = a shoe-maker, a cobbler; god.agara = a caste of cobblers (Te.lex.) kot.t.ad.i = a storehouse, warehouse, godown; kot.a_ri, kot.ha_ri = a store-keeper; kot.a_ramu, kot.a_ru = a place to keep grain, salt etc.; a storehouse, bank-stall, magazine, depository (Te.lex.) [Note the semant., 'magazine', in the context of kut.ha_ru = armourer]. Tent, house

kut.a_ram (Ta.)(IL 4872)

196

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kut.aramu, kut.haramu = the post round which the string of the churning stick passes (Te.lex.) [Note the post around which a symmetrical imagery with two heads of 'one-horned bulls' and nine leaves are depicted on an inscribed object.] kut.i, kut.hi, kut.a, kut.ha a tree (Kaus'.); kud.a tree (Pkt.); kur.a_ tree; kar.ek tree, oak (Pas;.)(CDIAL 3228). kut.ha, kut.a (Ka.), kudal (Go.) kudar. (Go.) kut.ha_ra, kut.ha, kut.aka = a tree (Skt.lex.) Rebus: kut.ha_ra ‘armourer’ (Skt.) kut., kurun: = stump of a tree (Bond.a); khut. = id. (Or.) kut.amu = a tree (Te.lex.) Rebus: kut.hi ‘smelter furnace’ (Santali) khun.t.ut = a stump of a tree left in the ground; gun.d.ra = a stump (Santali.lex.) kut.amu = a tree (Te.lex.) kut.am = a hammer (Santali) Vikalpa: ruk birik, ruk birit trees (Santali) Image: hole: rukhi an atom, a grain, a shred, a particle (Santali) ro_ka a hole, an aperture, a cavity (Ka.); ruks.a a star (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) ro_kam a hole (Skt.lex.) Image: particle, atom: rukhi an atom, a grain, a shred (Santali.lex.) rok to pierce, to perforate, to sew, to pin, to butt, to gore (Santali.lex.) ruka, rukna a chisel (Mu.); rukhna (Sadani)(Mu.lex.) uruvu-tal to pierce through, penetrate, as an arrow, a needle (Tiruva_ca. 28,2) (Ta.) (Ta.lex.) ruka = a carpenter’s chisel; kund ruka = a chisel for cutting out round holes, mainly the axle holes of a wheel; chumni ruka = a small chisel; roka d.at.a = the front teeth, two above, two below (Santali.lex.) Glyph: small branches of a tree; twig, sprig, tree Substantives: aduru ‘native metal’; cul.l.ai = kiln, furnace; rebus: cul.l.i = sprig, branch ad.rna_ to twist back one’s limbs or bend the body inward (as under threat of a blow)(Kur.); ad.re to strut; ad.ro a swaggerer (Malt.)(DEDR 108). [cf. the glyphs of antelope and tiger with their heads turned backwards.] ad.aru twig; ad.iri small and thin branch of a tree; ad.ari small branches (Ka.); ad.aru twig (Tu.)(DEDR 67). Cf. at.artti = thickly grown as with bushes and branches (Ta.) d.ar a branch; dare a tree; a plant; to grow well; ban: darelena it did not grow well; toa dare mother, the support of life (Santali) Thus, the glyph of a standing person with other glyptic features of the back of a bovine, twig and ficusleaved-arch can be explained as: d.ha~gar ‘smith’; aduru ‘native metal’; loh ‘iron’; that is, a blacksmith working with iron and native metal (maybe, natural copper + arsenic alloy).

Kalibangan076B kut.i, kut.hi, kut.a, kut.ha a tree (Kaus'.); kud.a tree (Pkt.); kur.a_ tree; kar.ek tree, oak (Pas;.)(CDIAL 3228). kut.ha, kut.a (Ka.), kudal (Go.) kudar. (Go.) kut.ha_ra, kut.ha, kut.aka = a tree (Skt.lex.) kut., kurun: = stump of a tree (Bond.a); khut. = id. (Or.) kut.amu = a tree (Te.lex.) Rebus: kut.hi ‘a furnace for smelting iron ore to smelt iron’; kolheko kut.hieda koles smelt iron (Santali) kol ‘tiger’ (Santali) Tree glyph 197

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Molded terracotta tablet showing a tree with branches; the stem emanates from a platform (ingot?). Harappa. (After JM Kenoyer/Courtesy Dept. of Archaeology and Museums, Govt. of Pakistan). kut.i, kut.am = tree; rebus: kut.hi = furnace man.d.a_ = warehouse, workshop (Kon.lex.) man.n.u to do, perform, adorn, decorate, polish (Ta.); man.ai to create, fashion (Ta.); manayuka, maniyuka to fashion, form earthenware, make as a potter (Ma.)(DEDR 4685). man.i jewel of office (Skt.); man.iyam office of the village headman (Ta.); superintendence of temples, palaces, villages (Ma.); man.e.v, man.ye.v the office of monegar (Ko.); man.iya, man.iha, man.eya, man.e superintendence of temples, maths, palaces, custom-houses (Ka.); man.iga_re revenue inspector (Tu.); man.iyamu office or duties of the manager of a temple (Te.)(DEDR 4674). Glyph: platform: man.d.hwa, man.d.ua, man.d.wa ‘a temporary shed or booth erected on the occasion of a marriage’; man.d.om ‘a raised platform or scaffold’; ma~r.om ‘a platform, used to keep straw on, or from which to watch crops’ (Santali) man.ai low wooden seat, low earthen dais, wooden base of cutting instyruments, footstool (Ta.); man.i, man.e stool, low bench, seat (Ka.); man.e low stool to sit upon (Tu.)(DEDR 4675). Slide 205 (harappa.com) Faience tablet or standard. This unique moldmade faience tablet or standard (H2000-4483/2342-01) was found in the eroded levels west of the tablet workshop in Trench 54. On one side is a short inscription under a rectangular box filled with 24 dots (or one pairs of 12 dots). The reverse has a narrative scene with two bulls fighting under a thorny tree. On one side of the tablet is depicted a pair of butting (or fighting, dan:ga) bulls, d.an:gra (blacksmith) [d.an:gra janum = prickly plant bare of leaves depicted as a phonetic determinant; janum is a thorn, thorny tree or bush]. He is also a san:gatara_su stone-cutter; san:gad.i = pair. Often, the bull is shown feeding from a trough (again, a phonetic determinant): d.a_n:gra = wooden trough or manger sufficient to feed one animal. Thus, when a bull with a trough is shown, the substantive is d.an:gra, blacksmith. A synonym is a tree bare of leaves, d.an:gra. When two butting bulls are shown, he is a d.an:gra (blacksmith) who is also a san:gatara_su, stone-cutter. d.an:gra janum = a rather uncommon plant, one of the very few prickly thistles found in Santalia, echinops echinatus, D.C. (Santali.lex.) d.ha_kal. = bare of leaves (M.) d.hen.d.ra = bare as a tree; having think scanty hair (Santali.lex.) Substantive: dha~gar ‘blacksmith’ Glyph: sal a gregarious forest tree, shorea robusta; kambra a kind of tree (Santali) Substantive: sal workshop (Santali) The bulls standing face to face: samna samni = face to face (Santali); rebus: samanom 'gold' (Santali) homa = bison (Pengo); rebus: soma = electrum (RV) kut.i, kut.am = tree; rebus: kut.hi = furnace

198

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Thus the glyphs of one side of the tablet connote: gold furnace. baddi_ = ox (Nahali); bad.hi = worker in wood and metal (Santali) Glyph: sal a gregarious forest tree, shorea robusta; kambra a kind of tree (Santali) Substantive: sal shop as in workshop, place; kamar sal ‘smithy’ (Santali) sa_l workshop (B.) Twenty-four dots may be a grapheme analogous to the duplicated glyphs of twelve short linear strokes.

bed.a = twelve (pies)(Te.); san:gad.a = pair; rebus: bed.a 'hearth', san:gad.a 'furnace. The dots within a square on one side of the tablet may connote (copper) ingots or a storied house: Glyph: kot.ha a division, as a stripe or spot, the several parts of a pattern, in patterns; kabra kot.ha speckled, spotted; kot.ha kot.hage neloka it is in patterns (Santali) kot.ha an upper story, a ceiling; kot.ha or.ak a house with an upper story, or a house with a ceiling (Santali) kanda kondo ‘with lumps’; rebus: kan.d. ‘furnace’ Glyph: square ‘khon.d.’ (Santali) Substantive: gan.d.a pit (furnace); garn.d.a_lu a stalwart man, giant (Kod.) Glyph: ad.ar attack (Ka.) Substantive: aduru ‘native metal’ (Santali)

8.04 Moulded tablet 3 sides

har612 faience tablet, bas-relief.

Tree in front. Fish in front of and above a one-horned bull. Cylinder seal impression (IM 8028), Ur, Mesopotamia. White shell. 1.7 cm. High, dia. 0.9 cm. [Cf. T.C. Mitchell, 1986, Indus and Gulf type seals from Ur in: Shaikha Haya Ali Al Khalifa and Michael Rice, 1986, Bahrain through the ages: the archaeology, London: 280-1, no.8 and fig. 112]. "No.7...A bull, unhumped, of the so-called 'unicorn' type, raises his head towards a simplified version of a tree, and two uncertain objects, one a sort of trefoil, are shown above his back. Under his head is an unmistakable character of the Indus script, the 'fish' with cross-hatchings..." (C.J. Gadd, Seals of Ancient Indian Style Found at Ur', in: G.L. Possehl, ed., 1979, Ancient Cities of the Indus, Delhi, Vikas Publishing House, p. 117). The ‘uncertain’ glyphs above the back of the bull may be: fish + Y The glyph Y is like a fork on Sign 161

Sign 161 Fork 199

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bara_s carpenter's forked instrument (Tu.lex.) barca the iron part of a spear (Mu.); cf. barcha_ (Oraon.); barca (Sadani.); barci (M.); barca the spearhead when the shaft is of wood, and the whole spear, when the shaft and point are one single piece of iron, in which case the cmpd. mer.edbarca is used (cf. Pl. IV.A.)(Mu.lex.) [Perh. metath. barca = pra_sa]. 7373a.Axe: paras’u axe (RV.); parasu axe (Pali.Pkt.); parsa_ hatchet; parsiya_ reaping hook (H.); porova axe (Si.); furo_ (Md.); pharasu axe ((Pali.Pkt.); phars (Ku.); pharsa_ long-handled battle-axe (N.); pharsa_ axe (B.H.); phars'i_ (G.); pharas battle-axe (M.); phars'i_ battle-axe, large chisel (M.)(CDIAL 7799h). pars'u axe (R.); pam.su axe (Pkt.); po_s (Ash.); pec large axe (Kt.); pec, poc (Bashg.); pa_u~si vegetable chopper (Or.); pihiyal, pihiye, pi_haya knife, chopper (Si.); pa_so head of iron instrument such as axe or spade (N.)(CDIAL 7947). pars'vadha axe (Skt.); paras'vadha (MBh.); paras'udhara Gan.e_s'a, Paras'ura_ma, a soldier armed with an axe; paras'u, parasu an axe, a hatchet (Ka.lex.) pharsa_ = hatchet pharha_ = spearhead; phal = blade, arrowhead

kan.t.a = a fork, grapnel (Santali.lex.) A fish in front of and over a short-horned bull and a bird over a onehorned bull; cylinder seal impression (IM 87798), Tell as-Sulema (2: 662/236) in Mesopotamia, level IV (Akkadian to early Old Babylonian). Gypsum. 2.6 cm. Long 1.6 cm. Dia. [Drawing by Larnia Al-Gailani Werr. Cf. Dominique Collon 1987, First impressions: cylinder seals in the ancient Near East, London: 143, no. 609] bat.a = a quail, or snipe, coturuix coturnix cot; bon.d.e bat.a = a large quail; dak bat.a = the painted stripe, rostraluta benghalensis bengh; gun.d.ri bat.a = a small type, coloured like a gun.d.ri (quail); ku~k bat.a = a medium-sized type; khed.ra bat.a = the smallest of all; lan.d.ha bat.a = a small type (Santali.lex.) bat.ai, (Nag.); bat.er (Has.); [H. bat.ai or bat.er perdix olivacea; Sad. bat.ai] coturnix coromandelica, the black-breasted or rain-quail; two other kinds of quail are called respectigely: hur.in bat.ai and gerea bat.ai (Mundari.lex.) vartaka = a duck (Skt.) batak = a duck (G.lex.) vartika_ = quail (RV.); wuwrc partridge (Ash.); barti = quail, partridge (Kho.); vat.t.aka_ quail (Pali); vat.t.aya (Pkt.); bat.t.ai (N.)(CDIAL 11361). varta = *circular object; *turning round (Skt.); vat.u = twist (S.)(CDIAL 11346) bat.er = quail (Ku.B.); bat.ara, batara = the grey quail (Or.)(CDIAL 11350). bat.a; rebus, bat.a ‘iron’ a~s = scales of fish (Santali); rebus: aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.)

h185A

5332

h185B

5279

h183A

h193A

h183B

h193B

4327

200

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h184A

h184B h723At h723Bt [Glyph: bala ‘bangle’; Substantive: bal ‘iron ore’; Glyph: dohra ‘two’, Substantive: doht.a ‘house’; kan.d. ‘rim of pot’; kan.d. ‘furnace’]

m1370a

2509 Cylinder seal; tree branch

h845At

h845Bt

h845Ct [Substantive: dar ‘a trench’; Glyph: dare ‘a tree’ (Santali)] d.ha_l.ako = a large metal ingot (G.) d.a_l. = a branch of tree (G.)

[Pl. 39, Tree symbol (often on a platform) on punch-marked coins; a symbol recurring on many tablets of SSVC].

8.04 Moulded tablet 3 sides

har612 faience tablet, bas-relief.

201

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h185A

4323

h185B

191A

h192B

5340

h194B

h195A

4327

5279

h191B

h193A

h195B

h184A

4326

h184B

h720At

4332

h187A

h718Bt

h193B

5332

h720Bt

h194A

h183A

h187B

h188A

4328

h190B

h192A

h718At

within a railing or on a platform.

4325

h190A

h183B

5282 Pict-75: Tree, generally

h188B

h719At

h722At

h719Bt

h722Bt

h723At

h723Bt [Glyph: bala ‘bangle’; Substantive: bal ‘iron ore’; Glyph: dohra ‘two’, Substantive: doht.a ‘house’; kan.d. ‘rim of pot’; kan.d. ‘furnace’]

202

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h724At

h724Bt

h726At

h729Bt

h732At

5255

h727Bt

h727At

4331

h730At

h732Bt

horizontally].

h727Bt

h733Bt

h725Bt

h728At

h730Bt

h733At

h734Bt

h725At

h731At

5222

h728Bt

h731Bt

h734At

5286 [Side b on h733 and h734 has the tree glyph depicted

h735At

h845At

h735Bt

5310

h739At

h739Bt

m1370a

2509 Cylinder seal; tree

h845Bt

h845Ct

branch h845At h845Bt h845Ct [Substantive: dar ‘a trench’; Glyph: dare ‘a tree’ (Santali)].) d.a_l. = a branch of tree (G.) Rebus: d.ha_l.ako = a large metal ingot (G.)

m1657A steatite identical pictographs of a 'tree'.

m0500at

m1657B steatite both sides of a steatite ornament; contains

m0500bt

2604 203

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[kut.haru = tree; ku_d.ali = cross-roads]. Rebus: kut.ha_ru ‘armourer’ (Skt.) khun.t.ut = a stump of a tree left in the ground; gun.d.ra = a stump (Santali.lex.) kut.amu = a tree (Te.lex.) kut.am = a hammer (Santali) kut.i ‘tree’; Rebus: kut.i, ‘smelting furnace’ (Mundari.lex.). Water-carrier glyph8 Seal impression, Ur (Upenn; U.16747); [After Edith Porada, 1971, Remarks on seals found in the Gulf States. Artibus Asiae 33 (4): 331-7: pl.9, fig.5]; Parpola, 1994, p. 183; water carrier with a skin (or pot?) hung on each end of the yoke across his shoulders and another one below the crook of his left arm; the vessel on the right end of his yoke is over a receptacle for the water; a star on either side of the head (denoting supernatural?). The two celestial objects depicted on either side of the water-carrier’s head can be interpreted as a phonetic determinant: ko_l. ‘planet’. The whole object is enclosed by 'parenthesis' marks. The parenthesis is perhaps a way of splitting of the ellipse (Hunter, G.R., JRAS, 1932, 476). An unmistakable example of an 'hieroglyphic' seal. enclosure signs of the field: Rebus: kol = metal (Ta.) Two ko_l. ‘planets’; rebus: kut.hi kol kin = two furnaces for metal vessels. ( ) kut.ila = bent, crooked (Skt.) kut.ila (Skt. Rasaratna samuccaya, 5.205) Humpbacked kud.illa (Pkt.) ( ) The glyph of a curved line when mirrored becomes a ligature, an enclosure to other glyphs.

Sign 12 (80) kut.i ‘water carrier’; rebus: kut.hi ‘furnace’ is a ligature of kan.d.a kanka ‘rim of pot’ + kut.i ‘water carrier’. Rebus: kan.d.a kanka ‘altar for copper’ + kut.hi ‘metal furnace’. Graphemes, i.e. glyphs which could be rebus for kol ‘metal’: kol.i_ = water carrier (M.) xola_ = tail (Kur.); qoli = id. (Malt.)(DEDR 2135). kolli = a fish (Ma.); koleji id. (Tu.)(DEDR 2139). ko_la_ flying fish, exocaetus, garfish, belone (Ta.) ko_la_n, ko_li needle-fish (Ma.)(DEDR 2241). ko_li = a stubble of jo_l.a (Ka.) ko_le a stub or stumpof corn (Te.)(DEDR 2242). ko_l.i banyan, fig, tree bearing fruit without outwardly blossoming (Ta.); an epidendron, grasping plant (some figs are of this nature)(Ma.); ko_n.i fig (Ta.); go_l.i all kinds of fig trees which bear no apparent flowers; banyan; ficus elastica (Ka.); go_n.i ficus elastica, ficus religiosa (Ka.); go_l.ida mara banyan tree, ficus indica (Tu.)(DEDR 2254). gullhar, gullar ficus glomerata (P.); gullar a particular kind of fig tree (N.); gu_lar ficus glomerata (H.); gular, guler, gulro (G.)(CDIAL 4218). kur-u-v-a_l jointed ovate-leaved fig (Ta.); kurivi-y-a_lan- a common avenue-fig having stout air-roots, ficus (B. 91)(Ta.lex.) ko_li a stubble of jo_l.a (Ka.); ko_le a stump or stub of corn (Te.)(DEDR 2242). ko_r. a sheaf in the field (Go.); xo_l rice-sheaf (Kur.)(DEDR 2253). ko_l raft, float (Ta.Ka.); kola boat, raft (Skt.BHSkt.); kulla (Palli)(DEDR 2238) ko_la decoration (Ka.); ko_lam = form (Ta.Ma.)(DEDR 2240). 204

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Rebus: kol = metal (Ta.)

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Sign 15 (126)

Sign 15: Ligature: kut.i ‘water-carrier’ + kanka ‘rim of pot’; rebus: kut.hi ‘furnace’ + kan- ‘copper Pairing glyph: kan:kata = comb (Te.) Rebus: kan:gar = portable furnace (K.) gad.d.a proyyi = a fireplace or hearth with 3 or 4 inverted hemispherical clods placed on it (Te.)

kut.ila, katthi_l = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) [cf. a_ra-ku_t.a, ‘brass’ (Skt.)] Thus the ligatured glyph with enclosing ‘brackets’ connotes a bronze furnace: kut.ila kut.hi The vivid use of the Sign 15 as a pictograph is found on m-1405: a person stands at the centre, points to a short-horned bull facing a trough, with his right hand and to the Sign 15, with his left hand.

m1405At Pict-97: Person standing at the center pointing with his right hand at a bison

facing a trough, and with his left hand pointing to the sign [bali ‘bull’; bali ‘iron’; tagar. ‘trough’; tagara ‘tin’; kan.d.kanka ‘rim of pot’; kan- kand. ‘copperfurnace’; kut.i ‘woman water-carrier’ (Te.); rebus: kut.hi = furnace; alternative: kol.i ‘water-carrier’; kolhe ‘smelters of iron’.]

Sign 12 kut.i = a woman water-carrier (Te.) kut.i = to drink; drinking, beverage (Ta.); drinking, water drunk after meals (Ma.); kud.t- to drink (To.); kud.i to drink; drinking (Ka.); kud.i to drink (Kod.); kud.i right, right hand (Te.); kut.i_ intoxicating liquor (Skt.)(DEDR 1654). Obverse: A tiger and a rhinoceros in file. m1405Bt Pict-48 A tiger and a rhinoceros in file [kha~g ‘rhino’; rebus: kan:gar ‘furnace’; kol ‘tiger’; rebus: kolhe ‘smelters of iron’.] kol metal (Ta.) kol = pan~calo_kam (five metals) (Ta.lex.) Thus, the entwined figures of 3 or more tigers may connote an alloy of 3 or more metals. The person standing between the sign 15 and the bull facing a trough has his arm raised: er-aka, ‘raised arm’ = rebus: copper. The bull (d.an:gra) facing a (phonetic determinant) trough (d.an:gra) is rebus: blacksmith. Thus the inscription on m1405At can be read as: d.an:gra er-aka kan.d kanka kut.i = rebus: blacksmith copper gold furnace of the smelter. [kan.d. = a furnace, altar (Santali.lex.)]

205

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m0670

m0874

3092

m0035a

2333

Sign 15 is a ligature of Sign 12 and Sign 342 Thus, Sign 15 can be orthographically read as: kola, kol.i = water-carrier; khan.d.a kanka = rim of a jar. The rebus representation, i.e. homonyms could be: kanaka = gold; kolhe = smelters of iron.] 2841 Is the Sign 12 (a component of the ligatured Sign 15) a synonym of the tiger (jackal), kola? If so, the ligatured sign 15 can be read as: kan.d. kanka kol.i = short-neck of jar + water-carrier = rebus: gold furnace of the smelter (kol) The person standing between the sign 15 and the bull facing a trough has his arm raised: er-aka, ‘raised arm’ = rebus: copper. The bull (d.an:gra) facing a (phonetic determinant) trough (d.an:gra) is rebus: blacksmith. Thus the inscription on m1405At can be read as: d.an:gra er-aka kan.d kanka kol.i = rebus: blacksmith copper gold furnace of the

h073

smelter.

m0838

2239

2368

Lothal042

m0328

4617 [An orthographic representation of a water-carrier].

m0215

3081

m0188

m0429 Text

m0741

1287

2862

m0229

Kalibangan020

2421

m0969

3075

8047

h081 5063 m0995 Chanhudaro21a 6209 The second sign is a ligature: carrying pole with slings + rim of pot: ka_ca + kan.d.kankha (Substantive: iron spit + furnace)

Chanhudaro Seal obverse and reverse. The ‘water-carrier’ and X signs of this so-called Jhukar culture seal are comparable to other inscriptions. Fig. 3 and 3a of Plate L. After Mackay, 1943. 6120

206

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Kalibangan049

8013

2421

m0741

5123 9851 Telloh

9842 Ur [Pierre de talc. Louvre, AO 9036. P. Amiet, Bas-relliefs imaginaries de l’Orient ancien, Paris, 1973, p. 94, no. 274…ils proviendrait de Tello, l’ancienne Girsu, une des cites de l’Etat sumerien de Lagash. Musee National De Arts Asiatiques Guimet, 1988-1989, Les cites oubliees de l’Indus Archeologie du Pakistan.] kut.amu = a tree (Te.lex.)

(10)

Sign 28 (50)

Ligature on sign 28: dhanus ‘bow’ (Skt.) dhan.i_ = the owner, the possessor (G.) Glyph: kama_t.hiyo = archer; ka_mat.hum = a bow; ka_mad.i_, ka_mad.um = a chip of bamboo (G.) ka_mat.hiyo a bowman; an archer (Skt.lex.) Rebus: kamat.ha_yo ‘a learned carpenter or mason, working on scientific principles’ (Santali) kammat.a = mint, gold furnace (Te.) Pairing sign: kolmo = graft; rebus: kolme = furnace (Ka.) Altenative: t.agara = taberna mntana (Skt.) t.agromi = tin metal alloy (Kuwi) V305 V307 ka_m.t.hi, Glyph: kamat.ha bamboo (Skt.) ka_ca bhangi pole (Kuwi); ka_njui_ (pl. ka_ska) a banghi (Kuwi); ka_sa the shaft of a ka_vr.i (Kond.aj. Kui); ka_nj carrying yoke (Kond.a); ka_nju id. (Kui.Kuwi); ka_ca, ka_ja (Skt.); ka_ca, ka_ja (Pkt.); ka_a a yoke to support burdens (Pkt.); ka_ pole with ropes hung on each end, used to carry loads on the shoulder (Ta.); ka_gad.i, ka_vad.i bamboo lath or pole provided with slings at each end for the conveyance of pitchers (Ka.); ka_nja_na_, ka_nj to carry on the shoulders (Go.); ka_vat.i pole used for carrying burdens (Ta.); ka_vu to carry on the shoulder, bear anything heavy on the arms (Ta.); ka_vu, ka_vat.i split bamboo with ropes suspended from each end for carrying burdens (Ma.); ka_vad.i id. (Tu.); ka_vat.i, ka_vad.i id. (Te.); ka_vuka, ka_vikka to carry on a pole (Ma.); ka_var.i carrying yoke (Kol.); ka_vr.i, ka_ver.i, ka_vir.(i); ka_har.i (Go.); ka_vr.i id. (Mand. Pe.); ka_vad.a id. (Pkt.); ka_vad.ia one who carries burdens with yoke (Pkt.); ka_war. carrying yoke (H.)(CDIAL 3009, 3011, 2760; DEDR 1417).ka_mat.hum [Skt. kamat.ha a bamboo] a bow (G.lex.) kamat.ha = bamboo; kambi = shoot of bamboo; karmuka = bow (Mn.); kamad.ha, kamad.haya = bamboo (Pkt.); ko_ro = bamboo poles (Bhoj.); ka_mro bamboo, lath, pieces of wood (N.); ka_mvari bamboo pole with slings at each end for carrying things (OAw.); ka~_war, ka_war., ka_war., ka_war (H.); ka_var. (G.); ka_vad. (M.); ka_vad.ia, 207

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kavva_d.ia one who carries a yoke (Pkt.); ka~_war.i_, ka~_war.iya_ (H.); ka_var.iyo (G.); ka_va_t.hi_ carrying pole (S.); ka_va_t.hyo the man who carries it (S.); ka_mar.a_, ka_mur.a_ rafters of a thatched house (Or.); ka_mr.u~ chip of bamboo; ka_mar.-kot.iyu~ = bamboo hut (G.); ka_m.t.ha_ bow (B.); ka_mt.hu~ (G.); kamt.ha_, kamt.a_ bow of bamboo or horn (M.); ka_mt.hiyo archer (G.); kaba_ri flat piece of bamboo used in smoothing an earthen image (A.); ka~_bi_t., ka~_bat., ka_~bt.i_, ka_mat., ka_mt.i_, ka_mt.hi_, ka_ma_t.hi_ split piece of bamboo etc., lath (M.)(CDIAL 2760). ka_jaha_raka = bearer of a carrying-pole (Pali); ka_ha_ra = carrier of water or other burdens (Pkt.)(CDIAL 3011). ka~d.i, ka~_d.i, ka_d.i (Te.), ka_har.i= carrying yoke (Go.); ka_n~, ka~_j, ka_nj (Ga.) xa_xo_ = triangular frame made by folding a bamboo stem used in pairs for carrying logs (Kur.); ka_nju_ (pl. ka_ska) = a banghi, ka_nju (Pl. ka_ska) carrying yoke (Kuwi) Glyph: (palanquin bearer) ka_ma_t.i_ [komat.i_ (M.)] a caste of hindus who are generally palanquin bearers and labourers (G.); ka_m work (G.) Substantive: ka_mat.ha_yo a learned carpenter or mason, working on scientific principles (G.) Thigh of a sitting person. urseal9Seal; BM 122945; U. 16181; dia. 2.25, ht. 1.05 cm; Gadd PBA 18 (1932), p. 10, pl. II; each of four quadrants terminates at the edge of the seal in a vase; each quadrant is occupied by a naked figure, sitting so that, following round the circle, the head of one is placed nearest to the feet of the preceding; two figures clasp their hands upon their breasts; the other two spread out the arms, beckoning with one hand. If the orthographic intent is to image a ‘thigh’; the homonyms are: ukka_ ‘thigh’ (RV); ukka_ furnace (Pkt.) Alternative: ku_t.i = hip (Kui); ku_t.u = hip (Tu.); kut.a thigh (Pe.)(DEDR 1885); rebus: kut.hi = furnace (Santali)

Terracotta female, Gumla; Terracotta miniature plough; Jawaiwala, Bahawalpur (Weiner, 1984, Figs. 187 and 188) ukka_ ‘thigh’ (Vedic) ukkalai the hips (Ta.); ukkal (Ma.); okkal, okkalai hip side of the body (Par..a. 290); okku (Ma.)(Ta.lex.) ukka_ ‘furnace’ (Skt.) was- = fireplace (To.)(DEDR 2857). The most emphatic rebus representation of the pubes of a woman yields the homonym kut.hi See http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati/smith/blacksmith.htm A symbolism of a woman spreading her legs apart, which recurs on an epigraph. Cylinder-seal impression from Ur showing a squatting female. L. Legrain, 1936, Ur excavations, Vol. 3, Archaic Seal Impressions. [cf. Nausharo seal with two scorpions flanking a similar glyph with legs apart – also looks like a frog]. Fig. 95; Susa, stamp seal of bitumen compound, Louvre, MDAI, 43, no. 1725; a woman shown full-face is squatting with legs apart, possibly on a stool. (A similar image of a woman with legs spread out occurs on an Ur seal impression and on a Mohenjodaro tablet). (Not illustrated). Why is a pair of scorpions shown flanking the woman glyph? A pair that is two is represented by: bar, barea = two (Santali.lex.) Rebus: ba~r.ia~ = merchant; bar.ae = blacksmith (Santali.lex.) Thus a pair of 208

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the same scorpion (rebus: kac ‘iron’) glyphs may connote that the seal belonged to an ‘iron merchant’ who had a smelter. (The reference to ‘iron’ may be to meteoric metal). See Appendix C Ardhasamskr.tam and semantic clusters from indic family of languages.

h180A h180B 4304 Tablet in bas-relief h180a Pict-106: Nude female figure upside down with thighs drawn apart and crab (?) issuing from her womb9; two tigers standing face to face rearing on their hindlegs at L. Pict-92: Man armed with a sickle-shaped weapon on his right hand and a cakra (?) on his left hand, facing a seated woman with disheveled hair and upraised arms. bar.ae-bur.ui = to oil and comb someone’s hair (Mundari.lex.) va_raki_ra = a small comb (Skt.); va_ruka = to comb (Ma.); va_r = to comb as hair (Ta.); ba_can.ige = a comb (Ka.); ba_grka_ wooden comb worn by boys and girls (Kur.)(DEDR 5357). ba_ran.e, ba_rane, ba_rpan.i = a comb; ba_runi = to comb the hair (Tu.lex.) Rebus: bar.ae ‘blacksmith’ (Santali) Glyph of disheveled hair may be connoted by lexemes: salae sapae = untangled, combed out, hair hanging loose (Santali.lex.) Rebus: sa_la = workshop (B.) sapap = arms, tools, implements, instruments, gear; sendra reak sapap = gear for hunting; raj mistri reak sapap = the tools of a mason; kurta rorok reak sapap = the tools with which to sew a coat (Santali) sal = wedge joining the parts of a solid cart wheel (Santali.lex.) sa_l = a joint that fitsa socket; sa_lvi_ a maker of joints, a carpenter (G.lex.) s’al.i_ [Skt. s’ala_ka_] a chip; a covert term for a quarter of a rupee, used by merchants in secret conversation (so called because a quarter of a rupee is represented by (i) in writing which resembles a s’al.i_ or chip (G.lex.) sal mon:garu = a very large and heavy mallet used to hammer together the three parts of a saga_r.i wheel so as to drive in the dowels (sal) tightly (Mundari.lex.) Pict103 Horned (female with breasts hanging down?) person with a tail and bovine legs 1357 standing near a tree fisting a horned tiger rearing on its hindlegs. go_ti = a woman (Te.lex.) got.i_ = a lump of silver (G.lex.) d.okri_ ‘old woman’ (Hi.); dokri, dukri ‘old woman’ (Kurku); d.okra_ ‘aged, old’ (Hi.Mar.) d.okro an old man; d.okri_ an old woman (G.) t.on:ku < d.on:ku (Te.) crookedness (Ta.); d.on:ku id. (Ka.)(Ta.lex.) dhokar.a decrepit, hanging down (of breasts)(Or.); duk hunched up, hump of camel (Kho.); doku humpbacked (K.); d.okro, d.okhro old man (Ku.); d.okra_ old, decrepit (B.); decrepit (H.); old man (M.)(CDIAL 5567). d.osa, d.usa having a maimed or bent body (from disease etc.)(K.)(CDIAL 5563). Substantive: dhokra ‘metal worker’ la_d.i_ a lass; a lassie; a bride; la_d.li_ a woman bred up in the midst of fondness and indulgence (G.) Glyph: lat. To subjugate, conquer (Santali) lad.avum to quarrel; lad.a_yi_, lad.ha_yi_ a fight; wrestling, a combat; a contest, a brawl, an affray; an altercation (G.) Glyph: lar.i having the hair tied in a knot at one side of the head instead of at the back (Santali) lat. A lock of hair; tangled hair; lat.iya_m pl. locks of hair; tangled hair (G.) 209

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lotta a hollow, a ravine, pit (Ka.); dent, depression, small pit or hollow; loddi a valley (Te.); loddi id. (Go.)(DEDR 5197). lot.iyo a section of Muhammadans; a Vohara_; a Bora_ (G.) lod.hum iron; a razor; a mason’s tool; lod.ha_m a carpenter’s iron tools (G.) la_d. [Skt. la_t.a, fr. Skt. ra_s.t.ra name of a country prob. Ka_t.hia_wa_d.a] an individual of a particular section among Wa_nia_s, merchants (G.) lad.vaiyo a warrior; a wrester, a combatant (G.) lar.hai to fight, to quarrel; lar.an:kar fighting, quarrelsome (Santali) lat. to take possession of, subjugate, conquer; lat.ak hindrance, intervention(Santali) la_t.i_ a place where timber or fuel is stored and sold (G.) lat. a string of pearls (G.) lat.t.ho a lump of gold; the axle of a cart-wheel (G.) lat. to take possession of (Santali)

V132 lod.ha a wave, a swing; lot. to shake (Skt.)(G.) lot.avum to roll over and over; to turn and toss about (G.)

1253 h461 4037 [ten:go ‘standing, axe’; kan.d.kankha ‘rim of pot, copper furnace’; pan.e ‘ficus, quarry’; loddi ‘wave, valley’; kot.u ‘curved, bent (Ta.) Substantive: ko.t.e palace (Kod.); kot.a hamlet (Malt.)(DEDR 2058) ko_d.i outlet of tank (Te.)(DEDR 2197); alternative: kor.va sickle (Kol.) i.e. two sickles.] kut.hi = pubes. kola ‘foetus’1 [Glyph of a foetus emerging from pudendum muliebre.] kut.hi = the pubes (lower down than pan.d.e) (Santali.lex.) kut.hi = the womb, the female sexual organ; sorrege kut.hi menaktaea, tale tale gidrakoa lit. her womb is near, she gets children continually (H. kot.hi_, the womb)(Santali.lex.Bodding) ko_s.t.ha = anyone of the large viscera (MBh.); kot.t.ha = stomach (Pali.Pkt.); kut.t.ha (Pkt.); kot.hi_ heart, breast (L.); kot.t.ha_, kot.ha_ belly (P.); kot.ho (G.); kot.ha_ (M.)(CDIAL 3545). kottha pertaining to the belly (Pkt.); kotha_ corpulent (Or.)(CDIAL 3510). Kot.ho [Skt. kos.t.ha inner part] the stomach, the belly (G.lex.) The bunch of twigs = ku_di_, ku_t.i_ (Skt.lex.) ku_di_ (also written as ku_t.i_ in manuscripts) occurs in the Atharvaveda (AV 5.19.12) and Kaus'ika Su_tra (Bloomsfield's ed.n, xliv. cf. Bloomsfield, American Journal of Philology, 11, 355; 12,416; Roth, Festgruss an Bohtlingk, 98) denotes it as a twig. This is identified as that of Badari_, the jujube tied to the body of the dead to efface their traces. (See Vedic Index, I, p. 177). khut.i Nag. (Or. khut.i_) diminutive of khun.t.a, a peg driven into the ground, as for tying a goat (Mundari.lex.) khun.t.i = pillar (Santali.lex.)10 Yogi with bangles, headdress and seated on a hoofed platform: silver smithy, metal kiln

ku_ti = pudendum muliebre (Ta.); posteriors, membrum muliebre (Ma.); ku.0y anus, region of buttocks in general (To.); ku_di = anus, posteriors, membrum muliebre (Tu.)(DEDR 188). ku_t.u = hip (Tu.); kut.a = thigh (Pe.); kut.e id. (Mand.); ku_t.i hip (Kui)(DEDR 1885). gu_de prolapsus of the anus (Ka.Tu.); gu_da, gudda id. (Te.)(DEDR 1891).

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In the corpus of inscribed objects of the Sarasvati Sindhu Civilization, there are 7 inscribed objects showing a seated person. There are 13 inscribed objects depicting a standing, horned person, sometimes ligatured to the hindpart of a bull (bovine) with a tail. jhoka_= one whose business is to feed a furnace or an oven (P.); jokha = to measure; lekha jokha emok hoyoktama = you must give an account (Santali) jhokn. = to cast to throw fuel into a furnace; jhokh = a flame (P.lex.) jo_ to put in insert (Pe.); ju_ id. (Mand.)(DEDR 2868). jokka_na_, johka_na_ to kill (Go.); soka to strike at (Kui)(DEDR 2831). cokka-k-kat.t.i-vel.l.i, cokkavel.l.i pure silver (Ta.); cokkabel.l.i id. (Ka.); cokkabol.l.i id. (Te.); cokku gold; cokuca_ < sogsa_ pinchbeck, gold-like alloy of copper and zinc (U.); cokucu refinement, neatness; fineness, as of work; superior quality (Ma.) cokho = sharp, keen-edged; coega = sharp, pointed (Santali.lex.) jo_gat.t.e = sitting cross-legged (Tu.lex.) cogu = food for birds (S.); cogga_ (L.); food for birds (P.)(CDIAL 4920). coko, cocko = the female organ, human and bestial; coe = part of female private member, clitoris (Santali.lex.) coccal, cocalu = the first pregnancy; the first birth, the first offspring (Ka.lex.)

Kalibangan076A

Kalibangan076B

Lothal050

1338

kamat.amu, kammat.amu = a portable furnace for melting precious metals; kammat.i_d.u = a goldsmith, a silversmith (Te.lex.) ka~pr.aut., kapr.aut. jeweller's crucible made of rags and clay (Bi.); kapr.aut.i_ wrapping in cloth with wet clay for firing chemicals or drugs, mud cement (H.)[cf. modern compounds: kapar.mit.t.i_ wrapping in cloth and clay (H.); kapad.lep id. (H.)](CDIAL 2874). kaparmat.t.i clay and cowdung smeared on a crucible (N.)(CDIAL 2871). kampat.t.tam coinage, coin (Ta.); kammat.t.am, kammit.t.am coinage, mint (Ma.); kammat.i a coiner (Ka.)(DEDR 1236) kammat.a = coinage, mint (Ka.M.) kampat.t.a-k-ku_t.am mint; kampat.t.a-k-ka_rancoiner; kampat.t.a- mul.ai die, coining stamp (Ta.lex.) Glyph: kamad.ha, kamat.ha, kamad.haka, kamad.haga, kamad.haya = a type of penance (Pkt.lex.) Glyph: ko_t.u = horns (Ta.)2 Rebus: kod. = artisan’s workshop (Kuwi) d.ab, d.himba, d.hompo ‘lump (ingot?)’, clot, make a lump or clot, coagulate, fuse, melt together (Santali) d.himba = become lumpy, solidify; a lump (of molasses or iron ore, also of earth); sadaere kolheko tahe_kanre d.himba me~r.he~t reak khan.d.ako bena_oet tahe_kana_ = formerly when the Kolhes were here they made implements from lumps of iron (Santali) 2 ko_r (obl. ko_t-, pl. ko_hk) horn of cattle or wild animals (Go.); ko_r (pl. ko_hk), ko_r.u (pl. ko_hku) horn (Go.); kogoo a horn (Go.); ko_ju (pl. ko_ska) horn, antler (Kui)(DEDR 2200). Homonyms: kohk (Go.), gopka_ = branches (Kui), kob = branch (Ko.) gorka, gohka spear (Go.) gorka (Go)(DEDR 2126).

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darap, dorob, dorob ‘metal, excluding iron, money, wealth’; dorobos all the necessaries of life (Santali) d.abe, d.abea ‘large horns, with a sweeping upward curve, applied to buffaloes’; d.abea kad.a = a buffalo with large curved horns; d.abe deren = horns as described (Santali) Buffalo (wide horns): d.abe, d.abea wide horns; d.ab, d.himba, d.hompo ‘lump (ingot?)’ (Santali); kod.ru buffalo; kod. place where artisans work; kol smithy; d.ha_ba_ workplace (P.) d.i_ba fire to spark out (Mand.); d.iba fire to crackle (Pe.)(DEDR 2961). [Glyph; d.heba, d.hiba short of stature; d.eble small; d.ebe debe short; d.ebe d.ebe a ‘rattat’ played on the drum at a hunt (Santali) cf. short-statured one-horned young bull or heifer. d.abo a cattle-pound (G.) dop dap in (id) to make bumping noise of sexual intercourse (Ko.)(DEDR 3069).] d.abe ‘wide horns’ (Santali); Rebus: d.ha_ba_ ‘workplace’ (P.)

m0489At

m0489Bt

m0489Ct

Glyphs on m0489A: elephant trunk, boar/rhinoceros, tiger, tiger face turned, lizard with fish: furnace types ibha sund, gan.d.a garur., kol, kokr.e kol, d.okke: rebus, ib ‘iron’, sund furnace; kan.d. ‘furnace’, garad.a ‘engrave’; gara_d., gara_d.o a ditch, a pit (furnace)(G.); kol ‘furnace, smithy’; kokr.e kol ‘furnace’ ‘engrave’; kakr.a hako : kan:gra ‘portable furnace’, hako ‘axe’ Glyphs on m0489C: young bull, antelope, bullock, brahmani bull, lizard with fish: Possessions and occupancy Substantive: korn:ga ‘a Hindu caste of wood turners’ (Santali) Glyph: kuran:ga a deer in general (Skt.) krusu (pl. kruska), kruhu (pl. kruhka) barking deer, jungle sheep (Kui); kurhu antelope; kruhu (pl. kruska); kluhu antelope (Kuwi)(DEDR 1785). karam.gi_ antelope (OG.); kuran:ga antelope (MBh.Pali); kulan:ga (Skt.); kulun:ga (TS.); kurun:ga (Pali); kuram.ga (Pkt.); kuran:g (P.); kura~g (G.); kura~gi_, kura~gn.i_ f. (G.); kurun:ga (Si.); kiran:gu the elk russa aristotelis (Si.)(CDIAL 3320). kuran:g light chestnut colour (Kho.)(CDIAL 3321). kuri antelope (Pa.); kurs deer, antelope (Go.); kruhu, krusu barking deer, jungle sheep (Kui); kluhu, kruhu, kurhu antelope (Kuwi); kuran:ga a species of antelope, antelope or deer in general (Skt.)(DEDR 1785). ko_d.e, med.h, d.angra, adar d.an:gra, d.okke hako: rebus: kod. place where artisans work; mer.h merchant’s assistant; d.han:gra blacksmith; aduru d.han:gar native metal blacksmith; dok possession and occupancy, hako axe Glyphs on m-0489B: metal type(s) Glyph: tagalu, tagilu, tagulu to have sexual intercourse with (Ka.)(DEDR 3004). daniyu to copulate (Te.); danivu copulation (Te.)(DEDR 3148). Glyph: 212

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sundu coition (Ka.)(DEDR 3291). sund pit furnace (Santali) Glyph: sal a gregarious forest tree, shorea robusta; kambra a kind of tree (Santali) Substantive: sal workshop (Santali) m1405Bt Pict-48 A tiger and a rhinoceros in file

1626

2841

Pict-47 Row of uncertain animals in file.

Lothal217A

Lothal217B

m0294 One-horned bull?; elephant

m0439t

m440AC

1376

m1393t

m1394t

m0441At m0441Bt m1395At m1395Bt Multiple heads of tigers joined/interlocked to a tiger’s body in m1395At and m0441At [The motifs on m 439, m440 and m1393 to m1395 seem to be identical; on one side three or more (perhaps five) tiger heads emanating from a body are shown; on another side a group of animals surrounding a lizard (gharial): two short-horned bulls facing each other, a rhinoceros, an elephant, a tiger looking back and a monkey (?) with face turned backwards.] mer.go = with horns twisted back; mer.ha, m., mir.hi f.mer.ha m.= twisted, crumpled, as a horn (Santali.lex.) Rebus: med. 'iron' (Mundari) Melukkha (milakkhu, 'copper': Pali)! met.ari, hero, warrior, eminent person, merchant's clerk. mehto [Hem. Des. med.ho = Skt. Van.ik saha_ya, a merchant’s clerk, fr. mahita, praised, great] a schoolmaster; an accountant; a clerk; a writer (G.lex.) mel. = tallying, balancing of accounts; a cash-book; mel.van. = a mixture, a composition; mixing (G.lex.) me_r..iyar = pu_vaiciyar, ve_l.a_l.ar, i.e. agriculturists, traders (Ta.lex.)

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Buffalo-horned face. Painting on a jar. Kot Diji. C. 2800-2600 BCE [After Khan 1965, pl. XVIIb; cf. Fig. 2.25 in JM Kenoyer, 1998, Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, Karachi, Oxford University Press]. mu~he~ = face; rebus: mu~ha_ = quantity of iron smelted at one time in the earthen furnace of the Kolhes; mu~ha_ me~r.he~t = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends (Santali) The painting on a pot shows large horns and a six-pointed star3, pleiades bahula_; rebus: ban:gala = portable stove of goldsmith (Te.) What is being transported in the pot is d.ab 'metal ingot'

Buffalo's horns. Gumla, NW Frontier province. After Sankalia 1974: 354, fig. 88: b (=b), c (=c) Buffaloes sitting with legs bent in yogic a_sana. Susa Cc-Da, ca. 3000-2750 BC, proto-Elamite seals: (a-c) After Amiet 1972: pl. 25, no. 1017 (=a); and Amiet 1980a: pl. 38, nos. 581-2 (b-c)

m0305AC 2235 Pict-80: Three-faced, horned person (with a three-leaved pipal branch on the crown with two stars on either side), wearing bangles and armlets. Two stars adorn the curved buffalo horns of the seated person with a plaited pigtail. The pigtail connotes a pit furnace: kamad.ha, kamat.ha, kamad.haka, kamad.haga, kamad.haya = a type of penance (Pkt.lex.) Rebus: kamat.amu, kammat.amu = portable furnace for melting precious metals (Te.) kampat.t.am = mint (Ta.) kammat.i_d.u = a goldsmith, a silversmith (Te.) kampat.t.tam coinage coin (Ta.); kammat.t.am kammit.t.am coinage, mint (Ma.); kammat.a id.; kammat.i a coiner (Ka.)(DEDR 1236) Substantive: sund ‘pit (furnace)’; sum, sumbh a mine, a pit, the opening into a mine, the shaft of a mine; sum bhugak the entrance to a mine, pit’s mouth (Santali). sun.d.i a semi-hinduised aboriginal caste; this caste are the distillers and liquor sellers; sun.d.i gadi a liquor shop (Santali) cun.d. to boil away (Ko.); sun.d.u to evaporate (Ka.); cun.d.u to be evaporated or dried up (Te.); s’un.t.hi to become dry (Skt.)(DED 2662). Glyph: su_nd gat. knot of hair at back (Go.); cundi_ the hairtail as worn by men (Kur.)(DEDR 2670).

Alternative homonyms: tara_ alloy of 8 parts of copper to 5 of tin, used for making metal vessels (pukar..tara_-p- po_kkillai) (Cine_n-. 169)(Ta.lex.) ta_ra_ = stars (Skt.) ko_l. = planet (Ta.); rebus: kol alloy of five metals (Ta.)

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V205 Sign 205 and variants: son.d.a = a tusk, as of wild boar, elephant (Santali.lex.) sonda = a billhook, for cutting fire wood (Santali.lex.) An antelope – mlekh 'goat' (Br.); rebus: mleccha 'copper' (Skt.); melakku 'copper' (Pali)-- is shown with a seven-pointed star around a dotted-circle on tablet h349A, h349B Glyph: kot.ha a division, as a stripe or spot, the several parts of a pattern, in patterns; kabra kot.ha speckled, spotted; kot.ha kot.hage neloka it is in patterns (Santali) Rebus: kod. ‘workshop’; Rebus: kot.ha an upper story, a ceiling; kot.ha or.ak a house with an upper story, or a house with a ceiling (Santali) Rebus: Tu. tamarů, tamara, tavara tin Ta. takaram tin, white lead, metal sheet, coated with tin. Ma. takaram tin, tinned iron plate. Ko. tagarm (obl. tagart-) tin. Ka. tagara, tamara, tavara id. Te. tagaramu, tamaramu, tavaramu id. Kuwi (Isr.) ṛagromi tin metal, alloy. / Cf. Skt. tamara- id. (DEDR 3001) Vikalpa: Glyph: Ta. tamar hole in a plank, commonly bored or cut; gimlet, spring awl, boring instrument; tavar (-v-, -nt-) to bore a hole; n. hole in a board. Ma. tamar hole made by a gimlet; a borer, gimlet, drill. ? Ko. tav- (tavd-) to butt with both horns, gore. Tu. tamirů gimlet. Te. tamire, (VPK) tagire the pin in the middle of a yoke (DEDR 3078). [cf. glyph of two short-horned bulls face-to-face butting.] Meteor, to shine ul.ku, ul.uku (Ka.); ulka_ (Skt.); ul.ku = to shine (Ka.); ukka_ (Pkt.) [Note two stars shown as phonetic determinants of a water-carrier on a Mesopotamian Gadd seal]. ukka_, ‘stars’; rebus: ukka_, ‘furnace’; ka_~vad.iyo, ‘water-carrier’; rebus: kamat.ha_yo, ‘carpenter’; alternative: kut.i ‘woman water-carrier’; rebus: kut.hi ‘furnace’. suk’erika ‘stars’ (Kuwi)(DEDR 2646) sukar, sukor ‘the planet vennus as evening star’ (Santali) Rebus: sokol ‘fire’ (Santali) bar ‘two’; Rebus: bara ‘oven’ Furnace or forge of a smith; a goldsmith's smelting pot; torch: ukka_ (Vedic ulka_ and ulkus.i_; Latin volcanus; Old Irish olca_n to be fiery) firebrand, glow of fire, torch; tin.-ukka_ firebrand of dry grass; ukka_ a furnace or forge of a smith; a meteor; ukka_dha_ra a torch-bearer; ukka_-pa_ta falling of a firebrand, a meteor; ukka_-mukha the opening or receiver of a furnace, a goldsmith's smelting pot = kamma_r'uddhana (Pali); ukka_cana_ enlightening, clearing up, instruction; ukka_cita enlightened, made bright; (fig.) or cleaned, cleared up; ukka_ceti to bale out water, to empty by means of buckets (Pali)(Pali.lex.) Image: fireplace: cf. cu_l.ai kiln, furnace, funeral pile (Ta.); culli_, ulli_ fireplace (Pkt.)(DEDR 2709)(CDIAL 4879). huko, hukko [Hem. Des. ukka_ fr. Skt. ulka_ a firebrand; Arabic hukka a casket] a smoking apparatus; a hukkah (G.) huka the hooka, the hubble bubble (Santali) sukar evening star (Santali.lex.) cukkai star (Ta.); cukka star (Te.); cikke, cikki star (Ka.); sukka star (Kol.); cukka (c = ts) id. (Nk.); cukkin id. (Nk.); cukka id. (Pa.); sukka star (Ga.); sukkum, huko, hukka, hukkom, hukka, ukkum, ukka, ukam id. (Go.); suka id. (Kond.a); huka (pl. -n) id.; 215

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hukeran, hukerin (pl. only recorded) stars (Pe.); hukerin id. (Mand..); suka star (Kui); hu_ka, hukka id.; suk'erika stars (Kuwi)(DEDR 2646). http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati/dictionary/2863TO.HTM 3132.Bright; handsome: s'ukra bright; brightness (RV.); s'ukla bright, white (AitBr.); bright half of month (Gr.S'r.); sukka bright (Pali); s'ukar pretty, pleasant; s'uka_r quietly (Gypsy); s'u_kri naked (woman)(Kal.); chuk good fortune (N.); suk bright, white; bright half of month (H.); su_kad.i sandalwood (OG.); sukhar. (G.); sukkila, sukkilla bright, white (Pkt.); s'ukl.i_ moon; s'uklo_ white (WPah.); s'ukula white (D..); sukilo white, shining (Ku.N.); xukula_ (A.); sukka planet, star (Pali); sukka the planet Venus (Pkt.); s'u_k-ta_ra_ (WPah.); suk-ta_ra_ Venus (B.); su_k, suk Venus, Friday (H.); su_k Venus (M.)(CDIAL 12506). Seated person: hasani ‘fireplace’; asani ‘seated’ Furnace or forge of a smith; a goldsmith's smelting pot; torch: ukka_ (Vedic ulka_ and ulkus.i_; Latin volcanus; Old Irish olca_n to be fiery) firebrand, glow of fire, torch; tin.-ukka_ firebrand of dry grass; ukka_ a furnace or forge of a smith; a meteor; ukka_-dha_ra a torch-bearer; ukka_-pa_ta falling of a firebrand, a meteor; ukka_-mukha the opening or receiver of a furnace, a goldsmith's smelting pot = kamma_r'uddhana (Pali); ukka_cana_ enlightening, clearing up, instruction; ukka_cita enlightened, made bright; (fig.) or cleaned, cleared up; ukka_ceti to bale out water, to empty by means of buckets (Pali)(Pali.lex.) Image: fireplace: cf. cu_l.ai kiln, furnace, funeral pile (Ta.); culli_, ulli_ fireplace (Pkt.)(DEDR 2709)(CDIAL 4879). huko, hukko [Hem. Des. ukka_ fr. Skt. ulka_ a firebrand; Arabic hukka a casket] a smoking apparatus; a hukkah (G.) huka the hooka, the hubble bubble (Santali) sukar evening star (Santali.lex.) cukkai star (Ta.); cukka star (Te.); cikke, cikki star (Ka.); sukka star (Kol.); cukka (c = ts) id. (Nk.); cukkin id. (Nk.); cukka id. (Pa.); sukka star (Ga.); sukkum, huko, hukka, hukkom, hukka, ukkum, ukka, ukam id. (Go.); suka id. (Kond.a); huka (pl. -n) id.; hukeran, hukerin (pl. only recorded) stars (Pe.); hukerin id. (Mand..); suka star (Kui); hu_ka, hukka id.; suk'erika stars (Kuwi)(DEDR 2646). http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati/dictionary/2863TO.HTM 3132.Bright; handsome: s'ukra bright; brightness (RV.); s'ukla bright, white (AitBr.); bright half of month (Gr.S'r.); sukka bright (Pali); s'ukar pretty, pleasant; s'uka_r quietly (Gypsy); s'u_kri naked (woman)(Kal.); chuk good fortune (N.); suk bright, white; bright half of month (H.); su_kad.i sandal-wood (OG.); sukhar. (G.); sukkila, sukkilla bright, white (Pkt.); s'ukl.i_ moon; s'uklo_ white (WPah.); s'ukula white (D..); sukilo white, shining (Ku.N.); xukula_ (A.); sukka planet, star (Pali); sukka the planet Venus (Pkt.); s'u_k-ta_ra_ (WPah.); sukta_ra_ Venus (B.); su_k, suk Venus, Friday (H.); su_k Venus (M.)(CDIAL 12506). Meteor, to shine

ul.ku, ul.uku (Ka.); ulka_ (Skt.); ul.ku = to shine (Ka.); ukka_ (Pkt.) [Note two stars shown as phonetic determinants of a water-carrier on a Mesopotamian Gadd seal]. ukka_, ‘stars’; rebus: ukka_, ‘furnace’

The yogi is in penance. Mohenjo-daro. Sealing. Surrounded by fishes, gharials? (monitor lizards) and snakes, a horned person sits in 'yoga' on a throne with hoofed legs. One (Md 013); surface find at Eastern Art, Ashmolean

side of a triangular terracotta amulet Mohenjo-daro in 1936. Dept. of Museum, Oxford.

There are objects with epigraphs with a comparable motif of a yogi.

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Unprovenanced Harappan-style cylinder seal impression; Musee du Louvre; cf. Corbiau, 1936, An IndoSumerian cylinder, Iraq 3, 100-3, p. 101, Fig.1; De Clercq Coll.; burnt white agate; De Clercq and Menant, 1888, No. 26; Collon, 1987, Fig. 614. A hero grasping two tigers and a buffalo-and-leaf-horned person, seated on a stool with hoofed legs, surrounded by a snake and a fish on either side, a pair of water buffaloes. Another person stands and fights two tigers and is surrounded by trees, a markhor goat and a vulture above a rhinoceros. Text: facing each other.

9905 Prob. West Asian find Pict-117: two bisons

m1181A 2222 Pict-80: Three-faced, horned person (with a three-leaved pipal branch on the crown), wearing bangles and armlets and seated, in a yogic posture, on a hoofed platform

kabat.a, kapat.e, kappat.e, kappad.i, kappad.e, kabat.e, kabbat.e, gabbila_yi = a bat (Ka.); kapt. = butterfly, moth (Ko.)(DEDR 1216). Vikalpa: Bat

s'e~_s.t.ri = bat ; gan.t.ave_t.a = batfowling, nightfowling wherein lights and lowbells are used; gan.t.a = bat (Te.lex.) bardu~r.u~c = bat (Santali) Bat, flying-fox = vagguli (Pali), ba_vali, ba_voli (Tu.), va_til (Ma), vavva_l (Ta.) Bat = va_lgu.da (Skt.) Rebus: bha~wa~r, bha~ora = a boring instrument resembling a brace (Santali) cf. bhramara turning (Skt.lex.) bawat.t.a, bhawat.a, bharwat.t.a = an armlet with an amulet; the eyebrows (P.lex.) ba_vat.o = a kind of corn (G.lex.)

m1188

m0006a

2228

m0222

2422

1194

h129A

kundu = to sit (Ta.); kun.d.aru =,. kun.d.ru = to fall so as to sit on the ground (Ka.lex.) kun.d.ru, kun.d.aru, kul.ir, kul.l.ir, kul.l.iru, ku_d.aru, ku_d.ru = to sit down (Ka.) kun.d.rike, kun.d.arike = sitting down or on; that on which one sits down, as a mat, a cumbly (Ka.lex.) kudikilu, kudikilabad.u = to squat down (Te.lex.) kul.iyu, kul.irdu, kul.tu, kul.l.atu, kul.l.ardu, ku_tu, kuntu = having sat down (Ka.lex.) kuntu (kunti-) to sit on the heels with legs folded upright, squat; n. sitting on the heels, squatting (Ta.); kuttuka = to squat, sit on one’s heels (Ma.); kuton.u = to sit (Tu.); gontu-gu_rcun.du to 217

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squat, sit with the soles of the feet fully on the ground and the buttocks touching it or close to it; kudikilu, kudikila~bad.u to squat down; kundika_l.l.u, kundikundika_l.l.u = a boys’ game like leapfrog; kunde_lu hare (Te.); kud- to sit; kuttul = a stool to sit on (Go.)(DEDR 1728). The glyph of seated person may be analysed with reference to the orthographic details depicted in two parts: one above the waist and the other below the waist. Glyphs above the waist seem to depict the semant. of kiln, furnace. Glyphs below the waist seem to depict the semant. of workshop. The substantive property item conveyed by the message is a kiln or furnace (cul.l.ai) for native metal (aduru). Rebus: cul.l.ai = potter’s kiln, furnace (Ta.); cu_l.ai furnace, kiln, funeral pile (Ta.); cul.l.a potter’s furnace; cu_l.a brick kiln (Ma.); culli_ fireplace (Skt.); culli_, ulli_ id. (Pkt.)(CDIAL 4879; DEDR 2709). sulgao, salgao to light a fire; sen:gel, sokol fire (Santali.lex.) hollu, holu = fireplace (Kuwi); sod.u fireplace, stones set up as a fireplace (Mand.); ule furnace (Tu.)(DEDR 2857). [Together with (1) cu_d.a_, ‘bracelets’, a number of other phonetic detrminatives are used in the orthography of the horned, seated person: (2) cu_d.a_, cu_la_, cu_liya_ tiger’s mane (Pkt.) [note the mane on the face]; (3) cu_d.a, ‘head-dress’. The rebus substantive points to: cu_l.ai, ‘kiln, furnace’]. Mane ul.a (IL 1240) ur..a = king’s paraphernalia (Ma.) Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.) The face is depicted with bristles of hair, representing a tiger’s mane. cu_d.a_, cu_la_, cu_liya_ tiger’s mane (Pkt.)(CDIAL 4883) ka_ruvu = mechanic, artisan, Vis'vakarma, the celestial artisan (Te.); -ga_re = affix of noun denoting one who does it, e.g. samaga_re = cobbler (Tu.); garuva (Ka.); gar_uva = an important man (Te.) garia = in comp. Possessed of; doer or agent; badgaria = wise; bal garia = strong (Santali.lex.) gar [Skt. kr.; karavum = to do] a suffix found at the end of compounds, showing the ‘doer of an action’; soda_gar = a seller; ka_ri_-gar = an artisan (G.lex.) If the pubes of the woman with spread out thighs are connoted by kut.hi, ‘furnace’; the pictorial motif together with a foetus emerging out of the thights is intended to connote a furnace-artisan: kut.hi-gar_uva (pubes, foetus) or, alternatively: kut.hi-garu (furnacemould). ka_ruvu = mechanic, artisan, Vis'vakarma, the celestial artisan (Te.); ga_re = affix of noun denoting one who does it, e.g. samaga_re = cobbler (Tu.); garuva (Ka.); gar_uva = an important man (Te.) cf. –ka_ra suffix. 'worker' (Skt.) Bristles, erection of hair of the body: garu, gaguru (Te.) [Note the imagery of bristles on the face of the seated person, almost looking like a tiger’s mane. The tiger's mane is: cu_l.a; rebus: cu_l.a 'furnac, kiln' + bristles 'garu'; rebus: ga_re 'important person, worker'; thus the composite glyph can be read as: cu_l.a ga_re 'furnace-kiln worker']. See also: Mane ul.a (IL 1240) ur..a = king’s paraphernalia (Ma.) karu = embossed work, bas-relief (Ta.); karukku (Ta.) karavi, karu, garu = a mould (Tu.) karuvi = tool (Ta.)[Thus, when tablets are embossed with glyphs to create objects in bas-relief, the artisan is trying to 218

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denote the nature of the function carried out by the –ga_re 'important person'; for example, when a tree is so depicted, it may represent kut.hi ga_re 'furnace worker'.] Foetus karuvu, karugu (Te.) [Rebus: -ga_re 'important person, worker'. See the glyph of foetus emanating from a woman with her thighs spread out and lying upside down. kut.hi 'pubes'; rebus: kut.hi 'smelting furnace'; hence, the composite glyph connotes: kut.hi ga_re = furnace worker.] The person wears bangles on his arms, from wrist to fore-arm. cu_d.a = bracelet (Skt.); cu_d.a, cu_la bracelet (Pkt.);. cu_r.o (S.); cu_r., cu_r.a_ (L.P.); cur.o (Ku.); curo, curi (N.); suri_ a kind of ornament (A.); cu_r., cur.a_ bracelet (B.); cu_r.i_ (Or.Mth.); cu_ra_ anklet, bracelet (OAw.); cu_r.a_ ring on elephant’s tusk, bracelet; cu_r.i_ bangle (H.); cu_r., cu_r.i_, cu_r.o (G.); cud.a_ (M.)(CDIAL 4883). chur. bangle, bracelet (P.) chhura_ (P.) tsud.o, tsude.a_ (Kon.); suri, surye (Kon:kan.i) [Note the glyph of a horned, seated person wearing bracelets from wrist to forearm] Alternative rebus of glyphs of person seated on a platform: hasani ‘furnace’; asani ‘seated’; pin.d.i ‘platform’; Rebus: bhin.d.ia ‘a lump, applied especially to the mass of iron taken from the smelting furnace’. The person wears a headdress with twigs; the glyph can be represented by two lexical clusters. cul.li = dry twigs, small stick, branch (Ta.); a dry spray, sprig, brushwood (Ma.); cul.l.ai a chip, fuel stick; nul.l.i small sticks for firewood (Ma.); cul.k long pliable stick, stalk of plant (Ko.)(DEDR 2706). ad.aru twig; ad.iri small and thin branch of a tree; ad.ari small branches (Ka.); ad.aru twig (Tu.)(DEDR 67). Cf. at.artti = thickly grown as with bushes and branches (Ta.) d.ar a branch; dare a tree; a plant; to grow well; ban: darelena it did not grow well; toa dare mother, the support of life (Santali) cavul.am, caul.am = tufted hair; cu_d.a_karumam (Ta.lex.). cu_d.a_ = topknot on head; cu_lika_ cockscomb (Skt.); cu_la_ ceremony of tonsure (which leaves the topknot)(Skt.); cu_l.a = crest; cu_l.a_ topknot (Pali); cu_d.a_, cu_la_, cu_liya_ topknot, peacock;’s crest (Pkt.); cula_ hair of head, lock, headdress (B.); cu_r. topknot, ceremony of tonsure (H.)(CDIAL 4883). cu_l.war = a grown-up woman wearing all her plaits of hair (Kho.)(CDIAL 4886). caud.a = relating to tonsure (skt.); caula (Mn.A_s’vGr.); co_laa shaving the head (Pkt.); col.e~ tonsure of a child’s head (M.)(CDIAL 4936). [Note the seven women with plaited hair: cavul.a [plaited hair; rebus: cavat.u, lead-silver ore (fuller’s earth) + bagala_ (pleiades; rebus: ban:gala_ goldsmith’s furnace); the reading is: cavat.u ban:gala_ = furnace for leadsilver ore]. Stone Quarry pan.e ground that is worked; tillage; a quarry (Ka.Ma.); pan.ai, pan.n.ai (Ta.); pan.n.eya, pan.ya, pan.e a farm, a landed estate (Ka.lex.) ba_n:ggar land dependent on rainfall; hard, barren soil (P.lex.) cf. va_nam-pa_rtta-pu_mi id. (Ta.lex.) banjri land irrigated by canal water alone (P.lex.) pan.e quarry; kalpan.e quarry where red laterite stones are cut (Tu.lex.) pan.ai, pan.n.ai agricultural tract, garden (Ta.); pan.a ground which is worked (including stone-quarry (Ma.)(DEDR 3891). pad.uku stone (Te.); pan.ku id. (Kond.a)(DEDR 3890). pan.ai pipal (Ta.); pan.i id. (Ka.)(DEDR 3895). phan.i_, phan.i_dhar, phan.i_ndra a large serpent (G.); phan.a_, phan.i_ the hood of a serpent (G.); phen.a [Dh. Des. phad.a_; Hem. Des. phad.am fr. Skt. phan.a_] the hood of a snake (G.) pat.am cobra’s 219

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hood (Ta.Ma.); ped.e id. (Ka.); pad.aga id. (Te.); par.ge, bar.ak, bar.ki, bir.ki hood of sepent (Go.); (s)phat.a, sphat.a_ a serpent’s expanded hood (Skt.); phad.a_ id. (Pkt.)(DEDR App. 47; CDIAL 9040). d.hon.d.-phod.o [M. dhon.d.a_, a stone] a stone-cutter, a stone-mason; d.hon:d.-jhod..o [M. dhon.d.a_ a stone + jhod.avum] a stone-cutter; a stone-mason; d.hon.d.o a stone; a blockhead; a stupid person (G.) dho~n.d. a species of snake found in water; bitkil dho~n.d., raj dho~n.d., ayan: dho~n.d. (Santali) d.ond.ya_ water-snake (Kol.); d.ond.uli, dho_ndi_ (Go.); < dun.d.ubha (Skt.)(DEDR 2985; CDIAL 6411)11.

Ingot with Hittite hieroglyphs, 15th–13th century B.C.; Hittite period Central Anatolia Silver; W. 3 1/4 in. (8.3 cm). That silver metal --khura--is conveyed by the glyph (hoof on the legs of the stool) is reinforced on other epigraphs where a seated person is shown with hooked snakes rearing on either side of the platform. Since silver ore occurs with lead, the snake glyph may be read as: na_ga ‘snake’ (Skt.)12 Rebus: na_ga = lead (Skt.) na_g lead (K.); na_ga id. (Skt.); nan lead (Sh.)(CDIAL 7040).cf. anakku = lead, tin (Akkadian). On glyphs of composite animals, a hooked snake is depicted as a tail of the animal composite. xola_ = tail (Kur.) Rebus: kol ‘metal’ (Ta.) Thus conveying lead-metal: na_ga kol cf. tuttuna_kam = zinc (Te.); tuttuna_gamu = zinc, pewter (Te.) Cassiterite (leax oxide: SnO2) is black and could be rebus for a black snake, na_ga (Skt.); anakku (Akkadian). Snakes associated with eagle glyphs are also associated with the zebu bull glyph. Nippur vessel with combatant snake and eagle motif. Istanbul Museum. The deSign is raised above the base; the vessel of chlorite was found in a mixed Ur III context at Nippur in southern Mesopotamia. An indication of the presence of the motif in Mesopotamia and in southwestern Iran, Failaka islands in the Gulf and SSVC. 220

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pajhar. = the Indian tawny , the Indian black eagle, the Indian crested hawk; eagle, buru pajhar., the hill-eagle, aquila imperialis; hako sat.i pajhar. = a fish-eating eagle (also called dak pajhar.); huru pajhar. = the imperial eagle (Santali.lex.) panji-il = a certain feather in each wing of a vulture (Mundari.lex.) Snake, scorpion, bull Snakes associated with eagle glyphs are also associated with the zebu bull glyph.

Two sides of Tepe Yahya ‘weight’(?) fragment apparently reused as door socket during IVB times. One side depicts date palms, and the other has a representation of a humped bull with a scorpion set above its back. (After Fig. 9.11 in Philip H. Kohl, 2001, opcit.) Humped bull and scorpion design on a plaque or ‘weight’(?) from a late Early Dynastic temple context at Agrab (Frankfort 1936; Amiet 1977: 366, fig. 298; Fig. 9.12 in Philip H. Kohl, 2001, opcit.) Combatant serpents on padlock-shaped ‘weight’ from Soch River of the Ferghana Valley in Uzbekistan. This unique chlorite find from Central Asia shows the oval holes for inlays on their Fig. 9.14 in Philip H. Kohl, 2001,

serpents with ears and the bodies. (Brentjes 1971; After opcit.)

If the pictorial motif connotes na_ga, it may be a grapheme connoting annaku, tin. [In Sanskrit, na_ga is associated with the lead ore]. [A T-shaped ingot or clamp of lead was found in a level of the temple courtyard at Tell Rimah dated to the earlier thirteenth century BCE (Oates, D. 1965: 75). Assur has a textual reference to the 'lead courtyard' in the temple of the god Assur; excavation revealed nothing to indicate that it was paved with the metal (CAD, s.v. aba_ru; Landsberger 1965: 287 n.12; despite Landsberger's discussion suggesting that AN.NA (annaku) denoted lead rather than tin, Muhly argues convincingly that AN.NA indeed connoted tin. However, Smith (Smith, S. 1922) found lumps of lead, bearing stamped impressions, now invisible, at the Ishtar Temple. AN.NA BABBAR (pesu) is fifteen times more valuable than AN.NA aba_ru; i.e. tin : lead ratio. Perhaps AN.NA BABBAR meant 'goodquality tin'. But then, annaku was casiterite, the oxide of tin (cf. Muller 1982: 272). 221

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m0453At m453BC 1629 Pict-82 Person seated on a pedestal flanked on either side by a kneeling adorant and a hooded serpent rearing up. khura silver (Nk.); kuruku ‘whiteness’; kuru brilliancy (Ta.); kuro silver (Kol.Nk.Go.)(DEDR 1782). Substantive: koru a bar of metal (Tu.); kul.a bar of metal, bullion (Ka.); kor..u bar of metal, bullion (Ta.)(DEDR 2147). ka_r-u bar [cf. vel.l.i-k-ka_r-u bar of silver, silver bullion]; limit, point, measure or extent of time, often used as an adverbial suffix; ploughshare (Ta.lex.); tanka-k-ka_r-u gold in bars, ingot (Ta.lex.) kor..u awl (Tol. Pa_yi. Urai); kor..u-k-kat.t.utal to fasten the share to the plough; kor..ut-tat.t.utal to sharpen the ploughshare (Ta.lex.) Blacksmith, kol ‘metal’

kor-r-a = black murrel (Te.), kur_icci = a fish many sharp bones (Ma.) kur-avai = murrel (Ta.) kor-r-a = ram (Ma.)

m1406Bcolour 2827 Pict-102: Drummer and people vaulting over? An adorant? Substantive: bharatiyo a caster of metals (G.); glyph: bharad.o a devotee of S’iva (G.)Glyph: ur-ukku to jump, leap over (Ta.); uRk to run away (Kond.a); urk to dance (Kuwi)(DEDR 713). Substantive: urukku steel, anything melted, product of liquefaction (Ta.); urukku what is melted, fused metal, steel (Ma.); uk steel (Ko.); urku, ukku id. (Ka.)(DEDR 661). bhallaka = a kind of copper, enumerated under the eight pisa_caloha_ni, or copper coming from Pis’a_ca country (Pali.lex.) pa_l.a = ingot of gold or silver (Ka.) bhalwa = an instrument used by blacksmiths when punching holes in iron to guide the punch (Santali) bha_lod.um = the spear-head fixed at the end of an arrow (G.lex.)4 phala = point of arrow (Kaus'.); blade of knife (MBh.); point of arrow or sword (Pali); point of arrow (Pkt.); phal = blade of mattock, tip of arrow (K.); phal = blade (P.N.B.); phal.a_ blade (Or.); phal.i_ = arrowhead (Or.); phal = blade (H.); phal. (G.M.); phal.e~ =spearhead (M.); pharha_ = blade, nib (P.) bhalla = a kind of arrow (MBh.); bhalli_ = arrowhead of a particular sharpe (Skt.); bhalla = spear (Pkt.); ba_la (K.); bha_lo (S.Ku.N.); bha_la_ = spear, crescent-headed arrow (Or.); spear for driving an elephant (Bi.); spear (Mth.M.); large spear (H.); bha_lu~ = spear (G.) (44)

(124)

Sign 89 (314)

Copper tablets (29)

Homonym: bhala_n.d.e~ = the half-pot or the shard which, with fire in it, the gosa_yi_ or the gondhal.i_-people hold on their hand; gondhal.i_ are musicians and singers; gondhal. = a tumultuous festivity in propitiation of devi_ (M.lex.) bha_liyo = a waterpot (G.lex.)

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Sign 89 rakha = three (G.)13 Rebus: ran:ku = tin (Santali)

mer.go = rimless vessels (Santali) The rimless vessel occurs on 323 epigraphs according to statistics from Mahadevan corpus. Rebus: med. iron (Ho.); me~rhe~t ‘iron’ (Santali) meruku = lustre, shine, silver (Ta.) meruku glitter, luster, polish (Ta.); merugu shine, luster (Te.); mer_acu glitter (Te.); me_r to shine (stars)(Kuwi); merxa_ sky, heaven (Kur.); mergu, merge sky, heaven (Malt.)(DEDR 5074). The early meaning could be: ‘silver’. Substantive: paghal pig-iron (Santali) Glyph: pagari, pagal.i arrow, dart (Tu.); pakar..i arrow (Ta.Ma.)(DEDR 3806).

Alternative homonym: kundu (S.) Rebus: bhallaka = a kind of copper (Skt.) Sign 155 (49)

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spear14 bhalwa = arrow with spearhead (Santali)

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Sign 155: kan.d.a, ka_n.d.a, ka_d.e = an arrow (Ka.) ka_n.d., ka_n., ko_n., ko~_, ka~_r. arrow (Pas'.); ka~_d.i_ arrow (G.) Rebus: kan.d. = altar, furnace (Santali) Glyph: kan. = arrow, wooden handle of a hoe, pickaxe or other tool (Ta.)(DEDR 1166). Rebus: kan- = copper (Ta.) s'ili_ dart, arrow (Skt.) s’ila = rocks (Skt.) khuro (N.) head of a spear; ks.ura (RV.), sharp barb of arrow (R.); khura_ iron nail to fix ploughshare (H.) khura = razor (Pali) co_i, co_ sickle (Wg. < ks.auri_); ks.aura performed with a razor (VarBr.S.); n. shaving (Skt.); ks.auri_ knife (Skt.); c.ho_ra knife (Dm.); c.hor (Kal.)-- khaura razor (Pkt.influenced by Skt.)(CDIAL 3756). kurappam currycomb (Ta.Ma.); korapa, gorapa id. (Ka.); kurapamu, kor.apamu, gor.apamu id. (Te.)(DEDR 1771). khara_ramu id. (Te.lex.) currycomb a comb consisting of a series of upright serrated ridges, for grooming horses (English)(Doubleday lex.)[cf. curry rub down with a comb and brush XIII cent.; Sp. correar prepare (wool) for use; OF. correier arrange, equip, curry (a horse); curry favel rub down the fallow or chestnut horse, which, for some obscure reason, was taken as a type of perfidy or duplicity; hence curry-comb (ODEE).]

V049

V084 223

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Thigh = khura (Ka_tyS'r.), kuracu , kuraccai = horse's hoof (Ta.), kul.ampu = hoof (Ta.) kur_aku (Ma.) ku_t.a = hip (Tu.) kurki = thigh (Go.) Glyph: khura = hoof (Santali) ku_t.a = hip (Tu.) kurki = thigh (Go.) ma~r. a chaplet sometimes worn by bridegrooms and brides at marriage (Santali) mod.a a kind of chaplet worn by females on auspicious occasions (G.) man.d.ana an ornament, a decoration; jewels; trinkets; adorning (G.) fr. man.d. (Skt.) man.n.u to do, perform, adorn, decorate, polish (Ta.); man.ai to create, fashion (Ta.); manayuka, maniyuka to fashion, form earthenware, make as a potter (Ma.)(DEDR 4685). Glyph: platform: man.d.hwa, man.d.ua, man.d.wa ‘a temporary shed or booth erected on the occasion of a marriage’; man.d.om ‘a raised platform or scaffold’; ma~r.om ‘a platform, used to keep straw on, or from which to watch crops’ (Santali) man.ai low wooden seat, low earthen dais, wooden base of cutting instyruments, footstool (Ta.); man.i, man.e stool, low bench, seat (Ka.); man.e low stool to sit upon (Tu.)(DEDR 4675). Rebus: man.d.a_ = warehouse, workshop (Kon.lex.) mad.hi_, mad.hud.i_ a hut, shed, a cottage (G.) man.i jewel of office (Skt.); man.iyam office of the village headman (Ta.); superintendence of temples, palaces, villages (Ma.); man.e.v, man.ye.v the office of monegar (Ko.); man.iya, man.iha, man.eya, man.e superintendence of temples, maths, palaces, custom-houses (Ka.); man.iga_re revenue inspector (Tu.); man.iyamu office or duties of the manager of a temple (Te.)(DEDR 4674). Glyph: seated: asan man.d.ao ‘to sit tailor-wise for a long time, to sit about with nothing to do; lazy; to lie down, as an animal in its lair’; asan man.d.ao akanae, hokrho kan leka ‘he has taken up his position as if he were a watchman’ (Santali) mat.ku squat, squab, fat and short (Santali) asan man.d.ao, pat.gan.d.o to squat, to sit tailorwise (Santali) ma_d.a = shrine of a demon (Tu.); ma_d.ia = house (Pkt.); ma_l.a a sort of pavilion (Pali); ma_l.ikai = temple (Ta.)(DEDR 4796). cu_l.ai = kiln; cul.l.ai = furnace (Ta.). culli = a fireplace, a cooking stove, ole (Ka.) culli = a fireplace, a hearth, a funeral pile (Te.) cula_ sagad.i_ = a portable hearth or stove of iron, clay etc. (G.) culi_, culd.i_ = a small fireplace, a hearth; culo, cu_l, cu_lo = a fireplace, the hearth; a stove (G.) culha = a fireplace; mit achia culha = a fireplace with one opening; bar achia culha = a fireplace with two openings (Santali) cul.l.i = dry twigs, small stick, branch (Ta.); a dry spray, sprig, brushwood; cul.l.ai = a chip, fuel stick (Ma.); long pliable stick, stalk of plant (Ko.)(DEDR 2706). cu_l.i = scales of fish (Ma.)(DEDR 2740). cuila, coelo = sharp, pointed (Santali) s’u_la, s’u_le, sul.a, su_la, su_l.a = a sharp or pointed weapon: a pike, a spear, a lance; s’u_li = spearman; s’u_lika = piercing, killing (Ka.) cu_l = pregnancy; cu_li = pregnant woman (Ta.); cu_l = pregnancy (Ma.Ka.); cu_lu = pregnancy, child, offspring; cu_li = child, offspring; cu~_d.i = pregnancy (Te.); su_l pregnant (animal)(Kuwi)(DEDR 2733). eruvai copper, blood (Ta.); ere a dark-red or dark-brown colour (Ka.)(DEDR 817). ere black soil (Ka.)(DEDR 820). ke~r.e~ ko~r.e~ an aboriginal tribe who work in brass and bell-metal (Santali) ker.e sen:gel fire in a pit (Santali) 224

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Glyph: garud.a eagle (Skt.) [garud.a bar got.an two eagles duplicated; kod. place where artisans work; kot. fort] Substantive: gara_d.o, gara_d. a ditch, a pit (G.) Substantive: garad.o, garod.o A priest of the pariahs (G.) ero = watering place for cattle (G.) eru = a serpent (G.) er-aka = upper arm, wing (Te.) [Note the orthographic emphasis on the wing of a bird].5 kundan = pure gold (G.Persian); the socket of a gem (G.) kundanamu = fine gold used in very thin foils in setting precious stones; setting precious stones with fine gold (Te.lex.) kundamu = one of the seven nidhi-s of Kubera (Te.) kunda = a city of vidya_dhara-s (Pkt.lex.) kuntan-am = interspace for setting gems in a jewel; fine gold (Ta.); kundan.a = setting a precious stone in fine gold; find gold; kundana = fine gold (Ka.); kundan.a = pure gold (Tu.) kunda_r turner(A.); ku~da_r, ku~da_ri (B.); kunda_ru (Or.); kundau to turn on a lathe, to carve, to chase; kundau dhiri = a hewn stone; kundau murhut = a graven image (Santali) kunda a turner's lathe (Skt.)(CDIAL 3295).6

Sign 355 seems to ligature sign 347 and sign 391 (Sign 391 depicts the opening in the nave or hub of wheel and also six spokes: ara_) kund opening in the nave or hub of a wheel to admit the axle (Santali) kund ruka = a gouge, a chisel with which circular holes are made in wood; sagar. kund = the opening in the nave of a wheel to receive the axle (Santali.lex.)

2420 Pict-81: Person (with three visible m0304AC faces, or, with tiger’s mane) wearing horned head-dress, bangles and armlets seated on a platform (with a pair of sheaves, antelopes looking backwards) and surrounded by five animals: rhinoceros, buffalo, antelope, tiger and elephant. kamad.ha, kamat.ha, kamad.haka, kamad.haga, kamad.haya = a type of penance (Pkt.lex.) 5

Substantive: araka a plough with bullocks complete (Ta.); are a plough (Malt.)(DEDR 198).

kundakara turner (Skt.); kunda_r (A.); ku~da_r, ku~da_ri (B.); kunda_ru (Or.); ku~dera_ one who works a lathe, one who scrapes (H.); ku~deri_ f.; ku~derna_ to scrape, plane, round on a lathe (H.)(CDIAL 3297). gud.i-ga_r-a a turner, one whose occupation is to form wooden articles (also the plaything called cakra, hubble-bubbles, etc.) with a lathe and to cover them with shellac of different colours; gud.ugud.i ma_d.uvavanu id. (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) ku~dnu to shape smoothly, carve (N.); kund lathe (A.); kundiba to turn and smooth in a lathe (A.); ku~d lathe (B.); ku~da_, ko~da_ to turn in a lathe (B.); ku~_nda lathe (Or.); ku~diba_, ku~_diba_ to turn (Or. > ku~_d lathe (Kur.); kund brassfounder's lathe (Bi.); kunna_ to shape on a lathe (H.); kuniya_ turner (H.); kunwa_ turner (H.)(CDIAL 3295). Wood-worker: cundaka_ra turner (Pali); cuna_ro maker of wooden vessels (Ku.); cuna_ro, cana_ro, cu~da_ro id. (N.)(CDIAL 4862). cunda wood or ivory work (Skt.); ivory worker (Pali); cundiba_ to do woodwork (Or.)(CDIAL 4861). kuni ruka a gouge (Santali.lex.) ks.no_tra whetstone (RV. ii.39.7)(Vedic.lex.) 225

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kamat.a = a portable furnace (Te.) kundavum = a manger, a hay-rick (G.lex.) kundhavum = a heap of hay or sticks (G.lex.) kuntam = haystack (Ta.); kuttar-i = a stack, a rick (Ka.)(DEDR 1724). [Note the haystack on the stool on which a person sits]. kat.iya_ buffalo heifer (G.); kad.a buffalo (Santali); kad.a = a buffalo (Santali.lex.) kat.a_damu = a hebuffalo (Te.lex.) • ka_t.i, furnace (trench)(Ta.) kad.i_ a chain; a hook; a link (G.); kad.um a bracelet, a ring (G.) kad.iyo [Hem. Des. kad.a-i-o = Skt. sthapati a mason] a bricklayer; a mason; kad.iyan.a, kad.iyen.a a woman of the bricklayer caste; a wife of a bricklayer (G.) •

kol, put.t.e tiger, jackal (Santali. ); kol furnace, forge (Kuwi) [The jumping tiger: put.i, ‘to jump’; put.a, ‘calcining of metals’; thus rebus of glyph connotes, put.a: a furnace for calcining minerals].

•

kha~_g (H.) kha_g (B.H.Ku.N.); khagga = rhinoceros (Pkt.); kan:g, portable brazier (B.)

•

karat.i = elephant (Te.); khara_di_ = turner (G.) cf. kara_d.i_ = a deep hollow in the bed of a river always filled with water; karad.o, kara_d.i_ a goldsmith’s tool (G.lex.) Alternative: ibha + s’un.d. (elephant + trunk); rebus: ib ‘iron’ + sun.d. ‘furnace’

In addition to the four animals, the following glyph also occurs in the glyphs surrounding the seated person; another type of furnace! ko_lamu = adornment (of a bride or an idol)(Te.lex.) Glyphs: d.opo ‘a very small mound or hillock’ (Santali) dapal to strike each other, to fight (Santali)

Substantive: hasani, hasanti, hasantike a portable fire-place, a chafing dish (Ka.) hasani_ a portable fire-place; hasani_man.i fire; hasantika_ a portable fire-place; hasanti_ id.; has to open, bloom, blow; to brighten up, or to clear up (Skt.)(Skt.lex.) cf. Dholavira: beads (Courtesy ASI) Beads ha_s necklace, beads (Pe.); ha_c id. (Mand.)(DEDR 2434). pa_cam = eye of a needle, sewing, thread (Ta.); pa.c = eye of a needle; vulva (Ko.) [ve_dhya = to be pierced (Skt.)] Die, dice: pa_sika, pa_s’akamu = a die used in games (Te.) pa_s'a (MBh.) pa_saka (Pali); pa_saga (Pkt.); pa~_so (Ku.); pa_sa_ (N.B.); pasa_, pa_sa_ game of dice (Or.); pa_sa_ = die (H.P.); pha_sa_ (M.); pa_so (G.) Substantive: mandar ‘the headman of a village’; man.d.wari ‘the Marwari caste of hindus’ 226

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Glyph: asan man.d.ao ‘to sit tailor-wise for a long time, to sit about with nothing to do; lazy; to lie down, as an animal in its lair’; asan man.d.ao akanae, hokrho kan leka ‘he has taken up his position as if he were a watchman’ (Santali) man.d.ao ‘to occupy a new house, to take up one’s residence’; man.d.hwa, man.d.ua, man.d.wa ‘a temporary shed or booth erected on the occasion of a marriage’; man.d.om ‘a raised platform or scaffold’; ma~r.om ‘a platform, used to keep straw on, or from which to watch crops’ (Santali) Glyph: mandar.i, mandar.ia ‘a drummer, drum musicians’ (Santali) ḷBetwixt the buffalo horns is a sheaf: bhin.d.a ‘iron lump’; d.aeka kad.ru ‘a buffalo having long, spreading horns with an upward turn’; deko ‘hindu’ or t.aka ‘silver’; tiger’s mane (cu_l.ai); bangles (cu_l.a); head-dress (cu_d.a); platform (pin.d.a), sheaf (bhin.d.a), deer (bhindi) [Reconstructing the broken portion of the seal, it is likely that a pair of sheaves and a pair of deer (antelopes) are depicted, the term for ‘two’ is: bar, barea; the rebus is: bha_r grain-parcher’s fireplace] ḷmukut. ‘ crest, diadem, turban’; rebus: mukhia ‘chief, principal, elder, leader’; mukta ‘a lump, mass, quantity’ (Santali), mukhyud.u ‘principal person’ (Telugu) ḷbadhi ‘to ligature, to bandage, to splice, to join by successive rolls of a ligature’ ḷbad.hi ‘a caste who work both in iron and wood’; bat.hi ‘furnace’ ḷReading: cu_l.ai ‘furnace’; bhin.d.a ‘iron lump (ore)’+ bha_r, bhat.i ‘furnace’ [iron furnace] of a deko ‘hindu’ or t.aka ‘silver’ mer.ha ‘turned buffalo horns’; rebus: med.h ‘iron’; mer.h ‘chief’. kundavum = a manger, a hay-rick (G.lex.) kundhavum = a heap of hay or sticks (G.lex.) kuntam = haystack (Ta.); kuttar-i = a stack, a rick (Ka.)(DEDR 1724). [Note the haystack on the stool on which a person sits]. Rebus: kun.d. = a pit (Santali) kun.d.amu = a pit for receiving and preserving consecrated fire; a hole in the ground (Te.) kun.d.am, kun.d.a sacrificial fire pit (Skt.) kun.d.a an altar on which sacrifices are made (G.)15 gun.d.amu fire-pit; (Inscr.) ku~d. = basin (G.) kunda = a pillar of bricks (Ka.); pillar, post (Tu.Te.); block, log (Malt.); kantu = pillar, post (Ta.)(DEDR 1723). kunda = a post or pillar (Te.) kun.d.i_ = chief of village. kun.d.i-a = village headman; leader of a village (Pkt.lex.) khu~t.ro = entire bull; khu~t. = bra_hman.i bull (G.) khun.t.iyo = an uncastrated bull (Kathiawad. G.lex.) kun.t.ai = bull (Ta.lex.) cf. khu~_dhi hump on the back; khui~_dhu~ hum-backed (G.)(CDIAL 3902). The zebu is: khu~t., a bra_hman.i_ bull, a bull found even today in many parts of Gujarat, roaming the streets of Ahmedabad, for instance. The word may connote the rebus of kut.ha_ru, armourer or weapons maker (metal-worker), also an inscriber or writer. khu~_t.ad.um a bullock (used in Jha_la_wa_d.)(G.) kun.d.= the opening in the nave or hub of a wheel to admit the axle; kund ruka = a gouge, a chisel with which circular holes are made in wood; sagar. kund = the opening in the nave of a wheel to receive the axle (Santali.lex.) 227

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khon.d. square (Santali) kun.d.i_ crooked (of buffalo's horns)(L.); kun.d.a_ a bullock whose horns have been turned (L.)(CDIAL 3260). khun.d.ha_ blunt (P.)(CDIAL 3899). kut.ha_ri = an axe-bearer, a chief of the door-keepers (Ka.lex.) Naked woman kot.a_ri = naked woman (IL 1829a) khu~_t.iyum an upright support in the frame of a wagon (G.) kut.aramu, kut.haramu = the post round which the string of the churning stick passes (Te.lex.) ku_t.a, ‘chief (kut.ha_ru, ‘writer, armourer’)(G.) Tent, house kut.a_ram (Ta.)(IL 4872) ku_t.a a house, dwelling (Skt.lex.) khu~t. = a community, sect, society, division, clique, schism, stock; khu~t.ren per.a kanako = they belong to the same stock (Santali) khu_t. Nag. khu~t., ku_t. Has. (Or. khu_t.) either of the two branches of the village family. d.hompo = knot (on a string)(Santali)

Sign 44 d.abe = adj. bandy-legged (with knees a little bent)(Santali)

V336 V337 Signs 335, 336, 337 d.abu ‘an iron spoon’ (Santali)

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Sign 336 (236)

Copper tablets (27)

m1148 Field Symbol 7 (10)

Alternatives: gan.t.e = a spoon; a ladle (Te.lex.) Rebus: kan.d. = furnace, altar (Santali) mer.go = rimless vessel; bat.i = rimless pot; rebus: me~r.he~t bat.hi = iron smelting furnace (Santali) dab dabia adj. broad, broud-mouthed (Santali) d.abri ‘a small earthenware dish, used as a lid’; dap ‘to cover, to thatch’ (Santali) d.abbu a dub or copper coin, four pays (Ka.Te.); t.appu (Ta.); d.habbu_ a double pice (M.)(Ka.lex.) ta_mbro = copper (Tu.lex.)16

bha_gal.a = a gate in the wall of a town; the precincts of a village; bazaar (G.lex.)

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bagalo = an Arabian merchant vessel (G.lex.) bagala = an Arab boat of a particular description (Ka.); bagala_ (M.); bagarige, bagarage = a kind of vessel (Ka.)(Ka.lex.)

bakhor. = teeth of a comb (Santali.lex.) Fire-pit, furnace, kulme kolime, kolume, kulame, kulime, kulume, kulme fire-pit, furnace (Ka.); kolimi furnace (Te.); pit (Te.); kolame a very deep pit (Tu.); kulume kanda_ya a tax on blacksmiths (Ka.); kol, kolla a furnace (Ta.) kole.l smithy, temple in Kota village (Ko.); kwala.l Kota smithy (To.); konimi blacksmith; kola id. (Ka.); kolle blacksmith (Kod.); kollusa_na_ to mend implements; kolsta_na, kulsa_na_ to forge; ko_lsta_na_ to repair (of plough-shares); kolmi smithy (Go.); kolhali to forge (Go.)(DEDR 2133).] kolimi-titti = bellows used for a furnace (Te.lex.) kollu- to neutralize metallic properties by oxidation (Ta.lex.) kol brass or iron bar nailed across a door or gate; kollu-t-tat.i-y-a_n.i large nail for studding doors or gates to add to their strength (Ta.lex.) kollan--kamma_lai < + karmas'a_la_, kollan--pat.t.arai, kollan-ulai-kku_t.am blacksmith's workshop, smithy (Ta.lex.) cf. ulai smith's forge or furnace (Na_lat.i, 298); ulai-kkal.am smith's forge; ulai-k-kur-at.u smith's tongs; ulai-t-turutti smith's bellows; ulai-y-a_n.i-k-ko_l smith's poker, beak-iron (Ta.lex.) [kollulaive_r-kan.alla_r: nait.ata. na_t.t.up.); mitiyulaikkollan- muriot.ir.r.an-n-a: perumpa_)(Ta.lex.) Temple; smithy: kol-l-ulai blacksmith's forge (kollulaik ku_t.attin-a_l : Kumara. Pira. Ni_tiner-i. 14)(Ta.lex.) cf. kolhua_r sugarcane milkl and boiling house (Bi.); kolha_r oil factory (P.)(CDIAL 3537). kulhu ‘a hindu caste, mostly oilmen’ (Santali) kolsa_r = sugarcane mill and boiling house (Bi.)(CDIAL 3538). kola_ burning charcoal (L.P.); ko_ila_ burning charcoal (L.P.N.); id. (Or.H.Mth.), kolla burning charcoal (Pkt.); koilo dead coal (S.); kwelo charcoal (Ku.); kayala_ charcoal (B.); koela_ id. (Bi.); koilo (Marw.); koyalo (G.)(CDIAL 3484). < Proto-Munda. ko(y)ila = kuila black (Santali): all NIA forms may rest on ko_illa.] koela, kuila charcoal; khaura to become charcoal; ker.e to prepare charcoal (Santali.lex.)

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Sign 178 (35)

‘Tree’ Field symbol 44 (6)

2949 Dotted circles

2950

Rojdi

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PLUS a number of variants and with ligatures: Signs162, 167, 169, 387,389 +variants; Ligatures: Signs163, 166-6, 168, 90, 91,223,224,227,235.262,270,273,274, 282,283,291,331, 347-352, 355-357,371,372, 388-390,395,405 kolom = cutting, graft; to graft, engraft, prune; kolom dare kana = it is a grafted tree; kolom ul = grafted mango; kolom gocena = the cutting has died; kolom kat.hi hor.o = a certain variety of the paddy plant (Santali); kolom (B.); kolom mit = to engraft; kolom porena = the cutting has struck root; kolom kat.hi = a reed pen (Santali.lex.) cf. kolom = a reed, a reed-pen (B.); qalam (Assamese.Hindi); kolma hor.o = a variety of the paddy plant (Desi)(Santali.lex.Bodding) kolom baba = the threshed or unthreshed paddy on the threshing floor; kolom-ba_rum = the weight a man carries in taking the paddy from the threshing floor to his house; kolom = a threshing floor (Mundari); cf. kal.am (Tamil) [Note the twig adoring the head-dress of a horned, standing person] ku_l.e stump (Ka.) [ku_li = paddy (Pe.)] xo_l = rice-sheaf (Kur.) ko_li = stubble of jo_l.a (Ka.); ko_r.a = sprout (Kui.) ko_le = a stub or stump of corn (Te.)(DEDR 2242). kol.ake, kol.ke, the third crop of rice (Ka.); kolake, kol.ake (Tu.)(DEDR 2154) [kural = corn-ear (Ta.)] Homograph: kor.am breast (Santali) kol breast, bosom (H.); kaula_, kola_, kauli_ id., lap (H.);; ku_l belly, stomach, womb (Kur.); ku_las offspring, descendant (Kur.); ko_li abdomen (Malt.); xo_l womb, offspring, entrails, woof, weft (Br.)(CDIAL 3607; DEDR 2244)

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Sign 104 (70)

Pairing signs could be graphemes or variants of the same glyph, i.e., glyphs connoting the same lexeme.7 kolma = a paddy plant (Santali) Rebus: kolime= furnace (Ka.)8 Five-petalled plant or five-branched shrub Ur cylinder seal with taberna montana plant, BM 122947; Signs 162 and 169

Ur cylinder seal impression (cut down into Ur III mausolea from Larsa level; U. 16220), Iraq. BM 122947; enstatite; Legrain, 1951, No. 632; Collon, 1987, Fig. 611. Source: Editors of Time-Life Books, 1994, Ancient India: Land of Mystery, p. 12. The legend reads: "The seal was discovered in a pre2000 BCE tomb in Ur, but the bull image is stylistically like those found in the Indus Valley. The seal and similar ones unearthed elsewhere in Mesopotamia offer compelling evidence of trade contacts between Harappans and Mesopotamians." Trader who? Trading, what?

tagara = taberna montana (Skt.) Rebus: t.agromi = tin metal alloy (Kuwi)

Alternative homonym: gan.t.a = a stub, the stump of a corn-stalk; gan.t.e = the cereal holcus picatus; pl. gan.t.elu = id., also called sajjalu in southern Telugu districts (Te.lex.) Rebus: kan.d. = furnace (Santali)

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takaram tin, white lead, metal sheet, coated with tin (Ta.); tin, tinned iron plate (Ma.); tagarm tin (Ko.); tagara, tamara, tavara id. (Ka.) tamaru, tamara, tavara id. (Ta.): tagaramu, tamaramu, tavaramu id. (Te.); t.agromi tin metal, alloy (Kuwi); tamara id. (Skt.)(DEDR 3001). trapu tin (AV.); tipu (Pali); tau, taua lead (Pkt.); tu~_ tin (P.); t.au zinc, pewter (Or.); taru_aum lead (OG.); tarvu~ (G.); tumba lead (Si.)(CDIAL 5992). takar sheep, ram, goat (Ta.); tagar ram (Ka.); tagaru (Tu.); tagaramu, tagaru (Te.); tagar (M.)(DEDR 3000). t.agara = taberna montana (Skt.) ran:ga, ran: pewter is an alloy of tin lead and antimony (an~jana) (Santali). ran:ga ron:ga, ran:ga con:ga = thorny, spikey, armed with thorns; edel dare ran:ga con:ga dareka = this cotton tree grows with spikes on it (Santali) [Note the thorns on the round object in front of the bull on the Ur cylinder seal impression – U 16220] Serpent, Tail of serpent Substantive: kal, kol ‘a machine, any contrivance, a trap, the spring of a pigeon trap (Santali) Glyph: kal ‘a snake’ (Santali) Substantive: mun.d.a ‘a Kolarian tribe inhabiting the Chota Nagpur division’ (Santali) Glyph: mon.d. ‘tail of serpent’ (Santali) Glyph: mun.d.ha, mun.d.hak ‘stump of tree, a log’ (Santali)

Long-legged person

Glyph: d.han:gar, d.a_n:gra_ = ox, bull Glyph: kan:kar., kan:kur. ‘very tall and thin, large hands and feet’ (Santali) cf. kan:gar ‘furnace’ Glyph: d.han:ga ‘tall, long shanked’ (Santali) t.an:ka leg (Pkt.); t.an:ga (S.); t.a_n:ka leg, thigh (Or.); t.a_n:ku thigh, buttock (Or.)(CDIAL 5428). t.an:ka spade, hoe, chisel (R.); t.an:ga sword, spade (Skt.); t.an:ka stone mason’s chisel (Pali); t.am.ka stone-chisel, sword (Pkt.); t.ho_ axe (Wot.); t.hon: battle-axe (Bshk.); tanger axe (Tor.); t.ho_n:gi (Phal.); t.onguru a kind of hoe (k.); t.a_~n:gi adze (N.); t.a_~ki chisel (H.); t.a~_k pen nib (G..H.); t.a_ki_ chisel (H.); t.a_n:gi stone chisel (A.); t.a_n:g, t.a_n:gi spade, axe (B.); t.a_n:gi battle-axe (Or.); t.a~_n:ga_ adze (Bi.); t.a_n:i axe (Bhoj.); t.a_~gi_ hatchet (H.)(CDIAL 5427). t.an:kita-man~ca a stone (i.e. chiseled) platform (Pali); t.a~_kvu~ to chisel (G.); t.a~_kn.e~ (M.)(CDIAL 5433) t.an:kas’a_la_ mint (Skt.)(CDIAl 5434). taks.an.i = a carpenter’s axe; taks.akud.u = a carpenter; name of one of the kings of the na_ga or serpents of pa_ta_l.a (Te.lex.) cf. dhan:gla dhan:gli ‘to cut or dig quickly or hastily’ (Santali) Each of the glyphs shown on this cylinder seal may relate to lexemes connoting mineral ores: a flowering shrub; scorpion; bull; a wide-mouthed pot, monkey(?), two serpents on the upper register. Humped bull stands before a palm-tree, feeding from a round manger or a bundle of fodder (probably, rays of sun or a cactus); behind the bull is a scorpion and two snakes; above the whole a human figure, placed horizontally, with fantastically long arms and legs, and rays about his head. The glyphs on this cylinder seal are: 231

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*Short linear strokes borders on top and bottom of the cylinder *A zebu (Bra_hman.i) bull **A cactus (with thorn) or radiating sun in front of the bull If the round object with thorns in front of the bull is a stone, then it may connote vat.loi, stone, a rebus of brass, vat.loha is apposite, the enstatite seal may contain other metal/mineral rebus representations. [Or, sun depicted with rays? glyph: arka ‘sun’; rebus substantive: akka, arka ‘copper’] *A scorpion *A wavy line (snake? glyph: na_ga ‘snake’; rebus substantive: na_ga ‘lead’) below the scorpion (horizontal) *A five-petalled plant (or, flower?) Tabernae montana? [A similar pictorial motif is noticed in some inscribed objects of Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (Lamberg-Karlovsky)] *A person with a turned face and hair tied into a bun (?) and bangles on one visible arm [depicted on the upper register (horizontally, perhaps to save space on the cylinder)] The person is tall and thin: kan:kar., kan:kur. very tall and thin, large hands and feet (Santali) Taberna montana motif on an inscribed copper-alloy axe In the pictures of a shaft-hole axe with relief decoration, there are motifs which recur in the SSVC inscribed objects: taberna montana (with three prongs, possibly five), smiting person with his hair tied into a bun at the back bound by a rolled fillet and with a short beard or stubble on his face, kneeling adorant, tree: Shaft-hole axe with relief decoration (both sides). Copper alloy. Southeastern Iran. C. late 3rd or early 2nd millennium BCE 6.5 in. long, 1980.307 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “However, the combined problems of unknown provenance and unparalleled features make this attribution tentative. The symmetrical axe has a splaying blade, an elliptical shaft hole with semicircular outline pierced by rivet holes, and a fan-shaped butt. Both sides are ornamented with low-relief figural decoration, cast as one with the axe. The features of the figures were detailed by chasing that has been partially obscured by corrosion. On one side is a male figure in a smiting posture, with his left hand 232

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raised above his head holding a club and his right leg extended and carrying the weight of his body. On the butt is a three-petalled floral form with two leaves emerging from a circular stem. On the other side are two registers: above is a standing figure turning his head back and perhaps raising his left hand in a plea for mercy; below, in front of a tree, is a bound, kneeling prisoner, behind whom is the upper body of a victim falling headfirst to the ground. The images on the axe, when both sides are considered, suggest the commemoration of military victory. The smiting figure is the victorious ruler, and the standing figure and bound, falling captives are his vanquished enemies. In Mesopotamia, military victories were often celebrated on monumental carved and inscribed steles set up on public view. One of the most famous of these monuments, even in antiquity, and one that shares numerous features with the axe, is the stele of Naraim Sin, thought to have been originally displayed in the city of Sippar to memorialize his victory over rebellious tribes in the Zagros mountains…It is likely hat the same imagery also inspired the victory scene illustrated on the copper axe…it is possible to suggest that it was made in the east under the influence of Akkadian imagery.”[After Fig. 7 in: Holly Pittman, 1984, Art of the Bronze Age: Southeastern Iran, Western Central Asia, and the Indus Valley, New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, pp. 29-30]. Logographs: (1) Dotted circles and (2) taberna montana motif Tell Abraq comb (TA 1649; 11x8.2x0.4 cm); decorated bone comb in a context datable to ca. 2100-2000 BCE at Tell Abraq, emirate of Umm al-Qaiwain, United Arab Emirates, on the southern coast of the Arabian Gulf (Fig. 2 a and b in: D.T. Potts, 1993, A new Bactrian find from southeastern Arabia, Antiquity 67 (1993): 591-6) Two logographs used are: dotted circles (3) and two flowers, longstemmed, with lanceolate-linear leaves with undulate margins (like Tulipa montana, Lindl. or mountain tulip). The flower motif occurs on a Bactrian flask (picture below). A soft-stone flask, 6 cm. tall, from Bactria (northern Afghanistan) showing a winged female deity (?) flanked by two flowers similar to those shown on the comb from Tell Abraq (After Pottier, M.H., 1984, Materiel funeraire e la Bactriane meridionale de l'Age du Bronze, Paris, Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations: plate 20.150) Location of Tell Abraq, southern coast of Arabian Gulf It will be established through the use of lexemes from the Indian linguistic area that the motifs: (1) dotted circles which recur on ivory combs; and (2) the flower -- 'three-leaf motif' (which looks like a mountain tulip)-both motifs are related to the cosmetic substances used by women to beautify their hair and bodies (unguents for hair and body). The 'dotted circles' motif also occurs in metallurgical contexts. The 'three-leaf motif' also occurs in metallurgical contexts (See the inscription of the single sign resembling this motif on the Cretan copper ingot--illustrated). The homonyms which relate to cosmetics also represent lexemes related to metallurgy. Ivory comb with Mountain Tulip motif and dotted circles. TA 1649 Tell Abraq. 233

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[D.T. Potts, South and Central Asian elements at Tell Abraq (Emirate of Umm al-Qaiwain, United Arab Emirates), c. 2200 BC—AD 400, in Asko Parpola and Petteri Koskikallio, South Asian Archaeology 1993: , pp. 615-666] Tell Abraq is an Arabian peninsula site which used Harappan weights circa 2200 BCE.. Wild tulip motif. A motif that occurs on southeast Iranian cylinder seals and on Persian Gulf seals. 1st row: Bactrian artifacts; 2nd row: a comb from the Gulf area and late trans-Elamite seals [After MarieHelene Pottier, 1984, Materiel funeraire de la Bactriane meridionale de l’age du bronze, Recherche sur les Civilizations, Memoire 36, Paris, fig. 21; Sarianidi, V.I., 1986, Le complexe culturel de Togolok 21 en Margiane, Arts Asiatiques 41: fig. 6,21; Potts, 1994, fig. 53,8; Amiet, Harappan weight TA 1356 1986, fig. 132]. The ivory comb found at Tell Abraq measures 11 X 8.2 X from Tell Abraq. C. 22nd .4 cm. Both sides of the comb bear identical, incised decoration in the cent. BCE. Banded chert or form of two long-stemmed flowers with crenate or dentate leaves, flint weight 54.06 g. This is flanking three dotted circles arranged in a triangular pattern. Bone and approx. 4 times the unit Harappan weight of 13.63 g. ivory combs with dotted-circle decoration are well-known in the Harappan area (e.g. at Chanhu-daro and Mohenjo-daro), but none of the Harappan combs bear the distinctive floral motif of the Tell Abraq comb. These flowers are identified as tulips, perhaps Mountain tulip or Boeotian tulip (both of which grow in Afghanistan) which have an undulate leaf. There is a possibility that the comb is an import from Bactria, perhaps transmitted through Meluhha or SSVC to the Oman Peninsula site of Tell Abraq. [The homonym, takarai, or tagaraka is a five-petalled tabernaemontana flower used as a hairfragrance]. tagar = a flowering shrub; a plant in bloom (G.lex.) tagara = the shrub tabernaemontana coronaria, and a fragrant powder or perfume obtained from it, incense (Vin 1.203); tagara-mallika_ two kinds of gandha_ (P.lex.) t.agara (tagara) a spec. plant; fragrant wood (Pkt.lex.) tagara = a kind of flowering tree (Te.lex.) Seal impression from Harappa (Kenoyer, 1998); a woman is carrying a three-petalled flower (interpreted as tagaraka, used as an aromatic unguent for the hair; see the emphasis on the hair-do, with two buns of hair). takaram means 'tin' (Tamil).

Slide 124 Inscribed Ravi sherd (1998 find at Harappa: Kenoyer and Meadow); the sherd contains the same sign (ca. 3300 BCE). The sign on this potsherd (with five petals as in Taberna Montana) is stylized 234

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as Sign 162 (with three prongs) and Sign 165 (with five petals). Sign 167 shows five petals (and variants show many more branches). The sign also is ligatured to form other signs:

Signs162, 167, 169, 387,389 +variants; Ligatures: Signs163, 166-6, 168, 90, 91,223,224,227,235.262,270,273,274, 282,283,291,331, 347-352, 355-357,371,372, 388390,395,405

Sign 21

Sign 22

Sign 223

Sign 224

Sign 273

Sign 274

Sign 23

Sign 24

Sign 90

Sign 91

Sign 227

Sign 235

Sign 270

Sign 271

Sign 291

Sign 331

Sign 346

Sign

347

Sign 348

Sign 349

Sign 350

Sign 351

Sign 352

Sign

355

Sign 356

Sign 357

Sign 371

Sign 372

Sign 387

Sign

388

Sign 389

Sign 390

Sign 395

Sign 405

Sogm 348 is a ligature of Sign 162 and Sign 173.

m1170a 1382 Composite animal Is the ligatured ‘comb’ glyph (bakhor.) + vad.d.h, ‘ears of corn’; bad.d.ha_, ‘stumps of stalks’ [Rebus: bad.hoe ‘carpenter’]; alternative: pasra ‘sprout’; pajhar. ‘furnace’. Alternative decoding of Sign 176: Comb kangha (IL 1333) ka~ghera_ comb-maker (H.) kan:g = brazier, fireplace (K.)(IL 1332) Portable brazier; ka~_guru, ka~_gar (Ka.) whence, large brazier = kan:gar (K.) Sign 165 is a ligature and constitutes the only ‘sign’ on m1170a : Sign 162 and Sign 176 (harrow + comb glyphs): pajhar ‘sprout’; rebus: pasra ‘smithy’; bakhor. ‘comb’; rebus: bakher ‘homestead’ Vikalpa: Rebus: ban:gala = kumpat.i = an:ga_ra s’akat.i_ = a chafing dish, a portable stove, a goldsmith’s portable furnace (Te.lex.) cf. ban:garu, ban:garamu = gold (Te.lex.) 235

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Signs 90,91,223,224,227,235.262,270,273,274,282,283,291,331,347-352,355-357, 371,372, 388390,395,405 [With ligatures of Sign 162 or Sign 169]

Signs 162 to 168 [Orthography: sprout]. As a countable object, the sign represents the rebus of (number of) [smith’s] forges, the number (count) being indicated by short linear strokes. A variant lexeme of Sign 165 (because of five petals shown) could be: tagara, tabaernae montana, a flowering, fragrant shrub; rebus: takaram = tin (Ta.lex.)

Sign ‘furnace’; ‘smithy’

90 kolmo ‘three’; rebus: kolami pajhar ‘sprout’; rebus: pasra

Akkadian Seal and modern impression (Oriental Institute museum), showing Mesopotamian sun god in a boat with human torso; from Tell Asmar (Iraq); date: ca. 2,200 B.C. (copyright: Oriental Institute) http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/04/040408.looting.shtml On this cylinder seal, the person standing to the left of the ligatured boat carries a variant of the glyph: Another variant is ligatured to the skirt of the person. There are many other glyphs including two ‘fish’ glyphs which parallel some Sarasvati hieroglyphs. What message was sought to be conveyed by this seal assuming that it belonged to an Akkadian who knew Sarasvati writing system? Nippur; ca.

13th cent. BC; white stone; zebu bull and two pictograms

Glyphs: ‘joining’ ‘a staff’; brahmani bull: ad.ar d.angra Brahman.i bull; rebus: aduru ‘native metal’; d.han:gra ‘smith’, i.e. metalsmith.

Harappan part depicting tree. Lower horned bulls flanking a tree (?). A person is hyenas. [After James Pritchard, 1969, The pictures, relating to the Old Testament, Gibson, M., 1977, Indus seal from Nippur, Man Museum, Baghdad].

An Early Dynastic II (circa 14th century BCE) votive plaque from the Inanna temple at Nippur VIII. "It has something very about it also in the lower two 'unicorn' bulls around a register shows two oneholding back two contesting ancient near East in Princeton, 356, no. 646; and Environment I: 67; Iraq

236

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Vessel with two rows of scorpions from Nippur, Inanna Temple, level VIII. Baghdad Museum. Jiroft bowl showing scorpions in bas-relief. Vase en chlorite de la région de Jiroft, avec des bas-reliefs représentant des scorpions http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynasties_archa%C3%AFques kamar = a semi-hinduised caste of blacksmiths; kamari = the work of a blacksmith, the money paid for blacksmith work; nunak ato reakin kamarieda = I do the blacksmith work for so many villages; kolhe kamar = a Kolhe blacksmith and iron-smelter; lohar kamar = a caste of blacksmiths that live more in conformity with Hindu caste rules (do not eat meat, do not drink beer; rare in the Santal country); rana kamar = the ordinary blacksmith in the country (rana is their caste or tribal name); saloi kamar = a kind of blacksmith; to put teeth on a sickle he gets two seers of paddy; kamarera = the wife of a blacksmith (Santali.lex.)kamar (Desi); karmka_r (H.); ka_ma_r (B.) kamar kidin = a small species of scorpion; a kind of scolopendre, said to be the same as mahle kidin (Santali.lex.) In later-day sculptural tradition, a lady is shown with a scorpion on her thigh. This can be explained: era ‘woman’; rebus: ‘copper’; kamar ‘scorpion’; rebus: blacksmith; that is, coppersmith. Shell inlay from the king's grave at Ur. [V. Gordon Childe, 1929, The Most Ancient East: the oriental prelude to European prehistory, London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co. Ltd., After the frontispiece, Plate I]. This is a dramatic demonstration of contacts -- exchange of ideas and goods -- of Sumerian civilization with Bharat and Egypt. Contacts with India are clear from the depiction of the one-horned bull (the so-called 'unicorn') in the third register of the archaic plaque. The jackal brandishing a sistrum and a bear dancing to its tune is also shown on the third register. The bear is surely a native of Armenia or Syria or India. [Sistrum is a musical instrument of ancient Egypt consisting of a metal frame with transverse metal rods which rattled when the instrument was shaken]. The wolf in the second panel has a dagger tucked in the belt. The knife shown on the wolf's belt is similar to the one found at Ur. The bottom panel shows a scorpion-man being offered two vases by an antelope. Uruk Period; BM 102427; Above: Tethered bull, three dots above back; scorpion, bearded man chases bull. Below: man with bucket watchesn fallen animal (?). Man protects goat from leopard (lion? contest scene?). Probably recut Early Dynastic period, authenticity questioned; Gypsum (worn); D.J.Wiseman, opcit, 1962, Pl. 1d. (Not illustrated) BM 102418; Wiseman, opcit, 1962, Pl. 23b; Above: scorpion, goat, bull with lizard (gharial?) on back. Below: goat couchant between goats walking. In field: pot, crescent moon. Jamdat-Nasr-Early Dynastic? Red marble. (Not illustrated) BM 22962; Wiseman, opcit, 1962, Pl. 22d; Above: Bull-men crouch beside triple-plant on mountain. Vultures on their backs. Hero and bull-man: In field: snake, scorpion. Below: Bulls bow below eagle: Stag and goat. In field: bird. Wiseman, Cylinder Seals, 21. Lazulite. (Not illustrated) Mitannian seal; ca. 1450-1300 BC; chert; cat. 630; animal row: two antelopes and a lion. In the sky: scorpion, drill hole. (Not illustrated) The scorpions on the Rehmandheri seal flank what is referred to as a ‘frog’. The pictograph may perhaps connote the spread thighs of a person, perhaps intending to denote the female organ. (Not illustrated). 237

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The message can be read as: bica bari_ kut.hi = stone ore artisan’s (blacksmith’s) furnace. The Sanskritization of Assamese bica_ , des’i_ vachi is: vr.s’cika scorpion (RV); vicchika (Pali); vicchia, vim.chia (Pkt.); bich (Sh.); bichi_ (Ku.); bica_ (A.); bicha_ (B.Or.); bu_ch (Mth.); bi_chi_ (Bhoj.Aw.H.); vi_chi_, vi~chi_ (G.); ucum (Pas’.); vichu~ (S.); vicchua, vim.chua (Pkt.); vichu~ (L.); bicchu~ (P.); bichu (Or.); bi_chu (Mth.); bicchu~, bi_chu_ (H.); vi_chu (G.); viccu, viccua, vim.cua (Pkt.); byucu (K.); biccu_ (P.); biccu_ (WPah.); vi_cu_ (M.); viccu, vim.cu (Kon.); bacchius_ large hornet (n.)(CDIAL 12081). The early form is likely to be close to: bica_ (A.); or byucu scorpion (K.); bu_ch (Mth.) bacchiu~ large hornet (N.); if so, there is are substantive words in Mundari and Gujarati for a rebus representation: bica, bica-diri (Sad. bica_; Or. bici_) stone ore; mer.ed.bica, stones containing iron; tambabica, copperore stones; samr.obica, stones containing gold (Mundari.lex.) vachiya_t a foreign merchant who seeks to make purchase and sales; an agent; vacye adv. Pre. (Skt. madhye, middle] in the center, in the middle; between (G.lex.) cf. bi_c [Hindi vacye] in; inside; between (G.lex.) ?vicchita in phrase balavicchita-ka_rin at Miln 110 is to be read balav’ icchitak-ka_rin ‘ a man strong to do what he likes’, i.e. a man of influence (Pali.lex.) bichwa_ = a type of dagger (H.lex.) ko_la, ko_lana = elongatedness, elongation; ko_lani = elongated (Te.lex.) [Note the elongated body of a horizontal person shown in the context of zebu bull, scorpion and tagara shrub]. kun.d.lan: = to lie down (Santali.lex.) kol ‘metal, alloy of metals’ (Ta.) kandankund.an (Sad. kandan-kundan) of bipeds, to walk looking lanky; to walk with long strides; kand.an-kond.on, kind.an kond.on, kon.do-kon.do, kond.an kond.an = lean and longnecked, lanky (Mundari.lex.) [Note the lean and long-necked glyph on a seal being trampled by a short-horned bull and horizontally on top of another cylinder seal which also shows tabaerna Montana shrub, zebu bull, scorpion and cactus]. kanda-kanda = to divide into small compartments or plots (Mundari.lex.) kan.d. = a furnace, altar (Santali.lex.) *A pot on top of this person *A wavy line (snake?) bracketing this person and the scorpion kan:g = brazier, fireplace (K.)(IL 1332) Portable brazier; ka~_guru, ka~_gar (Ka.) whence, large brazier = kan:gar (K.) ka~_gri_ small portable brazier (H.)(CDIAL 3006). kavar-u = dice, gambling (Ta.); kavar-u = die (Ma.)(DEDR 1329). [Note the glyph of dotted circle; also shown on ivory objects]. kavar-ai = Balija caste among the Telugus (Ta.); kavar-a = a tribe trading with glass bracelets, baskets etc. (Ma.); gavariga = a man of the basket and matmaker caste (Ka.)(DEDR 1330) 238

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kacara_ dealer in glass bangles (IL 3012) kha~_ca_ hen-coop B.H.P).); kha~_c basket for carrying birds (such as quails)(N.); kha~_ca_ large basket of tamarisk twigs (Mth.); kha~_ci_ small basket of tamarisk twigs (Mth.) urseal11Seal; UPenn; a scorpion and an elipse [an eye (?)]; U. 16397; Gadd, PBA 18 (1932), pp. 10 11, pl. II, no. 11 [Note: Is the ‘eye’ an oval representation of a bun ingot made from bica_, sand ore?] The oval or eye sign is a kat.akam, a bangle; can be seen as a hieroglyph, a phonetic determinant of the substantive pictograph of the field, the scorpion, kat.kom. Or, does the ‘oval’ glyph connote a bun ingot? "The device is notable, a scorpion and an eye (?). The latter (or at least a similar elliptical character) appears in the script both alone and with a number of modifications…Mackay suggests (M.II, p. 392) that the fairly common character (ibid., pl. cxxviii, no. cccLI) 'may be a scorpion'..." (C.J. Gadd, Seals of Ancient Indian Style Found at Ur', in: G.L. Possehl, ed., 1979, Ancient Cities of the Indus, Delhi, Vikas Publishing House, p. 119). Rahman-dheri01A and B Rhd1: Two scorpions flanking a ‘frog?’ [?kamat.ha] and a sign T with two holes on the top, possibly to be tied on a string [Together with bica_, sand ore, the sign, ‘T’ may connote another ore, perhaps tin]. Rectangular stamp seal of dark steatite; U. 11181; B.IM. 7854; ht. 1.4, width 1.1 cm.; Woolley, Ur Excavations, IV (1956), p. 50, n.3. Scorpion.

2045 Pict-40: Frog.

If the early form is: vat.t.u_ha, the possible homonyms are: vartaloha a kind of brass (Skt.); vat.t.alo_ha a partic. kind of metal (Pali); valt.o_a_ metal pitcher (L.); valt.oh, balt.oh (P.); bat.lohi_, bat.loi brass drinking and cooking vessel (H.); vat.loi (G.)(CDIAL 11357). Bar stone (Gypsy); bar. Stone (Seur.Gypsy); bot. Stone (D.);; wa_t. (Ash.Wg.); wot. (Kt.); bo_t. (Dm.); bat. (Tir.Wot.); wa_t. (Gmb.); wa_t. stone, millstone (Gaw.); bat stone (Kal.); bort (Kho.)(CDIAL 11348). vat.hu_ha_, vat.t.hu_ha scorpion (L.); vi_cd.a_ large scorpion (M.); bachiu_ large hornet (N.); vr.s’cika scorpion (RV.)(CDIAL 12081). Image: turned; circle: vr.tta turned (RV.); rounded (S'Br.); vat.t.a round; circle (Pali.); round (Pkt.)(CDIAL 12069). vat.t.am circle, circular form, ring-like shape (Tol. Col. 402, Urai.); potter's wheel; wheel of a cart; revolution; varut.t.am egg (Na_mati_pa. 255); prob. vr.tta (Skt.) Image: rim of a wheel: vat.t.ai felloe, rim of a wheel (Cilap. 29, Uraippa_t.t.umat.ai); car, chariot; cf. vat.t.am circle, circular form, ring-like shape (Tol. Col. 402, Urai.); vat.t.a-p-po_tikai a circular piece placed under the capital of a pillar (W.)(Ta.lex.) A distinction is made among ores: (1) stone ores, bica; and (2) sand containing ores, bali. 239

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Smelting what? Stone ores. Rebus, scorpion: The early form is likely to be close to: bica_ (A.); or byucu scorpion (K.); bu_ch (Mth.) bacchiu~ large hornet (N.); if so, there are substantive words in Mundari and Gujarati for a rebus representation: bica, bica-diri (Sad. bica_; Or. bici_) stone ore; mer.ed.bica, stones containing iron; tambabica, copperore stones (Mundari.lex.) dhiri = stone (Santali.lex.) The duplication of the pictorial motifs of the scorpion and the antelope on the Rehmandari seal may be related to the rebus homonym: bar, barea = two. The substantives relate to: bari_ = blacksmith; baria~o = a peddler or merchant. bari_ = blacksmith, artisan (Ash.)(CDIAL 9464). ba_ru = betel (B.)(CDIAL 9213; cf. ta_mbu_la). baru_, baro = a tall grass or reed (H.); baru = a reed (G.)(CDIAL 9151). Cf. the bush in front of the hare on copper tablets. baria~o, ba~r.ia~ = a shopkeeper, a peddler who sells salt, spices, tobacco; baria~u = rich, great, powerful, arrogant (Santali.lex.) van.ika (Skt. Van.ik) a trader, a merchant; a grocer; a grain-vendor (G.lex.) va_n.iyo (Dh.Des. va_n.iyaya_ fr. Skt. va_n.iya-ka_ traders) = a Bania, an individual of a particular caste in Gujarat, the members of which are generally traders, shop-keepers, or moneylenders; a trader, a merchant; a dealer in grain (G.lex.) van.aja_r = a caravan; a camp or company of traveling merchants; a number of bullocks laden with corn, salt and other merchandise; van.ajaro = a traveling merchant who carries for sale goods in a caravan (G.lex.) van.ij = trader (RV); trade (Gaut.); van.i = trader (Pkt.); van.ic, va~r.ic = to sell (Ash.); vra_le (Kt.)(CDIAL 12230)

(40)

Sign 162 (212)

h352C Dotted circles. Field symbol 83 (10)

m1203A m1203B 1018 Standard device as shown in front of the heifer on m1203A. Note the gimlet (tamiru) precisely indicated on the top portion of standard device on m1203A, the sharp point is drilling into a disc-shaped bead]. (48)

Sign 169 (240)

Copper tablets (60) Hare. Field symbol 16 (19) 240

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Glyph: field symbol: kulai = hare (Santali) Rebus: kol = metal (Ta.); kola = blacksmith (Ma.); kol, kollan- (Ta.); kolime, kulime, kolume = a fire-pit or furnace (Ka.); kolime id., a pit (Te.); kulume kanda_ya = a tax on blacksmiths (Ka.) kolimi titti = bellows used for a furnace (Te.) Graphemes: kolike, kun.ike, kulike, kol.ike = a clasp, a hook (Ka.Te.); kol.uvu = to connect, join, tie together, hook (Ta.)

Sign 53

Sign 362

Sign 223 Sign 36

Sign 222

Sign 363

Sign 364

Sign 221

Sign 251

Sign 220

Sign 219

Sign 217

Sign 216

kamt.ao, kapt.ao = to grab, to grasp, to seize, as a hawk a bird (Santali.lex.) khablao = to grab, clutch, grip (Santali) Rebus: kamat.a ‘portable furnace’

Native metal, iron ore and other minerals Glyph ‘bush’ in front of ‘hare’ glyph: balle a thicket, bush (Tu.); vallai extensive thicket (Ta.); balle thick bush, thick jungle (Ka.); vallara, vallura arbour, bower, thicket (Skt.); vallara id. (Pkt.)(DEDR 5289). val.l.i climber, creeper (Ta.Ma.); bal.l.i id. (Ka.Kod.Tu.); creeper, esp. the betel wine (Tu.); valli, vallika creeper, climbing plant (Te.); valli_ creeper (Skt.)(DEDR 5316, CDIAL 11429). Rebus: bali ‘iron sand sore’. Glyph: val.l.uvan- a Pariah caste, the members of which are royal drummers, and priests for Paraiyas (Ta.); a priest of the Parayas, a low-caste sage, a caste of slaves (Ma.)(DEDR 5318).

Pict-42

h333A

h095

h332C

h333B

m0534At m0535 to m0542; m01491 to m01494].

4885

4421

m0534Bt

3304 [Duplicates in

241

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h334A

h334B

4423

h335a

h335B

4425

h336A

h336B

4424

Glyph: kulai = a hare; kulai mandal = the three rupees given to the bride’s father as the price of his daughter; kulai hopon = a leveret; kulai ape sede dar.keda = the hare has run in your direction, i.e. it is for you to reply to what has been said (Santali.lex.) Hare s'as'a, saso, sasalum = hare, rabbit (G.); soso, sosea_ (Kon:kan.i) s'a_sa (Skt.) sword or knife [s'as = to cut (Skt.)] kulhi = the village street (Santali.lex.) kulhu = a Hindu caste, mostly oil men (Santali.lex.) kulhu = an oil press (Santali.lex.)

Elephant

Maski 2127

m1423At

m0527At

Kalibangan085A12

Lothal164A

jhukar1

m0283

m1423Bt Elephant shown on both sides of the tablet.

m0527Bt

Kalibangan085B

3336

8106

7230 [A frequently occurring seal impression.]

Substantive: ib iron (Ko.); needle (To.); irimbi iron (Kod.); inumu id. (Te.); inum iron, sword (Kol.); rumba vad.i ironstone (Kui); irumpu iron, instrument, weapon (Ta.); irumpu, irimpu iron (Ma.)(DEDR 486). vad.i, vali stone (Kui); mesi-val whetstone (Go.); vwalli, valli, vali (pl. valka) stone (Kui)(DEDR 5285). Cf. bali iron stone ore (Santali) Substantive: imbu a halting or resting place, home, place, space, room (Ka.); imba width, breadth (Ka.); imbu place, room, space, refuge, opportunity; broad, wide (Tu.); immu a place, home, room, space; convenience (Te.)(DEDR 467). Iruppu seat, residence, merchandise, wares (Ma.); irippu sitting, residence, position (Ma.); irpga.rn rich man (Ko.); iravu, irapu being, staying, resting state; irke, ikke 242

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being, abode, seat, place (Ka.); iruvu neighbourhood, place, home (Te.); re’nai to abide (Kuwi)(DEDR 480).Glyph: ibha elephant (Skt.) ibo obo thick and heavy, fat (Santali) karat.i = an elephant (Te.lex.) e_nu (pl. –l) elephant (Pa.); e_nu~gu, e_nika, e_niga, e_nige, e_nuga elephant (Te.); ena_gi_, e_ngi (Kol.); e_nagi_ (Nk.); e_nig (Ga.); ye_ni_, aini_, e_nal, e_ni, e_n (Go.); e_ngu, e_ni (Kond.a); ya_n-ai, a_n-ai (Ta.); a_na (Ma.); a.n (Ko.); a.n (To.); a_ne, ya_ne (Ka.); a.ne (Kod.); a_ne (Tu.)(DEDR 5161). e_nu one edge of a blade of hoe or spade (Te.); e_n., e_n.i boundary, limit (Ta.); e_n.u edge, chiefly the three edges of the coconut (Ma.); e.n.er edge (Ko.); e_n., e_n.u edge, border, point (Ka.)(DEDR 886). Barber: e_n-a_ti barber; name of a division among Sha_n.ans (Ta.); e_na_di barber (Te.)(Ta.lex.) Soldier: e_n-a_ti an ancient title conferred by a king on his minister (Man.i. 22,205); general; soldier, warrior; e_na_ti-mo_tiram ring being the insignia of the title of e_n-a_ti (Ci_vaka. 2569, Urai)(Ta.lex.) cf. se_na_di (Skt.lex.) e_n-am tool (Ta.); e_nam tool (Ma.)(DEDR 918). e_nu one edge of a blade of hoe or spade (Te.); e_n. e_n.u edge, point (Ka.); e.ner edge (Ko.); e_n.u edge, chiefly the three edges of the coconut (Ma.); e_n. e_n.i boundary, limit (Ta.)(DEDR 886). e_n., e_n.am, e_n.ai, e_t.ci firmness; en. strength (Ta.); e_n.am steadfastness (Ma.); e_n.u energy, firmness, stability (Ma.)(DEDR 886). Some Assyrian/Akkadian lexemes a_ru = offspring, child erimu = foe a_ru = enemy (lit. one marching against another) (Akkadian/Assyrian) arru, irru = sling, fetter; aru_ = outfit, harness arxu = ox arxu, uruxxu = way araku = arrange, fit out; erikku = outfit urgu_, urku_ = title of an officer ur-ra-ku = stone mason [urraku_tu = sculpture] ebru = corn, food (a-ru = germ, sprout, flower, blossom) ebru = friend uru = animal uru, eru = settlement, city armu = ibex, mountaingoat (W. MussArnolt, A concise dictionary of the Assyrian language, Berlin, Reuther and Reichard, 1905). If the rebus principle is used to explain the glyphs of Assyria or Akkadia showing, say, a lion attacking a bull or a tiger with wings of an eagle, these Assyrian/Akkadian lexemes may point to the glosses which lead us to the homonyms. 243

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Copper or griddle, three long linear strokes

Signs 90, 91 On many epigraphs, three long linear strokes (with or without ligatures) appear in contexts connoting the glyph as a lexeme (and not a numeral count). Glyph: tebr.a = three; rebus: ta(m)bra = copper Alternative: Glyph: pene ‘three’ Substantive: penamu = griddle, metal plate or pan for baking (Te.) pen.i_ a frying pan (G.); pahen.ayam = Skt. bhojano pa_yanam, a cooking vessel; Hem. Des. pa-i-n.o = broad (G.) Glyph: plug: ben.e peg, plug, stopple, cork (Ka.); bu_n.a peg, wedge (Tu.)(DEDR 4396).

m0122a

2575

Arrow,

h053

2015

m1359

5089

Lothal146AB

7279

Sign 211

3810.Image: boatman's pole: callam boatman's pole (Ma.); jallu id. (Ka.); jalla id. (Tu.)(DEDR 2380). jalle, jar..ave a bamboo pole; a sugar-cane (Ka.); jalle cane of sugar (Kod..)(DEDR 2383). cel. long, round stick, stick of fairly large size (Ko.); sel.e twig, small branch, stick, rod, also one for training or punishing children; to cane with a stick; cal.l.u, cel.u, cel.l.u, sel.l.u a long flexible twig or rod (Ka.); jal.e long thin pliable stick; (jal.ev-, jal.and-) to sway like a long pliable stick; jal.a- (jal.ap-, jal.at-) to make sway (Kod..); cil, s'il a fishing-rod (Tu.); sela twig (Te.)(DEDR 2790). Image: pitchfork, fishing rod; spiked stick: [The image is related to pearl fishery: a forked lance, to hook a mother-of-pearl shell]: salage (Tadbhava of s'ala_ke) a javelin, a dart (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) s'alyas'an:ku spiked stick (Skt.); salhan:g, salhan:ga_, salan:gh, salan:gha_ small pitchfork (P.)(CDIAL 12355). s'ala_ka_ small stake (S'Br.)(CDIAL 12355). cf. sa~_gi_ pitchfork (P.)(CDIAL 12260). [The etyma with consonants csp semantics: oyster shell] and the associated images of the spiked stick and lance cil- clash resulting in the description of the business of pearl fishery]: s'ila_pam pearl fishery (Ma.); sala_pam id. (Ma.); sala_pamu id. (Te.); cala_pam, cila_pam id. (Ta.)(DEDR 2369). cala_pam pearl fishery (S.I.I. iii,145); cala_patturai id. (Ta.lex.) Image: bow: cila bow (Ma.); cilai id. (Ta.)(DEDR 2571). Image: arrow: gi'erri arrow shaft (Kuwi); keeri arrow (Kui)(DEDR 1932). Images: fork; dart: cil.l.u a fork (Te.); cil.l.a bifurcated (Te.); cella, jella branch, bough (Pa.); cil.l.e a fork (Ka.); cil branch of a tree (Ko.); cilla small branch of a tree (Ma.)(DEDR 2587). s'ili_ dart, arrow (Skt.); s'e_lla (<? s'ailya), se_la, se_lla a kind of weapon (Skt.); s'ili_pr.s.t.ha epithet of a sword (MBh.) > sil (Persian.Psht.); sil spear, arrow (Ash.); siu spear (Kal.); s.il id. (Wg.Gaw.); sel arrowhead (K.); sella, silla spear, arrow (Pkt.); se_l spear (Wg.); sel (Kal.); selhu large thorn (S.); sel long spear (P.); sela_ spear (P.); xel dart, stake (A.); sel dart, javelin, spit (B.): sella, helle_ (pl. hella) spear, dart (Si.)(CDIAL 12466). cili_mukam arrow, ampu (cilai-y-itu cili_muka-n-kal.ivai (Parata. Tirau. 31); bee; nipple of woman's breast; battle, fight (Ta.lex.) cili_muka-k-kai hand-pose in which the tip of the thumb touches the first line of the forefinger and the tips of the other fingers touch the palm (Ta.lex.) sili_muha arrow (Pkt.); silimuva_ bee (Si. < prob.Skt.); s'ili_mukha arrow (MBh.)(CDIAL 12469). For semant. 'bee' cf. cil.-van.t.u cricket (Ta.)(DEDR 2588). Image: arrow; lance, javelin, sharp stick to dart a fish: cilukku iron staple, tooth of a saw, barb (Ta.); spike, iron barb, javelin (Ma.); cille_li a sharp stick to 244

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dart (sic) a fish with (Tu.); cillako_la lance, javelin (Te.); ciluku, sela arrow (Te.); selago_la goad (Te.); selapandi porcupine (Te.)(DEDR 2568). [cf. s'alyaka porcupine (VS.); sallaka porcupine (Pali); salla_ armadillo (L.); sellaga porcupine (Pkt.); -sayake prob. porcupine (As'.); ka~_t.a_-sariyo hedgehog (G.)(cf. kan.t.aka thorny and ka~_ porcupine (Pas'.)(CDIAL 12353; poss. non-Aryan origin). ey, ey-p-pan-r-i porcupine (Ta.); s'e_d id. (Kol.Nk.); ce_dir (Pa.); e_du, e_du-pandi (Te.)(DEDR 2776). cf. s'va_vidh porcupine (AV.); se_dha, se_ha (Pkt.); seh, si_, si~_h (H.)(CDIAL 12766).] jhi~k the Indian porcupine (Santali.lex.) Image: arrow: s'aru missile (RV.); arrow (AV.); s'ur arrow (Kt.); sari_ straight like an arrow (P.); sara arrow (Or.); sar (Mth.); sara (OAw.); sar (H.); sara (OMarw.); sar (G.); sara, sara-ya (Si.)(CDIAL 12336). s'ara reed from which arrows are made (RV.); the reed saccharum sara, arrow (Mun.d.Up.)(CDIAL 12324). s'arya arrow (RV.); s'e_ra, s'a arrow (Kal.)(CDIAL 12339). s'alya arrow, javelin (RV.); salla arrow, dart, piercing sting (Pali); spear, javelin, thorn in body (Pkt.); s'al spear; s'il (Ash.); s'al (Bshk.); salu hole (S.); sall dart, perforation, hole (P.); xa_l spike, wedge; xli thin long slip of bamboo or iron etc. (A.); sa_l impaling stake (B.); sa_la thin projection of wood fitting into mortise, tenon (Or.); sa_l thorn, pang, pain (Mth.); thorn, pain, hole made in ground by a spike (H.); tenon, cause of pain, impediment (G.); splinter remaining in flesh (M.); sala arrow, spear (Si.)(CDIAL 12352). A synonym, salla = spear [or, a ligatured pole] kod.a, kor.a professional digger; an aboriginal tribe cognate to the Santals, and speaking a similar language; kod.ra to scourge; khot.rao to scrape out of a hollow, to gouge (Santali) kottan- mason (Ta.); kot to peck (Ko.); kothke to peck or strike with the beak, sear with a hot iron (Malt.)(DEDR 2091). Association of elephant and eagle Elephant glyph: ibha + s’un.d. (elephant + trunk); rebus: ib (iron) + sun.d. (furnace) Eagle: pajhar. (eagle); rebus: pasra (smith’s forge) Thus, the elephant and the eagle may represent two types of furnaces: a furnace and a brick kiln. pagar = a water channel; pagrao = to construct a water channel, to lead water by clearing a way for it (Santali.lex.) panjhet.i_ = a farmer’s tool; a harrow; a rake (G.lex.) [Note the harrow glyph]. pan~ja = heap, pile (Pali.lex.) pagar = a heap of corn; pagor = a heap of ears of corn, made to separate the grain from the husk (G.lex.) [Note the glyph of a hayrick within a platform on which the horned person with armlets sits]. kol ‘metal, alloys of metal’; furnace. kol, kolhe (iron-smelter)(Santali.lex.) kol, kollan-, kollar = blacksmith (Ta.lex.) [kollulaive_r-kan.alla_r: nait.ata. na_t.t.up.); mitiyulaikkollan- mur-iot.ir.r.an-n-a: perumpa_)(Ta.lex.)

Graphemes: kolom = paddy plant (Santali) ko_li = a stubble of jo_l.a (Ka.); ko_le a stub or stump of corn (Te.) kolime = furnace (Ka.) cf. tagara = taberna montana (Skt.) Rebus: tagromi tin metal 245

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alloy (Kuwi) Sign 169 thus connotes a specific metal (kol): tin; lexemes: t.agromi + ko_li; glyphs: stubble, taberna montana: tagara ko_li This cluster of signs –Sign 169 and Sign 162 (representing taberna montana) is sometimes prefixed with short numeral strokes. The count of short numeral strokes might represent the number of parts used to alloy with 8 parts of copper. This is surmised from a specific lexeme tara_ : an alloy of 8 parts of copper and 5 parts of tin, a ratio of alloying for making bronze vessels.

ko_lemmu = the backbone (Te.lex.)

Sign 47

cf. pa~_ji_ offering of food to a ghost (M.)(CDIAL 8251). pacakku substance (Ta.Na_.); pacai-tal to gather, get ready as necessary materials (Tiv. Iyar-. 3,64); paccai offering to a superior or a deity (I_t.u, 5,1,3); present as to a newly married pair (Ci_vaka. 823, Urai.); tribute (I_t.u, 4,1,1); compensation, return (I_t.u, 2,3,4); provisions (I_t.u, 1,6,1); profit; pacumpatam raw materials for food (Pat.t.in-ap. 203); paccai-k-kaliya_n.am ceremony on the fourth day in a marriage festival, as the time of presenting gifts (Ta.); paccai-kat.t.u trifling presents, commonly to the headman of a village (Ta.lex.) panje, panjho = the hand opened out; a claw, a paw; the five on a dice in play; pasli_ the hollow of the hand (G.) pan~jali = with outstretched hands, as token of reverence (Skt. pra_n~jali)(Pali.lex.) pan~ja_ = the paw, the palm; the image of a hand worshipped and taken in procession during the Mohurrum

festival (Te.lex.)

Sign 169

pajhar. = to sprout from a root; pagra = a cutting of sugar-cane used for planting (Santali.lex.)

Signs 90,91,223,224,227,235.262,270,273,274,282,283,291,331,347-352,355-357, 371,372, 388390,395,405 [With ligatures of Sign 162 or Sign 169]

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tagar = to be stopped or impeded; to impede (Ka.lex.) [cf. the motif of a person holding back tigers or bulls on either side]. tagar. = a trough; tagar.re surti ar cunko sipia they mix surti and lime in a trough (Santali.lex.) taga_rum [Pers. tagarih] a bricklayer’s trough; a hod (G.lex.) [Is this a representation of a trough shown in front of the short-horned bull and other animals on many seals? The possibility is enhanced because the shrub also appears in front of a short-horned bull.] tagar.a = syn. of masala gar.a, a pit for preparing mortar; masala = mortar (Mundari.lex.) tagar = a tub, a bucket, a trough, a platter (P.lex.) d.aka d.ak = a wooden trough used for feeding pigs, watering cattle, and at times for bathing (Santali.lex.) da_gara, d.a_gara. d.a_gara_ = a large flat basket woven of thin bamboo strips in which articles are fried or exposed to the sun (Te.lex.) d.agri_ = winnowing basket (Mth.)(CDIAL 5522). d.haki = a large basket (Santali.lex.) [Rebus: ‘trough’ in front of animals]. d.a_gara, d.a_gara_ = a large winnowing basket; a large square tray of bamboo splints (Te.lex.) tavaya = frying pan (Pkt.); tawa = griddle (K.); taula_ large earthen cooking vessel (Bi.Mth.); tavali_ metal or earthen vessel (M.)(CDIAL 5670). t.agara, borax (Si.Skt.) t.angan.a, t.anka, t.ankaks.a_ra borax (Skt.); t.a_kan:kha_r brute borax, tincal (M.); t.a_ngan.a_ id. (Or.); dana_ka_r borax, alum (Kho.) < Prob.Ir., cf. Persian tanga_r (CDIAL 5431. 5437). tagara, tavara [Tbh. of tamara or trapu] tin (Ka.Te.Ta.M.)(Ka.lex.) takaram tin, white lead, metal sheet, coated with tin (Ta.); tin, tinned iron plate (Ma.); tagarm tin (Ko.); tagara, tamara, tavara id. (Ka.) tamaru, tamara, tavara id. (Ta.): tagaramu, tamaramu, tavaramu id. (Te.); t.agromi tin metal, alloy (Kuwi); tamara id. (Skt.)(DEDR 3001). trapu tin (AV.); tipu (Pali); tau, taua lead (Pkt.); tu~_ tin (P.); t.au zinc, pewter (Or.); taru_aum lead (OG.); tarvu~ (G.); tumba lead (Si.)(CDIAL 5992). cf. Alloy: tara_ alloy of 8 parts of copper to 5 of tin, used for making metal vessels (pukar..tara_-p- po_kkillai) (Cine_n-. 169)(Ta.lex.) tagad.u = a plate sheet leaf or foil; of metal (Te.lex.) takat.u foil set below a precious stone to enhance its luster; metal plate (Kampara_. Nakarni_. 28)(Ta.lex.) Thin metal plate: takat.u quality of being thin and flat, metal plate, leaf blade (Ta.); takat.u, takit.u thin metal plate, spangle (Ma.); takit.a copper leaf written over and worn as an amulet (Ma.); tagad.u metal beaten into a plate, flat piece or sheet of metal (Ka.); thin metal plate (Tu.); takat., takt.e_ metal beaten into a plate or leaf (M.)(DEDR 2995). tagat.u = gold lace; tagat.i = of gold lace; ornamented with gold lace (Te.lex.) takat.i gold-embroidered silk (Ta.) (Ta.lex.) cf. takat.u foil set below a precious stone to enhance its luster; metal plate (Kampara_. Nakarni_. 28)(Ta.lex.) Alloy: tara_ alloy of 8 parts of copper to 5 of tin, used for making metal vessels (pukar..tara_-ppo_kkillai) (Cine_n-. 169)(Ta.lex.) Rebus glyph: ta_ra_ = stars (Skt.) tagad.o = [Skt. trika a group of three] the figure three (3)(G.lex.) [Note. Three persons shown next to a tree on a tablet]. tagara = ram (Te.lex.); takaram (Ta.lex.); t.agaru, t.agara, t.igaru, tagar = a ram (Ka.); tagara, tan:gad.i_ (H.M.); tagade_ra, tagate_ra = having a ram for his vehicle: fire (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) Old Tamil: takar 1. sheep; 2. ram; 3. goat; 4. aries in the zodiac; 5. male ya_r..i 6. male elephant; 7. male shark. t.agarudaleya, t.agarutaleya = daks.abrahmanu, Daks.a, the son of Brahma_, father of Durga_ and father-in-law of S’iva, who on one occasion celebrated a great sacrifice to obtain a son, but omitted to invite S’iva, wherefore S’iva interrupted the sacrifice, and by his incarnation Vi_rabhadra had Daks.a decapitated; 247

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for the decapitated head that of a ram was substituted (Ka.lex.) 4080.Images: ram; male elephant; male shark: takar sheep, ram, goat, male of certain other animals (porutakar ta_kkar-ku-p- pe_run takaittu : Kural.486); male elephant; male shark (Ta.lex.) (ya_l.i, elephant, shark)(Ta.); takaran huge, powerful as a man, bear, etc. (Ma.); tagar, t.agaru, t.agara, t.egaru ram (Ka.) tagaru, t.agaru id. (Tu.); tagaramu, tagaru id. (Te.); tagar id. (M.)(DEDR 3000). tan:gad.i_, tagara a ram (M.H.); tagade_ra having a ram for his vehicle: fire; tagarven.agisu to cause rams to fight (Ka.lex.) da_dlo bokro ram (Kon.lex.) [cf. kara_ male alligator; kar.e_n.u elephant (Ta.lex.)] Tabernae Montana coronaria Tabernaemontana amsonia 4077.Wax-flower: takaram wax-flower dog-bane, tabernaemontana; aromatic unguent for the hair, fragrance (Ta.); takaram tabernaemontana coronaria (Ma.); tagara id. (Ka.); t.agara (Pkt.)(DEDR 3002). Tabernaemontana coronaria, tabernaemontana heyncana: nandivraksha, tagara (Skt.); chandni, tagar (H.); siulicop, tagar (B.); East Indian rose-bay wax-flower plant, ceylon jasmine (Eng.); nandivardhanamu (Te.); nandiyavertam, gandhitagarappu (Ma.); maddarasagida (Ka.); vadli namdit (Konkan.i); is met with in Bengal and south India. Root contains resin, extractive matter and a bitter alkaloit... root or bark is chewed for the relief of toothache... root rubbed with limejuice is applied to remove opacities of the cornea... milky juice of leaves is dropped into the eye to cure ophthalmia. (Indian materia Medica, p. 1189). cf. tagara a shrub with fragrant white flowers, cultivated in gardens, tabernaemontana coronaria (Ka.lex.) takaraja_r..al an aromatic unguent for the hair, mayircca_ntu (Nan-. 368, Mayilai.); tagaram wax-flower dog-bane, tabernae montana (Ci_vaka. 349); aromatic unguent for the hair (Kur-in~cip. 108); fragrance (Aka. Ni.)(Ta.lex.) tagara the shrub tabernaemontana coronaria and a fragrant powder obtained from it (Kaus'.); tagaraka (VarBr.S.); sthagara, sthakara a partic. fragrant powder (TBr.); tagara (Pali); takara (Dhp.); tagara, t.ayara a kind of tree, a kind of scented wood (Pkt.); tuvara, tra a species of cassia plant (Si.)(CDIAL 5622). tagara = the shrub tabernaemontana coronaria and a fragrant powder obtained from it (Kaus’); tagaraka (VarBr.S.); sthagara, sthakara = a particular fragrant powder (TBr.); tagara (Pali); takara (Dhp); tagara, t.ayara a kind of tree, a kind of scented wood (Pkt.); tuvara, to_ra a species of cassia plant (Si.)(CDIAL 5622). Tuvarala_ an incense prepared from a species of tabernaemontana (Si.); tagaravalli_ cassia auriculata (Skt.); tagaravalli_ cassia auriculata (Skt.); tuvarala_ an incense prepared from a species of tabernaemontana (Si.)(CDIAL 5624). tagara tabernaemontana coronarea, an ingredient of perfumes (Jain.Skt.); bignonia chelonoides (Skt.); delphinium brunonianum (Car. Su. 4.42, Ci. 3.268). nata synonym of tagara (Car. Su. 3.23,28). Delphinium ajacis: larkspur seed, field larkspur, feldritterspornsamen (Ger.); part used: the dried ripe seed; habitat: Europe; use: externally as tincture as a parasiticide in pediculosis; internally its action resembles aconite. (Heber W. Youngken, Textbook of Pharmacognosy, Philadelphia, The Blakiston Co., 1950, pp. 337-338). Aromatic unguent: kokke-gid.a tabernaemontana coronaria a shrub with fragrant flowers cultivated in gardens (Ka.lex.); kokke-ka_yi fruit of the tree tabernaemontana coronaria (Tu.)(DEDR 2035). nandi bat.lu gid.a a shrub with fragrant white flowers, cultivated in gardens, tabernaemontana coronaria (Ka.); nandya_varta, nandi-vat.t.a (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) The juice of the flowers is mixed with oil is used to relieve the burning sensation of sore eyes; is rubbed into the head to cure pain in the eyes. (Medicinal Plants of the Philippines, p.739). Ervatamia coronaria = ervatamia divaricata = tabernaemontana coronaria: tagar (B.M.H.Skt.); nandiyavattam (Ta.); gandhitagarapu (Te.); wood: refrigerant; milky juice: used for diseases of eye; root: acrid, bitter, used as local anodyne and chewed for relief of tooth-ache; habitat: upper gangetic plain, Garhwal, E. Bengal, Khasia Hills, Assam, N. Circars and hills 9f Vizagapatam (GIMP, p.110). 248

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t.akkara = collision (Pkt.); t.akora (K.); t.akaru = butting (S.); t.akkaran. = to meet, agree (L.); t.akkar = pushing, knocking (P.); t.akkarn.a_ = to collide, meet (P.); t.akkar = shock, jerk, loss (Ku.); t.akar = obstacle, collision (N.); t.akkar = blow (B.); t.akkara, t.a_kara (Or.); t.akkar (H.G.M.)(CDIAL 5424). tagar = to be stopped or impeded; to impede (Ka.lex.) [cf. the motif of a person holding back tigers or bulls on either side]. ko_lemmu = the backbone (Te.lex.) Glyph: old cattle: kholi_, kholli_ (P.) [koli_ = a cow (G.)] cf. goul.i, goul.ia_ herdsman (Kon.lex.) goil cowhouse, hut, pasture ground (P.); gol drove of cattle sent to another village (P.); go_uliya herdsman (Pkt.); goili_ (P.)(CDIAL 4259). xola_ = tail (Kur.); qoli id. (Malt.)(DEDr 2135). [Note the rump of ox with tail depicted ligatured to horned, standing persons]. Adornment of an idol ko_lamu (Te.) Ficus elastica, banyan: go_l.i (Ka.); ko_l.i (Ta.) Ornamental design: ko_lam (Ta.) ko_la_n mason, builder (Ma.) Boat, raft

ko_lamu = boat (Te.); raft (Ma.); ko_l = raft (Ta.)

Tub: go_lemu (Te.)

gollemu, gol.l.emu (Te.)

xolla_ (Kur.) razor ko_l. = a planet, navagraha; ra_ku (planet)[Skt. ra_hu] (Ta.lex.) Pictorial motifs of spearing or killing koru, kori, korru to kill (Kor.) Rebus: koru ‘a bar of metal’ (Tu.) Limestone wall plaque from Susa (After J. Boese, 1971, Almesopotamische Weihplatten: Eine sumerische Denkmalsgattung des 3, Jahrtausends v. Chr., Berlin/New York: de Gruyter,: Taf: XXIV.21]. This plaque shows, on the lower register a person plunging a dagger at a tiger which seems to have subdued a bull. Both the tiger and bull are motifs which recur on inscribed objects of Bharatiya civilization. The top register shows a scene with two seated persons receiving some vase; one on the left is playing on a lute. The plaque is perhaps related to a temple which stood on the Acropole. A parallel pictorial motif occurs in Crete on an ornamented dagger. A sword, found in the palace of Mallia and dated to the Middle Minoan period (2000-1600 BC), is an example of the extraordinary skill of the Cretan metalworker in casting bronze. The hilt of the sword is of gold-plated ivory and crystal. A dagger blade found in the Lasithi plain, dating about 1800 BCE (Metropolitan Museum of Art), is the 249

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earliest known predecessor of ornamented dagger blades from Mycenae. It is engraved with two spirited scenes: a fight between two bulls and a man spearing a boar.

m1430Bt

m1430C

m1430At Pict-101: Person throwing a spear at a buffalo and placing one foot

on its head; three persons standing near a tree at the centre. 2819 Pict60: Composite animal with the body of an ox and three heads [one each of one-horned bull (looking forward), antelope (looking backward) and bison (looking downwards)] at right; a goat standing on its hindlegs and browsing from a tree at the center. “The motif of a figure grasping two felines (usually tigers) by the neck is found on another tablet from Harappa (the twisted terracotta example illustrated) and on tablets and seals from Mohenjo-daro. One of those from Mohenjo-daro appears to depict a male with genitalia (Parpola, 1994, p. 247 and Franke-Vogt, 1991; Taffel XXXV: 248). Other examples are not so clear, but they have usually been assumed to represent males. As a likely female, the figure from Harappa conforms in sex with depiction of a composite female-bovine figure grasping a horned tiger on a seal from Mohenjo-daro (Franke-Vogt, 1991: Taffel XXXVI: 263). A Parpola (1994, p. 246) points out, the ‘contest’ motif is one of the most conincing and widely accepted parallels between Harappan and Near Eastern glyptic art.’ In the Harappan case, however, bulls and lions are replaced by tigers, and females as well as males are depicted as ‘hero(ine)’. Another interesting feature of the tablets is that whereas the bovine especially are depicted as clearly male, the sex of the huian figures is often not so evident.” [Richard Meadow and Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, 1997, Excavations at Harappa 1994-1995: new perspectives on the Indus scriptl, craft activities, and city organization, in: Raymond Allchin and Bridget Allchin, 1997, South Asian Archaeology 1995, Oxford and IBH Publishing]. "We have found two other broken tablets at Harappa that appear to have been made from the same mold that was used to create the scene of a deity battling two tigers and standing above an elephant. One was found in a room located on the southern slope of Mount ET in 1996 and another example comes from excavations on Mound F in the 1930s. However, the flat obverse of both of these broken tablets does not show the spearing of a buffalo, rather it depicts the more well-known scene showing a tiger looking back over its shoulder at a person sitting on the branch of a tree. Several other flat or twisted rectangular terracotta tablets found at Harappa combine these two narrative scenes of a figure strangling two tigers on one side of a tablet, and the tiger looking back over its shoulder at a figure in a tree on the other side." [JM Kenoyer, 1998, p. 115]. Feline figurine terracotta. A woman’s face and headdress are shown. The base has a hole to display it on a stick. (After JM Kenoyer/Courtesy Dept. of Archaeology and Museums, Govt. of Pakistan). It appears that the person holding back the two rearing jackals on the tablet is a woman: ko_l ‘woman’ (Nahali); dual. ko_lhilt.el (Sudhibhushan Bhattacharya, Field-notes on Nahali, Ind. Ling. 17, 1957, p. 250

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247); kola = bride, son’s (younger brother’s) wife (Kui) ko_l is a phonetic determinative of the two jackals, kol ‘tiger’; rebus: kol ‘metal’ (Ta.) The decoding of ‘woman’ glyph on the tablet as a phonetic determinative of kol ‘tiger’ gains surprising validation from a ligatured terracotta image of a feline tiger with a woman’s face and headdress.. Mesopotamia. Cylinder seal, ca. 2254-2220 BCE (mature); ceramic; cat. 79; two groups in combat. A naked, bearded hero wrestles with a water buffalo, and a bull-man wrestles with a lion. In the centre: inscription (unread). Appears to be recut. Pictorial motif: Person grappling with two tigers standing on either side of him and rearing on their hindlegs. Person throwing a spear at a buffalo and placing one foot on the head of the buffalo. Mackay 1938: pl.88, no.279

2279 seal impression, Mohenjodaro (DK 8165); after

aduru = native metal (Ka.) homa = bison (Ko.) soma = electrum (Skt.); hom = gold (Ka.) kulai = a hare (Santali) ko_l.e = the outer angle of the eye (Ka.Ta.) kol., koral = the throat (Ka.) ko_le = a stub or stump of corn (Te.) ko_lu = an orifice, hole (Te.) kolo = a hole in a wall (G.); koravum = to bore a hole (G.) khol = hollow (Santali) kholoe, khaloi = a fish basket (Santali) The act of throwing a spear may be connoted by lexemes: d.an:gara, d.a_n:gara = throwing (Skt.lex.)

m0492At

m0492Bt Pict-14: Two bisons

standing face to face. t.akkara = collision (Pkt.); t.akora (K.); t.akaru = butting (S.); t.akkaran. = to meet, agree (L.); t.akkar = pushing, knocking (P.); t.akkarn.a_ = to collide, meet (P.); t.akkar = shock, jerk, loss (Ku.); t.akar = obstacle, collision (N.); t.akkar = blow (B.); t.akkara, t.a_kara (Or.); t.akkar (H.G.M.)(CDIAL 5424). tagar = to be stopped or impeded; to impede (Ka.lex.) [cf. the motif of a person holding back tigers or bulls on either side].

251

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Rebus: t.agara, borax (Si.Skt.) t.angan.a, t.anka, t.ankaks.a_ra borax (Skt.); t.a_kan:kha_r brute borax, tincal (M.); t.a_ngan.a_ id. (Or.); dana_ka_r borax, alum (Kho.) < Prob.Ir., cf. Persian tanga_r (CDIAL 5431. 5437). tagara, tavara [Tbh. of tamara or trapu] tin (Ka.Te.Ta.M.)(Ka.lex.) takaram tin, white lead, metal sheet, coated with tin (Ta.); tin, tinned iron plate (Ma.); tagarm tin (Ko.); tagara, tamara, tavara id. (Ka.) tamaru, tamara, tavara id. (Ta.): tagaramu, tamaramu, tavaramu id. (Te.); t.agromi tin metal, alloy (Kuwi); tamara id. (Skt.)(DEDR 3001). trapu tin (AV.); tipu (Pali); tau, taua lead (Pkt.); tu~_ tin (P.); t.au zinc, pewter (Or.); taru_aum lead (OG.); tarvu~ (G.); tumba lead (Si.)(CDIAL 5992). tagad.u = a plate sheet leaf or foil; of metal (Te.lex.) takat.u foil set below a precious stone to enhance its luster; metal plate (Kampara_. Nakarni_. 28)(Ta.lex.) Thin metal plate: takat.u quality of being thin and flat, metal plate, leaf blade (Ta.); takat.u, takit.u thin metal plate, spangle (Ma.); takit.a copper leaf written over and worn as an amulet (Ma.); tagad.u metal beaten into a plate, flat piece or sheet of metal (Ka.); thin metal plate (Tu.); takat., takt.e_ metal beaten into a plate or leaf (M.)(DEDR 2995). tagat.u = gold lace; tagat.i = of gold lace; ornamented with gold lace (Te.lex.) takat.i gold-embroidered silk (Ta.) (Ta.lex.) cf. takat.u foil set below a precious stone to enhance its luster; metal plate (Kampara_. Nakarni_. 28)(Ta.lex.) saman: = to offer an offering, to place in front of; front, to front or face (Santali) sa_man = song accompanying processing of soma in sa_maveda (Vedic) samr.obica, stones containing gold (Mundari.lex.) saul., saul = rather brackish (M.); caud.u = fuller’s earth (Te.)(DEDR 2386) cf. soma (R.gveda) sovnakay, somnakay = gold [cf. suvarn.a ‘gold’ (Skt.)]; Dardic son, surun = gold. soma man.al = sand containing silve ore (Ta. Winslow) assem17 = electrum (Old Egyptian)

m0492Ct 2835 Pict-99: Person throwing a spear at a bison and placing one foot on the head of the bison; a hooded serpent at left. [substantive: bakher ‘homestead’. glyph: phan.i ‘hood of cobra’; substantive: pan.e stone quarry. In thie context of bail ox; rebus: bali (iron ore), iron stone quarry]. na_ga = snake (Skt.)9 Rebus: na_ga = lead (Skt.) homa = bison (Pengo); soma = electrum (RV) Alternative: ad.ar = bull (Santali) aduru = native metal (Ka.) bali_varda ‘Bull’ (Skt.); rebus: bali ‘iron sand ore’ (Santali) kun.d.ali = a snake (Te.) kun.d.a = a pit (Tu.) [Note the snake on side m0492C of the tablet] ad.arincu, ad.arucu caus. of ad.a.ru = to shoot as a missile (Te.) ad.ar an attack (Ka.); at.ar to beat, strike, mould by beating (Ta.)(DEDR 77). Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.) kolsa = to kick the foot forward, the foot to come into contact with anything when walking or running; kolsa pasirkedan = I kicked it over (Santali.lex.) kola = killing, e.g. a_d.ukola = woman-slaying (Te.) Thus, homa kola = bison slaying. Rebus: hom = gold (Ka.) Rebus: kol =metal (Ta.)

Sibri-damb01A

Sibri-damb01B

pan.du bin: = a cobra snake (Santali.lex.) pan.du bin: = a sword (Santali.lex.) 252

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Tepe Yahya. Rectangular steatite (?) stamp seal with perforated knob on the back with lines crossed from corner to opposite corner. Impression on a pottery sherd of a Harappan seal of a type illustrated by Joshi and Parpola (Joshi and Parpola 1987: 88-100). Lamberg-Karlovsky and Tosi 1973: fig. 121. kulhi = village street (Santali) Smith, karma_ra kamar a semi-hinduised caste of blacksmiths; kamari the work of a blacksmith, the money paid for blacksmith work; nunak ato reak in kamarieda I do the blacksmith work for so many villages (Santali) ka_rma_ra = metalsmith who makes arrows etc. of metal (RV. 9.112.2: jarati_bhih os.adhi_bhih parn.ebhih s'akuna_na_m ka_rma_ro as'mabhih dyubhih hiran.yavantam icchati_) kammar a, kamma_ra, kammaga_ra, karma_ra, karmaka_ra, kammaga_ra, kamba_ra = one who does any business; an artisan, a mechanic; a blacksmith (Ka.)18 kamma_l.a = an artisan, an artificer: a blacksmith, a goldsmith (Ta.Ka.); a goldsmith (Ka.) kammara = the blacksmith or ironsmith caste; kammaramu = the blacksmith’s work, working in iron, smithery; kammarava_d.u, kammari, kammari_d.u = a blacksmith, ironsmith; kammarikamu = a collective name for the people of the kamma caste (Te.) karma_ras’a_la = workshop of blacksmith (Skt.) kamma_r-asa_le = the workshop of a blacksmith (Ka.); kamasa_lava_d.u = a blacksmith (Te.) kamarsa_ri_ smithy (Mth.) kamba_r-ike, kamma_r-ike = a blacksmith’s business (Ka.Ma.)(Ka.lex.)(DEDR 1236). The seated person wears a waist-band. Rebus: karma_ras’a_la = workshop of blacksmith (Skt.) Glyph: kamarsa_la = waistband (Te.) kamba, kambha = Tbh. of stambha or skambha = a post, a pillar (Ka.Te.Tu.Ma.M.Skt.); a mast (Ta.Ma.) kambhagat.t.u = a construction on pillars (Ka.) kambu = a conch, a shell (Ka.); a bracelet (Ka.) kamarasa_la = waist-zone, waist-band, belt (Te.) kammaru = the loins, the waist (Ka.Te.M.); kamara (H.); kammarubanda = a leather waist band, belt (Ka.H.) kammaru = a waistband, belt (Te.) kammarincu = to cover (Te.) kamari = a woman’s girdle (Te.) komor = the loins; komor kat.hi = an ornament made of shells, resembling the tail of a tortoise, tied round the waist and sticking out behind worn by men sometimes when dancing (Santali) kambra = a blanket (Santali) [Note the pannier tied as a waist band to the one-horned heifer.] krammar-a = to turn, return (Te.); krammar-ilu, krammar-illu, krammar-abad.u = to turn, return, to go back; krammar-u = again; krammar-incu = to turn or send back (Te.lex.) [Note the glyph showing an antelope or a tiger turning back]. kraman.a = act of walking or going (G.lex.) krama = step, series (AV); krame_n.a by degrees (R.); kama = step, way (Pali); foot, series (Pkt.); -krem in oi~n-krem and u~_-krem = upper and lower teeth (Wg.); krammar-ilu, krammar-illu, krammar-abad.u = to turn, return, to go back; krammar-u = again; krammar-incu = to turn or send back (Te.lex.) [Note the glyph showing an antelope or a tiger turning back]. kraman.a = act of walking or going (G.lex.) krama = step, series (AV); krame_n.a by degrees (R.); kama = step, way (Pali); foot, series (Pkt.); -krem in oi~n-krem and u~_-krem = upper and lower teeth (Wg.) *kamra = the back (Skt.); krem = the back (Kho.)(CDIAL 2776). *parikamra = near the back (Skt.); parikama_ = behind the shoulder (Ash.)(CDIAL 7799v). kamak = back (Sang.); com = back of an animal (Shgh.); *kamak = back of an animal (G.M.); kama neck (Yghn.)(CDIAL 14356). 253

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m0504At

m0504Bt

3323

m0505At

m0505Bt

1702

m1452Act m1452Bct appears on m-1448 to m-1452).

m0438atcopper

2912 (Similar imagery of an antelope looking back

m0272 Goat-antelope with horns bending backwards and neck

Copper work; brazier: kan copper work, copper; kan- n-a_n brazier (Ta.); bell metal worker, one of the divisions of the Kamma_l.a caste (Ta.lex.) kanna_n id. (Ma.)(DEDR 1402). kan workmanship (Tiv. Tiruva_y. 5,8,3); kan mam (Tiv. Tiruva_y. 6,2,7)(Ta.) kanaka = a metal (Pali); kanaka = gold (Skt.) kan.d. furnace, altar (Santali) gan.d.a pit (furnace) kan.d.i = furnace, altar; khandha = a trench used as a fireplace when cooking has to be done for a large number of people (Santali.lex.) kandaka = a ditch, a trench (Ka.); khandaka (M.H.Te.)(Ka.lex.) This lexeme can be denoted by the dotted circle which is often depicted on ivory (khan.d.) objects. khan.d.ar.an:, khan.d.run: ‘pit (furnace)’ (Santali) V342kankha, kan.d.a kankha = brim, rim of a vessel (Santali); ka~kh; kanna_ (H.)(Santali.lex.Bodding) kan.t.u = the rim of a vessel (Ka.lex.) kan.d.a = an earthenware pot (having a neck a little longer than that of a t.hili, but otherwise of about the same shape as this, only somewhat larger; ghar.a kan.d.a = a waterpot of brass (Santali.lex.Bodding) 254

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khan.d.i_ = ivory in rough (Jat.ki_)

V245

V247 khan.d.a a division; a section (G.)

gha~_t. = protuberance of snout of alligator (A.) gan.d.e (Te.) gha~r.iya_l (A.B.); ghar.ya_lu = longnosed porpoise (S.); gha~t. = protuberance on the snout of an alligator (A.)

(70)

(21)

Sign 245 (207)

Copper tablets (48)

Field Symbol 14 (20)

Field Symbol 29 (10) (25)

Sign 25 (53)

Copper tablets (12)

gan.d.e ‘to place at a right angle to something else, cross, transverse’; gan.d. gan.d. ‘across, at right angles, transversely’ (Santali) [Note: A slanted line Lahn.d.a writing of accounts connotes a quarter; a straight line connotes ‘one’.] ga~r.i~ = a monkey; sakam ga~r.i~ a small species of monkey (Santali) Monkey gad.ava = male monkey (Ka.); gad.d.i, gad.d.e_ (Go.); kat.uvan= (Ta.)(DEDR 1140) [Note a seal where a monkey is shown in lieu of a standard device in front of a one-horned bull]. sakam ga~r.i~ a small species of monkey (Santali) Smelting furnace, bat.hi bat.hi furnace for smelting ore (the same as kut.hi) (Santali) bhat.a = an oven, kiln, furnace; make an oven, a furnace; it.a bhat.a = a brick kiln; kun:kal bhat.a a potter's kiln; cun bhat.a = a lime kiln; cun tehen dobon bhat.aea = we shall prepare the lime kiln today (Santali); bhat.t.ha_ (H.) bhart = a mixed metal of copper and lead; bhart-i_ya_ = a barzier, worker in metal; bhat., bhra_s.t.ra = oven, furnace (Skt.) me~r.he~t bat.i = iron (Ore) furnaces. [Synonyms are: me~t = the eye, rebus for: the dotted circle (Santali.lex) bat.ha [H. bat.t.hi_ Sad.] any kiln, except a potter’s kiln, which is called coa; there are four 255

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kinds of kiln: cunabat.ha, a lime-kin, it.abat.ha, a brick-kiln, e_re_bat.ha, a lac kiln, kuilabat.ha, a charcoal kiln; trs. Or intrs., to make a kiln; cuna rapamente ciminaupe bat.hakeda? How many limekilns did you make? Bat.ha-sen:gel = the fire of a kiln; bat.i [H. Sad. bat.t.hi, a furnace for distilling) used alone or in the cmpds. Arkibut.i and bat.iora, all meaning a grog-shop; occurs also in ilibat.i, a (licensed) rice-beer shop(Mundari.lex.) bhat.i = liquor from mohwa flowers (Santali)19 Bull's head (bucranium) between two seated figures drinking from two vessels through straws. Yale tablet. YBCE.5447; dia. c. 2.5 cm. Possibly from Ur. Buchanan, studies Landsberger, 1965, p. 204; A seal impression was found on an *inscribed tablet (called Yale tablet) dated to the tenth year of Gungunum, King of Larsa, in southern Babylonia--that is, 1923 BCE according to the most commonly accepted ('middle') chronology of the period. The design in the impression closely matches that in a stamp seal found on the Failaka island in the Persian Gulf, west of the delta of the Shatt al Arab, which is formed by the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. We find that on the top register, above the bull’s head, the Yale tablet shows two squares with divisions flanking a circle while in the Failaka tablet shows two birds with wings flanking a tree (or corn stalk). bhat.i = liquor from mohwa flowers (Santali)20 bat.hi = a furnace for melting iron-ore (Santali) ka_t.i = fireplace in the form of a long ditch (Ta.Skt.Vedic) ka_t.ya = being in a hole (VS. XVI.37); ka_t.a hole, depth (RV. i. 106.6) kha_d. a ditch, a trench; kha_d.o khaiyo several pits and ditches (G.) khan.d.run: ‘pit (furnace)’ (Santali) bhin.d.ia ‘a lump, applied especially to the mass of iron taken from the smelting furnace’; bed.a ‘ingot’ (Santali) bi_d.u dross, alloy of iron (Tu.); iron filings or dust (Te.)(DEDR 4218) kut.i = a woman water-carrier (Te.lex.) kut.i = to drink; drinking, beverage (Ta.); drinking, water drunk after meals (Ma.); kud.t- to drink (To.); kud.i to drink; drinking (Ka.); kud.i to drink (Kod.); kud.i right, right hand (Te.); kut.i_ intoxicating liquor (Skt.)(DEDR 1654). Water-carrier kut.i = a woman water-carrier (Te.) [Rebus: kut.hi, ‘furnace’]

Sign 12 Seal impression, Ur (Upenn; U.16747); [After Edith Porada, 1971, Remarks on seals found in the Gulf States. Artibus Asiae 33 (4): 331-7: pl.9, fig.5]; Parpola, 1994, p. 183; water carrier with a skin (or pot?) hung on each end of the yoke across his shoulders and another one below the crook of his left arm; the vessel on the right end of his yoke is over a receptacle for the water; a star on either side of the head (denoting supernatural?). The two celestial objects depicted on either side of the water-carrier’s head can be interpreted as a phonetic determinant: ko_l. ‘planet’. The whole object is enclosed by 'parenthesis' marks. The parenthesis is perhaps a way of splitting of the ellipse (Hunter, G.R., JRAS, 1932, 476). An unmistakable example of an 'hieroglyphic' seal. enclosure signs of the field: ( ) Rebus: kol = metal (Ta.) Two ko_l. ‘planets’; rebus: kut.hi kol kin = two furnaces for metal vessels. 256

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kut.ila = bent, crooked (Skt.) kut.ila (Skt. Rasaratna samuccaya, 5.205) Humpbacked kud.illa (Pkt.) ( ) The glyph of a curved line when mirrored becomes a ligature, an enclosure to other glyphs. kut.ila, katthi_l = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) [cf. a_ra-ku_t.a, ‘brass’ (Skt.)] Thus the ligatured glyph with enclosing ‘brackets’ connotes a bronze furnace: kut.ila kut.hi

Signs 12 to 15 including variants and ligatures kut.i = water-carrier (Te.)

This sign could be a synonym of

Alternative: ka_ja carrying-pole (Pali); kahar (K.); ka_ha_r = a low caste of palanquin-bearers and water-carriers (B.); ka_ha_l.a, ka_ha_ra, ka_a~_l.a, ka_a~_ra a low caste of bearers (Or.); kaha_r = palanquin-bearer, water-drawer (H.); palanquin-bearer (M.)(CDIAL 3011). kahar = a Hindu caste, a palki bearer (Santali.lex.) khat.a = six (G.)

m0269

2663

h171A

h171Btablet

4312

Buffalo. m0312 Persons vaulting over a water-buffalo. kambal.a = a buffalo race (Ka.); kambula, kambul.a = a buffalo race in a rice field (Tu.)(DEDR 1239). Khamd.a, khamd.ao = to gambol, to sport, to flirt (Santali) Rebus: kand. ‘fire altar, furnace’; kad.a ‘buffalo’; rebus: kadaio ‘turner’ (G.) kat.iya_ buffalo heifer (G.); kad.a buffalo (Santali); kad.a = a buffalo (Santali.lex.) kat.a_damu = a hebuffalo (Te.lex.) Rebus: gad.a ‘mine’ • ka_t.i, furnace (trench)(Ta.) Glyph: d.olligillu ‘to fall or tumble over; d.ollu to fall (Te.)(DEDR 2988). Rebus: dul ‘to cast in a mould’; dul me~r.he~t, dul mer.ed., dul; kot.e mer.ed. ‘forged iron’ (Santali) kad.ru ‘buffalo’ (G.); kad.a buffalo (Santali) kat.ra_ bull calf; kat.hr.a_ young buffalo bull; kat.iya_ buffalo heifer (H.); kat.r.a buffalo calf (WPah.); kat.ai buffalo calf (Gaw.); kat.r.a_ young buffalo (P.)(CDIAL 245). kat.a_damu = a he-buffalo (Te.lex.)21 ko_r.i buffalo (Kond.a); kud.ru (Pe.Mand.); ko_ru pl. ko_rka (Kui); ko_d.ru, ko_dru, ko_d.ru, go_d.ru (Kuwi)(DEDR 2256). bidia to turn a somersault (Santali) bhindran: ‘to fall to the ground, to knock down’, bindar. ‘to fall down, to collapse’, bindr.an ‘to fall or tumble down backwards from a standing or sitting position’ (Santali) bat.i trs. To overturn, to overset or ovethrow; to turn or throw from a foundation or foothold; to turn on the ground to any extent, or roll; uaurbat.i, to upset or overthrow by shoving or pushing; mabat.i to overturn by cutting, to fell trees; bat.i-n rflx. v., to lay oneself down; ba-p-at.i repr. V., to throw each other; bat.i-o to be overturned, overthrown; ba-n-at.i vrb.n., the extent of the overturning, falling down or rolling; bat.i-n rlfx.v., to lie down; bat.i-ar.agu to bring or send down a slope by rolling; bat.i bar.a to roll again and again or here and there; bat.i-bur to turn over by rolling (Mundari.lex.) 257

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(93) Sign 8 (105) A variant of Sign 8 is a horned, standing person ligatured to the buttocks of a bull. d.hagara_m = pl. the buttocks, hip (G.) Rebus: d.han:gar = blacksmith

m1224A

m1224B

m1224

m1224e

Pict-88

1227

4319 Standing person with horns and bovine features (hoofed legs and/or tail). d.hagara_m 'thigh' (G.); rebus: d.han:gar 'blacksmith' (H.) Such ligaturing is also evidenced in Akkadian cylinder seals: Akkadian cylinder seal. Inscription: 'Naram-Sin of Akkad: Ukin-Ulmash his son'. The 'Sarre cylinder', Collection Othmar Keel, Fribourg; cf. Collon 1987: no. 528 Buffalo in conflict with a lion. Akkadin cylinder seal. A person ligatured to a bull fights a buffalo; a person ligatured to a bull fights a lion. The Oriental Institute of Chicago (AS. 33: 113). After Boehmer 1965: no. 230 Late Akkadian cylinder seal. Enki, 'water-god' sits between two buffaloes. The fighter on either side places a foot on the head of the buffalo. After Boehmer 1965: no. 223 A late Akkadian cylinder seal ca. 2200 BCE.Musee du Louvre/AO 22303 (Collection De CLercq). Water flows from the pot of Enki and is offered to the two buffaloes. Inscription: 'S'argalis'arri, king of Akkad: Ibnis'arrum, the scribe, (is) your servant'. After Boehmer 1965: no. 232. Cf. Colloon 1987: no. 529. Alternative: kun.d.e = buttock; the buttocks, the posteriors, the anus (Ka.); kun.d.i (Ta.Ma.); kut.t.i, kutte, gudde (Te.); kulla_ (M.); mu_di (Ma.)(Ka.lex.) kun.d.e = the bottom of a vessel (Ka.lex.) Rebus: kun.d.i_ chief of village kat.a market (Ma.); kat.ai shop, bazaar, market (Ta.);(DEDR 1142). bayar, bayar kad.a = an entire, uncastrated buffalo; rut, be lascivious (Santali); boya_r (B.)(Santali.lex.Bodding)

258

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sal = Indian Gaur, Bos Gaurus (or, Gavaeus Gaurus). Now extinct in the Santal Paragnas. Also called bir kad.a, forest buffalo. Sal bitkil, the cow of the Gaur; sal sakwa, a horn made from the horn of the Gaur (Santali); saili, sakil (Mun.d.ari)(Santali.lex.Bodding) sail = the Indian Gaur of bison, Gavaeus Gaurus (Mundari.lex.) kad.a = a buffalo bull (Santali) kat.ama_ bison (Ta.)(DEDR 1114). goraka = wild buffalo gorka spear (Pa.Go.); goh-ka, gohka id. (Go.)(DEDR 2126). kahli a fish-spear (Santali.lex.) goraka = metal arrow Two seals from Susa, ca. 3100-2900 BCE. Proto-Elamite. The contest of lion and bull; the top seal shows two one-horned bulls being subdued by a lion; and a bull subduing two lions; the bottom seal shows that the bull confronts a lion-bodied archer and the bull holds a raised club as it confronts the lion. After Amiet 1980, La Glyptique mesopotamienne archaique, 2nd edn., Paris: pl. 38, no. 585 (=a) and no. 591 (=b). The two triangles shown on the seal on top may be comparable to the ‘fire-altars’ found in civilization sites with a central stele.

m1653 ivory plaque 1905 and.ren (pl. and.ran) male, man (Pe.); and.ra a male animal or bird, male (Kui); an.d.ra_ male (said only of animals)(Kur.); an.d.ya_ fierce, unmanageable (of bulls, bullocks, and male buffaloes)(Kur.); an.d.ya a bull (Malt.); an.d.i_ra male (Skt.); an.d.ira_ id. (Or.)(CDIAL 1111; DEDR App. 7). Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’. Glyph: d.agalum ‘a step, the distance between the two feet in walking; a pace (G.) ta_k to walk (Pa.Go.); ta_n:g to walk (Pe.); ta_n:, ta_ka act of walking (Mand.)(DEDR 3151). t.an:kam mace (Ma.); t.an:ke, d.an:ke, d.an:gi, d.an:ge staff, cudgel (Ka.)(DEDR 2941). Glyph: d.okke the body (Ka.)(DEDR 2976). Glyph is: me~_d, me_d ‘body’ (Kur.); meth body (Malt)(DEDR 5099). Sign 1 occurs 131 times on epigraphs. Rebus: med. ‘iron’. Vikalpa: Standing person with horns: ka_d.i ‘body’; ka_t.i ‘furnace’

h858At

h858Bt

h858Ct

7.09 Moulded tablet 2

sides

m0584

2249

4235

m0328

m0230.

1295

m0262 Zebu

2108 259

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Harappa. A series of small tablets. A. man fighting a short-horned bull; a small plant with six branches; b. seated figure in yogic posture with arms resting on knees; both arms covered with bangles; traces of a horned headdress and long hair are visible on some impressions; a second individual, also with long hair and wearing bangles, sits on a short stool; ; c. standing deity with horned headdress with a curved branch with three projecting leaves; bangles visible on both arms; d. inscription with six signs; the first sign appears to be some form of an animal; the last shows a person. To hit with fist (tablet showing man fighting with bull): kud.rau; Rebus: kod.rao ‘to scrape out, to gouge out’ hence, scraper.

m0304AC The importance of the ‘body’ glyph is seen in the Seal m0304 Text 2420 where the glyph appears together with the glyphs of: buffalo, tiger, rhinoceros and elephant, all surrounding the horned, seated person. A pair of ‘antelopes’ also adorn the platform on which the person is seated in a yogic posture. Standing person glyph22 One or more of the ligaturing elements which occur on glyphs showing horned persons: curved horns (like a ram’s or like a buffalo’s, sometimes with a pair of stars flanking the horns), twig or sprig adoring the headdress, plaited pigtails.

h178B 4318 Pict-84: Person ligatured to the back of a bovine with tail, wearing a diadem or tall head-dress (with twig?) standing within an arch or two pillars? mandil, mandir = temple (Santali) ma_d.a = shrine of a demon (Tu.); ma_d.ia = house (Pkt.); ma_l.a a sort of pavilion (Pali); ma_l.ikai = temple (Ta.)(DEDR 4796). ma_d.a = pavilion (Te.) man.d.a_ = workshop (Kon.)

h238A h242A h242B h242A has svastika in the middle in a square enclosure.

Pict-84

4317

Furnaces of workers in wood and iron (carpenters, metal-workers) bat.hi, furnace; bad.hi = worker in wood and metal Glyph: badhi ‘to ligature, to bandage, to splice, to join by successive rolls of a ligature’ (Santali) pat.t.e = striep or streak of paint (Te.); pad.ita stripe, streak (Te.); pat.t.i, pat.t.e = stripe (Ka.)(DEDR 3877). 260

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bad.hi = worker in wood and metal (Santali). bad.d.u = creeper (Ga.); a thick or strong creeper or rope (Te.)(DEDR 3882). [Note the creeper with ficus leaves depicted as an arch upon a standing person.] bat.i = a furnace for melting iron-ore (Santali.lex.) bat.hi = a furnace for melting iron-ore (the same as kut.hi)(Santali.lex.Bodding) bhat.t.hi_ = [Skt. bhr.s.ti frying; fr. bhrasj to fry] a kiln, a furnace; an oven; a smith’s forge; a stove; the fireplace of a washer-man;a spirit still; a distillery; a brewery (G.lex.) bhat.a = a furnace, a kiln; it.a bhat.a = a brick iln; bhat.i = an oven, kiln, a still, a boiler, a copper (Santali.lex.) bha_t.-bhut. = frying; bhut.i-bha_t.i hasty frying (N.); bhr.s.ti = act of frying or parching (Skt.)(CDIAL 9597). Bhat.t.ha = gridiron (Pkt.); but.hu = level surface by kitchen fireplace on which vessels are put when taken off fire (K.); bat.hi_ distilling furnace (S.); bhat.t.h = grain-parcher’s oven; bhat.t.hi_ kiln, distillery; bhat.h (L.); bhat.t.h, bhat.t.hi_ furnace; bhat.t.ha_ kiln (P.); bha_t.i oven or vessel in which clothes are steamed for washing (N.); bhat.a_ brick- or lime-kiln (A.); bha_t.i = kiln (B.); brick-kiln, distilling pot (Or.); bhat.hi_, bhat.t.i_ brick-kiln, distilling pot (Or.); bhat.hi_, bhat.t.i_ brickkiln, furnace, still (Mth.); bha_t.ha_ kiln (Aw.); bhat.t.ha_ kiln; bhat. kiln, oven, fireplace (H.); bhat.t.a_ pot of fire; bhat.t.i_ forge (M.); bhras.t.ra = frying pan, gridiron (MaitrS.)(CDIAL 9656). Bhras.t.raja produced on a gridiron (Skt.); bhat.ku_har, bhat.ku_hra_, bhat.hura_, bhat.hora_ cake of leavened bre3ad (P.)(CDIAL 9657). bhat.hia_r, bhat.ia_la_ grainparcher’s shop (P.))(CDIAL 9658). Bhra_s.t.ra = gridiron (Nir.); adj. Cooked on a gridiron (Pa_n.); bha_d.a oven for parching grain (Pkt.); bhar. to roast, fry (Phal); bha_r. oven (L.); iron oven, fire, furnace (Ku.); bha_r grain-parcher’s fireplace (Bi.); bhar.bhu_ja_ grain-parcher (Bi.N. of Ganges); bha_ru_ , pl. bha_ra_ oven, furnace (Oaw.); bha_r. oven, grain-parcher’s fireplace, fire (H.); bha_d.i oven (G.); bha_d. (M.)(CDIAL 9684). bharsa_ri_ furnace, oven (H.)(CDIAL 9685). bhad. crackling fuel (M.); bhar. Crackle, rush (H.); bhar.bhar.a_t crackling of fire (Ku.); bhar.kan.u = to blaze (S.); bhar.k flash (P.); bhar.ak flash, display (H.); bhar.ku~ blaze (G.); bhat.akvu~ to blaze (G.)(CDIAL 9365). bha_d.a [Skt. bhra_s.t.raka fr. bhrassj to parch] a kiln or oven for parching corn; a pan in which corn is parched; a large well; bha_d.iyo = an earthen pot with a hole in its side in which corn is parched (G.lex.) bhat.t.hi_ [Skt. bhr.s.ti frying] a kiln; a furnace; an oven; a smith’s forge; a stove; the fireplace of a washerman; bhat.hiya_ro an eating-house keeper; a baker, a cook (G.lex.)

2863

Pict-86

h363A

h363B

h363C

h363E

Pict-85 Standing person with horns and bovine features (hoofed legs and/or tail).

5471 h175A h175B Pict-87 with horns and bovine features (hoofed legs and/or tail).

4319 Standing person

261

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h179A h179B 4307 Pict-83: Person wearing a diadem or tall head-dress standing within an ornamented arch; there are two stars on either side, at the bottom of the arch. h177A h177B 4316 Pict-115: From R.—a person standing under an ornamental arch; a kneeling adorant; a ram with long curving horns.

m1186Acolour

2430

There are some tablets where the standing person wearing a twig as headdress is within an ornamented arch decorated with ficus religiosa leaves (as in tablets: h238A, h242B, Pict-84 shown together with Text 4317, m1186 and h177B); loa ‘ficus religiosa ‘ is rebus for: loh ‘(iron) metal’. The twig or tree branch or feather(s) ligatured to the head of the composite motif may connote a possession of a blacksmith or coppersmith. H178B tablet with epigraph shows a person ligatured to the back of a bovine; the person also wears a twig as a head-dress. Glyph: back of a bovine Substantive: d.ha~_gar., dha~_gar blacksmith; digger of wells (H.) d.hagara_m pl. the buttocks; the hips (G.lex.) [Note the glyphs ligaturing other glyphs such as a man’s body to the buttocks or hips of a bull]. d.aka_ waist (Wg.); da~k, d.an: back (Dm.); d.a~g (Shum.); dha~_k back (Kal.); d(h)a_k back (Bshk.); d.ha_k hip (L.); d.ha_ka (S.); side, hip (P.)(CDIAL 5582). t.an:ke, t.an:ka_ = the leg (Ka.) t.an:ka = leg (Skt.); t.an:g projecting spike which acts as a bolt at one corner of a door (K.); t.a_n:o rod, fishing rod (N.); t.a~_k iron pin, rivet (H.); t.am.ka leg (Pkt.); t.a_n:ka leg, thigh; t.a_n:ku thigh, buttock (Or.); t.a~_n:, ten:ri leg, thigh (B.); t.a~_g, t.a~gri leg, foot (Mth.); t.a_n:, t.an:ari leg (Bhoj.); t.a~_g (Aw.H.M.leg from hip to foot (G.)(CDIAL 5428) [Note the dotted circles inscribed on the leg from hip to foot of a seated woman]. The ligatured glyph (of horns + back of bull) could also denote pot 'bead' kod. 'workshop': pot = glass bead (P.B.H.G.M.); puti = necklace of glass beads (Pkt.) Thus, the dotted circles shown on the standard device could also depict a bead furnace. pot + san:gad.a Upper part of back pot. upper part of back; pottel back; adv. behind (Pa.); pot., pot.tel, pot.t.u back (Ga.)(DEDR 4514). 6933. Image: hindquarter of an animal: puta buttock (Ka.Skt.)(Ka.lex.) pu_t.h back (also used in counting cattle, e.g., ca_r pu_t.h goru four oxen (Ku.); buttock (H.)(CDIAL 8371). put.tha the buttock, the hip of an animal (P.lex.) put.hiya = the hips (G.) put.ha, pu_t.h = the back (G.) 262

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put.am = pur-am = the back; backside (Ta.) pu_ta = buttocks (Skt.); po_t.i_ = rectum (Pa_n.); pou = the hinder part (S.); puttara = vulva (Pkt.); pu~_tu = part of the body behind the pudenda (K.); puti_ = vulva (Ku.); phuti_, phuddi_ = vulva of small girl (Ku.); puti = vulva; putu = vulva of young woman (N.); po_ri_ = tail (Gy.); pot.h = rectum (K.); pu_t.ki = anus (B.); pu_t. = sacrum bone of a cow (H.)(CDIAL 8321). pe_n.d.a_ female organ; pe_nd.a (Go.); pind.ari rectum (Kui); pend.a buttock (Pa.)(DEDR 4398) pande, pan.d.e = the region over the symphysis pubis; penda = the bottom, base, foot, an underpart (Santali.lex.) ). puccha = tail, hinder part (AV); tail (Pali.Pkt.); puchr.u~ = tail (G.)(CDIAL 8249). puccha [put-cha ‘putam gudam (yonim va_) cha_dayati_ti’ cf. putau = buttocks, Hindi pud.a_] tail, hinder part (AV 9.4.13)(Vedic.lex.) Put.t.ha = the buttock, the hip of an animal (P. lex.) puccha = the hinder part; the end of anything (Ka.) puchd.i_, puchd.um = a tail (G.) Glyph: small branches of a tree; twig, sprig, tree Substantives: aduru ‘native metal’; cul.l.ai = kiln, furnace; rebus: cul.l.i = sprig, branch ad.rna_ to twist back one’s limbs or bend the body inward (as under threat of a blow)(Kur.); ad.re to strut; ad.ro a swaggerer (Malt.)(DEDR 108). [cf. the glyphs of antelope and tiger with their heads turned backwards.] ad.aru twig; ad.iri small and thin branch of a tree; ad.ari small branches (Ka.); ad.aru twig (Tu.)(DEDR 67). Cf. at.artti = thickly grown as with bushes and branches (Ta.) d.ar a branch; dare a tree; a plant; to grow well; ban: darelena it did not grow well; toa dare mother, the support of life (Santali) Thus, the glyph of a standing person with other glyptic features of the back of a bovine, twig and ficusleaved-arch can be explained as: d.ha~gar ‘smith’; aduru ‘native metal’; loh ‘iron’; that is, a blacksmith working with iron and native metal (maybe, natural copper + arsenic alloy). ten:go ten:gon = to assume responsibility to appoint (Santali) [The rebus representation of ‘standing person’ pictograph can thus be interpreted as a functionary related to the ligatured pictograph (and related substantive rebus)]. ten:goc = standing person (Santali) t.ha_n:kum = a skeleton (G.) ten:go, ten:gon = to stand, to stand still, to assume an upright or perpendicular position, to raise to an upright position (Santali) ten:gen = to kill for sacrifice by cutting off the head with a knife (Santali) [Note the orthography of Sign 1 and many variants is that of a headless body.] Rebus: ten:go ten:gon = to assume responsibility to appoint (Santali) [The rebus representation of ‘standing person’ pictograph can thus be interpreted as a functionary related to the ligatured pictograph (and related substantive rebus)]. ten:gra hako = a species of fish (Santali)

V001 263

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V002

V008

V012

V014

V019 V032

V009

V035

V015

V028

V029

V038

V040

V008 V017 bhat.a = a warrior (G.lex.) bhad.a a warrior; a hero; adj. Strong, mighty; opulent; an opulent person (G.lex.) bhar. = soldier (B.); warrior (G.); hero, brave man (Ku.); bhat.a = hired soldier (MBh.) pat.ai = army, weapons, battle (Ta.); pat.a = battle, army (Ma); pad.eyila = soldier (Ka.); pad.eval.a = a general (Ka.); pad.ava = fight, battle; pad.avalamu = van of an army; pad.ava_lu = commander of an army (Te.)

m0299 Composite animal with the body of a ram, horns of a bull, trunk of an elephant, hindlegs of a tiger and an upraise serpent-like tail. 1381 Glyph: pahar, pahra guard (Santali) bhad.a a warrior, a hero (G.); bhat.a warrior (Skt.) Substantive: bhat.a furnace, kiln (Santali) Tempered metal with sharp edge! bat.t.al, bat.t.alu, bat.t.ala, bat.la, bat.lu (Tbh. of vartula) a concave metal vessel: a bowl, a cup, a basin, a goblet (Ka.); vat.t.il (Ta.); vat.t.i, vat.t.ige (Ma.); bat.ud.i (Te.); vat.t.al.a a large cooking vessel; a brass pan (Ma.); vat.t.a = a large water-pot (Ta.); va_t.aga = a large metal dish; va_t.i_ a saucer-form vessel of metal; a half of a coconut shell; the pan of the knee (M.); bat.le = a sort of earthen dish or plate (Te.) bat.i = a cup of metal; various sizes and shapes are distinguished by a prefixed word: adhoili bat.i = an eight-anna cup, of a middling size; car ana bat.i = a small size cup; baro ana bat.i = a cup originally costing twelve annas; bin.d.i bat.i = a cup with a rim below, to make it stand; chip bat.i = a small flattish cup or dish; dul bat.i = a cup made by casting, not by beating; jam bat.i = a large cup, mostly of ka_sa_, especially for drinking purposes; khan:ka bat.i = a cup with a flat rim (only the larger kinds, suitable for pouring out fluids; khora bat.i = cooking pot; laua bat.i = a cup similar to a lot.a, but without a neck; mi~r.u~ bat.i = a cup without an outstanding flat rim (khan:ka); sunum bat.i = a small cup used when anointing oneself with oil (Santali) bat.i (Desi) bat.i = a metal cup or basin; bhat.i = a still, a boiler, a 264

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copper; dhubi bhat.i = a washerman’s boiler; jhuli bhat.i = a trench in the ground used as a fireplace when cooking has to be done for a large number of people (Santali.lex.) bha~utic = a leaf cup, a cup made of leaves pinned together (Santali.lex.) bha_tha_ quiver (OAw.H.); bha_tho, bha_to, bha_thr.o quiver (G.); bha_ta_ quiver (M.); bha_tad. id. (M.); bathi_ quiver (S.)(CDIAL 9424). Basket: vat.t.i basket made of palm-stem fibre; (ve_t.t.uvanma_n-r-acai corinta vat.t.iyum : Purana_. 33); round basket of grass, straw, leather or palm-leaves (Ma.); vat.t.ikai basket (Ta.); bat.t.i basket (Kod..); rattan basket (Tu.); vat.t.il quiver for arrows, basket, measure of capacity (Ta.)(DEDR 5231).

(10) 'iron'.

Sign 328 (323)

The pairing may be a way of counting two furnaces (kut.hi) for med.

kamat.ha = a water-pot; kaman.d.alu = ann ascetic’s or religious student’s water-pot, kun.d.ike (Ka.lex.) kamat.hamu = a water-jar (Te.lex.) kamad.ha = pot for curds; Baladeva; face (Pkt.lex.) cf. mer.go adj. rimless (vessels); having horns twisted backwards,buffalo) (Santali) (58) Sign 95 (64) pon, ponea, ponon = four (Santali) Rebus: pon, hon = a gold coin, the half of a varaha (Ka.); honnu = gold (Ka.); ponnu (Te.); pon-, por- = metal, gold, luster, beauty (Ta.); pol = gold (Ma.) The pair: pon bat.hi (gold furnace).

Sign 112

is composed of four and three: pon, ponea, ponon = four (Santali)

Rebus: pon- = metal (Ta.) rakha = three (G.); tebr.a = three (G.) Rebus: ran:ku = tin (Santali) ta_mbra = copper (Ka.) gat.a = a small stream or water course (Santali) gat.t.u = a shore, a bank; a dam, embankment, dike (Te.) kat.t.a_ platform (Kol.); kat.t.a bund of field, dam, dike (Nk.)(DEDR 1147). Rebus: Ingot: gat.t.i ban:ga_ru = gold in ingots or bars (Te.) kat.t.i = clod, lump (Ta.); solid, ingot (Ma.); kat.y solid lump (Ko.); gad.d.a = lump, mass, clod (Te.)(DEDR 1148). kad.rna_ to congteal (Kur.); kat.hina hard, firm (Skt.)(CDIAL 2650). kat.hara, kat.hura, kat.hora hard (CDIAL 2651) kad.d. to be hard, severe (DhP.)(CDIAL 2657). gat.i = nodular limestone; gat.i cun = lime made from nodular limestone (Santali) Thus pairing with

Sign 112, the pair of signs can be read as: gold (pon) or tin (rakha) ingot (gat.t.i).

(17) Sign 409 (26) Rebus: mo~r.e~ = five (Santali) Grapheme: mon.d. the tail of a serpent (Santali) Sign 409: glyph: cart: gad.i ‘cart’ (Santali) gat.t.i = ingot, as in: gat.t.i-ban:ga_ramu = gold ingot (Te.) Paired with the glyph denoting ‘five’, the epigraph may read: five metals (alloy) 265

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(67) (78) mer.go = rimless vessels (Santali) min.d.a = naligan.d.lapa_mu, nalikiri, naliki_cu = the greenish house lizard with a scarlet tail (Te.lex.) [Note the glyph of lizard (or alligator?) dominating a group of animals on tablets in bas relief] Rebus: med. iron, iron implements (Ho.) me~rhe~t ‘iron’; me~rhe~t icena ‘the iron is rusty’; ispat me~rhe~t ‘steel’, dul me~rhe~t ‘cast iron’; me~rhe~t khan.d.a ‘iron implements’ (Santali) (Santali.lex.Bodding) Alternative: luiha = an iron vessel or pot used for cooking and other purposes (Santali) Rebus: luhui = iron-stone sand; iron obtained by washing the sand of river beds and nallahs (Santali)

The pairing sign: a~s = scales of fish (Santali) ayas = metal (RV)23 a~s = scales of fish (Santali); rebus: aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.)

bat.i = rimless vessel.24

Sign 32

Sign 33

Sign 243

Sign 328

Sign 329

Sign 34

Sign 35

Sign 44

Sign 330

Sign 218

Sign 45 Sign 46 [Note the glyph of a kneeling adorant offering a pot; alternative readings: Reading 1: kammara (krem, ‘back’); Reading 2: karod. (spine, khara_di_ turner, sawyer) + kammat.a (pot, coiner) or, karad.o, ‘goldsmith’s tool’; kammat.a, ‘mint’] bador sat.ok = short neck and projecting chin, ugly, disgusting (Santali.lex.) bed.ol. = shapeless, ugly (G.); sat.ok = to bite, to snap (Santali) marud.iyo = one who makes and sells wristlets, and puts wristlets on the wrists of women (G.lex.) marad.a = twisting; a twist; a turn; marad.avum = to twist, to turn; marad.a_vum = to bend; marod.a = a twist, a turn; writhing, a bend; marod.avum = to writhe, to twist, to contort; to bend (G.lex.) barad.u, bar-ad.u = an empty pot (Ka.lex.) bharad.o a devotee of S’iva; a man of the bharad.a_ caste in the bra_hman.as (G.) barar. = name of a caste of jat- around Bhat.in.d.a; barar.an da_ mela_ = a special fair held in spring (P.lex.) bhara_d. = a religious service or entertainment performed by a bhara_d.i_; consisting of singing the praises of some idol or god with playing on the d.aur (drum) and dancing; an order of at.hara_ akha_d.e = 18 gosa_yi_ group; bhara_d. and bha_rati_ are two of the 18 orders of gosa_yi_ (M.lex.) bharat.aka, bharad.aka = a particular class of mendicants (Skt.lex.) bharat.a = a potter or a servant: Un. 1.104 (Skt.Ka.lex.) bard Middle English, from Irish and Scottish Gaelic bardand from Welsh bardd. One of an ancient Celtic order of minstrel poets who composed and recited verses celebrating the legendary exploits of 266

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chieftains and heroes. 2. A poet, especially a lyric poet. ballad: etymology: Middle English balade, poem or song in stanza form, from Old French ballade, from Old Provençal balada, song sung while dancing, from balar, to dance, from Late Latin balla_re, to dance. http://www.bartleby.com ba_rn.e, ba_ran.e = an offering of food to a demon; a meal after fasting, a breakfast (Tu.lex.) barada, barda, birada = a vow (G.lex.) barad.o = spine; backbone; the back; barad.o tha_bad.avo = lit. to strike on the backbone or back; hence, to encourage; barad.o bha_re thato = lit. to have a painful backbone, i.e. to do something which will call for a severe beating (G.lex.) barad., barad.u = barren, childless; baran.t.u = leanness (Tu.lex.) man.uk.o a single vertebra of the back (G.) vara_d., vara_d.h = a quarrel; vara_d.havum = to cause to quarrel (G.lex.) bara_d.o = a loud cry (G.lex.) bha_rot.i_ = a bundle of fuel; bha_ro = a load, a bundle (g.lex.) d.had. = leader, ring-leader, guide, veteran (Santali.lex.) da_d.i = a military expedition, invasion (Te.lex.)

m0459Bt

3225

bhat.a ‘six’ (G.) [Note six circles ligatured to fish] ka_ti_ ‘spinner’ (G.)

Sign 243 seems to be a ligature sign 242 and sign 328

hadi = a layer of stone or brick in the ground (Ka.); padre a layer (Ka.); paduru = id., stratum (Tu.)(DEDR 3915). [Note glyph of ringstones on pillar on tablets in bas-relief.] Substantive: patam = sharpness (as of the edge of a knife)(Ta.); padm (obl. Padt-) temper of iron (Ko.); pada = keenness of edge or sharpness (Ka.); hada = sharpeness (as of a knife), forming (as metals) to proper degree of hardness (Tu.); panda_ sharpness (Go.); padanu, padunu = sharpness, temper (Te.); padnu = sharpening (of knife by heating and hammering)(Kond.a); pato = sharp (as a blade); patter = to sharpen (Malt.)(DEDR 3907). Person (woman) seated on a tree branch, a spy, eraka

Tiger, three ligatured tigers, tiger looking back

kol metal (Ta.) kol = pan~calo_kam (five metals) (Ta.lex.) Thus, the entwined figures of 3 or more tigers may connote an alloy of 3 or more metals.

267

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m1168

2360 Tiger with long (zebu’s) horns?

kollan-ulai-k-ku_t.am blacksmith's workshop, smithy; Text 2360: lid: dakhna; rebus: d.a_kin.i_, ‘sword’; rim of jar: kan.d. kanka, ‘gold furnace’. ku_t.am ‘horns’; ku_t.am ‘workshop’

m0309 Pict-109: Person with hair-bun seated on a tree branch; a tiger looks at the person with its head turned backwards. 2522 Glyph: sal a gregarious forest tree, shorea robusta; kambra a kind of tree (Santali) Substantive: sal shop as in workshop, place; kamar sal ‘smithy’ (Santali) sa_l workshop (B.)

k049

m0310AC

1355

Kalibangan049

8013

h163 h181A h181B Planoconvex molded tablet found on Mound ET. A. Reverse. a female deity battling two tigers and standing above an elephant and below a six-spoked wheel; b. Obverse. A person spearing with a barbed spear a buffalo in front of a seated horned deity wearing bangles and with a plumed headdress. The person presses his foot down the buffalo’s head. An alligator with a narrow snout is on the top register.

Chanhudaro27 m1185 m0488At [One side of a threesided tablet] Note the glyph showing a person seated on the branch of a tree on m0488At and on m1431A.

m1431B

m1431C

m1431E

m1431A

2805 268

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m1431: Row of animals in file (a one-horned bull, an elephant and a rhinoceros from right); a gharial (or lizard) with a fish held in its jaw above the animals; a bird (?) at right. Pict-116: From R.—a person holding a vessel; a woman with a platter (?); a kneeling person with a staff in his hands facing the woman; a goat with its forelegs on a platform under a tree. [Or, two antelopes flanking a tree on a platform, with one antelope looking backwards?] Glyph ‘goat’: *gaṛṛa— 4 ‘sheep’. 2. gaṛṛara—, °ḍala— m. Apte. [Cf. gaḍḍārikā— f. ‘ewe in front of a flock’ lex., gaḍḍālikā- f. ‘sheep’ → Psht. gaḍūrai ‘lamb’ NTS ii 256] 1. Ash. gaḍewä m. ‘sheep’, °wī f.; Wg. gáḍawā, goḍṓ ‘ram’, guḍsok ‘lamb’; Paš. giḍı̄́f. ‘sheep’; L. gaḍ m. ‘wild sheep’. 2. Pk. gaḍḍarī— f. ‘goat, ewe’, °riyā— f. ‘ewe’; Woṛ. gaḍūre ‘lamb’; B. gāḍal, °ḍar ‘the long—legged sheep’; Or. gāraḍa, gaḍera, °ḍarā ‘ram’, gāraḍi ‘ewe’, garaḍa ‘sheep’; H. gāḍar f. ‘ewe’; G. gāḍar, °ḍrũ n. ‘sheep’ (CDIAL 3983). Rebus ‘mine’: *gaṛṛa— 1 ‘hole, pit’. [G. < *garda—? — Cf. *GAṛṛ—1 and list s.v. KARTA—1] Pk. gaḍḍa— m. ‘hole’; WPah. bhal. cur. gaḍḍ f., paṛ. gaḍḍḍī, pāṛ. gaḍōḍ ‘river, stream’; N. gaḍ—tir ‘bank of a river’; A. gārā ‘deep hole’; B. gāḍ, °ḍā ‘hollow, pit’; Or. gāḍa ‘hole, cave’, gāḍiā ‘pond’; Mth. gāḍi ‘piercing’; H. gāḍā m. ‘hole’; G. garāḍ, °ḍḍ m. ‘pit, ditch’ (< *graḍḍa— < *garda—?); Si. gaḍaya ‘ditch’. — Cf. S. gi i f. ‘hole in the ground for fire during Muharram’. — X KHANĬ—: K. gān m. ‘underground room’; S. (LM 323) gāḍ f. ‘mine, hole for keeping water’; L. gāḍ m. ‘small embanked field within a field to keep water in’; G. gāḍ f. ‘mine, cellar’; M. gāḍ f. ‘cavity containing water on a raised piece of land’ (LM 323 < GAHANA—). *PRAGAṛṛA—; *GHARAGAṛṛA—. Addenda: *gaṛṛa—1: WPah.kṛg. gāḍ ‘hole (e.g. after a knot in wood)’ (CDIAL 3981). gaṛa— 1 m. ‘ditch’ lex. [Cf. *GAṛṛA—1 and list s.v. KARTA—1] Pk. gaḍa— n. ‘hole’; Paš. gaḍu ‘dike’; Kho. (Lor.) gōḍ ‘hole, small dry ravine’; A. garā ‘high bank’; B. gaḍ ‘ditch, hole in a husking machine’; Or. gaḍa ‘ditch, moat’; M. gaḍ f. ‘hole in the game of marbles’. (CDIAL 3961). Vikalpa, homograph: gar. = a fort, a palace (Santali.lex.) Vikalpa, homograph: gaṛa— 4 m. ‘young of the fish Ophiocephalus lata or Cyprinus garra’, °aka— m. lex. B. gaḍ, gaḍai ‘species of gilt—head fish’; Or. gaḍiśa, °śā ‘the fish O. lata’, gaḍa ‘a kind of fish’. Addenda: *gaṛṛ—1: OMarw. (Vīsaṛa) m.pl. part. gāḍyā ‘buried’. (CDIAL 3970). Vikalpa, homograph: *gaṛa— 5 ‘hook’. Pa. gaḍa— m. ‘hook, fish—hook’; Pk. gala— m. ‘hook’; N. gal ‘lever’; H. gal m. ‘hook, drag hook’; G. gaḍ m. ‘hook’; M. gaḍ m. ‘hook, drag hook, hangman's hook’. (CDIAL 3971). Vikalpa, homograph: *gaṛa— 2 ‘cultivated field’. 2. *gāṛa—2. [Prob. same as *GAṛA—1, i.e. ‘something dug’] 1. Ku. gaḍo ‘field’; N. garo ‘terraced field’. 2. Dm. gāŕa ‘cultivated field’; Kho. (Lor.) gāḍu ‘small field’. Addenda: *gaṛa—2: WPah.kc. g ̄ḍ m. ‘farmyard, earth, ground’. (CDIAL 3968). The tradition of working with kol, an alloy of five metals is exemplified by the use of the term, pan~camas'a_le (lit. five metals workshop) to connote a brazier's shop; it is also exemplified by the name assigned to the entire region on the upper reaches of banks of River Sarasvati as pa_n~ca_la and the use of the term pan~ca_l.a to connote five artisans: pan~ca_l.a, pa_n~ca_la (pan~caka_ruka) = the five classes or caste of artificers: goldsmiths, carpenters, blacksmiths, braziers, and stone-cutters (Ka.M.); the first three classes; a goldsmith (Ka.) pa_n~ca_l.a = an association of five guilds, viz. those of the carpenter, weaver, barber, washerman, and shoemaker (Skt.); or, those of the carpenter, brazier, ironsmith, goldsmith, and stone-mason (Ka.) pan~camas’a_le = a brazier’s shop; pan~camas’a_leyava = a brazier (Ka.) pan~ca_n.amu = handicraft, 269

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handcraft, manual occupation; a workshop; pan~ca_n.udu = an artisan, a mechanic, a handicraftsman (Te.) pan~cama = dexterous, clever (Ka.) har401Harappa 1993: H93-2093/4093-1: terracotta ‘mask’; tiger’s maw, human eyes and possibly mustache and bovine pa_n~ca_lika = a doll, a puppet, an image carved on pillars (Te.) pa_n~ca_like, pa~n~ca_la = a doll, a puppet; pa_n~ca_lika_ni_ka = an image, pratime (Ka.) A glyph which explains the substantive, ‘copper’ is a glyph denoting the nave of a spoked-wheel: era, er-a = eraka = ?nave [this is a reasonable, semantic deduction since the compound erako_lu connotes the iron axe of a carriage] eraka, hero = a messenger; a spy (G.lex.) he_raka = spy (Skt.); e_ra = to spy (Kui); er = to see (Malt.); he_ru = spy (Pkt.); he_riu = spy (Kl.); hero (G.); heru~ spying (G.); hern.e~ to spy (M.); herna_ (H.); herai (Oaw.)(CDIAL 14165). heriya_m = prying, peeping; heravum = to spy (G.lex.) ere = to see, behold; erye to peep, spy (Malt.); her to look at or for (Pkt.); er uk- to play 'peeping tom' (Ko.); e_ra spying, scouting (Kui); he_ri kiyali to see (Kuwi); e_rna_ (i_ryas) to see, look, lok for (Kur.)(DEDR 903). era = female, applied to women only, and generally as a mark of respect; era iri = to be at enmity with each other (Santali.lex.) gosa~e era = the godess of the Sal grove; gosa~e = the general name given to bon:gas; teben in gosa~e kana = I am engaged in sacrificing today (Santali.lex.) er-r-apo_tamma = the name of a village godess supposed to cure diseases among cattle (Te.lex.) m0478Bt erga = act of clearing jungle (Kui) [Note image showing two men carrying uprooted trees]. era = female, applied to women only, and generally as a mark of respect; era iri = to be at enmity with each other (Santali.lex.)

h163 eraka, hero = a messenger; a spy (G.lex.) he_raka = spy (Skt.) er-aka = upper arm, wing (Te.) [Note the orthographic emphasis on the wing of a bird].10

Signs 45/46 (seated person) seem to ligature the pictorial of a kneeling-adorant with sign 328 erugu = to bow, to salute or make obeisance (Te.) er-agu = obeisance (Ka.), ir_ai (Ta.) Vikalpa: ka~wa~r.i, ka~ori = to implore, to beg earnestly, to entreat; ka~oarikaten metamkana on.d.e alom calaka = I beg you not to go there (Santali.lex.) Rebus: kamat.a ‘portable furnace’ (Te.) [Glyph reinforcement on side b of tablet h180: a crab issuing forth; crab (kamat.ha)]: kuduru = a goldsmith's portable furnace; kudul.l.u (pl.) (Te.lex.) kudru top of fireplace (Kuwi)(DEDR 1709).

Substantive: araka a plough with bullocks complete (Ta.); are a plough (Malt.)(DEDR 198).

270

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kudur d.okka = a kind of lizard (Pa.); kudur d.okke, kudur d.ekke = garden lizard; kidri d.okke house lizard (Go.)(DEDR 1712). d.okke = lizard (Kol.); d.okka (Pa.); d.okod. (Ga.); dokke garden lizard; d.oke lizard; dokke_ small lizard; pidri_ dokke_ the house-lizard; d.ogga_l chameleon (Go.); d.o_ki lizard (Kond.a); d.oi chameleon (Kui); d.rui’i lizard (Kuwi); droi, d.orgi, d.rogi chameleon; d.ro_gi lizard (Kuwi); tuska (Kur.)(DEDR 2977). [Note the glyphs of what is often called the gharial or alligator; could it be the common house lizard?] m1187 kudur ‘a wall’ (Ka.) The raised platform (macan) or cabin on the boat is paralleled on an inscribed object. m1187 Steatite seal showing boat, Mohenjodaro.Sindhu River near Mohenjodaro.

m1349A may contain a ‘partitioned rectangle’ glyph]

m1349B [The epigraph

Two types of boats are seen in epigraphs: bagala (Arab boat), san:gad.a (Sindhu sa_gara boat). One is represented by an egret (paddy bird) and another by a ‘standard device’ – san:gad.a. The owners of many inscribed objects were boat-people indeed, navigating the Rivers Sarasvati, Sindhu, the coastline of the Sindhu sa_gara and the Persian Gulf. The lexeme san:gada. can also be connoted when a composite animal is formed by joining features of more than one animal or by ligaturing the heads of animals to a bovine body. In Mara_t.hi_ san:gad.a means a joined animal. bagalo = an Arabian merchant vessel (G.lex.) bagala = an Arab boat of a particular description (Ka.); bagala_ (M.); bagarige, bagarage = a kind of vessel (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) kolimi ‘furnace’ (Te.) kol ‘metal, alloy of metals’ (Ta.) ko_l, ko_lam raft, float (Ta.): ko_lam raft (Ma.); ko_l raft, float (Ka.); ko_lamu (Te.); kola boat, raft (Skt.); kulla id. (Pkt.)(DEDR 2238). Rebus: ban:gala = a portable stove (Te.) bat.a = quail (Santali); rebus: bat.hi, bat.a = smelting furnace (Te.) kuduru = lizard (Kuwi); rebus: kuduru = portable gold furnace (Te.) bed.a hako = fish (Santali); bed.a = hearth (G.) Boat and cart still plying here. Boat depicted on a Mohenjodaro triangular prism tablet. A rectangular cabin is in the middle flanked by two birds. “A later Buddhist story (Ja_taka no. 339) relates how ‘some (Indian) merchants came to the kingdom of Ba_veru [ = Ba_bilu in Babylonian], bringing on board ship with them a direction-crow.’ Such a crow was released if the sailors wandered too far towards the open sea from the coast; by flying towards the land, the bird would show the right direction” [Parpola, 1994, p. 14] The merchants also brought a royal peacock which would dance at the clapping of the hands which was purchased for a thousand gold coins. The land of Meluhha also supplied to Mesopotamia carnelian ( = Akkadian sa_mtu, lit. ‘red stone’). The two birds (egrets) may be phonetic determinants of the boat: bagad.e, two; bagla_ egret; bagala_, Arab boat. Ca. 1015 BCE., King Solomon and King Hiram of Tyre sent ships sailing directly from the Arabian port to India, touching 'Ophir', Sophir or Sauvira in the Gulf of Khambat (near Lothal) and brought back gold, silver, ivory and peacocks.

271

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24. Moulded tablet, Mohenjo-daro. Three sided molded tablet. One side shows a flat bottomed boat with a central hut that has leafy fronds at the top of two poles. Two birds sit on the deck and a large double rudder extends from the rear of the boat. On the second side is a snout nosed gharial with a fish in its mouth. The third side has eight symbols of the Indus script. Material: terra cotta Dimensions: 4.6 cm length, 1.2 x 1.5 cm width Mohenjodaro, MD 602 Islamabad Museum, NMP 1384Dales 1965a: 147, 1968: 39 22. Toy carts, Nausharo. Terra cotta toy carts from the Harappan period site of Nausharo in Baluchistan. Holes along the length of the cart serve to hold wooden side bars and at the center of the cart two of the wooden side bars can be extended below the frame to hold the axle. A long stick inserted into the holes at the end of the cart would have been used to support a yoke. The two wheels were found lying next to the cart frame. Period III, Harappan, 2300-2200 B. C. Similar carts are still used in rural areas of Pakistan and India (#2). Material: terra cotta Dimensions: Larger cart - 17 cm length, 8 cm width, 1.2 cm thickness; Wheel - 7 cm dia., 1.2 cm thickness Nausharo, NS/88/IV [Accession Number with year] Department of Archaeology, Karachi, EBK 6916 Jarrige 1990: Xva

H172B kudur d.okka = a kind of lizard (Pa.) kuduru = a goldsmith's portable furnace (Te.) dhokra dom = a section of the semi-hinduised caste of doms; dhokra could connote craftsmen or metal workers (Santali.lex.) dokr.a = a (copper) coin of the value of one fourth of a pice (Santali.lex.) dokd.o = a half pice; a measure of value, being one hundredth part of a rupee (G.) dokhol to occupy, or be in possession; occupancy, possession (Santali) dohr.a ‘to double, to do a second time or over again’; bar dohr.ale pokeda ‘we hoed it twice after the first time’; kami dohr.aepe ‘do the work over again’ don.n.i ‘two’ (Ap.); dat. don (K.); don (M.); do_ni (Konkan.i) d.oht.a ‘having two houses in different places; a town and country residence; nui doe d.oht.a akata he has built himself another house in a different village (and has now two houses) (Santali). d.on:kan.i, d.on:kal.i, d.hon:kan.i = a spear, a lance (Ka.); don:kane id. (Te.) d.oge, doge = to make a hole, to excavate a hole (Ka.); do_ku to dig slightly so as to loosen the soil for weeding, cutting up the turf; do_kud.uba_r-a = a turf-spade (Te.) h172B The over-arching glyph is that of a lizard. The glyph is sometimes shown catching the scale of a fish. a~s = scale of fish (Santali); rebus: ayas ‘metal’ (Skt.) bed.a = either opening of a hearth (G.); bed.a hako = a type of fish (Santali) cf. assem ‘electrum’ (Old Egyptian) cf. kamsala = of the goldsmith’s caste; kamsamu = bell-metal; kamsalava_d.u = a goldsmith, a silversmith, a jeweler working in gold, silver and gems; kamsa_lava_d.u, kamsa_li = kamsa (Te.) ams’u = filament of soma 272

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(S’Br.); amsu thread (Pali); amsu sunbeam (Pkt.)(CDIAL 4) hasli_ = gold or silver collar (P.); hasu = silver collar (S.)(CDIAL 6). kan:gar ‘portable furnace (K.) kan:g portable brazier (B.)

V054

V055 V056 Spider kan:gara_ (Tir.) gan:ges. (Ash.)

V057

kha~_g (H.) kha_g (B.H.Ku.N.); khagga = rhinoceros (Pkt.) kakr.a ‘common lizard’; kakr.a hako a species of fish (Santali) m1168

2360 Tiger with long (zebu’s) horns?

kollan-ulai-k-ku_t.am blacksmith's workshop, smithy; Text 2360: lid: dakhna; rebus: d.a_kin.i_, ‘sword’; rim of jar: kan.d. kanka, ‘gold furnace’. ku_t.am ‘horns’; ku_t.am ‘workshop’ kumpat.i = chafing dish (Te.)

gummat.a cupola, dome (Ka.) Glyph of disheveled hair may be connoted by the phrase: salae sapae = untangled, combed out, hair hanging loose (Santali.lex.) Rebus: sa_la = workshop (B.) sapap = arms, tools, implements, instruments, gear; sendra reak sapap = gear for hunting; raj mistri reak sapap = the tools of a mason; kurta rorok reak sapap = the tools with which to sew a coat (Santali) sal = wedge joining the parts of a solid cart wheel (Santali.lex.) sa_l = a joint that fits a socket; sa_lvi_ a maker of joints, a carpenter (G.lex.) s’al.i_ [Skt. s’ala_ka_] a chip; a covert term for a quarter of a rupee, used by merchants in secret conversation (so called because a quarter of a rupee is represented by (i) in writing which resembles a s’al.i_ or chip (G.lex.) sal mon:garu = a very large and heavy mallet used to hammer together the three parts of a saga_r.i wheel so as to drive in the dowels (sal) tightly (Mundari.lex.) Association of woman glyph with tiger25 glyphs: kaidau = to subdue; rebus: kaida = a kind of knife with a curved blade; a big thick sickle, used to pollard trees or to cut branches (Santali) 273

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A woman is subduing two tigers. kola_ 'woman' (Nahali) is a phonetic determinant, a re-inforcement of the semantics of kol 'tiger': rebus: kol 'metal of five alloys, pan~caloha' (Ta.) The pair of tigers is connoted by the lexeme: san:gad.a 'two, pair'; rebus: san:gada 'furnace'. Thus the owner of the inscribed objects possesses a furnace – san:gad.a -- for alloying five metals, kol ko_l = woman, wife (Nahali); ko_l-na kupra = the wife’s cloth (Nahali); ko_lama wife (Ko.); kolay wife (K.); kulis wife (Ta.Burgandi dialect); khulis’i_ id. (Yerukala); khulsa_ husband (Malar); kola = bride, son’s (younger brother’s) wife (Kui) era ‘woman’; rebus: era ‘copper’; six ‘bat.a’; rebus: bhat.a ‘furnace, smelter’ (Santali) kola, kolum = a jackal (G.) rebus: kol ‘panchaloha (alloy of five metals)(Ta.)

m1183a m0306 Person grapwipling th two tigers standing on either side of him and rearing on their hindlegs. 2086 m0307 Person grappling with two tigers standing on either side of 2122 bar ‘two’; bhar him and rearing on their hindlegs. ‘oven’; kul ‘tiger’; kol ‘smithy’ kol metal (Ta.) kol = pan~calo_kam (five metals) (Ta.lex.) Rebus: kola = woman (Nahali) a_r = six (Ka.) [six locks of hair] Rebus: ara, era = copper (Ka.) bhat.a = six (G.); rebus: bhat.a = furnace (Santali)

h180A h180B4304 Tablet in bas-relief h180a two tigers standing face to face rearing on their hindlegs at L. Pict-92: Man armed with a sickle-shaped weapon on his right hand and a cakra (?) on his left hand, facing a seated woman with disheveled hair and upraised arms. Pict-106: Nude female figure upside down with thighs drawn apart and crab (foetus?) issuing from her womb. kola foetus (OMarw.)(CDIAL 3607).rebus: kol ‘panchaloha (alloy of five metals)(Ta.) kut.hi = pubes. kola ‘foetus’11 [Glyph of a foetus emerging from pudendum muliebre.] kut.hi = the pubes (lower down than pan.d.e) (Santali.lex.) kut.hi = the womb, the female sexual organ; sorrege kut.hi menaktaea, tale tale gidrakoa lit. her womb is near, she gets children continually (H. kot.hi_, the womb)(Santali.lex.Bodding) ko_s.t.ha = anyone of the large viscera (MBh.); kot.t.ha = stomach (Pali.Pkt.); kut.t.ha (Pkt.); kot.hi_ heart, breast (L.); kot.t.ha_, kot.ha_ belly (P.); kot.ho (G.); kot.ha_ (M.)(CDIAL 3545). kottha pertaining to the belly (Pkt.); kotha_ corpulent (Or.)(CDIAL 3510). Kot.ho [Skt. kos.t.ha inner part] the stomach, the belly (G.lex.) Unprovenanced Harappan-style cylinder seal impression; Musee du Louvre; cf. Corbiau, 1936, An Indo-Sumerian cylinder, Iraq 3, 100-3, p. 101, Fig.1; De Clercq Coll.; burnt white agate; De Clercq and Menant, 1888, No. 26; Collon, 1987, Fig. 614. A hero grasping two tigers and a buffalo-and-leaf-horned person, seated on a stool with hoofed legs, surrounded by a snake and a fish on either side, a pair of water buffaloes. Another person stands and fights two tigers and is surrounded by trees, a markhor goat and a vulture above a rhinoceros. Text:

9905 Prob. West Asian find Pict-117: two bisons facing each other.

Glyph: badhi ‘dispute’; bad.hi ‘worker in iron and wood’ (Santali) cu_d.a 'diadem, hairdress'; rebus: culli ‘furnace’ (Ka.) [Note the ‘’ locks on the woman’s hairstyle.] 11

274

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Rebus: bad.hi ‘a caste who work both in iron and wood’ (Santali)26 bar.ae = a blacksmith; bar.ae kudlam = a country made hoe, in contrast to cala_ni kudlam, an imported hoe; bar.ae mer.ed – country smelted iron; bar.ae muruk = the energy of a blacksmith (Mundari.lex.) bar.ae = bad.ae (Santali.lex.) bari_ = blacksmith, artisan (Ash.)(CDIAL 9464). The occurrence of bari_ in Ash. (CDIAL 9464) and bar.ae in Mundari and of vardhaka in Skt. point to the early phonetic form: bard.a; semantic: worker in iron and wood, artisan. Thus, it is suggested that the depiction of the backbone, barad.o is rebus for bard.a, artisan. barduga = a man of acquirements, a proficient man (Ka.)

Woman with six locks of hair subduing two tigers standing up era = female (Santali); rebus: era, ara = copper (Ka.).

On seal m0308, the woman is also shown with one left-eye: d.a_kannu = the left eye (Te.lex.) d.a_kini, d.a_kin.i = a kind of female demon attending Ka_l.i (Ka.lex.) d.a_kan., d.a_kan.i_ [Skt. d.a_kini_] a witch; a sorceress; a monstrous woman; an old hag; d.a_kan.um, d.a_kiyum adj. Wicked; monstrous; horrible (G.lex.) d.a_gin.i_ = Pkt. Form of d.a_kini_; cf. d.a_kini_ka in Pa_n. 4.2.51, Pat. (Skt.lex.) Substantive: d.a_kin.i, d.a_kini, d.a_hin.i = the sword of a female demon (Ka.lex.) darkha_n. = adze; taks.an.a = cutting and paring.dak, dakh = a vine (Santali.lex.) d.ak = the Indian moorhen, gallinula chloropsis indicus (Santali.lex.) d.aeka = long, widespread, with an upward turn, as horns; d.akd.aka = long, tall, high, projecting (Santali.lex.) d.a_n:k, d.a_n:kh = a large green wasp; d.an:kh, dam.s’a [Skt. dam.s’ to sting, to bite] a sting; a bite ntali.lex.) d.a_n:k, d.a_n:kh = a bright piece of metal placed under a precious stone to make it shine brighter; a metallic cement (Santali.lex.) d.a_ku, d.a_gu = a spot, stain, bot; a mark put on cattle with a red-hot iron; inoculated cow-pox (Ka.M.); d.a_ga (H.); d.a_gu (Ta.Te.)(Ka.lex.) d.en:kan.i, d.en:kan.a, d.hen:kan.i = the flag-staff (with or without its flag) on the bastion of a fort (Ka.lex.) d.an:ko = a large kettle-drum; d.a_kalum, d.a_khalum [Skt. d.hakka+ a kind of drum] a kind of drum; d.a_khalum besa_d.avum to get a drum beaten before a person by a spirit or ghost (G.lex.) d.an:ke, d.akke = a pretty large double drum (Ka.); d.an:ke (Te.); d.an:ka_, d.a_n:ka_, a large kettle drum (M.)(Ka.lex.) d.an:gorum, d.an:go, d.an:goro = a thick club; a cudgel (G.lex.) d.akka = stick (Skt.); d.aku = stick put up to keep a door shut (S.); d.akka_ = straw (P.) d.a_garn.e~ = short thick stick (M.); d.an:ga_ = stick (Pakt.); d.a_n: = thick stick (A.); d.a~_klo = stalk, stem (N.)(CDIAL 5520). t.he~gd.a_ cudgel (M.); t.hi~gd.a_ cudgel (M.); t.hen:ga_ cudgel (B.Or.)(CDIAL 5500). Image: club: d.a~_g club (H.) > stick (P.G.); club, mace (K.)(CDIAL 5520) d.angi, d.ange staff, cudgel, etc. (Ka.); d.anke, t.anke id. (Ka.); 275

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t.ankam mace (Ma.)(DEDR 2940). t.in:gri_ bough (L.); t.in:gar contemptuous term for a tall and thin man (N.); t.ikorn.e~ stick (M.)(CDIAL 5460). Mace, cudgel; chisel: t.an:kam mace (Ma.); t.an:ke, d.an:ke, d.an:gi, d.an:ge staff, cudgel, etc. (Ka.)(DEDR 2940). tunger axe (Tor.); t.ho_n:gi (Phal.); t.on:guru a kind of hoe (K.); t.a~_gi adze (N.); t.a_n.i battle-axe (Or.); t.a_n:g, t.a_n:gi spade, axe (B.); t.a~_ga_, t.a~_gi_ adze (Bi.); t.a_n.i_ axe (Bhoj.); t.a~_gi_ hatchet (H.); t.ho~ axe (Wot..); t.hon. battleaxe (Bshk.); t.hen. small axe (Bshk.)(CDIAL 5427). t.an:kita-maca a stone (i.e.chiselled) platform (Pali); t.a~_kvu~ to chisel (G.); t.a~_kn.e~ (M.)(CDIAL 5433). t.angi axe (Didey); t.angia id. (Bonda); t.anga big axe (Asur); t.angeja small axe (Asur); t.engoc small axe (Santali); t.anga axe (large) (Santali). (S.Bhattacharya, Some Munda Etymologies, 1966, p.29). 4098.Image: stone-cutter's chisel: t.an:kam < t.an:ka stone-cutter's chisel (Ta.lex.) t.an:ka stone mason's chisel (Pali); spade, hoe, chisel (R.); t.an:ga sword, spade (Skt.); t.am.ka stone-chisel, sword (Pkt.); t.a~_ki_ chisel (H.M.); t.a~_k pen nib (G.M.); t.a_n:gi stone chisel (A.)(CDIAL 5427). Image: staff, cudgel: t.an:ke, d.an:ke, d.an:gi, d.an:ge a staff, a cudgel etc. (Ka.); t.an:ga (Ma.); tey, tay to strike, beat (Ta.Ma.)(Ka.lex.) Rod, spike: t.an:g projecting spike which acts as a bolt at one corner of a door (K.); t.a_n.o rod, fishing rod (N.); t.a_n.i measuring rod (N.); t.a~_k iron pin, rivet (H.); t.a~_ki thin iron bar (Ku.)(CDIAL 5428). dasi stake, pointed wooden peg, silver in the foot (Ka.); a painted (?pointed) palmyra stick, a stake (made of wood) (Tu.); dasiku a pointed wooden peg (Ka.)(DEDR 3017). d.a_ha_ piece of wood fastened to neck of cattle to prevent straying (L.); da_so rooftree (Ku.); beam (N.); da_sa_ broad and thin piece of stone or wood (H.); da_s'a_ lath used to reinforce a thin wall (M.)(CDIAL 6318). Glyph: ka~rec one eyed, blind of one eye (Santali) kharen a pupil of eye (Santali) Glyph: kero~t. to turn half round, facing the right or left (Santali) ked.e behind; ked.a the back, the rear (G.) Glyph: ked.o, ked.i_ a track. A way, a road (G.) Glyph: ka_nta_ woman (Skt.) Substantive: ke~r.e~ ko~r.e~ an aboriginal tribe who work in brass and bell-metal; ker.e sen:gel fire in a pit, as the Koles burn charcoal (Santali) kerani a writer, a clerk (Santali) Glyph: kaidau to subdue (Santali) Substantive: kat, kaitha the hindu caste of kayastha (Santali) ka~t a wall built of mur or clay, to build a wall with clay (Santali) kat. bad.hoe a worker in wood, a carpenter (Santali) Substantive: kho~edak mine; kha~edak kho~edak mines (Santali) Substantive: mat.akku (mat.akki-) to engage as a servant, secure for oneself as an article or cargo (Ta.) mer.ed, mr.ed, mrd iron; enga mer.ed soft iron; sand.i mer.ed hard iron; ispa_t mer.ed steel; dul mer.ed cast iron; i mer.ed rusty iron, also the iron of which weights are cast; balimer.ed iron extracted from sand ore (Mu.lex.) nan:ga naked (Santali) na_ga lead (Skt.) Glyph: mar.k to subdue, make to obey (Ko.)(DEDR 4645). mad.avum to subjugate; to control; to make crooked (G.) Glyph: mat.al eyelid (Ta.); mat.a eyelashes (Pe.); kanu mat.a eyebrow, eyelid (Kuwi)(DEDR 4650). me~t kut.i the eyebrows (Santali) Glyph: lot.om to subdue (Santali) 276

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Cylinder seal. Susa. Early Dynastic III. After Legrain 1921: 252. Theme: a person flanked by two jackals (?) in conflict. Ivory handle of a flint-bladed knife. Gebel el-'Araq in Upper Egypt. Style of the Jemdet Nasr period ca. 3000 BCE.After Pritchard 1969b: 9, no.290. Gold seal. Bactria. A winged person flanked by two heads of lions (a) obverse; (b) reverse. After Ligabue and Salvatgori n.d. (1989): figs. 58-9; cf. Asko Parpola, 1994, Fig. 14.29, p. 255.

Khafaje bowl. Dark grey steatite (?serpentine) bowl carved in relief. Early Dynastic. (BM 128887). 1. A bull, a vulture, a lion, fish?; lion and bull in battle; lion is helped by a vulture; a scorpion is in front of the bull which is lying on its back; a small bear stands facing a palm tree; the tree is placed under the legs of the lion. Ears of corn (or trees) are seen in the background. 2. A man sitting, with his legs bent underneath, upon two zebu bulls. Zebu or brahmani bull is shown with its hump back; a male figure with long hair and wearing a kilt grasps two sinuous objects, representing running water, which flows in a continuous stream; linked to the sun and star: a sickle moon and a rosette-formed star are in front of his head. 3. Around the bowl, another similar male figure stands between two lionesses with their head turned back towards him; he grasps a serpent in each hand. In front of his head there is a rosette-shaped star.This evokes the proto-Elamite bull-man; the man holds in his hands streams of water and is surrounded by ears of corn. He has a crescent beside his head. On the other side of the bowl, a man is standing upon two lionesses and grasping two serpents. The zebu is reminiscent of Sarasvati Sindhu seals. The stone used, steatite, is familiar in Baluchistan and a number of vessels at the Royal Cemetery at Ur were made out of this material. The bowl dates from c. 2700-2500 B.C. and the motif shown on it resembles that on a fragment of a green stone vase from one of the Sin Temples at Tell Asmar of almost the same date. BM 103240; Wiseman, opcit, 1962, Pl. 22c; Above: eagle, goats kneel before shrine. Below: contest frieze. Lapis lazuli. Bronze foot and bronze anklet: Mohenjo-daro [After fig. 5.11 in: DP Agrawal, 2000]. “In the style of wearing ornaments and amongst toilet objects there are quite a few instances which seem to have continued through the ages. For example, the Marwari ladies of Rajasthan wear a large number of bangles on their lower and upper arms reminding one of the manner in which the famous dancing figure from Mohenjodaro did (Marshall, 1931: Vol. III, Pl. XCIV, 6-8). An engraving on a stone stele found at Banawali (Bisht, 1987: 150) shows a person wearing a d.amaru-like armlet and wristlet, which reminds one of a similar ornament worn by women folk in Rajasthan and Gujarat. The anklet (pa_yala) worn by another figure from Mohenjodaro (Mackay, 1938, Vol. II, Pl. LXXIII,5) is still used by Indian women, sometimes disappearing from and at others re-emerging on the fashion scene. The gold hollow cone (called chauk in Hindi; Marshall, 1931: Vol. III, Pl. CXLVIIIA.2) is used even now on the forehead by the ladies of Rajasthan and Haryana. Referring to it Vats (1940:442) says: ‘By Hindus in northern India chauks are regarded as essential ornaments which every man, rich or poor, has to give at the wedding 277

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of his daughter-in-law. This ornament is now worn chiefly on religious and important domestic ceremonies only’. Reference may also be made to girdles worn by the Harappan terracotta figurines (mackay, 1938, Vol. II, Pl. LXV, 21,22). While girdles have almost gone out of fashion in urban areas, one may still see them around the waist of womenfolk inrural north India. Spiral finger-rings, though of a rather universal character, may not be out of place to be mentioned in the present context as well…” (BB Lal, 2000, opcit.) era, er-a = eraka = ?nave; erako_lu = the iron axle of a carriage (Ka.M.); cf. irasu (Ka.lex.)

[Note Sign 391 and its ligatures Signs 392 and 393 may connote a spoked-wheel, nave of the wheel through which the axle passes; cf. ara_, spoke] eraka, era, er-a = syn. erka, copper, weapons. The pair of ‘spoked wheel’ glyphs may be related to san:gad.i, 'a pair' and the following etyma: ara, ara_ (RV.) = spoke of wheel; [a_r..i = circle (Ta.Ma.] a_r = battle (Ta.) [a_r-a, ar_a = suffix to denote one who makes things: kamma_r-a, uppa_r-a = smith, salt-maker (Ka.); a_r-r-u = to do, make (Ta.); a_re, a_reka_r-a, a_reya = a Mahratta man (Ka.Te.)] a_ra brass (Ka.) a_raku_t.a (Skt.) [a_re, a_ra_ = shoe-maker's awl or knife (Ka.)] eran. = an anvil (G.) arka = name of the tree colotropis gigantea (AV 6.72.1)(Vedic.lex.) [cf. sal, sp. Tree; thus a tree may be a rebus representation of arka-sa_la or agasa_le, goldsmith’s workshop or goldsmith] erake, er-an:ke, r-akke, r-ekke = a wing; a fin; an arm (Ka.); ir-aku, ir-ai, cir-aku (ta.); ir-agu, egir-u (Ma.); er-ake, r-ekke (Te.); a rib (Te.)(Ka.lex.) [Glyphs of two winged birds flanking a tree on a Yale tablet and other birds with wings, may be rebus for: erake, arka bat.a sa_la = copper furnace (arkasa_le, agasa_le)]. era_ = claws of an animal that can do no harm (G.) [Note the U sign ligatured with fig leaves and a glyph denoting claws] er.ka ir.ki, era iri, er.a ir.i = be at enmity with each other (Santali.lex.Bodding) er.an = to leave behind, dodge; turn aside, parry; escape (Santali.lex.Bodding) erer. = to turn aside, to parry, to avoid, to dodge, to give the go-by (Santali.lex.)[Note the two animals shown with their head turned backwards: tiger and antelope].

Glyph: tapor ‘a hod, cover of a cart’ ligatured with a pair of wheels. dohra gad.h tapor. Substantive: trapu ‘tin’ (Skt.) The ligatured glyph may connote a tin-metal-smithy. [lit. tin metal-work fort.]

This segment of the epigraph on the Dholavira sign-board, read from left to right, may thus mean: put.ia or eraka (or, kundau) s’a_lika (loh) kamat.ha_yo [fellies (or, nave of wheel), pin, ficus leaf; rebus: copper, workshop, (metal) artisan] 278

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A rebus of put.ia could also be put.a, ‘calcining (or purification) of metals’: put.a = the purifying or calcining of metals etc. by fire (Tu.lex.); put.amu = refining a metal; calcining, calcinations (Te.) put.a = crucible; put.akke ha_ku = to put into a crucible in order to prepare drugs; to refine, as metals (Ka.); put.avikku = to apply fire in order to refine metals; to burn (Ka.lex.) put.(-t-) to set fireto, kindle (Pe.); put.pa (put.t-), pur.pa (pur.t-) to roast (Kui)(DEDR 4260). put.abhedana = a town, a city (Ka.lex.) put.t.a = fox, jackal (Ma.); put.t.e id. (Tu.)(DEDR 4261).

The next two segments of the epigraph on the Signboard can be interpreted in this context:

The next two signs are: dhakna, ‘lid’; rebus: d.ha_kin.i, ‘sword’; kod.a, ‘one’; rebus: kod., ‘artisan’s workshop’. Alternative: man.d.e = covering dish; rebus: man.d.a_ = warehouse, workshop (Kon.) The lid may also be read as: bakkare; rebus ban:gala, chafing dish, furnace. Glyph: d.ha_n:kan.i_, d.ha_n:kad.um, d.ha_kan.u , d.ha_n:kan.iyum a lid, a cover; protection; a protector (G.) dhakni, dhaknic, dhakon ‘a lid, a cover’ (Santali)^ m0478At m0479At

m0478Bt m0479Bt

3224

m1425At m1425Bt m0480At m0480Bt Tablet in bas-relief. Side a: Tree Side b: Pict-111: From R.: A woman with outstretched arms flanked by two men holding uprooted trees in their hands; a person seated on a tree with a tiger below with its head turned backwards; a tall jar with a lid. Is the pictorial of a tall jar the Sign 342 45

seems to be a kneeling adorant offering a pot (Sign 328

generally within a railing or on a platform.

)

with a lid? Sign

2815 Pict-77: Tree,

3230

erukku = to cut, hew (Ta.); erk- to cut down bushes (Pa.Go.); erga to make a clearance, clear jungle or thick grass or scrub; act of clearing jungle (Kui); erg to cut, slash (Kuwi); en-gde to cut down a jungle (Malt.)(DEDR 824). erkem = billhook (Go.)(DEDR 824). eruvai = copper (Ta.); ere - a dark-red colour (Ka.)(DEDR 817). eraka, era, er-a = syn. erka, copper, weapons (Ka.) Glyph: sal a gregarious forest tree, shorea robusta; kambra a kind of tree (Santali) Substantive: sal workshop (Santali) gand.ra trunk of a tree (Kuwi)(DEDR 1176). Cf. gan.d.ra god.d.ali a battle axe (Te.); ko_t.a_li axe (Ta.); god.el (Go.); kut.ha_ra (Skt.)(DEDR App. 32; CDIAL 3244).

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The last or fourth sign is: kod. ‘one’; kod. ‘artisan’s workshop’ The segment of four signs can be read as: put.ia kon.d. dhakna kod. = fellies, corner, lid, one; rebus: copper (calcining, put.a) fire-pit (furnace, khu~t.) man.d.a_ kod. (artisan’s warehouse) workshop.

The message on the Signboard of Dholavira is an advertisement board of the products and services offered by the metal worker community of the fortified place (since the board adorned the Northern gateway): Could put.a- in put.abhedana also have represented calcined copper (hence, put.ia?); cf. ve_ti = homa-kun.d.a or pit for yajn~a; bhe_dana = breaking, splitting, separating (impurities); bhe_daka = refining(Ka.lex.) Thus, put.abhedana could connote the urban settlement where copper (ore) is calcined. Plough without a pole: kur ploughshare (L.); ku_t.a part of a plough (Pali); id., its share (Skt.); kut.aka plough without a pole (Skt.); kur. ploughshare, sole of plough (L.); ku_r., ku_r.ha_ (X ka_r.hna_ to plough) body of a plough (H.)(CDIAL 3393). kur..a, kur..u, gur..a, gur..u ploughshare, iron used in cauterizing (Ka.); kor..u bar of metal (Ta.); ploughshare (Ta.Ma.); ku. id. (To. < gu.- Badaga); koru a bar of metal (Tu.)(DEDR 2147). It is possible that the Signs 162, 167, 169 and their variants as well as ligatures including these pictographs, are stylized versions of the 'tree' pictograph, since some of these signs and variants are comparable to the orthography of a tree with varying sizes of branches depicted. The pictograph is apparently a widely distributed 'weapon' category with a number of stylized variants (perhaps, next in importance only to the 'weapon' connoted by the one-horned bull pictograph, the 'jar' pictograph and the 'wide-mouthed pot' pictograph), given the number of signs which are concordant or include the pictograph as part of the ligatured signs. Occupancy, possession, stone-cutter

There is a word in Santali which connotes both occupancy and possession. Substantives: dok ‘to shelter, save, protect, rescue, preserve, shield’ (Santali) dokhol to occupy, or be in possession; occupancy, possession; gan: ra~i parom no parom dokhol tahe~kantalea we were in possession of both banks of the Gang river; manjhi do noa jaegae dokhol akawadina the village chief put me in possession of this land; noa bar.ge in dokholre menaka this garden is in my possession. (Santali) toku ‘to accumulate, collect’; add, summarise; tokuti class, herd, flock, aggregate, total (Ta.); tokai ‘flock, herd, sum (Ta.); tuka sum, assembly (Ma.); toga party (Te.)(DEDR 3476). don:gol ‘a large house, a palace’ (Santali) dun:ger., dun:gel ‘in vast numbers, in crowds; a party, a group’; don:gol ‘company, detachment, party, group, crowd, sect’; bar pe don:golko calacena ‘two or three parties have gone’ (Santali) dondad.i, dondan.a, dondan.i, dondul.i mass, crowd, throng, squeeze, tumult, fray; dodde mass, heap, crowd (Ka.); dondad.i crowd, throng; dontara, donti pile, heap (Te.)(DEDR 3505. don herd of goats (Sh.); dhana contest, prize, booty, property (RV.); dhana wealth (Pali.Or.); dhan.a (Pkt.); dhan.u herd of cattle, flock of sheep (S.); dhan. herd of cattle, wealth (P.); herd (WPah.); flock of goats and sheep (WPah.); herd of cattle (G.); dhan wealth in cattle (B.); cattle (H.); enrichment (M.); wealth (A.B.Mth.H.Ku.G.M.); dhanu id. (S.); dana possessions (Si.); wealth (K.) (CDIAL 6717). 280

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Glyphh: d.okiyum looking at by raising the head; d.ok the neck (G.) Substantive: t.aka ‘silver, rupee, money’ (Santali) Substantive: deko ‘hindu’ or t.aka ‘silver’ (Santali) deko per.a ‘relative Hindu’; per.a ‘a kinsman, a relative, to receive one as a kinsman, to show hospitality, to visit’ (Santali) This term is used together with deko. deko per.a = a courteous term applied to Hindus; deko per.a janum jhan.t.i rorokgea = a Hindu and a thorn fence prick; per.a hor.ok ko calaoena ‘they have gone on a visit to relatives’ (Santali) t.aka kaud.i ‘money’ (Santali) Glyph: daeka ‘wide-spreading horn’; d.aeka kad.ru ‘a buffalo having long, spreading horns with an upward turn’ (Santali) [Sometimes, two stars are depicted in the curve of the horns; rebus: t.aka ‘silver’?] Glyph: deke ‘the hip, rump, buttocks (Santali) d.heko = a protuberance; a knot; d.haiyum = a large lump of clay (G.lex.) d.heo = a weight, solid measure (Santali.lex.) Substantive: ghorko rna goods, property; nunak hoyok kantaere ho~ enreho~ bae ghorkorna dar.eaka although he gets so much still he can’t collect any property (Santali) Glyph: kok- (-t-) to raise and project the head (while seeing a distant object)(Kond.a); go_pka to stretch forth, stretch the neck in order to observe something, crane the head out, put forth the ear (corn)(Kui); go_k to look up, await; go_khmu_ look up! (Kuwi)(DEDR 2180). ghoce, ghocr.e awry, wry, off the straight; ghoce hot.ok wry neck (Santali) Glyph: gorka spear (Pa.Go.); gohka (Go.)(DEDR 2126). Glyph: gok to carry on the shoulder; gok idi to carry away on the shoulder (Santali) Glyph: d.ehka = carrying on shoulders; tegal = upper part of shoulder deko = a Hindu (Santali) tega = scimitar, cutlass si~ghaut.a_ weapon-cleaner's polishing horn (Bi.)(CDIAL 12585). cf. sikala polishing, furbishing, burnishing; sikiliga_ra, sikalaga_ra a polisher of tools, weapons (Ka.); cf. sikata sandy soil (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) cf. sita_ candied sugar, sugar (Skt.lex.) mandil, mandir = temple (Santali) ma_d.a = shrine of a demon (Tu.); ma_d.ia = house (Pkt.); ma_l.a a sort of pavilion (Pali); ma_l.ikai = temple (Ta.)(DEDR 4796). See the glyph on side c of tablet m0488.

m0488At

m0488Bt

m0488Ct

2802

Substantive: man.uko a bead; a gem (G.) 281

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Glyph: man.uko a single vertebra of the back (G.) A variant of Sign 12 shows a glyph of a bearer of burden slung on a pole across the soulder. This combined with ‘rim of pot’ glyph may connote: spit + copper furnace (sike + kan.d.kankha); rebus: sikuar sling; kan.d.kankha rim of pot. man.i jewel of office (Skt.); man.iyam office of the village headman (Ta.); superintendence of temples, palaces, villages (Ma.); man.e.v, man.ye.v the office of monegar (Ko.); man.iya, man.iha, man.eya, man.e superintendence of temples, maths, palaces, custom-houses (Ka.); man.iga_re revenue inspector (Tu.); man.iyamu office or duties of the manager of a temple (Te.)(DEDR 4674). man.n.u to do, perform, adorn, decorate, polish (Ta.); man.ai to create, fashion (Ta.); manayuka, maniyuka to fashion, form earthenware, make as a potter (Ma.)(DEDR 4685). Glyph: man.ai low wooden seat, low earthen dais, wooden base of cutting instyruments, footstool (Ta.); man.i, man.e stool, low bench, seat (Ka.); man.e low stool to sit upon (Tu.)(DEDR 4675). ka_n.t.o the backbone; a fish-bone (G.) Six locks on the cu_d.a 'diadem, hairdress' of the woman can be read as a hieroglyph: pota 'six'; pot 'bead'; thus pot + cu_d.a = bead workshop. Together with kol 'tiger, woman'; rebus: kol 'metal of five alloys, pan~caloha' the glyph connotes: metal bead workshop. Six locks of hair, weaver’s beam, toggle, a nail pointed at both ends From the Early Dynastic period onwards the scene usually comprises a man fighting with one or two bulls, and a bull-man fighting with one or two lions....North-west India of the third millennium BCE can be considered as an integral, if marginal, part of the West Asian cultural area." (Parpola, A., New correspondences between Harappan and Near Eastern glyptic art, in: Bridget Allchin (ed.), South Asian Archaeology, 1981, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1984). Cylinder seal impression; scene representing mythological beings, bullls and lions in conflict. A hero with six locks of hair checks two bulls. An Early Dynastic II/III cylinder seal from Fara (BM 89538), c. 2650 BCE. (after Mallowan, 1961: 75, no.34). The six dots around the head of the Harappan hero, clearly visible in one seal (Mohenjodaro, DK 11794; cf. Mackay, 1937: II, pl. 84:75) may be compared to the six locks of hair characteristic of the Mesopotamian hero from Jemdet Nasr to Akkadian times (cf. Calmeyer, 1957-71: 373). The six locks of hair of the woman may connote: khat.a ‘six’ (G.) kata = a pit saw (Santali) kat.a kat.i = cutting; to slash, kill (Santali) 282

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kat, kaitha = the hindu caste of kayasth; kat. bad.hoe a worker in wood, a carpenter (Santali). Era = woman (Santali); era, ara = copper (Ka.) Thewoman with six lockf of hair is thus a ligatured rebus for: a worker in wood and metal, kat. bad.hoe. Alternative: pota ‘six’ (G.); hence, potam tengoc, ‘a type of small axe’. potr. = priest participating in soma processing (RV) tuli, tuliau = rich, well-to-do, to rise in social position; tuliau hor. kanae = he is a rich man (Santali.lex.) tura_, tura_yi = a plume, a crest; a head ornament of the shape of a feather; a nosegay (Te.lex.) tuila, tuili a lock of hair left on the crown, having a lock of hair on the crown, slim, lanky (Santali.lex.) cf. tulna_, tulya = equality, likeness; match, comparison, resemblance (G.lex.) turui = six (Santali.lex.) turyamu = fourth, a fourth part (Te.lex.) turi_, tura_yi, tu_ra [Skt. tu_rya] = a trumpet (G.); tu_ryamu = a brass wind instrument; a sweetongued bugle trumpet (Te.lex.) turi_ = a toggle; a nail pointed at both ends; tura_yi = a weaver’s beam; a toggle (G.lex.) tur = the roller on which the cloth is rolled by the weaver as he weaves (Santali.lex.) turi_ = a horse (G.lex.) pota adj. ‘six’ (used in secret conversation by merchants)(G.) m0308AC Pict-105: Person grappling with two tigers standing on either side of him and rearing on their hindlegs.

2075 [The third sign from left may be a stylized ‘standard device’?]

ko_l = woman, wife (Nahali); ko_l-na kupra = the wife’s cloth (Nahali); ko_lama wife (Ko.); kolay wife (K.); kulis wife (Ta.Burgandi dialect); khulis’i_ id. (Yerukala); khulsa_ husband (Malar); kola = bride, son’s (younger brother’s) wife (Kui) kola, kolum = a jackal (G.) kolhuyo (Dh.Des.); kulho, kolhuo (Hem.Des.); kros.t.r. (Skt.) kul seren = the tiger’s son, a species of lizard (Santali) kolo, kolea_ jackal (Kon.lex.) Jackal: kur..i-nari jackal (Kur-r-a_. Tala. Ve_t.an-valam. 13)(Ta.); id. (Ma.)(Ta.lex.) kul tiger; kul dander den of tiger; an.d.kul to become tiger; hudur. to growl as tiger; maran. d.at.kap kul a big-headed tiger (Santali.lex.) ko_lupuli = a big, huge tiger, royal or Bengal tiger; ko_lu = big, great, huge (Te.lex.) kula tiger; syn. of maran: kula, burukula, kamsikula, the striped royal tiger; syn. of maran: kula, lar.okula, the brown royal tiger without stripes; syn. of hur.in: kula, soncita, leopard: sin:kula = the lion; kindorkula, kinduakula = the panther; tagukula (lit. the shaggy tiger), the hyena; d.urkula, a smaller feline animal, which when attacking a man bites him in the knee, probably a tiger-cat; kula-bin: collective noun for all dangerous animals; kulabin:-o to become infested by dangerous animals; kla (Khasi.Rongao) tiger (Mundari.lex.) kros.t.r. = jackal (RV.); kro_s.t.u = id. (Pa_.n.); kro_s.t.r. = crying (BhP.); kot.t.hu, kot.t.huka, kotthu, kotthuka = jacka (Pali); kot.t.hu (Pkt.); kot.a (Si.); kot.iya = leopard (Si.); ko_lhuya, kulha = jackal (Pkt.); kolha_, kola_ jackal; adj. crafty (H.); kohlu~, kohlu_ jackal (G.); kolha_, kola_ (M.)(CDIAL 3615). Fr. krus’ = cry, call; kro_s’ati cries out (RV)(CDIAL 3613). Kot.ho = a call, a messenger; kot.ha invitation; kot.han.u = to send for (S.)(CDIAL 283

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3614). Kos’ to abuse, curse, blame (Gypsy); kosna_ to curse (H.); kosn.a_ (P.); akos’ to abuse (Gypsy); kros’ati cries out (RV)(CDIAL 3612). kros’a shout (VS); kuru_ voice, word (Pas’); kosa_ curse (H.)(CDIAL 3611). kul. = the tiger, filis tigris; kul en:ga = tigress; kul seren ‘the ‘tiger’s song’, a species of lizard (Santali) kola foetus (OMarw.)(CDIAL 3607). kola = foetus; kor.o bosom, breast (S.); kurouru breast (Dm.); kor.i_ breast of a quadruped (L.); koli_ chest of an animal (L.)(CDIAL 3607). kol breast, bosom; kaula_, kola_, kauli_ id., lap (H.); kro_d.a breast, bosom (AV.); ko_la breast, lap (Skt.prob. MIA.); kor.o bosom, breast (S.); kor.i_ breast (S.); kor.i_ breast of a quadruped (L.); kor.a lap (Or.); kor lap (Mth.); kora_ id. (Bhoj.); kor womb (H.); kol. lap (M.); ko_la breast, bosom (Pkt.); koli_ chest of an animal (L.); kol womb (Ku.); lap (B.); kol, kola_ lap, hip on which children are carried (A.); kol.a lap (Or.)(CDIAL 3607). kalalam < kalala thin membrane covering the foetus (Cu_ta. Ja_n-a. 10,9)(Ta.lex.) ko_l. ‘planet’; rebus: kol ‘metal’ ko_lamu = a boat (Te.lex.) ko_l = a raft, a float (Ka.lex.) kola = boat (Skt.lex.) ko_lamu = adornment (of a bride or an idol)(Te.lex.) Substantive: kol, kal = a machine, any mechanical contrivance; a trap, the spring of a pigeon trap; kal jet.ha, kol jet.ha = the part of a pigeon trap on which the decoy bird sits (Santali.lex.) kal = a snake (Santali.lex.) ka_hal.e snake (Ka.) kolhe = a species of small black ant (Santali.lex.) Glyph: kolma hor.o ‘ a variety of rice plant’ (Santali.lex.) Image: foetus: kola foetus (OMarw.)(CDIAL 3607). kola = foetus; kor.o bosom, breast (S.); kurouru breast (Dm.); kor.i_ breast of a quadruped (L.); koli_ chest of an animal (L.)(CDIAL 3607). kol breast, bosom; kaula_, kola_, kauli_ id., lap (H.); kro_d.a breast, bosom (AV.); ko_la breast, lap (Skt.prob. MIA.); kor.o bosom, breast (S.); kor.i_ breast (S.); kor.i_ breast of a quadruped (L.); kor.a lap (Or.); kor lap (Mth.); kora_ id. (Bhoj.); kor womb (H.); kol. lap (M.); ko_la breast, bosom (Pkt.); koli_ chest of an animal (L.); kol womb (Ku.); lap (B.); kol, kola_ lap, hip on which children are carried (A.); kol.a lap (Or.)(CDIAL 3607). kalalam < kalala thin membrane covering the foetus (Cu_ta. Ja_n-a. 10,9)(Ta.lex.) Mleccha, copper mlecchamukha = copper (Skt.); what has the copper coloured complexion of the Greek or Mahomedans]. meriya = a rock; merayu = to shine, glitter (Te.lex.) mer = a kind of large copper or brass pot (G.lex.) cf. milakkhu = copper (Pali); mleccha = copper (Skt.) mer.ed, me~r.ed iron; enga mer.ed soft iron; sand.i mer.ed hard iron; ispa_t mer.ed steel; dul mer.ed cast iron; i mer.ed rusty iron, also the iron of which weights are cast; bicamer.ed iron extracted from stone ore; balimer.ed iron extracted from sand ore; mer.ed-bica = iron stone ore, in contrast to balibica, iron sand ore (Mu.lex.) Substantive: med.o merchant’ clerk (Hem.Dec.); mehto a schoolmaster, an accountant, a clerk, a writer (G.) Glyph: med.ho a ram, a sheep (G.); mid.hia_o (Dh.Des.); men.d.h, men.d. a ram (Skt.); medhya a goat; fr. medh a sacrifice (Skt.) mr..eka = goat (Te.); mlekh (Br.) mer.h, mer.ha_, me~d.ha_ ram (H.), 284

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med.hia_o (Dh.Des.) ram, goat, sheep (G) mid.iyo = having horns bent over forehead (G.)(CDIAL 10120). me~r.a_, me~d.a_ = ram with curling horns (H.)(CDIAL 10120). me_t.am = goat (Ta.lex.) [cf. the pictorial motif of antelope with head turned backwards]. merom me~t = the goat’s eye (Santali.lex.) mes.a = ram (RV 8.2.40) mer.om = a goat; mer.om jel = the hind of the ravine deer, gazella bennettii; mer.om (Santali) mer.go = with horns twisted back; mer.ha, m., mir.hi f.= twisted, crumpled, as a horn (Santali.lex.) mer.hao = to entwine itself, wind round, wrap around, roll up (Santali.lex.) [Note the endless knot motif].

h702At backwards and a short tail

h702Bt

4601

m0271 Goat-antelope with horns turned

Three caprids. Tepe Yahya. Cylinder seal reconstructed from seven fragments. To the left of this pair is a third caprid rampant with head turned back whose horns are viewed frontally rather than in profile. Beneath the belly of each animal is a four-sided cross. There are 9 fragments of clay slab wall sealings. Wall plaster is preserved on the reverse of most fragments. Seal is carefully roled along horizontal axis of sealing. Lamberg-Karlovsky 1971: pls. 4, 5; cf. Fig. 10.27 in Pittman, 2001, opcit. Two caprids with heads turned back rampant against a stepped platform (mountain) surmounted by a tree. Iron, ib ib ‘iron’; sund ‘pit furnace’; sund = a subterranean passage, a mine, pit, large hole; koela la lateka sund akata = they made a deep pit by digging for coal (Santali) kar.c ib = very excellent iron (Ko.) Two scorpions: kacc + ib = reduplicated terms for iron, very excellent iron [kar.c ib = excellent iron (Ko.)] ib = two; as in: ibbaru = two persons (Ka.) (42) Sign 87 (365) Copper tablets (21) ib = two (Ka.) Rebus: ib = iron (Santali)27 ib = iron (Ko.); irumpu = iron, instrument, weapon (Ta.); irumpu, irimpu = iron (Ma.); ib = needle (To.); irimbi = iron (Kod.); inumu id. (Te.); rumba vad.i = ironstone (Kui)(DEDR 486). ibhya = rich, wealthy (Skt.) Seal. Elephant. Elephant is covered with a saddle cloth. (After Scala/Art Resource) ibha = elephant (Skt.) ibhi, ibhya = female elephant (Skt.Ka.Te.) ibhagati = a female with the dignified gait of an elephant (Ka.) ibhapuri = hastina_puri (Ka.) ibhahasta = an elephant's trunk (Ka.)

285

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The depiction of a saddle cloth on the elephant may also be related to the orthographic significance of depicting a pannier12 on a one-horned bull. It may connote a waist-zone, belt, kamarasa_la (Te.); rebus: kamma_rasa_le = workshop of a blacksmith (Ka.) When an elephant is shown on epigraphs with such a saddle cloth, the depiction may be of a kamma_ra ‘smith’ involved in ironsmithy: ib ‘iron’; rebus: ibha ‘elephant’.

(11) Sign 211 (227) m1148 Field Symbol 7 (9) Sign 176 kan:gha 'comb' (H.) Rebus: kan:ga 'furnace' (K.) bhallaka 'arrow'; bhallaka 'copper' Bronze kas kasa bronze; ka_s, kasa bell-metal; kasa pitar bell-metal and brass (Santali) kan~cu bronze (Te.) ka~c glass (Santali) ka_cu gold, gold coin, money, a small copper coin (Ta.); ka_s’u gold, money, the smallest copper coin (Ma.); ka.c rupee (Ko.); ko.c id. (To.); ka_su the smallest copper coin, a cash, coin or money in general (Ka.); an old copper coin worth half a pie, a cash (Tu.); a cash, a coin in general, a gold coin, money (Te.); pice <Te. (Go.); kars.a (Skt.)(DEDR 1431). kaca = a piece, one quarter of an anna (Santali) kase_ra_ metal worker (L.)28 ka_msum = bell-metal; any amalgam of zinc and copper; :Skt. ka_msya (G.); ka_msa_m, ka_msi_ = large cymbals made of bell-metal (G.) kamsa_r, kanasa_ro, kan.asa_ro (cf. ka_msum fr. Skt. ka_msya = bell-metal + ka_r ‘worker fr. kr. ‘to do’) a copper-smith (G.) kasis = sulphate of iron (Santali) ka~c = glass; kaca, khanca, khaca = a pice, ¼ of anna (Santali) ka_cu = gold, gold coin, money, a small copper coin (Ta.); ka_s’u = gold, money, the smallest copper coin (Ma.); ka.c = rupee (Ko.); kos. id. (To.); ka_su = the smallest copper coin, a cash, coin or money in general (Ka.); ka_su an old copper coin worth half a pie, a cash (Tu.); ka_su = a cash, a coin in general, a gold coin, money (Te.); pice (Go.); Skt. kars.a (DEDR 1431). ka_n~canam = gold (Skt.) ka_ji a glass bangle (Tu.lex.) ka_ju (Tadbhava of ka_ca) glass; ga_ju glass; ga_ju-dod.ige a glass-ornament (Ka.lex.) ka_ch glass (so termed in poetry); kachch glass (P.lex.) ga_ju glass (Te.lex.)

kac, kas, kacci iron (Go.); kacc iron, iron blade (of spade)(Go.); kacci iron sword (Go.); sword (Kol.) ? < IA (DEDR 1096; CDIAL 2866) 29 kars.a = gold coin (Vedic) kasa = quality of gold or silver (as determined by rubbing it on a touch-stone); kas. To rub, to test (Skt.); kas = pith (Arabic); kas = remunerativeness (of a trade)(G.) kasan. = rubbing, testing; kasan.uvum = to mix by gradually rubbing the ingredients together, to mix by rubbing (G.) kasot.i_ (kasa ‘rubbing’ + vr.tti ‘a circle’) a touchstone, generally round in form; making a trial, ann experiment (G.) kasabi_ = an artist, an artisan; adj. skilful, clever (G.) kasab (Arabic) a business, a trade, a profession; conversancy in an art, proficiency; an artifice, a device (G.) kasa_ya, kasa_ba a butcher (Ka.); kasa_i_ (M.)(Ka.lex.) kaca_ppu slaughter of animals for food; butcher (Ta.); kassa_b (U.)(Ta.lex.) kasi_do (Persian kas’i_dan to draw) embroidery; a piece of brick or tile burnt in fire and turned hard (G.) kaja (kaji-) to be congealed, solidified by growing cold; ganja (ganji-) to solidify, coagulate, become solid (Kui); kajali = to be congealed, become curdled (Kuwi)(DEDR 1102). kas- = to be lit (as fire), burn (Kond.a); hiccu kahinomi = we kindle fire (Kuwi)(DEDR 1090). kaca kupi = scorpion (Mand.); kasa (kasi-) to bite, sting (Kui); kaccinai = to bite, sting (Kuwi)(DEDR 1097). kharju_raka scorpion (Skt.); khajuro centipede (N.); khajria_ (Or.); khaju_ra_ (H.); khajura_ twisted (of thread)(H.)(CDIAL 3829). Bite: kaccu (kacci-) to bite, gnaw, nibble (nursery)(Ta.); koc to bite

[Alternative: kac 'waist-belt'; rebus: kacc 'iron']

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(To.); kaccu, karcu to bite, sting (Ka.); qaswe to eat greedily, nip off with the teeth (Malt.)(DEDR 1097).30 Rahman-dheri01A and B Rhd1: Two scorpions flanking a ‘frog?’ [?kamat.ha] and a sign T with two holes on the top, possibly to be tied on a string [Together with bica_, sand ore, the sign, ‘T’ may connote another ore, perhaps tin]. Glyph: kaca kupi = scorpion (Kuwi)

Pict-40: Frog. 2565 Frog ror.a ‘small stones, gravel’; Glyph: rot.e ‘a frog, a toad’ s'ala = dart, spear; s'ala_ a small stake or stick (TBr. 3.6.6)(Vedic.lex.) s'alla = a frog (Skt.lex.) Rebus: kanca_ = a marble (made of stone or lac)(Ka.) Stone beads! ka_ca_ = glass (Santali) kaca_ra = dealer in glass bangles (Or.); ka~_ca_r, ka~_ca_ri_, ka_ca_r, ka_ca_ri_ = maker of glass bangles (M.); ka_cera_ = glass-worker (H.)(CDIAL 3012). ka_s'i_ = glazing put on earthenware (S.); ka_yo, ka_vo, kacu = glass (S.) ka_seuli = stone cutter ka_si_d.u, ka_seva_d.u = a stone cutter, mason; ka_su = gold coin; ka_camu = glass; ga_ju = glass, glass bracelet or bangle (Te.) kan~cu = bronze (Te.) kas-kut. = metal alloy (brass or bronze) ka~_se~ bell- metal (M.); bronze (Kon.) ka~ha_r = worker in bell metal; ka~_se = bell metal, kance_ra, kancari = bell-metal work (Te.) kacc = iron blade (of spade)(Go.); kas = iron (Go.) ka_ci (B.), ka_si (A.), kaciya_ (N.) = toothed sickle (Bi.); reaping-hook (H.) kacci (Kol.Go.) kacia_ (Or.) ka~_jo = band of metal round joint of a khukri (H.)

V039 Cylinder seal; Louvre, ca. 3000 B.C ka_tri = trap; kha~_ca_ hen-coop B.H.P).); kha~_c basket for carrying birds (such as quails)(N.); kha~_ca_ large basket of tamarisk twigs (Mth.); kha~_ci_ small basket of tamarisk twigs (Mth.) kiculaka earthworm (Skt.); ke~su, kesu earthworm (A.); ke~cua_, ke~co, ke~cui (B.); kecu, kecua_ earthworm, tape-worm (Or.); ke~cua_ earthworm (H.)(CDIAL 3459).

Lothal123A Lothal123B Gulf seal.; the pair of antelopes flank a ligatured antelope, ligatured to a snake or earthworm). Circular style Gulf seal from Lothal (After Rao, 1985, Pl. CLXIb). “The Lothal seal (Persian Gulf Seal) is made of light grey steatite… Four circles with a central dot are also drawn on the back, while on the face is a reptile or dragon having two heads and flanked by two jumping goats or gazell-like animals with protruding eyes and looking over the shoulder. None of these figures 287

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has any resemblance to Indus motifs. On the contrary, the goat-like animals on the seal under discussion are more like the Sumerian goats…Some of the late circular seals from Failaka…assigned by Dr. Bibby to the Sargonic period, are identical in all details with the Lothal seal.” (Rao, SR, 1985, Lothal, A Harappan Port Town, 1955-62, II, Delhi). ran:ku 'antelope' keccu 'earthworm' Rebus: ran:ku 'tin'; kas 'bronze'.31

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Sign 51 (105)

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Sign 127 (50)

The pair of signs: Sign 51 and Sign 130 may thus be read as: kaca kamar t.ot.ha = neighbourhood of bronze-smiths.

V051 If this represents a scorpion, it could be: kamar kidin:; rebus: kamar, blacksmith (Santali) tutia, tutiya = bluestone, blue vitriol, sulphate of copper; tutia reak misiko benaoa d.at.a hende ocoe lagit = they make misi with bluestone to blacken the teeth (Santali); tu_tiya_ (H.) misi is a powder composed of yellow myrobalan, gall-nut, vitriol etc. used for tingeing the teeth a black colour (Santali)32 This glyph is associated with Sign 130, which appears like a to_t.t.i See also Signs 127 to 129 which may depict a pole with a hook.

to_ttra goad for cattle or elephants (SBr.); tutta (Pali); totta, tutta (Pkt.); tutta (Si.)(CDIAL 5966). to_da driver (RV.); to_daga one who hurts (Pkt.)(CDIA 5969). to_ya pain (Pkt.)(CDIAL 5968). Image: pole with an iron hook: t.o_r.o_ a long stick with an iron hook; a pole with an iron hook or branch curved down at one extremity (Kur.); t.o_r.na_ to hook in (Kur.); tu~r.i_ a variety of the native rake or t.o_r.o_(Kur.); to_t.t.i elephant hook or goad, hook, clasp, sharp weapon planted in the ground to keep off enemies (Ta.); hook for driving an elephant, hook for plucking fruit (Ma.); do_t.i, lo_t.i pole with a hook for plucking fruit, gathering flowers (Ka.); do_n.t.i long pole with hook to pluck fruit (Tu.); do_t.i long pole with hook for cutting off fruit from high trees (Te.); t.o_t.al bamboo rake (Pa.)(DEDR 3547).33 Glyphs: animal in heat and trampling upon a long necked person (?)

It is seen from an enlargement of the bottom portion of the seal impression that the ‘prostrate person’ may not be a person but a ligature of the neck of an antelope 288

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with rings on its necks or of a post with ring-stones. The head of the ‘person’ is not shown. So, it may be surmised that this is an artist's representation of an act of copulation (by an animal) + a ligatured neck of another bovine or alternatively, a pillar with ring-stones ligatured to the bottom portion of a body (perhaps of a cow, why not?). It is not uncommon in the artistic tradition to ligature bodies to the rump of, for example, a bull's posterior ligatured to a horned woman (Pict. 103 Mahadevan) or standing person with horns and bovine features (hoofed legs and/or tail) -- Pict. 86-88 Mahadevan. Bison (gaur) trampling a prostrate person (?) underneath. Impression of a seal from Chanhujodaro (Mackay 1943: pl. 51: 13). The prostrate ‘person’ is seen to have a very long neck, possibly with neckrings, reminiscent of the rings depicted on the neck of the one-horned bull normally depicted in front of a standard device. 6114 The pictorial motif on this Chanhudaro seal is compared with a pictorial motif on a Margiana stamp seal using line-drawings: Left. Margiana, stamp seal: obverse, attacking lion; reverse: a bull copulating with a woman. ; Right: Chanhujo-daro seal: the bull is leaning over a lying woman with opened legs (Mackay, 1943, pl. 51: 13). Tosi notes the occurrence of Harappan steatite seals and etched carnelian beads at ‘Bactrian sites’, materials which were found in the ‘looted graveyards of Bactria’. (Tosi, M., 1979, The proto-urban cultures of eastern Iran and the Indus civilization’, in in M. Taddei (ed.) South Asian Archaeology 1977, II. Naples: 643-59; Francfort, H.P., 1984, The Harappan settlement of Shortughai, in B.B. Lal and S.P. Gupta, eds., Frontiers of the Indus Civilization, Delhi, 301-10.) The prostrate ‘person’ pictograph is comparable to the ‘scorpion’ glyph, ligatured to a lanky woman, shown at the bottom register of a Failaka seal. Obverse of steatite Dilmun stamp seal from Failaka Island (c. 2000 BCE). d.han:ga = tall, long shanked; maran: d.han:gi aimai kanae = she is a big tall woman (Santali.lex.) Rebus: d.han:gar 'blacksmith' Obverse of steatite Dilmun stamp seal from Failaka Island (c. 2000 BCE). A human figure and a variety of animals – two antelopes one with its head looking backward; possibly a scorpion at the feet of the human figure. A dotted circle is seen above one antelope and a vase in between the antelope and the human figure. Kuwait National Museum. French Archaeological Expedition in Kuwait. Several inscriptions at Failaka mention the Dilmunite god Enzak and his temple or Mesopotamian deities. [Remi Boucharlat, Archaeology and Artifacts of the Arabian Peninsula, in: Jack M. Sasson (ed.), Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, pp. 1335-1353]. Alloy: brass and bell-metal or bharan ri_ti = yellow brass, bell metal (Skt.); ritika = calx of brass; ritika_ = brass (Skt.); ri_ri_, riri_ = yellow brass (Skt.); rit = copper (Dm.); ri_t (Gaw.); ri_da (Sv.); ri_a = brass (Bshk.); ri_ri_ = brass (Pkt.); ri_l = brass, bronze, copper (Sh.)(CDIAL 10752).

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V048, Signs 47, 48 ri_r. = backbone (WPah.) ri_rh = backbone (Aw.); ri_r.h (H.); ri_d.haka = backbone (Skt.)(CDIAL 10749a). d.han:ga = a crook used for pulling down the branches of trees, for goats, sheep and camels (P.lex.)

Sign 130 The glyph 'skeleton' may also be explained as rebus: da_kali, da_gali = an anvil (Te.lex.) d.ha~go = skeleton; lean (Ku.); d.a_n:ga = one who is reduced to a skeleton (Or.); d.a~_gar, d.a~_gra_ = starveling (H.); d.ha~_kal., d.ha_~ku_l. = old and decaying (M.); d.ege = old, weak (Wg.)(CDIAL 5524). Rebus: d.a_n:ro = a term of contempt for a blacksmith (N.)(CDIAL 5524) t.ha_kur = blacksmith (Mth.); t.ha_kar = landholder (P.); t.hakkura – Rajput, chief man of a village (Pkt.); t.hakuri = a clan of Chetris (N.); t.ha_kura – term of address to a Brahman, god, idol (Or.)(CDIAL 5488). dha~_gar., dha_~gar = a non-Aryan tribe in the Vindhyas, digger of wells and tanks (H.); dha_n:gar = young servant, herdsman, name of a Santal tribe (Or.); dhan:gar = herdsman (H.)(CDIAL 5524). 4064. Blacksmith: t.ha_kur blacksmith (Mth.)(CDIAL 5488). d.a_n.ro term of contempt for a blacksmith (N.); d.a_n.re large and lazy (N.); d.an.ura living alone without wife or children (A.); d.a~_gar, d.a~_gra_ starving (H.); d.an.or unwell (Ash.); dan:gor lazy (Bashg.); d.angur (dat. d.anguras) fool (K.); d.a~_go lean (of oxen)(Ku.); d.a~_go male (of animals); d.a_n. wicked (A.); d.a_n:ga one who is reduced to a skeleton (Or.); d.i~glo lean, emaciated (Ku.); d.i~go, d.in.o abusive word for a cow (N.); d.in:gar contemptuous term for an inhabitant of the Tarai (N.); d.in:gara rogue (Or.); d.hagga_ small weak ox (L.); d.han:garu, d.hin:garu lean emaciated beast (S.)(CDIAL 5524). A tribe: d.ha~_gar., dha~_gar a non-Aryan tribe in the Vindhyas, digger of wells and tanks (H.); dhan:gar herdsman (H.); d.ha_n:gar. herdsman, name of a Santal tribe, young servant (Or.); dha_n:gar.a_ unmarried youth (Or.); dha~_gad. rude, loutish (M.); f. hoyden (M.)(CDIAL 5524). t.an:kan.a, t.an:gan.a name of a people living northwest of Madhyades'a (R.); t.am.kan.a a non-Aryan tribe (Pkt.)(CDIAL 5454). [cf. association of blacksmith and goldsmithy terms: t.an:ka-ca_lai < t.an:ka-s'a_la_ mint; t.an:kan.am borax (Ta.lex.) t.an:ka stone-cutter's chisel (Ta.lex.); spade, hoe, chisel (R.); stone-mason's chisel(CDIAL 5427). t.an:kam mace (Ma.)(DEDR 2940)].

m0516At m0516Bt 3398 [Copper tablet; side B perhaps is a graphemic representation of an antelope; note the ligatured tail comparable to the tail on m273, b012 and k037] ri_r. high mountain (WPah.)(CDIAL 10749a) rir. = a ridge; sakam rir. = the mid-rib of a leaf (Santali) buru rir. = the ridge of the hill (Santali.lex.) The pictograph on m516 B (antelope) appears on a tin ingot found in Haifa, Israel. The antelope may be connoted by ran:ku, deer; ran:ga = tin.

Hill, ligatured hill

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m1353

m0048a

1459

m0020a

1186

m0665

1054

1139

4823

[Pottery]

Kalibangan053

8036

Sibri-damb02E

d.agar = little hill (H.); d.a~_g = mountain-ridge (H.); hill-tract (M.)(CDIAL 5423). dan:ga, d.an:gal = highlands unsuitable for rice cultivation; dan:gaur.a = a rubbish heap, a heap of rubbish; dan:gi = a part of the slope of a hill (Santali.lex.) d.u~g = hill, pile (M.); d.u~ga_ = eminence (M.); d.um:gara = mountain (Pkt.); d.u~gar id. (Ku.); d.un:guri = hillock (Or.); d.u~_gar id. (H.); d.u~gar id. (G.); d.u~_garu = hill (S.); d.o~gar = hill (H.M.); t.an:ka = peak, crag (MBh.); t.akuru = mountain (S.); t.a_kuro = hill top (N.); t.a_n:gi_ = hill, stony country (Or.); t.a_n:gara = rocky hilly land (Or.); t.in: = mountain, peak (A.); t.ek = hillock (M.); t.u~k = peak (G.); t.e~_g = hillock, mound (K.); t.u~g = mound, lump (M.); d.a~_g = stony land (Ku.); d.a_n:ga_ = hill, dry upland (B.); d.a~_g = mountain-ridge (H.); hill tract (M.); da~-g = hill, precipice (H.); da~_gi_ = belonging to hill country (H.)(CDIAL 5423). d.ok = high ground, hillock, heap (Kho.); d.hok = large piece of broken stone (H.); d.hu~go = stone (Ku.); d.hun:go (N.)(CDIAL 5603). d.hu~yer = carrier of stone (Ku.)(CDIAL 5604). t.okh = hammering (K.); t.oka = nail, peg (Ash.)(CDIAL 5476). Substantive: d.ha~gar ‘blacksmith’ [The ligature of a ‘ficus religiosa’ leaf reinforces the nature of the metal work: loa ‘ficus religiosa’; loh ‘iron’; Thus Kalibangan Text 8036 is to be read as: iron-smith.]34

V132, Signs 132, 133 ri_ti = stream13 (RV.); ri_i = path, fashion (Pkt.); ria = shallow narrow channel for catching fish, in dry season (Or.); ri_ = method, manner (G.)(CDIAL 10751) r.s. = thrust (Skt.); r.s.t.i = spear, lance, sword (RV 1.167.3; 1.169.3; 10.87.7; 1.37.2; 1.85.4; 2.36.2); r.s.t.i-mant = equipped with spears (RV 3.54.13; 5.57.2; 5.60.3; 1.88.1); r.s.t.i-vidyut = glittering with lances (Maruts)(RV 1.168.5)(Vedic.lex.) r.s.t.i = spear, lance (RV.); it.t.hi spear (Pali); rit.t.hi sword (Pkt.); ris.t.i, ris.t.a sword (Skt.); hes.t. yoke-pole (Kho.Kal.); ri_t.h sword (H.); i_t.hi_ spear, spear-shaft (H.); vi_t., it.a_, vit.a_ a spear carried before a ra_ja_ in procession (M.); it.i_ the bit of stick struck in the game of trapstick (S.); i_t.hi, i_t.i_ (H.); it.i_ (M.)(CDIAL 2461). r.s.t.i, ris.t.i = a sword (Ka.lex.) it.t.ti, i_t.t.i = spear (Ta.lex.) ret rete = in line, in a row (Santali.lex.) 13

bat.t.e = a canal, a channel, a streamlet, a brook (Te.) Rebus: bat.hi = furnace (Santali)

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Pict103 Horned (female with breasts hanging down?) person with a tail and bovine legs standing near a tree fisting a horned tiger rearing on its hindlegs. 1357 rindi_ [te rindi_ va lambante nodaka-- said of breasts hanging down in old age. The text commentary compares them with leather water bottles without water (udaka-bhasta_ viya); rindi = shrunken as skins without water (Pali.lex.) rimd.i_ = an old torn worn-out garment (Pkt.); rin.d. widow (Bshk.); re~r.a_ = stunted wheat (Bi.)(CDIAL 10815). [On an inscribed objects, the pictograph depicts a person bending down with breasts hanging down] d.okkara = thumping, strking, a blow (Ka.); t.ho_kara = thumping, striking against (H.) d.okri_ ‘old woman’ (Hi.); dokri, dukri ‘old woman’ (Kurku); d.okra_ ‘aged, old’ (Hi.Mar.) d.okro an old man; d.okri_ an old woman (G.) t.on:ku < d.on:ku (Te.) crookedness (Ta.); d.on:ku id. (Ka.)(Ta.lex.) dhokar.a decrepit, hanging down (of breasts)(Or.); duk hunched up, hump of camel (Kho.); doku humpbacked (K.); d.okro, d.okhro old man (Ku.); d.okra_ old, decrepit (B.); decrepit (H.); old man (M.)(CDIAL 5567). d.osa, d.usa having a maimed or bent body (from disease etc.)(K.)(CDIAL 5563). Substantive: dhokra ‘metal worker’ bharatiyo, caster of metals bharata = a factitious metal compounded of copper, pewter, tin etc.; green carbonate of lime (M.lex.) A semant. expansion occurs in the following lexemes: bhart = a mixed metal of copper and lead (G.) bharan.a = filling stuff, filling material (Ka.M.lex.) bhoron = a mixture of brass and bell metal (Santali.lex.) bhart-i_ya_ = a barzier, worker in metal; bhat.a, bhra_s.t.ra = oven, furnace; bari_ = blacksmith (G.) barad., barhat. = rough; not hard; brittle (G.lex.) bharata = casting metals in molds; bha_ravum = to keep live coals, buried in the ashes (G.lex.) bharata = fire in which the rice for bra_haman-s is boiled; name of Rudra (the Maruts are called his sons: RV 2.36.8); name of an A_ditya: Nir. 8.13); name of Agni (kept alive by the care of men)(RV); of a particular Agni (father of Bharata and Bharati_)(MBh.); a priest (r.tvij: Naigh. 3.18)(Skt.lex.) bharta = a method of cooking fish, mushrooms and vegetables by wrapping up in leaves and roasting in ashes (Santali.lex.) bara_t.a = a kind of firework (Tu.lex.) bharta = bake in live coals (Santali); bharta (Desi)(Santali.lex.) bharan.yu = fire (Skt.lex.) bharad = in comp. for bharat: bharadva_ja = bearing speed or strength (of fight); a skylark (Skt.lex.) bharad-va_ja = name of a R.s.i (with the patronym ba_rhaspatya, supposed author of RV 6.1-30; 37-43; 53-74; 9.67, 1-3; 10.137.1 and Purohita of Diva-da_sa, with whom he is perhaps identical; name of a district: Pa_n. 4.2.145; name of an Agni (MBh.)(Skt.lex.) bharan = to spread or bring out from a kiln (P.lex.) bha_ran. = to bring out from a kiln (G.) ba_ran.iyo = one whose profession it is to sift ashes or dust in a goldsmith’s workshop (G.lex.) bharant (lit. bearing) is used in the plural in Pan~cavim.s’a Bra_hman.a (18.10.8). Sa_yan.a interprets this as ‘the warrior caste’ (bharata_m – bharan.am kurvata_m ks.atriya_n.a_m). *Weber notes this as a reference to the Bharata-s. (Indische Studien, 10.28.n.2) In the Punjab, the mixed alloys were generally called, bharat (5 copper, 4 zinc and 1 tin). In Bengal, an alloy called bharan or toul was created by adding some brass or zinc into pure bronze. Sometimes lead was added to make it soft. = a caster of metals; a brazier; bharatar, bharatal, bharatal. = moulded; an

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article made in a mould; bharata = casting metals in moulds; bharavum = to fill in; to put in; to pour into (G.lex.) ?furnace. Suffixed o-grade form *gwhor-no-. a. fornax, furnace, hornito, from Latin furnus, fornus, forna_x, oven; *gwhr-. a. burn from Old English beornan, byrnan (intransitive) and bærnan (transitive), to burn; ?forge. Middle English, from Old French, from Vulgar Latin *faurga, from Latin fabrica, from faber, worker. ?hearth. Middle English herth, from Old English heorth.

Glyph: ba_ran.um [Hem. Des. ba_r, dva_r, fr. Skt. dva_ra] a door, a gate, an entrance; the court-yard in front of a house; ba_r a door (G.) Glyph: ba_r a courtyard in front of a house (G.) Glyph: khud. A terrace of a house (Used in Ka_t.hiawa_d.) Substantive: khud.do, khurdo (Persian khurdah) small change in copper; khurdiyo a merchant who exchanges copper coins for silver (G.)

Sign 17 (91) furnace.

The glyph is a ligature of a ‘guard’ + ficus glomerta: loa + bhat.a = iron smelting

The term, bharan, evokes two semantic interpretations: 1) an asterism represented by pudendum muliebre and ‘bearing in the womb’; 2) act of filling as in creating mixed alloys.

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Sign 15 (126)

V176 Ligatured signs:

V173

Signs 176, 165, 166, 382 ka_m.sako = a large-sized comb (G.lex.) Alternative decoding of Sign 176: Comb kangha (IL 1333) ka~ghera_ comb-maker (H.) kan:g = brazier, fireplace (K.)(IL 1332) Portable brazier ka~_guru, ka~_gar (Ka.) whence, large brazier = kan:gar (K.); ka~_gri_ = small portable brazier (H.) ka_gni = a small fire (Vop.) ka_n:kai = heat of fire (Ta.); ka.g = black thread; blue cloth of olden times, now used for funeral purposes (To.) ba_ran.e, ba_rane, ba_rpan.i = a comb; ba_runi = to comb the hair (Tu.lex.) bar.ae-bur.ui = to oil and comb someone’s hair (Mundari.lex.) va_raki_ra = a small comb (Skt.); va_ruka = to comb (Ma.); va_r = to comb as hair (Ta.); ba_can.ige = a comb (Ka.); ba_grka_ wooden comb worn by boys and girls (Kur.)(DEDR 5357).

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Sign 48 (168)

Copper tablets (13)

h172B Field Symbol 36 (10)

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Glyph: t.hat.ra = m. emaciated (Santali) Rebus: t.hat.era = a brazier, a caste who manufacture and sell brass ware; t.hat.ori = a worker in brass, a goldsmith (Santali) bharan.i_ 7th asterism (figured by pudendum muliebre)(AV.); bharan.a bearing in womb (RV.); bhara carrying, booty (RV.)[bhr. bear] bharan.i_ 2nd asterism (Pali.Pkt.); second lunar mansion (G.) bha_reva_yi = pregnant (G.lex.) barad.u, bar-ad.u = an empty pot (Ka.lex.) bhala_n.d.e~ = the half-pot or the shard which, with fire in it, the gosa_yi_ or the gondhal.i_-people hold on their hand; gondhal.i_ are musicians and singers; gondhal. = a tumultuous festivity in propitiation of devi_ (M.lex.) bha_liyo = a waterpot (G.lex.) baran.i, baran.e = the trough of a water-lift; a china jar (Tu.lex.) bhara.ni_ = a cooking pot (G.)

bharad.o = cross-beam in the roof of a house (G.lex.) bha_rat.iyum, bha_rvat.iyo, bha_rot.iyo = a beam (G.lex.) ba_ri = bamboo splits fastened lengthwise to the rafters of a roof from both sides (Tu.lex.) ba_rapat.t.e = chief beam lying on pillars (Te.lex.) bharan.um a piece in architecture; placed at the top of a pillar to support a beam (G.) barot.i = twelve; as in: barot.i panjaram, adj. lit. = who has twelve ribs; important, who is able to get things done (Santali) bha_rot.i_ = a bundle of fuel; bha_ro = a load, a bundle (g.lex.) bharna = the name given to the woof by weavers; otor bharna = warp and weft (Santali.lex.) bharna = the woof, cross-thread in weaving (Santali); bharni_ (H.) (Santali.Boding.lex.) bharad.o a devotee of S’iva; a man of the bharad.a_ caste in the bra_hman.as (G.) barar. = name of a caste of jat- around Bhat.in.d.a; barar.an da_ mela_ = a special fair held in spring (P.lex.) bhara_d. = a religious service or entertainment performed by a bhara_d.i_; consisting of singing the praises of some idol or god with playing on the d.aur (drum) and dancing; an order of at.hara_ akha_d.e = 18 gosa_yi_ group; bhara_d. and bha_rati_ are two of the 18 orders of gosa_yi_ (M.lex.) bharat.aka, bharad.aka = a particular class of mendicants (Skt.lex.) bharat.a = a potter or a servant: Un. 1.104 (Skt.Ka.lex.) bard Middle English, from Irish and Scottish Gaelic bardand from Welsh bardd. One of an ancient Celtic order of minstrel poets who composed and recited verses celebrating the legendary exploits of chieftains and heroes. 2. A poet, especially a lyric poet. ballad: etymology: Middle English balade, poem or song in stanza form, from Old French ballade, from Old Provençal balada, song sung while dancing, from balar, to dance, from Late Latin balla_re, to dance. http://www.bartleby.com ba_rn.e, ba_ran.e = an offering of food to a demon; a meal after fasting, a breakfast (Tu.lex.) barada, barda, birada = a vow (G.lex.) barad.o = spine; backbone; the back; barad.o tha_bad.avo = lit. to strike on the backbone or back; hence, to encourage; barad.o bha_re thato = lit. to have a painful backbone, i.e. to do something which will call for a severe beating (G.lex.) barad., barad.u = barren, childless; baran.t.u = leanness (Tu.lex.) man.uk.o a single vertebra of the back (G.) vara_d., vara_d.h = a quarrel; vara_d.havum = to cause to quarrel (G.lex.) 294

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marud.iyo = one who makes and sells wristlets, and puts wristlets on the wrists of women (G.lex.) marad.a = twisting; a twist; a turn; marad.avum = to twist, to turn; marad.a_vum = to bend; marod.a = a twist, a turn; writhing, a bend; marod.avum = to writhe, to twist, to contort; to bend (G.lex.) bara_d.o = a loud cry (G.lex.) Metal ingot, trade -- Human-faced markhor and other glyphs mu~h metal ingot (Santali) mu~ha~ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mu_ha_ me~r.he~t = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each end; kolhe tehen me~r.he~tko mu_ha_ akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali.lex.) muh face (Skt.) mu~he~ = face (Santali); mu~h (H.); mu_ha_ mu_hi_ adj. adv. face to face, facing one another (Santali.lex.Bodding) Rebus: mleccha-mukha = copper (Skt.) mlekh = goat (Br.); mr..eka = goat (Te.) sodo [Persian. soda_, dealing] trade; traffic; merchandise; marketing; a bargain; the purchase or sale of goods; buying and selling; mercantile dealings (G.lex.) sodagor = a merchant, trader; soda_gor (P.B.) (Santali.lex.) sadgal = a moneylender (Santali.lex.) soda_gar [Persian. fr. sodo + gar = Skt. kar, a doer fr. kr. to do] a merchant who deals in valuable things, or with large sums; soda_giri = dealing in valuable things or with large sums; adj. Mercantile, commercial (G.) sod.ra = a rolled up document, authority (Santali.lex.)[Note: use of cylinder seals to roll up and authenticate a transaction document on clay]. sodo bodo, sodro bodro adj. adv. rough, hairy, shoggy, hirsute, uneven; sodgo =adj. shaggy, having a large beard (Santali.lex.Bodding) sodo bodgo = hairy, hirsute, rough (Santali.lex.) [Note the bristly hair on the face]. Sadga badga = rough, surface uneven (Santali.lex.) sodro = a beard, a man with a beard (Santali) sodro = adj. bearded, large and rough (beard)(Santali) A human face with beard, is ligatured to orthographically represent a composite animal: 2258 m0301 m1177 2450 Composite animal: human face, zebu's horns, elephant tusks and trunk, ram's forepart, unicorn's trunk and feet, tiger's hindpart and hooded serpent-ligatured as a tail. Kalibangan035 [Notes. (1) the bearded face ligatured to composite animal and to markhor; (2) many animals shown face to face]. m1179 2606 Human-faced markhor with long wavy horns, with neckbands and a short tail.

m1180a . 1303 Human-faced markhor [Note the twisted horns: [maru_ka ‘a deer’ (Skt.); marai sambar, Indian elk (Ta.)(DEDR 4724)]

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mlecchamukha = copper (Skt.); what has the copper-coloured complexion of the Greek or Mahomedans]. mer-iya = a rock; mer-ayu = to shine, glitter (Te.lex.) mer = a kind of large copper or brass pot (G.lex.) cf. melukka = copper (Pali); mleccha = copper (Skt.) The Sanskrit gloss mlecchamukha is a compound of: melh + mu~h (antelope + face); rebus: melukka ‘copper’ + mu~ha (iron or mineral) ingot smelted. c-023 Seal. Double-axe + other arms and armour med.a, mi_d.ha_, men.d.ha_, men.d.hi_ = a ram (P.lex.) med.hra = a ram; membrum virile,, penis (AV); med.hraka = the penis; a ram; men.d.ha, men.d.hra = a ram (Skt.lex.) mer.ha = twisted, crumpled, as a horn (Santali.lex.)] The goat is shown with horns twisted back which also finds a rebus representation: mer.go = with horns twisted back; mer.ha, m., mir.hi f.= twisted, crumpled, as a horn (Santali.lex.) mer.ha, mer.ha mir.hi = adj. twisted backwards (horns of buffalo), having horns twisted backwards (buffaloes)(Santali.lex.Bodding) mer.ho = adj. having horns twisted backwards (Mundari.) Substantive: meruku glitter, luster, polish (Ta.); merugu shine, luster (Te.); mer_acu glitter (Te.); me_r to shine (stars)(Kuwi); merxa_ sky, heaven (Kur.); mergu, merge sky, heaven (Malt.)(DEDR 5074). The early meaning could be: ‘silver’. Substantive: me~rhe~t ‘iron’; me~rhe~t icena ‘the iron is rusty’; ispat me~rhe~t ‘steel’, dul me~rhe~t ‘cast iron’; me~rhe~t khan.d.a ‘iron implements’ (Santali) med. (Ho.)(Santali.lex.Bodding) mer.ed, me~r.ed iron; enga mer.ed soft iron; sand.i mer.ed hard iron; ispa_t mer.ed steel; dul mer.ed cast iron; i mer.ed rusty iron, also the iron of which weights are cast; bicamer.ed iron extracted from stone ore; balimer.ed iron extracted from sand ore; mer.ed-bica = iron stone ore, in contrast to bali-bica, iron sand ore (Mu.lex.) mer.hao = to entwine itself, wind round, wrap around, roll up (Santali.lex.) [Note the endless knot motif]. Substantive: me_r.i plough-handle, plough (Kuwi); me_r..i plough, plough-tail, handle of a plough (Ta.); me_r..i, me_n~n~al plough-tail (Ma.); me.y handle of plough (Ko.); me_t.i, me_n.i plough-tail (Ka.); me~_d.i, me_d.i hind part of handle of a plough (Te.); me_r.i plough handle, plough-tail (Kond.a); me_ri plough handle (Kuwi) Glyph: mer.go ‘rimless vessels’ (Santali) [Note the rimless pot – U sign] mi~d.ho = braid in a woman’s hair (S.) med.hi, mid.hi_, men.d.hi__ = a plait in a woman’s hair; a plaited or twisted strand of hair; an ewe (P.lex.) [Note: The horns of the goat shown on m1179 are comparable to the horns of the lady ligatured to the body of a tiger]. Seated ram figurine from a large copper/bronze pin. The pin attachment from below the figurine has broken off since it was originally discovered but a portion of it stands like a post behind he left shoulder of the ram. Lost-wax casting. Mohenjodaro DK 0781 AC. National Museum, Karachi. Mackay 1938: 300-1, pl. LXXIV, 18-19; 5.38 cm. high, 5.5 cm. long. (After fig. 8.26, Kenoyer, 2000) 296

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Hollow, seated ram figurine with hole in the centre of the back. Punctuated incised designs and with some appliqué. Terracotta. Mohenjodaro DK 9404. National Museum, Karachi. Mackay 1938: 188, 640, pl. LXVI.23. merom hopon = a kid (Santali) hopa, hopna = small, little, used as a name; hopon = offspring, child, young, to bring forth young (Santali) mer.h, mer.ha_, me~d.ha_ ram (H.), med.hia_o (Dh.Des.) ram, goat, sheep (G) mid.iyo = having horns bent over forehead (G.)(CDIAL 10120). me~r.a_, me~d.a_ = ram with curling horns (H.)(CDIAL 10120). me_t.am = goat (Ta.lex.) [cf. the pictorial motif of antelope with head turned backwards]. merom me~t = the goat’s eye (Santali.lex.) mes.a = ram (RV 8.2.40) mer.om = a goat; mer.om jel = the hind of the ravine deer, gazella bennettii; mer.om boda = a he-goat; mer.om en:ge = a she-=goat; mer.om khasi = a castrated goat; paeda mer.om = large flap eared goat; pat.hi mer.om = a she-goat before it has a kid; ram khasi mer.om = a hermaphrodite goat; mer.om jel = goat’s flesh; mer.om hopon = a kid (Santali.lex.) badar selep jel = the buck; merom goat (Mun.d.ari. Birhor. Ho); me (Nicobar) (Santali.lex.Bodding) me_t.ha ram (Skt.); met.ha_ ram (H.)(CDIAL 10310). men.d.ho [Dh. Des. min.d.hia_o fr. Skt. men.d.hra, men.d.h, a ram; Skt. medhya a goat, fr. medha a sacrifice] a ram; a sheep (G.lex.) mer.ho, mer.o ram for sacrifice (N.); mersa_g ram (A. -sa_g <? cha_gya herd of goats (Skt.); sa_ga_ flock of sheep or goats (M.)(CDIAL 5011); cf. saga denoting pha_tries or clans in Gond.); me_n.d.ha ram (Skt.); men.d.a ram (Pali); men.d.aka made of a ram's horn, e.g., a bow (Pali); men.d.ha_, men.d.a_, men.d.hi ram (Or.); med.d.ha, memd.ha, memd.a, mimd.ha, mimd.haga, ram (Pkt.); me~d.ha_ ram (P.M.); me~d.ho ram (G.); mad.aya_ ram (Si.); met.ha_ ram (H.); mi_d.d.ha_, mi~_d.ha_ ram (P.); mer.a_, mer.i ram (B.); mer.h, mer.ha_, me~d.ha_ ram (H.); mejhuka_ ram (H.)(CDIAL 10310). me_ha ram (Skt.); meh ram (H.); mei wild goat (WPah.); mya~_-pu_tu the young of sheep or goats (K.); me_s.a ram; me_s.i_ ewe (RV.); me_ha, miha (Skt.); me_hati emits semen; me_d.hra ram; penis (Skt.); me_sa sheep (Pkt.); mis'ala (Ash.); mes.el ram (Kt.); mes.e ram, oorial (Pr.); mes., mes.alak ram (Kal.); mes (H.); me_s.asya sheep-faced (Sus'r.)(CDIAL 10334). mu_n, mu_nu sheep's wool; munulu woollen (K.)(CDIAL 10335). me_s. skin-bag (Bur.); mesa_ dressed and coloured sheepskin (P.); mes'i_ sheep-faced (M.)(CDIAL 10343). me_ke she-goat; me_ tbe bleating of sheep or goats (Ka.); me~_ka, me_ka goat (Te.); me.ke id. (Kol.); me_ke id. (Nk.); me_va, me_ya; she-goat (Pa.); me_ge goat (Ga.); meka_, me_ka id. (Go.); me_xna_ (mixyas) to call, call after loudly, hail (Kur.); mqe to bleat (Malt.); mr..e_ka ? (Te.); me_lh ? (Br.); meka- goat (Skt.)(DEDR 5087). [The m(b)- intial form in Protoindic may explain the following etyma, with b-, bh- intials:] bhe_d.ra, bhe_n.d.a ram (Skt. < Austro-as. perhaps me_d.ra~ bhe_d.ra collides with Aryan me_d.hra in me_n.d.hra penis, ram (Skt.)(CDIAL 9606). be_d.a sheep (D..); bhed.a id. (K.); bhed., bhid. id. (L.); bhed. id. (P.); bhed.i_, bhed.a_ id. (P.); d.hled.d., bher. (pl. bher.a_) sheep and goats (WPah.); bher.o ram (Ku.N.); bher.i ewe (Ku.N.); bhera_ sheep (A.); bhe~ra_ sheep (A.); ram (Bi.); bher. ram (B.H.); bher.a_ sheep (B.Or.); ram (Bhoj.); bher.i ewe (B.); sheep (Or.); bhe~ri sheep (Or.); bhe~r. sheep (Bi.); bhe~r.i_ ram (Mth.); sheep (Aw.); bhe~r.o ram (Mth.); bher.i_, bher.a_ ram (H.); bher.i ram (G.)(CDIAL 9606). bhaid.aka of sheep (Skt.); bhe_d.a sheep (Skt.); bira_t.h, bhi_r.o he-goat (Tor..); biar she-goat (Ash.); byar (Pr.); bur (Bshk.); bhi_r.o he-goat (Phal.)(CDIAL 9604). bhe_d.ravr.ti sheepfold (Skt.); bhe_d.rakut.ika_ sheepfold (Skt.); bhar.o_r.i_ sheepfold (WPah.); bharva_r. shepherd or goatherd (G.)(CDIAL 9606-08). min. sheep (Dameli.Kaf.Gawar-Bati); mina_l ram (Bshk.); min.d. ram (To_rwa_li_); min.d.a_l markhor (To_rwa_li_); mindhal ram (Chili_s); ye_r.o-min. ram (Savi.); min.d., min. ram; min.d.o_l yearling lamb, gimmer (Phalu_r.a.)(CDIAL 10310). [The semantic re-inforcement, 'yearling' in min.d.o_l 'yearling lamb (Phal.) is relatable to the poss. Proto-indic form for the numeral 'one' muXi or MuXiC with d as the likeliest consonant. cf. Zide, N.H., Studies in the Munda Numerals, p.26. cf. midh 'one` (Savara).][The 297

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duplication in ye_r.o-min. ram (Savi.)is also remarkable, exemplifying the flow and the confluence of the language-streams [me_n.d. ~ (1) min.; (2) e_t.]: cf. e_t.a ram (Te.); mer.o ram for sacrifice (N.)(DEDR 5152). The Sv. compound form apparently denotes the special nature of the Proto-indic m(b)in. 'ram', that it is, like e.r. male buffalo, bull for 'sacrifice'. cf. tir e.r buffalo calf at Toda calf sacrifice (Ko.)(DEDR 917).] e_d.a a kind of sheep (Ka_tySr.); e_d.i_, e_d.aka a sheep, or goat (MBh.); aid.a ovine (MBh.); aid.aka a kind of sheep (S'Br.); id.ikka wild goat (Skt.); [< Drav.)]; el.aka ram wild goat (Pali); el.aka_, el.ika_, el.ike_ (Pali); ed.aka ram (As'.); ed.aka_ ewe (As'.); hed.'i sheep ? (NiDoc.); he_t. she-goat (Br.); e_la, e_laya ram (Pkt.); e_liya_, e_d.ya_, e.d.akka (Pkt.); e_r.a_, e_r.o_, yer.o, zer.o ram (Pas'.); e_r.i_, yer.i_ ewe (Pas'.); ye_r.e, yer.o_lik sheep (Shum.); e_r.a, ye_r.a (Gaw.); i_r (Bshk.); oi (Tor.); i_ (Mai.); yer.o, e.r.ia (Sv.); yi_r.o (Phal.); e_r.i (Sh.); eli-pavharu goatherd (S.); el.uva_ goat (Si.); - X me_s.a-: e_s sheep (Sh.); e_d.aka sheep (Skt.)(CDIAL 2512). e_d.ika ram (Te.); e_t.a ram (Te.); e_d.u goat (Tu.); ye_t.i_, e_t.i she-goat (Go.); e_r.a_ she--goat (Kur.); er.e id. (Malt.); o_d.a goat (Pe.Kui.Kuwi); u_d.e id. (Mand..); a.d.i (Kod..); a_d.u (Ka.); o.d. (To.); a.r. (obl.a.t.-) goat (Ko.); a_t.u goat, sheep (Ta.Ma.); ya_t.u id. (Ta.); a_t.t.-a_l. shepherd (Ta.); a_t.t.uka_ran id. (Ma.)(DEDR 5152). a_t.t.u-k-kit.a_y ram, he-goat (Ta.lex.) me_t.am, me_t.akam, me_ttiram (prob. < me_d.hra); me_r..am, me_r..akam (Ta.) < prob. me_s.aka ram; vempari me_r..aka me_r-r-i (Ci_vaka..521)(Ta.lex.) me_s.a m. ram; me_s.i_ ewe (RV.); me_d.hra ram (Skt.); me_sa sheep (Pkt.); misala (Ah.); mes.el ram (Kt.); mes.e ram, oorial (Pr.); mes., mes.alak ram (Kal.); mes (H.)--X bhe_d.ra; mya~_-pu_tu young of sheep or goats (K.); mei wild goat (WPah.); meh ram (H.)(CDIAL 10334). Sheepskin: mesa_ dressed and coloured sheepskin (P.); me_s. skin-bag (Burusha_ski); mes'i_ sheep-faced (M.)(CDIAL 10343). mehra_b = an arch; a vault; a building in the form of a segment of a circle (G.lex.) [cf. the arch surrounding a spoked wheel sign on texts on zebu seals; note the arch over two antelopes shown – face to face -- on the Failaka seal]. Note: Inverted U glyph. Thus, whenever two animals are shown face to face or in opposition, the rebus lexeme could be me~t, me_dh [Rebus: med.hi, ‘merchant’s clerk’] Alternative: mu_ha_ mu_hi_ adj. adv. Face to face, facing one another. [Note. Two short-bulled bulls face to face.] saman: = to offer an offering, to place in front of; front, to front or face (Santali) sa_man = song accompanying processing of soma in sa_maveda (Vedic) mel.van.a = mixing; a mixture; mel.van.o = a mixture; mel.vavum [fr. Skt. mil, to join] to mix, to mingle; to combine; to join together (G.lex.) mel..e, mid.i = a bush, a clump, a thicket (Ka.lex.) [Note the bush shown in front of a hare on copper tablets]. me_d.amu, me_l.amu = a fight (Te.lex.) me_t.u = a heap, stack; rick, as of hay (Te.lex.) [Note the glyph of a hayrick – like a phonetic determinant -- shown together with a pair of rams on the platform on which a horned person is seated]. Scorpion Substantive: kamar 'blacksmith'; Glyph: kamar kidin 'a small species of scorpion' 298

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On the front of a wooden sound-box of a lyre found in a Royal tomb of Ur, is painted a scorpion man holds undefined objects in his raised hands. Behind him is a gazelle carrying two beakers that are similar to the gold, electrum, and silver tumblers from Puabi's tomb kamar kidin a small species of scorpion; kidin, kidin kat.kom a scorpion; kidin marmar a species of centipede (Santali) Glyph: kamari, kammari declivity, steep bank, cliff, ravine (Ka.); kamar chasm, crack, cleft in the ground caused by drought (Ta.)(DEDR 1229). *kamra = the back (Skt.); krem = the back (Kho.)(CDIAL 2776). *parikamra = near the back (Skt.); parikama_ = behind the shoulder (Ash.)(CDIAL 7799v). kamak = back (Sang.); com = back of an animal (Shgh.); *kamak = back of an animal (G.M.); kama neck (Yghn.)(CDIAL 14356). kammaru = the loins, the waist (Ka.M.); kamara (H.)(Ka.lex.) [Note the sign emphasizing the backbone]. kamar the loins, the waist (G.); kamarpat.i_ a strip of cloth sewn on as a belt to a coat; kamarpat.o a belt; a girdle; kammar the waist, the loins (G.) kamra, kambra = an over-cloth, wrapper (Santali); kambal (H.)(Santali.lex.) khambroi = overseer, leader, steward, foreman (Santali.lex.) krame_lakamu, krame_lamu = a camel (Te.lex.) krammar-ilu, krammar-illu, krammar-abad.u = to turn, return, to go back; krammar-u = again; krammar-incu = to turn or send back (Te.lex.) [Note the glyph showing an antelope or a tiger turning back]. kraman.a = act of walking or going (G.lex.) krama = step, series (AV); krame_n.a by degrees (R.); kama = step, way (Pali); foot, series (Pkt.); -krem in oi~n-krem and u~_-krem = upper and lower teeth (Wg.); karo, karu_ = pace, a man’s pace (P.); karo karo = at each pace (P.); kema, kama = row, succession; kemen = by degrees (Si.)(CDIAL 3577). kra_mati steps (RV); kramate_ id. (MBh.); kamati = walks (Pali); kamai (Pkt.); kram- to thresh (Kt.); kime (Pr.); kromik (Kho.)(CDIAL 3579). kramkram = threshing floor (Kt.)(CDIAL 3580). [Note the glyph of a bull trampling someone underneath]. Two animals are shown with characteristic turning of the head backwards. The rebus lexeme is: krammar-a = to turn, return (Te.); rebus substantive: kamar, ‘blacksmith’. Thus, a tiger with its head turned back is: kamar + kol (smith-metal); an antelope with its head turned back is: kamar + med.h (smith-copper).

Inscribed objects showing a tiger and an antelope with head turned backwards

The semantics: Antelope looking back: kamar = smith + med.h, melh (antelope, melukka ‘copper’, merchant’s clerk), i.e. copper-smith. Tiger: kol ‘metal’; kol ‘tiger’ Hence, kol + kra_d.i = tiger; rebus: metal sword or large metal axe. 299

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Tiger looking back: kamar = smith + kol (tiger, kol 'metal'), i.e. metal-smith Black hornet kra_nd.i (Kui) [cf. kr.a_n.d.i, axe; kr.a_n.d.i, tiger] Tiger kr.a_d.i, kra_nd.i (Kui) karan.d.amu (Te.) sword karad.e (Ka.) kra_d.i (Kui) Large axe kara_d.o (G.) carpenter's tool used in hewing down large pieces of wood [karan.d.aka a box in which lin:ga is worn (Ka.)] Crown karad.a (IL)

h181A

h181B

m0478At

m0478Bt

Bet Dwaraka (S’ankhodar), a rectangular seal (20 X 18 mm) of conch shell, with a perforated button at the back was found in trench UW6 of Bet Dwarka. A composite animal motif representing the short horned bull, unicorn and goat are engraved in an anticlockwise direction.

Amri06 Chanhudaro Seal obverse and reverse. The oval sign of this Jhukar culture seal is comparable to other inscriptions. Fig. 1 and 1a of Plate L. After Mackay,

1943.

Bactria tablet. Tepe Yahya. Stamp seal with a tiger with head turned back and tail raised (after Lamberg-Karlovsky 1971).

Kalibangan043 8039 Pict-59: Composite motif: body of an ox and three heads: of a one-horned bull (looking forward), of antelope (looking backward), and of short-horned bull (bison) (looking downward).

300

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m1170a

1382

Antelope That me_r.h is the lexeme represented by an antelope (or mountain-goat) is re-inforced by semantic determinants on some inscribed objects which present (1) an antelope in the context of a glyph of a ficus glomerata (med.i) or (2) the ficus glomerata leaf (med.i) in the context of a pillar (me_d.i) to which a bull is tied: Balakot 05 medha = lance-shaft (RV 1.88.3) The animal is a two-horned heifer with pronounced rings on the neck. On some inscribed objects, the mountain-goat (me_d.h) is shown with a human face, perhaps an orthographic marker that the glyph represents a person, me_d.h, chief: Glyph (the heads of the heifer are face-to-face): me~t me~t nepel = v. see face to face; v. nepel; note, this is friendly, quite different from me~t ar me~t (Santali.lex.Bodding) me_dhaka, me_dhaga = opposing, quarrel (Pali)(CDIAL 10314). methati quarrels with (RV); medhati injures (Dha_tup.); mehn.a_ to reproach (P.)(CDIAL 10315). metti_ friendship (Pali.Pkt.); mitti (Pali); mitti_ (Pkt.); maitra friendly (Mn.)(CDIAL 10340). mith = to oppose (Skt.); mithati_ pres. part. f. opposes, quarrels with (RV.)(CDIAL 10128). me~t = the eye; me~t kot.i = the eye brows; me~t gad.a = the eye cavity; me~t pipni = the eye lashes; me~t dak = tears; me~t sar.im = the eyelids; me~t, me~ndok = inflammation of the eye and appendages; me~ta~ha~ = the face, countenance (Santali.lex.) met, med (Kherew.); mat (Nicobar); med, mid, mat, met (Semang); met, men (Desisi); met (Pangan); mat, met (Sakai); mat (Stieng, Bahnar, Annam); khmat (Khasi); me (Japanese); in a number of Oceanic (Pacific) languages: mata, meta, mita (Santali.lex.Bodding). mi_t.n.a_ = to close the eyes (P.); mit.ik = twinkling, moment (N.); mit.i = blinking (G.); mit.n.e~ = to close the eys (M.)(CDIAL 10119). Mit.akisa = to blink (Ka.)(DED 3969). mel.l.a, mel.l.e = a squinting man, mel.l.agan.n.u, mel.l.egan.n.u = a squinting eye; mel.l.e = rolling, looking obliquely, squinting (Ka.); melle (Te.) (Ka.lex.) Ox-antelope with a long tail; a trough in front.

6121

med.hi = pillar, support (Pkt.lex.) me_t.hi, me_t.i, me_d.hi, me_n.t.i, me_dhi = a pillar, a post; a pillar in the middle of a threshing-floor to which oxen are bound; a post to which cattle are tied; a prop for supporting the shafts of a carriage (Ka.lex.) methi, methi_ = pillar, post, stake (AV 14.1.40); men.d. = a low flat top ridge separating fields (H.)(Vedic.lex.) med.h, med.ha_ = post, forked stake (H.); me_dhi – post to tie cattle to, pillar, part of a stu_pa (Pali)(CDIAL 10317). meht.ha_ post on the threshing floor (Bi.Patna); meht.a_, me~ht.a_ = the bullock next the post (Bi.Gaya); me_this.t.ha = standing at the post (TS)(CDIAL 10319). Melukka, copper; melh, goat

301

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On some glyphs, the antelope is held by its neck (med.a or melkha_): urseal8Seal; BM 118704; U. 6020; Gadd PBA 18 (1932), pp. 9-10, pl. II, no.8; two figures carry between them a vase, and one presents a goat-like animal (not an antelope) which he holds by the neck. Human figures wear early Sumerian garments of fleece. melkha_ throat, neck (Kur.); melque throat (Malt.)(DEDR 5080). This glyph of holding by the throat of the animal is a phonetic determinant of the animal itself: me_lh goat (Br.); mr..e_ka (Te.); meque to bleat (Malt.); me_ke she-goat (Ka.); goat (Nk.) me~_ka, me_ka goat (Te.); me.ke (Kol.); me_ge goat (Ga.); meka_, me_ka (Go.); me_xna_ to call, hail (Kur.)(DEDR 5087). med.a = neck (Te.lex.) met.e = the throat (Ka.); men-n.a, men-n-i (Ta.); menne (Ma.); mid.ar-u = the neck, the throat (Ta.Ma.); met.regat.t.u = a swelling of the glands of the throat (Ka.lex.) [The dotted circle connoting the eye: khan:gar ‘full of holes’; rebus: kan:gar ‘furnace’] This is rebus for: melukka copper (Pali) [cf.Meluhhan interpreter shown on a cylinder seal; the Meluhhan is shown carrying a goat on his hands.] antelope: kuran:ga a deer in general (Skt.); Rebus: korn:ga ‘a Hindu caste of wood turners’ tiger: kol (furnace) Glyph: vahur.o young bullock (S.); vohur. heifer (L.); vahar., vahir. heifer (P.);(CDIAL 11459). paghaia d.an:gra a pack bullock (Santali) Substantive (soldier, trader) va_karan- ‘soldier’ (Ta.) vahoro, vohharo: vahoro, voro (Hem. Des. vohharo = Skt. ma_gadha a mixed tribe, a bard) a trader, a bora_; bull: bailo (bal ‘iron ore’); d.an:gra ‘bull’; d.han:gra ‘blacksmith’ Jointed animals: san:gad.a (kan:gar ‘furnace’) Gold, mint tan:kam = pure gold, that which is precious, of great worth (Ta.); pure gold (Ma.); t.an:ka = a stamped (gold) coin (Skt.)(DEDR 3013). t.an:kasa_la = a mint; t.an:kava_t.u, t.an:kasa_lava_ru = an old gold coin (Te.) t.an:ka = a stamped coin (Ka.) t.an:ka, t.an:ga = weight of 4 ma_s.a (Skt.); a stamped coin (Skt.); t.an:kaka = a silver coin (Skt.); tanka = ka_rs.a_pan.a (Khot.); t.am:ka = a stamped coin; t.a~_k button (N.); t.an:ka_ rupee (Or.); t.a~_k a particular weight (H.); a particular weight equivalent to 1/72 ser (G.); a particular weight (M.); t.an:ga_ a coin worth 2 paisa_ (H.); t.ako two paisa_, pl. money in general (S.); t.rakaku – worth two paisa_; coin of that value (S.); t.aka_ a copper coin (P.); t.a_ka_ two paisa_ (Ku.); t.ako money (N.); t.aka_ rupee (A.); t.a_ka_ (B.Bhoj.); t.aka_, t.akka_, t.akwa_ money (Mth.); t.aka_ two paisa_ coin (H.); t.ako (G.); t.aka_ (M.)(CDIAL 5426). ut.a~ko = rough estimate of weight, guess; ut.a~_kru~ to weigh (G.)(CDIAL 1682). chat.a_k 1/16 of a ser (about 2 ounces)(B.); chat.a~_k (H.)(CDIAL 12785). t.an:kas’a_la_, t.an:kakas’o = mint (Skt.); t.aksa_l, t.aksa_r (N.); t.a_ksa_l, t.a~_ksa_l, t.eksa_l (B.); t.aksa_r (Bhoj.); t.aksa_l, t.aksa_r (H.); t.a~ksa_l. (G.); t.a~_ksa_l, t.a_ksa_l, t.a~ksa_l, t.aksa_l (M.); t.aksa_l.i_ mint master (G.); t.a_ksa_l.ya_ id. (M.)(CDIAL 5434). t.aka = a rupee, money; to take money (Santali); t.aka_ (H.) The most frequently occurring glyph is that of a one-horned bull with a pannier; it occurs on 1159 epigraphs (according to Mahadevan corpus). The orthographic accent is on the waist-zone, the pannier35. m1656 On this petoral, the pannier is vividly displayed. This is an orthographic feature unique to the one-horned heifer. It is a phonetic rebus determinative of the artisan’s workhop. 302

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Rebus: ten:goc = standing person (Santali) tan:ga = a horse-belt; the belt by which the saddle is fixed right on the back of a horse; a garter (G.) tan:gul.a, tan:gud.a = a horse’s or an elephant’s trapping (Ka.); t.an:gu, t.an:guva_r-u, tan:gu, tan:guva_r-u= a girth, surcingle (Te.) t.an:gu, tan:gu, tan:gu = a girth, especially of a horse-saddle (Ka.M.Te.); tan:ga, tan:gu = id. (H.); t.an:guhar-e = the girth to be broken: to be reduced to poverty (Ka.) t.a_kan.a, t.a_n:kn.a_ = a pony (Ka.Te.); t.a_kana_, t.ha_kan.a_ (H.) t.a~_gan. A species of pony (G.); t.a~_gan hill pony (H.)(CDIAL 5454). t.an:gna baber = the strap or thong by which a dancing-drum is carried (Santali)14 t.an:gao = to stop, hinder, obstruct (Santali) tagar = to be stopped or impeded; to impede (Ka.) ta_gu, ta_ku, ta_n:gu = to come in contact with, touch, hit, strike or dash against, attack (Ka.); ta~_ku = to touch, hit, attack; combat (Te.); ta~_cu = to kick; ta~_pu = a kick (Te.)(DEDR 3150). t.akka ar.inu = to come to a dead stop (N.); t.akvu~ = to stop (G.); t.eko = prop, obstacle (P.)(CDIAL 5420). t.akkara_ = blow on the head (Skt.); t.akkara = collision (Pkt.); t.akara (K.); t.akaru = butting (S.); t.akkar – pushing, knocking; t.akkarn.a_ to collide, meet (P.); t.akar = obstacle, collision (N.); t.akkar blow (B.H.G.M.)(CDIAL 5424).

Sign 18 (27) Copper tablets (15) dan:go, d.an:goro = a thick club; a cudgel (G.lex.) t.an:kam = mace (Ma.); t.an:ke, d.an:ke, d.an:gi, d.an:ge = staff, cudgel (Ka.)(DEDR 2940). tan:ka, t.in:ka, tan:ka = a stone-mason’s hammer; a stone-cutter’s chisel (Ka.) t.an:ka = spade, hoe, chisel (R.); t.an:ga = sword, spade (Skt.); t.an:ka = stone mason’s chisel (Pali); t.am:ka stone-chisel, sword (Pkt.); t.ho~ axe (Wot.); t.hon: battle-axe (Bshk.); tunger axe (Tor.); t.o~nguru kind of hoe (K.); t.a~_gi adze (N.); t.a~_ki_ chisel (H.); t.a~_k pen nib (G.G.); t.a~_ki chisel (M.); t.a_n:gi stone chisel (A.); t.a_n:g, t.a_n:gi spade, axe (B.); t.a_n:gi battle-axe (Or.); t.a_~ga_, t.a~_gi_ adze (Bi.); t.a_n:i_ axe (Bhoj.); t.a~_gi_ hatchet (H.)(CDIAL 5427). t.an:kita-man~ca = a stone (i.e. chiseled) platform (Pali); t.a~_kvu~ to chisel (G.); t.a~_kn.e~ (M.)(CDIAL 5433). t.ha_kun = to hammer (K.)(CDIAL 5487). t.an:kamu = the top or side of a hill (Te.) t.an:ka = peak, crag (MBh.); t.akuru = mountain; t.akiri_ = hillock; t.a_kara low hill (S.); t.a_kuro hill top (N.); t.a_n:gi_ hill, stony country (Or.); d.aggara = upper terrace of a house; d.agar = little hill, slope (M.); d.a_~g, d.a~_k stony land (Ku.); d.a_n:ga_ hill, dry upland (B.); d.a~_g mountain-ridge (H.); hill tract (M.)(CDIAL 5423) d.an:ga, a reference to highlands. dan:ga, d.an:gal = highlands unsuitable for rice cultivation; d.an:gal ocokedam khet do = you have allowed the rice field to become high land (allowed it to be silted up with sand). dan:gaur.a = a rubbish heap; dangi = a part of the slop of a hill; buru dangi = above the bed.a; buru bed.a = the part higher up than the 'dhasna; buru dhasna = the foot of the hill. Thus, d.an:ga seems to connote a high level terrace of a mountain (Santali.lex.) Glyph: dotted circle: t.a_k button (Sh.)(CDIAL 5426) d.a_gu = a stain, spot, blot, mark (Te.) t.a_ka_, t.a_ki, t.a_ku = a stitch (Ka.); t.a_ka_, t.a_ca_ id. (M.) d.a_ku, d.a_gu = a spot, stain, blot; a mark put on cattle with a red-hot iron; inoculated cowpox (Ka.M.); d.a_ga id. (H.Ta.); d.a_gu (Te.) t.a~kan.u = to stitch (S.); t.a~_ko = stitch (S.); sewing, patch (Ku.)(CDIAL 5432). 14

Glyph: an.d.ige = one pannier or pack, half a bullock load (Ka.); an.d.emu, an.d.iyamu id.; a.digamu = a sort of pannier (Te.)(DEDR 127). Substantive, ingot: an.d.ige, an.d.e, ad.e = a sticky, clotty mass, a lump, as of dates, tamarind, sugar, hair etc. (Ka.Te.); ad.egat.t.u = to become a sticky mass, to be clotted or matted together, as the hair etc. (Ka.Te.); ad.egallu = a stone-like mass of unclean hair (Ka.M.) an.t.a = matted or clotted hair; ant.alugat.t.u = to become matted or clotted (Te.) a~_t.ho, a~_t.i = bundle, sheaf, plait of hair (Ku.N.)(CDIAL 181).

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(14)

Sign 1 (134)

(93) Sign 8 (105) A variant of Sign 8 is a horned, standing person ligatured to the buttocks of a bull. d.hagara_m = pl. the buttocks, hip (G.) Rebus: d.han:gar = blacksmith (H.)

m1224A m1224B m1224 m1224e person with horns and bovine features (hoofed legs and/or tail).

4319 Standing

and.ren (pl. and.ran) male, man (Pe.); and.ra a male animal or bird, male (Kui); an.d.ra_ male (said only of animals)(Kur.); an.d.ya_ fierce, unmanageable (of bulls, bullocks, and male buffaloes)(Kur.); an.d.ya a bull (Malt.); an.d.i_ra male (Skt.); an.d.ira_ id. (Or.)(CDIAL 1111; DEDR App. 7). Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’. t.ha_n:kum = a skeleton (G.) ten:goc = to stand upright (Santali) ten:go, ‘to stand’; ten:go, ‘to assume responsibility (Santali) te_jate_ = is sharp, sharpens (RV); te_jati = is sharp, shapens, incites (Pali); te_ai sharpens (Pkt.); tevn.e~ = to shine, burn (M.)(CDIAL 5945). Te_jas = sharp edge of a knife, glow (RV); fiery energy (AV); te_h = fire, arrogance (K.)(CDIAL 5946) tega = a sword; tega_ = a scimitar (G.Persian) tega_r = property, substance (G.Persian) t.a_n:kan.um = a chisel (G.); t.an:ka_ = an instrument for digging, khanitram (Hem.Des. G.)

Signs 30 to 37 an array of ligatures to the ‘standing person’ glyph, Sign 1. The ligaturing elements include on Sign 32 and Sign 36: a pot, and a carb (claws). dhad.a [Hem. Des. tan.d.am] headless trunk; the trunk as distinct from the head (G.)15 Glyph: t.ha_t.hum = a frame-work, the body; t.ha_t.ha = state, dignity, pomp (G.) Hem. Des. t.ha_n.a = Skt. ma_nah pride, fr. Skt. stha_nam manner of standing, fr. stha_ ‘to stand’ (G.) Rebus: t.hat.era = a brazier, a caste who manufacture and sell brass ware; t.hat.ori = a worker in brass, a goldsmith (Santali) An alloy of five metals, kol

Alternative homonyms: ka_t.hi_ = body, person; ka_t.hi_ the make of the body; the stature of a man (G.) cola = body, life; cola cabaentaea = he is dead; cola tahen bhor kami jarur.tabona = we must work on so long as we remain in the body (Santali) s’u_la = death, dying (Ka.) 304

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There is a lexeme which connotes pan~caloha, an alloy containing five metals:: kol This word is represented rebus (lit. sounds like) by a tiger, kolhu-o (G.) kol = pan~calo_kam (five metals); kol metal (Ta.lex.) pan~caloha = a metallic alloy containing five metals: copper, brass, tin, lead and iron (Skt.); an alternative list of five metals: gold, silver, copper, tin (lead), and iron (dha_tu; Na_na_rtharatna_kara. 82; Man:gara_ja’s Nighan.t.u. 498)(Ka.) kol, kolhe, ‘the koles, an aboriginal tribe if iron smelters speaking a language akin to that of Santals’ (Santali) kol = kollan-, kamma_l.an- (blacksmith or smith in general)(Ta.lex.) kollar = those who guard the treasure (Ta.lex.) cf. golla (Telugu) khol, kholi_ = a metal covering; a loose covering of metal or cloth (G.) [The semant. expansions to kolla_puri or kolha_pur and also to 'kolla_ppan.t.i' a type of cart have to be investigated further]. kol ‘working in iron, blacksmith (Ta.); kollan- blacksmith (Ta.); kollan blacksmith, artificer (Ma.)(DEDR 2133)

V267

Sign 261 kan- copper work, copper (Ta.)

kana kona = corner (Santali) [Glyphs of corner + splinter shown on the first line of the epigraph on the gold pendant, may thus connote: worker in copper.] Alternative: kolle, kolli = corner (Ka.); kolli corner (Ma.) kole, kuli = a small space set apart in a corner of the house for fowls (Santali)16 Axe-head of brown schist (L 15 cm) with the head of a leopard or lioness on the butt. From the palace of Mallia, destroyed in LM I B ca. 1450 BC; but the axe-head may be older. The spiral-net design covering it was at home on clay vases at the beginning of the LM I period. The eyes of the animal were inlaid, and there were inlays in the drop-shaped hollows on the shoulders. The collar round the neck and the diagonal band running from it are reminiscent of the harness worn by the goats on the ring from Avdhou; the animal may have been conceived as drawing the chariot of some god (J. Charbonneaux, Monuments Piot 28, 1925-26, pp. 6-18) (After Plate 90 in: Sinclair Hood, 1971, The Minoans, New York, Praeger Publishers).

m1517Act

h094

m1517Bctm1518

4246

m0289

1709

3121

kundau, kundhi corner (Santali) kun.d.a corner (S.); ku~_t. corner, side (P.)(CDIAL 3898).

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m0486at m0486bt m0486ct 1625 Interlocking bodies: ca_li (IL 3872) Rebus: s'a_lika (IL) village of artisans. [cf. sala_yisu = joining of metal (Ka.)] Vikalpa: Bull salaga (IL 3861) cala_kai (Ta.) spear Babool tree ja_li (IL 3868), sala_ = tree (IL 3897) Quail salle (IL 3867) Spider s'alaka (IL 3882a)

m0295 Pict-61: Composite motif of three tigers

1386 :

This unique ligaturing of three bodies of lions may connote an alloy of three metals and/or a village of artisans. The left-most sign on Text 1386 may, thus, be an important architectural representation of an artisan’s workshop, kole.l ‘smithy’; a word that also gets the meaning ‘temple’ in the same language, Kuwi. The first two signs of epigraph 1386 (from right) are also repeated on an inscribed potsherd from Bakarbuthi. Bakkar Buthi is a small Harappan site located in the remote mountanous area to the east of the Las Bela plain. The first phrase (first and second signs from the right) could be: s'a_lika (IL) village of artisans. [cf. sala_yisu = joining of metal (Ka.)]

got.h, got. ‘assembly’ (Santali) got. = the place where cattle are collected at mid-day (Santali); gos.t.ha (Skt.); kod. = place where artisan’s work (Kur.); cattle-shed (Or.) kod. = a cow-pen; a cattlepen; a byre (G.lex.) gor.a = a cow-shed; a cattlepsed; gor.a orak = byre (Santali.lex.) got.ho [Skt. kos.t.ha the inner part] a warehouse; an earthen vessel in wich indigo is stored (G.lex.) kot.t.amu = a stable (Te.lex.) Substantive: got.h, got. Place where cattle are assembled (Santali) got.an:, got.ec, got.en used when reduplicated with 2,3, 4. pepe got.an: three each; popon got.an: four each (Santali). got.a = numerative particle (Mth.) got.a = the whole (Santali)

(16)

Sign 402 (99)

ko_d.i = a kind of flag, an image of garud.a, basava, or other demi-god set upon a long post before a temple; cf. gud.i, temple (Ka.lex.)

kor.va sickle (Kol.) i.e. two sickles.

V294 got.i_ a lump of silver (G.) 306

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kod., ‘artisan’s workshop’ kod.a, kor.a = a shell, a mite (Santali)

(12) (10) Sign 86 (149) Glyph: a long linear stroke; got. = one (Santali) kod.a = in arithmetic, one (Santali) Rebus: kod.a, kor.a = shell (Santali) Together with pairing sign Sign 99 : at.ar a splinter; at.aruka to burst, crack, slit off, fly open; at.arcca splitting, a crack; at.arttuka to split, tear off, open (an oyster)(Ma.); ad.aruni to crack (Tu.)(DEDR 66) the epigraph of Signs 86 and 99 may be read as: shell, native metal (kod.a aduru).

|| got.an:, got.ec, got.en used with numerals, also with 2,3, and 4, when reduplicated; mo~r.e~ got.ec hor.ko tabekana there were five people; babar got.an: two each; pepe gor.an: three each; popon got.an: four each; gel got.en do bape saphalena? are got.ec doko okaena? Were there not ten of you cleansed? Where are the nine? Substantive: kod. place where artisans work (G.); got.h, got. place where cattle are collected at mid-day (Santali) go_ti = a woman (Te.lex.); ko_tai woman (beautiful as a garland)(Ta.)(DEDR 2214). got.i_ a clot of blood (G.) got.imad.um a somersault; a leap heels over head (G.)

m0009a 2616 The third sign from right is a long linear stroke: | Parpola notes that the sign appears to be redundant since many texts occur with comparable sign sequences but without such a sign. The sign may be a determinative, just as a ‘man’ glyph may be semantic determinative of a function or title. (Parpola, 1994, p. 80).

m0318 m0318B 2626 The long linear stroke on m0318 can be : kod.a, kor.a = in arithmetic one; 4 kor.a or kod.a = 1 gan.d.a = 4 (Santali.lex.) Rebus, substantive: kod., ‘artisan’s workshop’ 307

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If kod.a is a determinative of Sign 197 kod.a

including on the seal m0318, the sign may also be read as:

Variation between absence and presence of the sign | at the beginning of 18 parallel sign sequences. [After Parpola, 1994, Fig. 5.2] Warp-pegs kor.i = pegs in the ground in two rooms on which the thread is passed back and forth in preparing the warp (S.) Cloak, trefoil glyph: got.a_ a garment with clusters of flowers woven in it; got.a_kor [+ kor a border] a border of a garment having clusters of flowers woven in it; got.iyum a piece of cloth made use of in making up a turban to give it a round shape (G.) go_t.u embroidery, lace (Tu.); go~_t.u an ornamental appendage to the border of a cloth, fringe, hem, edging (Te.); got. Hem of garment; got.a_ edging of gold lace (H.)(DEDR 2201). go_t.u = an ornamental appendage to the border of a cloth, fringe, hem, edging (Te.); embroidery (Tu.) kont.l.= pocket in outside edge of cloak (Ko.); got. = hem of garment (M.); got.a_ = edging of gold lace (H.) got. hem of a garment, metal wristlet (M.); got.t.a_ gold or silver lace (P.)(CDIAL 4271). Another glyph which may be rebus for ten:goc ‘chisel’ is ten: ‘to weave’ h390 4024 [The second sign from right appears like a weaver’s loom with three looped strings]. ko_t.u = line (Ta.) kod.a = 4 gan.d.a. kod.a = one in arithmetic. got.a = numerative particle (Mth.) kot.i_ the largest bead in a rosary from which the counting begins (G.) Fish signs (and variants) seem to be differentiated from, perhaps a loop of threads formed on a loom or loose fringes of a garment. This may be seen from the seal M-9 which contains the sign:

Sign 180

Signs 180, 181 have variants.

Edging, trimming (cf. orthography of glyph in the middle of the epigraph)

308

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erka, era, 'copper' eru_ = copper (?), bronze [ eru_ = engrave, carve]; urudu_ = bronze (Akkadian) hurru (CAD) = mined copper (Akkadian) urru, u_ru = heap, mountain (Akkadian/Assyrian) eruvai = copper (Ta.); ere - a darkred colour (Ka.)(DEDR 817). Cf. Akkadian/Assyrian eru_ = copper (?), bronze [ eru_ = engrave, carve] eraka, er-aka any metal infusion (Ka.Tu.); urukku (Ta.); urukka melting; urukku what is melted; fused metal (Ma.); urukku to melt (Ta.Ma.); eragu to melt (Tu.); eraka molten state, fusion; erakaddu any cast thing; eraka hoyi to pour melted metal into a mould, to cast; erako_lu the iron axle of a carriage (Ka.); er-e to pour any liquids; to pour (Ka.); to cast as metal (Ka.) erande sp. fruit, red in colour (Ka.); re_cu, re_cu-kukka a sort of ounce or lynx said to climb trees and to destroy tigers; a hound or wild dog (Te.)(DEDR 817). re_-gad.a, re_-gad.i clay (Te.)(DEDR 820). erkem = billhook (Go.)(DEDR 824) eraka, era, era = syn. erka, copper, weapons (Ka.) erako_lu = the iron axle of a carriage (Ka.M.); cf. irasu (Ka.lex.) erako molten cast (Tu.lex.) eh-kam any weapon made of steel (Cu_t.a_.); eh-ku steel; ehku-pat.utal to melt, to soften (Cilap. 15, 210, Urai.)(Ta.lex.) he_rka pl. plough; pair of ploughing bullocks (Kuwi)(DEDR 2816). e_r-c-ci_r implements of husbandry; wealth produced by husbandry (W.)(Ta.lex.) si(h)a_ra_ drill (for sowing seed)(L.); sia_ra furrow (Or.)(CDIAL 13429). xir furrow, one ploughing; xirlu_ furrow; xirluwa_ furrowed (A.); si_r ploughing (H.); siru-va, siri plough; (h)ira, (h)iri- line, streak (Si.)(CDIAL 13441). kere to prepare charcoal, to carry out the process by which charcoal is made (Santali.lex.) here, ere black grease for wheels (Ka.); heregombu a horn or hollow piece of bamboo in which such grease is kept (Ka.) (Ka.lex.) ere a dark-red or dark-brown colour, a dark or dusky colour (Ka.); er-e, er-upu (Te.); eruvai blood, copper (Ta.); irumpu iron (Ta.); inumu (Te.); irul. the colour black (Ta.); ere black grease for wheels; soil of a dark colour, black soil (Ka.)(Ka.lex.)

kamat.ha_yo ‘smith’ (G.O); lo ‘iron’; [kamat.ha_yo ‘a learned carpenter or mason working on scientific principles’ (G.)] ka_ma_t.i_ [komat.i_ (M.)] a caste of hindus who are generally palanquin bearers and labourers (G.); ka_m work (G.) kamat.ha_n.a [cf. karma, ka_m, business + stha_na, tha_n.am, a place fr. Skt. stha_ to stand] arrangement of one’s business; putting into order or managing one’s business (G.lex.) kaba_lo (Ar. keba_lah cf. Hem. Des’. kabba_lam = Skt. karma-stha_nam, karma_layam, a place of work or business, fr. karma work + a_laya, a house] a title-deed; a deed of sale or purchase; kabilo [Ar. keba_lah] a family; a household (G.lex.) kampat.t.am 'mint' (Ta.); kamat.amu, kamat.amu= gold furnace (Te.) Glyphs: erako (nave) + khut.i (pin) + lo kamat.ha (ficus leaf) = Rebus: erako ‘molten cast’ + khut.i ‘furnace’ + lo kamat.ha ‘metal mint: kammat.a’ [khut.i Nag. (Or. khut.i_) diminutive of khun.t.a, a peg driven into the ground, as for tying a goat (Mundari.lex.) khu~t.i_ wooden pin (M.)(CDIAL 3893)]

Alternative: tamire = the pin in the middle of a yoke (Te.) Rebus: tavara = tin (Te.Ka.) Mlecchita Vikalpa: Minerals, metals and furnaces Perspective on rebus lexemes of Mleccha 309

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Many epigraphs are records of possessions by lapidaries and smiths: of minerals, metals and furnaces and metal artifacts. Some could have been used as bills of lading (i.e. list of shipped commodities) in trade transactions to indicate the types of metals and alloys traded. A number of lexemes of Bharatiya languages are seen to be concordant with hundreds of glyphs on hundreds of epigraphs. This concordance relates to graphemes (i.e. words which connote the glyph) and also homonyms (similar sounding words) which connote the substantive message. In many cases, the substantive message relates to two categories: (1) minerals and metals; and (2) furnaces and tools-of-trade of lapidaries and smiths of the civilization. Substratum languages in Bharat of vra_tya and yajn~ika Bharatiya languages of the linguistic area circa 5500 years Before Present can thus be reconstructed with lexemes from the substratum languages which have enriched all the language family streams of Bharat. Just as it has not been possible for linguists to classify Nahali language (considered as an isolate but with significant ‘indo-aryan’ lexical entries), it is virtually impossible, with the present level of linguistic studies of substratum languages in Bharat, to identify the roots from any one language represented by present-day lingua franca of the nation. Many words presented in this summary will establish the undeniable fact that there have been interactions and inter-borrowings among the socalled Munda, Dravidian and Indo-Aryan language families. Further linguistic studies are required to precisely delineate the proto-indic or Mleccha language forms. One possibility is that the parole, the language used by artisans of the civilization, the vra_tya and the yajn~ika alike, was Mleccha which Vidura and Yudhis.t.hira spoke in the Great Epic, the Maha_bha_rata. Sample rebus lexemes This work provides samples of rebus lexemes, i.e. lexemes which may be used to code the glyphs and signs of the epigraphs. Many more alternatives (both graphemes and homonyms) are presented in other sections and chapters. These are intended to present an approach to the problem of decoding the epigraphs. In a few cases, it has not been possible to firmly establish the rebus equivalences (of graphemic words and homonymous substantive words); the alternatives are, therefore, presented for further evaluation by students and scholars engaged in the civilization studies. Animal glyphs in groups This can be viewed as a 'short-hand' crypt of the representation of some of these animals which appear in groups. The following occur in groups: rhinoceros, elephant, unicorn rhinoceros, tiger rhinoceros, elephant, tiger, buffalo, markhor (around a horned, seated person) rhinoceros, elephant, tiger, two bisons face to face, scorpion gharial, fish 310

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The following ligatured motifs contain parts of field symbol motifs: three tigers joined into a rhomb bison + unicorn (head) markhor + unicorn (copper tablet) rhinoceros + elephant + zebu + snake (copper tablet) rhinoceros + tiger + zebu (copper tablet) tiger + zebu + buffalo (copper tablet) tiger (head and front part of the body) + rhinoceros (back part of the body) + zebu (horns)(copper tablet) bison (body) + three heads of: unicorn, markhor, bison six heads: unicorn, bison, markhor, tiger + 2 other animals unicorn (head) + unicorn (head) + leaves + stem? unicorn (head) + octopus tiger (body) + person + markhor (horns) Composite, ligatured motifs contain the following field-symbol components: zebu (horns) + face of man + tusks and trunk of elephant + neck and front legs of markhor + unicorn body) + hind legs of tiger + snake for a tail (This image is also interpreted as: body of a ram, horns of a bison, trunk of elephant, hindlegs of a tiger and an upraised serpent-like tail) Standing person has the shoulders of a man with horns and the hind-part of a bovine Glyph, the dominant characteristic of epigraphs A start is made with the decoding of the field symbols (pictorials) in inscriptions. Out of about 3000 inscriptions recorded in the corpuses, over 1990 inscriptions contain ‘field symbols’. An object may have many sides and each side may feature a different field symbol with or without accompanying inscriptions (Mahadevan, p. 9; Table VIII: Distribution of field symbols by sites, pp. 777779). Thus, field symbols (pictorials) constitute the major message component of the corpus of inscriptions. ‘Reading’ these pictorials is an imperative to successfully interpret the ‘underlying language’ and ‘meaning’ of the inscriptions. There will be continuing disagreements on the ‘orthographic values’ to be assigned to some ‘images’ or pictorials. For example, is the ‘unicorn’ an imaginary construction of a single horn on an ox or did such an animal, in fact, exist? Is the ‘image’ of a ‘bat’ a ligatured fish? If the fish sign a variant of a ‘loop’? There are, however, many images, which are emphatically deciphered orthographically, for example in such motifs as, elephant, tiger, bison, rhinoceros. A start can be made for the Decoding effort with such images with emphatic, orthographic clarity. Such a beginning will provide valuable clues to categorize the life-activities connoted by the texts and pictorials in inscriptions contained in the inscriptions. Many glyphs are mostly calligraphically definitive. For example, a bull is a bull is a bull; an elephant is an elephant is an elephant. Many signs can also be interpreted as derived hieroglyphics derived from pictorial symbols. There are, of course, problems in interpreting the orthography of some signs, for exampe:

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Does this sign represent a fish or a loop?

Is this sign depicting a jar or a the face of a bull?

Is this sign depicting a knave of a wheel, a circle, an axle or a wheel with six spokes? Hypotheses for interpreting epigraphs Two interlinked hypotheses govern this study for interpreting epigraphs and may be elaborated further, as follows: Hypothesis 1: Bha_rati_ya languages are derived from the lingua franca of the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization. Selected lexemes of Bha_rati_ya languages provide the morphemes required to attach ‘sound-bites’ to the pictorials in inscriptions of the Harappan script, thus attesting to the continuity of the civilization in the present-day spoken languages of the sub-continent. Hypothesis 2: The pictorials in inscriptions of the script represented ‘meaningful’ messages related to the life-activities of the civilization and, these messages can be read from ‘homonyms’ of the morphemes attached to the pictorials in inscriptions (cf. Hypothesis 1). Epigraphs were descriptions of possessions and of weapons made by fire-workers It would appear that many inscriptions were descriptions of possessions and of weapons made by the fire-workers (principally, metal-workers) of the bronze-age civilization, which matured ca. 3000 BCE The Sarasvati and Sindhu rivers in NW Bha_rata sustained this civilization and the continuity of the Bha_rati_ya civilization into historical periods is confirmed by the underlying semantic unity of the Bha_rati_ya languages. The fire-workers of the civilization produced the inscriptions related principally to the bronze-age artefacts, principally of weapons. Jaws kot.ir_ u (Ta.) kot.re (Tu.), kor.i (Or.) Top-leaf (2) kod.ire (Tu.), kod.i ele = betel leaf (Kod.)

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kut.ila ‘bronze (8 parts copper 2 parts tin)’ (Skt.)

Signs 36, 216-229,251,362-364 + variants, ligatures kut.ilikaka_ smith’s tongs (Skt.)(DEDR 2052). Tongs (1) kot.il (Ma.), kot.iru (Ta.); kor. Hook of tongs (Ko.) kot.a_ru, kot.a_ramu, kot.ha_ru = store-house, magazine, depository (Te.) Mineral, stone dha_tu ‘mineral’ (Vedic); dhatu a mineral, a metal (Santali); dha_ta id. (G.) ta_tu = powder (Ta.)(DEDR 3159) Possibly cassiterite? tan.t.ava_l.am = cast iron, iron rail, girder (Ta.); tan.d.ava_l.a cast iron (Ka.)(DEDR 3050). dad.ko, dad.o a lump; dad.ba a lump of earth, a clod (G.) da_ntar-kut.ha = fireplace (Sv.)(CDIAL 3546) da~tela a large wild boar with huge tusks (Santali) S'iva's dance ta_n.d.ava (Skt.); da_n.t.u = to jump, cross (Ka.); d.a_t. = to hop, jump, hop in dance, jump over (Kond.a) [See the glyph of a jumping tiger: semant. da_t. ‘to jump’; a tiger is horned on another epigraph: ku_t.a ‘horns’; ku_t.am = workshop]. Line of catle ta~_d.a_ a train or line (as of cattle)(M.); ta~_r.a_; dan.d.am = herd (IL 4362) dan.d.u (Te.); tan.d.a_ = caravan, troop, encampment, herd (Te.); tan.d.amu = troop, group (Te.); tan.d.aa = a group, party, assemblage (Apabhram.s'a) ta~_d.a_ = troop, party, compay (M.); tan.t.u = army, troops (Ta.); troop, detachment (Ma.); tan.d.u, tan.d.a army, host (Tu.); ten.d.i = herd (Kor.) dan.d.u, dan.d.a = an army (Ka.Te.); tan.t.u (Ma.Ta.) dan.d.ike = a row, a line, a series (Ka.lex.) (11)

(16) Sign 175 (54)

(18) Sign 180 (44)

ku_t.amu = summit of a mountain (Te.lex.) Rebus: ku_t.akamu = mixture (Te.lex.) ku_t.am = workshop (Ta.) The Sign 230 thus connotes an alloyed metal, ku_t.a [e.g. copper + dha_tu ‘mineral (ore)’ as in: a_raku_t.a = brass (Skt.)]

(14)

(13)

Sign 230 (54)

‘Tree’ Field symbol 44 (5)

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V053, Sign 53 era_ = claws of an animal that can do no harm (G.) Rebus: erka = ekke (Tbh. of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper (metal); crystal (Ka.lex.) erako molten cast (Tu.lex.) agasa_le, agasa_li, agasa_lava_d.u = a goldsmith (Te.lex.) akasa_la, agasa_la, agasa_liga, akasa_liga, agasa_le, akasa_le, akkasa_la = a gold or silver smith (Ka.lex.); akasa_like, akkasa_like = the business of a gold or silver smith; akasa_liga, akkasa_liga, agasa_liga = a gold or silver smith; akasa_le, akkasa_le = the workshop of a goldsmith; a goldsmith (Ka.lex.) eraka, er-aka = any metal infusion (Ka.Tu.); urukku (Ta.); urukka melting; urukku what is melted; fused metal (Ma.); urukku (Ta.Ma.); eragu = to melt; molten state, fusion; erakaddu = any cast thng; erake hoyi = to pour meltted metal into a mould, to cast (Ka.); cf. arika = rice beer (Santali.lex.) er-e = to pour any liquids; to pour (Ka.); ir-u (Ta.Ma.); ira- i_i (Ta.); er-e = to cast, as metal; to overflow, to cover with water, to bathe (Ka.); er-e, ele = pouring; fitness for being poured(Ka.lex.) erako molten cast (Tu.lex.) eh-kam any weapon made of steel (Cu_t.a_.); eh-ku steel; eh-ku-pat.utal to melt, to soften (Cilap. 15, 210, Urai.)(Ta.lex.) era, er-a = eraka = ?nave; erako_lu = the iron axle of a carriage (Ka.M.); cf. irasu (Ka.lex.) era female, applied to women only, and generally as a mark of respect, wife; hopon era a daughter; era hopon a man’s family; manjhi era the village chief’s wife; gosae era a female Santal deity; bud.hi era an old woman; era uru wife and children; nabi era a prophetess; diku era a Hindu woman (Santali) d.ato ‘claws or pincers (chelae) of crabs’; d.at.om to seize with the claws or pincers, as crabs, scorpions (Santali)

(16)

(40) Sign 53 (130)

era_ = claws of an animal that can do no harm (G.) era, eraka = copper (Ka.) er-r-a = red; eraka = copper (Ka.) Substantive: dha_tu ‘mineral’ (Vedic); a mineral, metal (Santali); dha_ta id. (G.) tan.t.ava_l.am = cast iron, iron rail, girder (Ta.); tan.d.ava_l.a cast iron (Ka.)(DEDR 3050). d.ato ‘claws or pincers (chelae) of crabs’; d.at.om to seize with the claws or pincers, as crabs, scorpions (Santali) Pairing sign: a~s = scale of fish (Santali) Rebus: ayas = metal (Skt.) The three signs together: Middle sign: kan.d. kanka ‘rim of pot’; rebus: kan.d. ‘furnace’ + kanka ‘copper metal’ Flanking this sign are d.ato ‘claws’; rebus: dhatu ‘mineral’; a~s ‘scales of fish’; rebus: ayas ‘metal’. Thus furnace for metal and mineral. dat.hi, dat.i the petioles and mid-ribs of a compound leaf after the leaflests have been plucked off, stalks of certain plants, as Indianc orn, after the grain has been taken off (Santali) d.had.ra = lean, worn to a skeleton (Santali.lex.) d.at.u, d.at.hu big headed, bullet-headed (Santali) 314

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V136 Signs 134, 135, 136 d.a_t.o, da_t.o a plug, a cork, a stopple 17

(G.)

ta_t.u = to strike against, come in contact with (Ka.); ta_d.uni = to gore, butt; ta_d.u = goring (Tu.); han.t.u to collide (Tu.); ta_n.t.i = to hit (Kor.)(DEDR 3156). t.at.he = to strike or beat with a stick (Santali) m1283

got. = one (Santali) Rebus: got.i = silver (G.) ka_t.hi = body; Rebus: ka_t.i = furnace36 kallan mason (Ma.); kalla glass beads (Ma.); kalu stone (Kond.a); xal id., boulder (Br.)(DEDR 1298).

Tarakai Qila01A Tarakai Qila01B Stamp seal, large ibex walking left. Black steatite or chlorite, North Syria or Anatolia, 4th millennium BC, 1 rectangular gabled stamp seal, 4,7x5,1x1,3 cm, pierced through. Provenance: 1. Erlenmeyer Collection, Basel (before 1958-1981); 2. The Erlenmeyer Foundation, Basel (1981-1997); 3. Sotheby's 12.6.1997:8. kala stag, buck (Ma.); kal a.r. Nilgiri ibex (Ko.); kalai stag, buck, male black monkey (Ta.); kalan:kompu stag’s horn (Ta.)(DEDR 1312) Tools-of-trade and property possessions of artisans depicted in epigraphs Standard device h352C Dotted circles. Field symbol 83 (23) bal = to bore a hole, or to puncture, with a red ho iron (Santali) Rebus: bali = iron stone sand (Santali) Vikalpa: Dotted circles and vedi (yajn~a kun.d.am) A dotted circle connotes a fire altar. Slide 203 (Kenoyer, 2002). Steatite button seal Fired steatite button seal with four concentric circle designs from the Trench 54 area (H2000-4432/2174-3). kandhi = a lump, a piece (Santali.lex.) [The dotted circle thus connotes an ingot taken out of a kan.d.i, furnace]. ka_ndavika = a baker; kandu = an iron plate or pan for baking cakes etc. (Ka.lex.) 17

kamat.ha crab (Skt.)

dauli = a weeding knife, of iron or wood (Santali.lex.) da_ule, da_uli = claw (Kon.); rebus: ka~_kr.a_ crab; ka~_gar = portable furnace (K.); kammat.a = portable furnace (Te.) coiner, mint (Ta.) 315

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kan.d. = altar, furnace (Santali) This yajn~a kun.d.am can be denoted rebus, by perforated beads (kandi) or on ivory (khan.d.): kandi (pl. -l) beads, necklace (Pa.); kanti (pl. -l) bead, (pl.) necklace; kandit. bead (Ga.)(DEDR 1215). The three stringed beads depicted on the pictograph may perhaps be treated as a phonetic determinant of the substantive, the rimmed jar, the khan.d.a kanka: khan.d.a, xanro, sword or large sacrificial knife. kandil, kandi_l = a globe of glass, a lantern (Ka.lex.) jan.d. khan.d. = ivory (Jat.ki) khan.d.i_ = ivory in rough (Jat.ki_); gat.i_ = piece of elephant's tusk (S.) [This semant. may explain why the dotted circle -- i.e., kandi, 'beads' -- is often depicted on ivory objects, such as ivory combs]. See also: khan.d.iyo [cf. khan.d.an.i_ a tribute] tributary; paying a tribute to a superior king (G.lex.) [Note glyph of a kneeling adorant] Glyph: khan:ghar, ghan:ghar, ghan:ghar gon:ghor ‘full of holes’ (Santali) Substantive: kan:gar ‘portable furnace’ (K.)

h342A

h342B

4413

Pict-121: Lozenge within a circle with a dot in the centre.

m0352A

m0352C

m0352D

m0352E

4377

m0352F

m1254 m1255 m1256 m1257 m1258 Nausharo10 Slide 187 A faience button seal with geometric motif (H2000-4491/9999-34) was found on the surface of Mound AB at Harappa by one of the workmen. [Harappa 2000 find].

h228A

h228B

5244 Standard.

Dotted circless are ligatured on the bottom pot of the standard device as may be seen from m008 epigraph which also shows that the device is a ligature of a gimlet + a portable furnace + staff. The standard device occurs in over 1,000 epigraphs, generally shown in front of the one horned heifer. It is suggested that this device is a ligature composed of a gimlet drill lathe superimposed on a portable furnace which is represented by the bottom vessel. The device was clearly an important part of the 316

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lives of the people who created the epigraphs; it is shown being carried in a procession; a replica of the device also exists in the round. There is one lexeme in Bharatiya languages which explains the ligatured components: san:gad.a The rebus substantive is consistent with other glyphs denoting the property items of braziers.

m1408At

front of a one-horned bull. shown in front of an antelope].

h098

Lothal048

4256 Pict-122 Standard device which is normally in

7025 [On this Lothal seal, it is

Lothal217A Lothal217B [On Lothal seal 217, the device is shown in front of the one-horned bull, but a trough is shown in front of the buffalo]. san:gad.amu = help, friendship; a party, company, an army; san:ga_d.i = a friend, a companion (Te.lex.) The standard device (san:gad.a, ‘lathe, portable furnace’; rebus: battle) is associated with a warrior (va_kara, ‘heifer, warrior’; kandali, ‘deer-antelope, warrior’; med.h, ‘ram, chief’); the trough is associated with a number of artisans [d.an:gara, ‘trough, smith’ or, tagr.a, ‘trough, copper (tagara)]. A trough is shown, for example, with: kol, ‘tiger, smithy or smelter’; sal, ‘buffalo, workshop’; d.angar, ‘bull, blacksmith’; e_na, ‘elephant, tool’ [Alternative: kari, kalabha, ‘elephant’, karuvi, kalapa, ‘plough tools’]; badhia, ‘(castrated) boar, carpenter (badhoe)’. kol metal (Ta.) kol = pan~calo_kam (five metals) (Ta.lex.) Thus, the entwined figures of 3 or more tigers may connote an alloy of or more metals. Orthography: Three components on a stele: gimlet on turning lathe; portable furnace; dotted circles on the bottom vessel It looks like a gimlet, a drilling device to make 'pointed' holes, a device for a lapidary to drill holes in, say, beads. The wavy motion depicted on the top part of the device may be an artistic depiction of circular motion of the drill. The dotted circles on the botton part of the device may denote

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perforated beads. The ‘standard device’ motif also occurs in front of an elephant on an Allahdino seal. Allahdino (Nel Bazaar)08 Various representations of the 'standard' shown generally in front of the one-horned bull on inscriptions (Drawing by G. de Vries, cited in During Caspers, South Asian Archaeology, 1987, p. 250). Since the ‘standard device’ is associated with the one-horned bull, a representation of a commander of an army of a fort, it is a reasonable hypothesis that the ‘elephant’ motif also was a rebus representation of some artefact related to the army, perhaps an an array or category of attack weapons. It is noted that one seal text associated with the pictorial motif, the elephant, is repeated 11 times out of about 100 clay tags found at a burnt-down warehouse at Lothal. Styles of the bowl (or bottom portion of the standard); Styles of depiction of 'flow' and lip treatment on the bowl (or bottom portion of the standard); cf. Rissman 1989: 162 Styles and structure of the standard and the top portion (cage?); cf. Mahadevan 1984: 185; Rissman 1989: 162 The top portion resembles a drill-lathe and a drill-head (gimlet). The wavy lines inscribed are a stylised depiction of 'turning motion' of the lathe. The style depicted as G is related to the practice of inserting the upper pivot of the drill-head into a coconut-shell; see below. Phtanite drill-heads from Moenjodaro (Massimo Reconstruction of a drill the drills used nowadays at copper is centered with the shell. Wooden haft is used phtanite drill-head is coiling thread. The tip of characteristic feature of a 'dotted circle'. (After

the surface of MNSE area, Vidale, 1987, p. 147) based on analogical comparisons with Nagara, Gujarat, India: Upper pivot in drill-head and inserted into a coconut with a bow-string to churn. The secured in the haft-hole with a thin the drill's working end shows the the shallow hemispherical depression: Massimo Vidale, 1987, p. 148). Macro-photo of two very used drill-heads, showing the little depression at the tip of the working end; closeup of the distal ends of four drillheads showing depth and shape of depression. cf. Piperno, Marcello, 1973. Piperno, Marcello, Micro-drilling at Shahr-i Sokhta; the making and use of the lithic drill-heads, in: Hammond, Norman Ed., South Asian Archaeology, 1973, Pl. 9.2 and 9.3 "granite drill heads used to perforate beads, prepare stone seals... use of the "bow drill" or the "pump drill" which revolved the point of the drill in an alternating rotary motion...the level of technical performance reached in this micro-drilling work was peculiar to a class of highly-specialized craftsmen who 318

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must have enjoyed a considerable social and economic position in the life of Shahr-i Sokhta." (p.128) [ca. 2700-2300 BCE]. Bow-lathe-drill. An available guide is a broken fragment of a stone relief of the second century AD from a gem-cutter's tomb in Lydia in Turkey showing a bow-lathe; the depiction of the cutting edge is lost (cf. Charleston 1964: 85, fig. 2: the drawing is a reconstruction. Rehman Dheri, where carbon-14 dates of 4400 and 4520 BCE are given for the earliest levels, is said to possess 'the richest bead industry of the contemporary sites on the subcontinent. The few round furnaces, lumps of lapis, cornelian, agate, and turquiose, and the availability of unfinished beads with stone drills intact would suggest that bead manufacturing was carried out at the site...The rich contemporary lithic industry of flint, jasper, chalcedony, and agate included microdrill heads. A cornelian bead with a drill still in the half-finished perforation confirmed their use (Durrani 1981: 204, pl. III), as at Hissar and Shar-i-Sokhta in eastern Iran and as at Chanhudaro and Lothal]. Ur. Mes-kalam-dug's grave chamber had: a shield, two goldmounted daggers, chisels and other tools, copper jugs, silver bowls and a set of arrows. Mesopotamia; tools of the craftsmen equipped with stone or metal cutting edges: (a) drill; (b) awl or chisel; (c) saw or knife; (d) hammer; (e) adze (or axe). Tubular drilling technique used to perforate ringstones and tiny beads. A reconstruction. [After Fig. 9.9 in JM Kenoyer, 1998]. Hypothetical reconstruction of an Harappan drill based on the analogical comparison with the drills nowadays used at Nagara, Gujarat, India. A. Coconut shell; B. Circular depression left by the revolving pivot ©; C. Upper pivot in copper centered with the drill-head; E. Wooden haft (note the spirally oriented wear traces left by the bowstring); F. Functional extremity of the drill-haft, covered with a thin coiling thread. The same thread secures the drill-head in the haft hole; G. Drill-head manufactured out of an umbrella reed. The functional part of the tool is rounded before the point’s utilization; H. Working end of the drill head showing two diamond chips hammered into the tip; I. Broken phtanite drill re-utilized as upper pivot. Note the rounded wear trace on the tip. J. Analogical hypothesis on the dimentions of the wooden haft; K. Phtanite drill-head; L. Tip of the drill’s working end showing the characteristic feature of the shallow hemispherical depression. [After Fig. 66, Massimo Vidale, More Evidence on a Protohistoric Ceramic Puzzle, in: Interim Reports Vol. 1: Reports on Field Work carried out at Mohenjo-daro, Pakistain 1982-83 by IsMEO-Aachen University Mission, ed., Michael Jansen and Gunter Urban (Aachen: RWTH-IsMEO, 1984), p. 148] Egyptian drawing of a craftsman drilling beads by pushing a horizontal bow which rotates the spindle holding the drill bits. From a wall painting in the Tomb of Rekhmira from Theban Necropolis, Eighteenth Dynasty. Holly Pittman, Ancient art in miniature: near Eastern seals from the collection of Martin and Sarah Cherkasy (1986). “The bow drill, clearly represented in tomb reliefs of Old Kingdom of Egypt, was the most common tool used for cutting seals (figure). Analysis of the tool marks remaining on the seals suggests that the horizontal lathe and the cutting disk were also important tools for seal carving from early in the third millennium. ” Unbaked, hollow clay ball with multiple seal impressions. Late Uruk period. Louvre 319

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Museum, Paris. (Holly Pittman, Cylinder seals and scarabs in the ancient Near East, in: Jack M. Sasson (ed.), Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, pp. 1589-1595).

[Pl. 55, Standard symbol on punch-marked coins and on local coins; this is paralleled by the standard device in front of the one-horned bull shown on many inscribed objects of SSVC]. Note that one of the pendants looks like the 'device' normally found in front of the one-horned bull, the san:gad.a, portable brazier and lathe (also meaning, battle). Particulars of a broken phtanite drill-heads Mohenjo-daro. MNSE Area. Drill-heads re-utilized with function of upper drill pivot, recovered from the surface of the site. [After Fig. 64-65, Massimo Vidale, More Evidence on a Protohistoric Ceramic Puzzle, in: Interim Reports Vol. 1: Reports on Field Work carried out at Mohenjo-daro, Pakistain 1982-83 by IsMEO-Aachen University Mission, ed., Michael Jansen and Gunter Urban (Aachen: RWTH-IsMEO, 1984), p. 148] Schematic diagram showing the evolution of the standard device (a) found normally in front of the one-horned bull on inscribed objects. Mahadevan relates the evolution into indra-dhvaja (‘triangle-headed standard’) (b) triangle-headed standard Indra-dhvaja with trapezoid-shaped trough; (c) with hemispherical bowl; (d) with wineglass-shaped cup (e) [After Fig. 39.10 Iravatham Mahadevan, The sacred filter standard facing the unicorn, p. 444 in: South Asian Archaeology, Helsinki] The glyph shown in (e) is also shown on the as.t.aman:galaka ha_ra. What was a standard device in the days of the Sarasvati Sindhu Civilization, mature periods, becomes a symbol, the Indra dhvaja. The portable nature of the device is also represented on glyphs with a person carrying the device on his shoulder.

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h196A h196B the standard. h196a The standard.

4309 Tablet in bas-relief h196b

m0490At

m0490BCt

Pict-91: Person carrying

1605 Tablet in bas-relief

m0491At m0491BCt 1608 Pict-94: Four persons in a procession, each carrying a standard, one of which has the figure of a one-horned bull on top. Mohenjo-daro. A procession depicted on a terracotta tablet. [After Marshall 1931, Pl. CXVIII,9; cf. Fig. 5.6 in JM Kenoyer, 1998]. Is this a representation of a public ceremony which included carrying standards topped by objects representing important motifs of the civilization? Not all animals with which the people of SSVC were familiare are used as pictorial motifs; for example, they were familiar with peacocks, hooded cobras, monkeys, squirrels, mongooses and onagers (wild asses); the pictorial representations of these animals are not found on the square stamp seals. A procession carrying (fr. right) a pennant, a one-horned bull and a standard device is depicted on an inscribed object. This seems like an army on the march. [cf. bavaramu = a battle, fight, combat, war (Te.)]

h384

h887Ait of a one-horned bull.

h194A

h434

h399

h887Bit [Incised tablet] Pict-122 Standard device which is normally in front

h194B

h195A

h195B

321

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h739At

h739Bt

h741At

h741Bt

5263

h742At

h742Bt

4320

Standard.h291A

h197A

h740At

h291B

h197B h226A

Standard.

4440 Standard.

5333

h198A h226B

h227A

h740Bt

h198B

5331

5243 h227B

4322 Standard.

The glyph is a ligature. Ligature elements are: top, lathe and gimlet (with rotating motion indicated by wavy lines); bottom, portable furnace (with smoke emanating from the bowl) ligatured with dotted circles (indicating bored beads); a shaft which is attached to the furnace (indicating its portable nature). kan.d. ‘altar, furnace’ (Santali) kanduvu = an oven; an iron pan; kandakamu = a ditch, trench (Te.lex.) kan.t.i = a gold wire with a golden plate attached, being an ornament for the neck and breast of men (and women)(Ka.lex.) [Note the ornaments worn by the seated person]. kan.d.i = a hole, an opening (Ka.Ma.Tu.); gan.d.i (Te.)(Ka.lex.) kan.d.eya = a kind of sword; kad.i = to cut (Ka.lex.) s'agad.i_ (G.) = lathe san:ga_d.o a lathe; sa~gha_d.iyo a worker on a lathe (G.lex.) sa~gha_r.o lathe (G.); sa~gad. part of a turner's apparatus (M.); sa~_ga_d.i_ lathe (Tu.)(CDIAL 12859). jan.d.i_ a lathe (S.lex.) jan.d. khan.d. ivory (Jat.ki.lex.) Perh. san:gad.i lathe > an:ga_d.i shop? cf. sam.yuta joined with (AV.); joined (Pali); sam.jua (Pkt.); sam.yauti mixes (VS.)(CDIAL 12988). cf. ad.a, ad.e, ad.i the piece of 322

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wood on which the five artisans put the article which they happen to operate upon, a support (Ka.)(DEDR 86). Rubbing, friction: san:ghat.i that crushes: a millstone; san:ghat.isu to strike (one thing) against (another); to crush; san:ghat.t.a rubbing together, friction; striking against, touch; san:ghat.t.ana id.; san:ghat.t.ita struck against, touched; san:ghars.an.a rubbing against (another)(Ka.lex.) jan:gad.iyo (G.) Military guards who carry government treasury from one place to another; san:gad.amu (Te.) = army san:gha_d.o, saghad.i_ (G.) = firepan; saghad.i_, s'aghad.i = a pot for holding fire (G.)[cula_ sagad.i_ portable hearth (G.)] agud.e = brazier (Tu.) jan:ga a battle, a war; a noisy quarrel (G.lex.) san:ga battle (RV)(CDIAL 13082). sanga_meti to fight; to come into conflict with; samgha_ta striking, killing, murder (Pali.lex.) sam.gra_ma = war, battle (AV 5.21.7; 11.9.26; TS 2.1.3.1; 8.4); sam.gha_ta battle (Ka_t.haka Sam.hita_ 29.1; VS 1.16; S'Br. 1.1.4.18); cf. Vedic Index, II, pp. 417-18. jan:gad.iya_ pl. military guards who carry government treasury from one place to another (G.lex.) Standard device with dotted circles decorating the portable furnace (with emanating smoke); a gimlet is ligatured on top of the standard with wavy lines denoting churning, turning motion (of a lathe). sangha_d.o (G.) = cutting stone, gilding; san:gatara_s'u_ = stone cutter; san:gatara_s'i = stonecutting; san:gsa_ru karan.u = to stone (S.), can:katam = to scrape (Ta.), san:kad.a (Tu.), san:kat.am = to scrape (Skt.) Stone cutter Dholavira: Approach Steps in the North Gate (Courtesy ASI)

Neolithic settlement dated to ca. 10,000 the sea-bed on the banks of two extensions of River Tapati.]

san:gatara_s'u_ = stone cutter [The evidence for the work of the stone-cutters is provided by the ancient settlement of Dholavira, not too far from the Gulf of Khambat, where a years ago has been found on submerged rivers, possible

Dholavira: Broadway and a drain (Courtesy ASI) san:gad.a, portable furnace, lathe; san:gha_d.iyo, a worker on a lathe; san:gha_ta, killing; jan:gha_d.iyo, military guard accompanying treasure into the treasury (G.) See the ligatured lathe, with smoke emanating from a portable furnace (m008: san:gad.i); see the cage-like component on the device (m026: ku_t.u); see the device carried on a person's shoulder (h196); see the pointed edge of the top part of the device, suggesting a gimlet of a lathe on inscribed objects (m1203: tamiru); the device is also known from Harappa as an ivory object in the round (discovery by Meadow and Kenoyer during the archaeological campaign at Harappa in 1998). 323

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sam.gha_d.a, sam.gha_d.aga, sam.gha_d.i_ pair (Pkt.); sam.gha_r.i pair of fish roes, two rolls of thread for twisting into the sacred thread (Or.); san:gad.am double-canoe (Ta.); jan:gala (Tu.); san:gala pair; han:gula, an:gula double canoe, raft (Si.)(CDIAL 12859). sangha_t.i_ one of the three robes of a Buddhist (Pali.lex.) san:gad.i (Te.) = a pair In the Sa_m.khya Ka_rika_ of I_s'vara Kr.s.n.a (ca. 2nd cent.), there is a remarkable, technical term: san:gha_ta. san:gha_tapara_rthatva_t trigun.a_diviparyaya_dadhis.t.ha_na_t purus.osti bhoktr.bha_va_t kaivalya_rtha pravr.ttes'va (Verse 17) [Kapila is the founder of the Sa_m.khya philosophy. He had a disciple, A_suri. A_suri's disciple was Pan~ca S'ikha_. Other followers are: Vod.hu, Devala, Sanaka, Vindhya_va_sa, Vars.agan.ya, Jaigi_s.avya (perhaps a contemporary of Pan~ca S'ikha_). Is'vara Kr.s.n.a of the Kaus'ika family is listed as a teacher in Tattva Kaumudi of MM Ganganath Jha]. Trans. The spirit exists because (a) the aggregate is for another's sake; (b) of the absence of three gun.as and other properties; (c) there must be some controller; (d) there must be some experiencer; and (e) of the tendency of activities towards final beatitude. In this translation, the terms are elaborated as: san:gha_ta, (because) all composite products; para_rthatva_t, are for the sake of another's use. Thus, san:gha_ta is a composite product. Thus, when a standard device is shown in front of, say, a onehorned bull, the device, i.e. san:gad.a connotes a composite product, created or alloyed with cut stones (or minerals). The inscription on an inscribed object depicting such a device can, thus be interpreted as a list of 'composed (alloyed)' products. san:gha_r.iba_ to mix many materials, stir boiling curry, tie two cattle together and leave to graze (Or.) (CDIAL 12859,12860). to mix many materials, stir boiling curry, tie two cattle together and leave to graze (Or.) (CDIAL 12859,12860). sa~gad. = a body formed of two or more fruits or animals or men and linked together (M.)(CDIA 12859). san:gha_r.iba_ tie two cattle together and leave to graze (G.)(CDIAL 12860). saga_d.i_ = Skt. yugalam, a couple (Hem.Des. G.lex.) [Note the ligaturing techniques on inscribed objects]. Frame of a building = sa~_ga_d.a (IL 2972)

m1171 Amri06 Ligatured animal san:gad.i = joined animals (M.) san:gad.a = army; jan:gad.iyo = military guards who carry government treasury from one place to another; ja_n:gad.= things given for approval (taken without definite settlement of purchase). The ligatured animal may connote the heads of a short-horned bull, a one-horned bull and an antelope ligatured to the body of a bull – a rebus representation of three people working together: va_kara (warrior), d.han:gar (blacksmith), mer.h (clerk of a merchant). Alternative: three minerals: damr.i ‘heifer’; ta_mbra ‘copper’; bali ‘bull’; bali ‘iron ore’; melh ‘goat’; melukka ‘copper’. d.aula_ = upper arm (IL 4982) 324

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da_ula_, d.a_ula_ = a gold or silver washer, one who washes the sand of a river to obtain gold (P.lex.) daulat = wealth, property; daulatan = wealthy, possessed of property (Santali.lex.) daulat = wealth, money; daulat kha_na_ = a treasure house (P.) d.ha_la, d.a_lu = shield (Te.lex.) dauli a weeding knife, of iron or wood; instrument for weeds (Santali.lex.) Carrying on shoulders d.ehka (Kui), d.e_k = to carry on shoulder (Mand.); d.e_ka (IL 4110) cekil=on the shoulders (Ta.) te_kai-y-a_t.t.am (Ta.) tegal, tegal. = shoulder (Ka.), cekil, cuval = upper part of the shoulder (Ta.) tega (Santali) Overflow, brimful tekul.am = full, overflow (Ta.), teke = brimful (Tu.) Sprout tegal (Tu.) tegl (Tu.) Rim deg, dege (Kon:kan.i) deko = a Hindu (Santali) Retreat, flee tege (Ka.) Cauldron d.hegi (S.) Boat d.e~_gi (Bhoj.) Pillar placed at the junction of 3 boundaries = tehr.a (Santali) t.eka = prop (OAw.) hako and atka (axe and breast-plate) atka, armour (breast-plate or coat of mail) or axe atka axe or armour (breast-plate or coat of mail) (R.gveda) atka = robe; Gk. ḷḷḷḷḷḷhose;ḷḷḷḷḷḷ (Surya Kanta, 1989, A grammatical dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic), Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, p.9). The gk. atkos, 'hose' = (historical) breeches or pl. short trousers fastened just below knee, now chiefly worn for riding or as part of ceremonial dress; Origin OE hosa, of Germanic origin. The Greek form thus attest to the explanation of atka in Vedic times, as a tight-fitting breast-plate, armour or coat of mail. cf. atuku, atiku, aduku = to cling together, to be fit (Ka.lex.) RV 8.41.7: ya a_svatka a_s'aye; 1.95.7: ucchukramatkamajate 'sa_rabhu_tam rasam'; 1.122.2: stari_na_rtkam vyutam vasa_na_ 'aktam satatam va_ ru_pam'; 4.16.13: atkam na puro jarima_ vi dardah 'vayo vis'es.am ru_pamiva'; 6.29.3: vasa_no atkam 'satatagamana s'i_lam a_tmi_yam ru_pam'; 9.69.4: atkam na niktam 'kavacamiya'; 10.95.8: saca_ yada_su jahati_s.vatkam 'atka iti ru_pana_ma'; atka is also interpreted as an Asura in 10.49.3: ahamatkam kavaye s'is'natham yathai 'a_ccha_dakam s'atruputram' (Vedic. lex.: Su_ryaka_nta) 'This word occurs frequently in the Rigveda, but its sense is doubtful. Roth, Grassmann, Ludwig, Zimmer, and others render it as 'garment' in several passages (RV 1.95.7; 2.35.14; 4.18.5; 5.55.6; 74.5; 6.41.7; 9.101.14; 107.13; Sa_maveda 2.1193), when the expressions 'put on' (vya_ or prati mun~c) or put off (mun~c) are used of it, and when it is said to be 'woven' (vyuta) (RV 1.122.2) or 'well-fitting' (surabhi) (RV 6.29.3; 10.123.7). On the other hand, Pischel (Vedische Studien, 2, 193-204) denies that this sense occurs, and otherwise explains the passages. He takes the term to mean 'axe' in four 325

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places.(RV 5.55.6; 6.33.3; 10.49.3; 99.9; cf. Oldenberg, R.gveda--Notes, I, 94, n.1)" (A.. A. Macdonell and A.B. Keith, 1912, Vedic Index, I, p. 16). Sa_yan.a translates the word as 'breast-plate': 5.055.06 When you yoke your spotted mares to the poles (of your chariots), you lay aside your golden breast-plates, for you dissipate all hostility; may the cars of the quick-moving (Maruts) arrive for our good. In the following r.ca, Sa_yan.a interprets 'atka' as a proper name: 10.049.03 I smote Atka with many weapons for the defence of the sage; with those protections I preserved Kutsa; I am the slayer of S'us.n.a; I grasped the thunderbolt I who have not given the water (na_ma) of the A_ryas to the Dasyu. In the following passage, Sa_yan.a interprets 'atkam' as 'weapons': sa vra_dhatah s'avasa_nebhir asya kutsa_ya s'us.n.am kr.pan.e para_da_t ayam kavim anayas'c chasyama_nam atkam yo asya sanitota nr.n.a_m 10.099.09 Let him overthrow the mighty with powerful (weapons); he destroyed S'us.n.a for the sake of the liberal Kutsa; he humiliated Kavi, who praised him, who was the giver of form to Indra and his men. [Kutsa: kutsa_ya s'us.n.amas'us.am ni barhi_h : RV 4.16.12; let him overthrow: asya = his, s'avasa_nebhih; or, asyatu, let him throw; Kavi = Us'ana_, the son of Kavi]. Roth, Grassmann and Ludwig regard 'atka' as a proper name in both the passages in RV 10.49.3 and 99.9. Zimmer explains it as the 'armour of a warrior as a whole'. Pischel thinks that in both cases, an 'axe' is meant. (Vedic Index, ibid.) atxa_ leaf, blade, plate made of sewn-up leaves (Kur.); atge leaf, palm of the hand; atgen ere to divine by looking at a leaf; atgo a diviner (Malt.)(DEDR 141) a_ku leaf, young rice not yet transplanted, young sprout of corn, any filament (Ka.); leaf, petal, seedlings of paddy for transplantation (Te.); a_ki, a_k leaf (Go.); a_ku (Kond.a. Kui. Kuwi); a_ki (Pe.Mand.)(DEDR 335) akai to sprout (Ta.); aka germ, bud, shoot (Ma.); age seedling, shoot from the root of a plant or tree, sprolut (Ka.); paddy seedling (Kod.); agge the shoot of a branch (Tu.); akra_rna_ to germinate, shoot, sprout; akhua_ seed-bud, sprout, shoot (Kur.)(DEDR 15). [Considering that atxa_ and age have comparable semant., it is reasonable to assume a concordance between R.gvedic atka (axe) and Bond.a hako (axe)]. Minerals, metals and furnace types

326

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Major geographical features of the northwestern Bha_rata and adjacent regions, including metal source areas (composed after J. M. Kenoyer from various sources and Fig. 5.1 in: Jonahtan M. Kenoyer and Heather ML Miller, 1999, Metal Technologies of the Indus valley tradition in Pakistan and Western India in: The Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World, Ed. Vincent C. Piggott, University of Pennsylvania Museum Monograph 89. Philadelhia: University Museum Publications). Likely source areas for raw materials such as agate, lapis lazuli, steatite, marine shell and copper were the Sarasvati and Sindhu river basins and the coastal regions of Makran coast, Gulf of Khambat and Gulf of Kutch. These raw materials were transformed into ornaments and tools at Harappa for local trade. The Ravi Phase denotes a newly discovered early phase of Indus culture (c.3300-2800 BC). Presented below are a few examples of minerals, metals, furnace types, tools-of-trade and property possessions of artisans; many are lexemes from Santali, which explain some glyphs, using the rebus method (similar sounding words explaining the glyphs as well as the underlying substantive ‘message’). The hieroglyphs of the civilization provide a framework for further linguistic studies to delineate the Proto-Indian structure of semantics and phonetic forms of lexemes. Properties of Graphemes Many short and long linear strokes on the texts (when read in combination with the external archaeological evidence of the finds of binary chert weights) indicate the underlying practice of some form of ‘accounting or measurement’ or just ‘counting’ (?of property items) conveyed through the objects inscribed with messages (messages composed of pictorials and/or clusters of signs constituting texts of inscriptions). In some cases, the counting could be related to ratios, for example, the ratio of tin and copper used, 5: 8 (assumed) or 4:8 (assumed), 8 is assumed since 8 is a landing point in numeration. ‘Numeral’ signs or countable objects?

327

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It is merely a conjecture that these signs 162, 325, 59 ane 387 denote landing-points in numeration, say, eight, twelve, twenty. These signs may, in combination with numerical strokes, connote a counted number of 'objects' and combinations of 'objects'. Each of the signs (162, 325 and 59) seems to denote an ‘object’, and is frequently preceded by ‘numerical strokes’. In this context, it is likely that each of these signs represents a substantive message, a possession or traded item -- say, a mineral or a tool-of-trade of a lapidary or smith.

Sign 372 (‘oval’ grapheme) ligatures with sign 162, yielding sign 387 Stable pairs of signs There are some stable sequences of signs in inscriptions, stability being measured by the frequency of occurrence of two signs within each inscription. There are five pairs with between 65 and 87 occurrences in the inscriptions. and.ren ‘man’; rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ Vikalpa: ten:go, ‘to stand’; ten:go, ‘to assume responsibility Rebus: tan:kam = pure gold (Ta.Ma.); t.an:ka = a stamped (gold) coin (Skt.)(DEDR 3013). mountain kan.d., ‘pot’; kan.d., ‘furnace’ [i.e. person managing a furnace]. te_jate_ = is sharp, sharpens (RV); te_jati = is sharp, shapens, incites (Pali); te_ai sharpens (Pkt.); tevn.e~ = to shine, burn (M.)(CDIAL 5945). Te_jas = sharp edge of a knife, glow (RV); fiery energy (AV); te_h = fire, arrogance (K.)(CDIAL 5946) tega = a sword; tega_ = a scimitar (G.Persian) tega_r = property, substance (G.Persian) ken.t.a ‘fish’; ke~r.e~ brass or bell-metal; Alternative 1: hako, ‘fish’; hako, ‘axe’; Alternative 2: a~s = scales of fish (Santali); rebus: aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.) kun.t.e, khu~t.i, ‘harrow, stake’; kut.hi, ‘furnace’ V171 Alternative: ad.ar = harrow; a~r.gom ‘a clod crusher, a harrow without teeth; to harrow; a~r.gom bhuk ‘this hole into which the shaft to which the cattle are yoked, is inserted into the harrow’ (Santali) Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ kutru, kutu = a dog, a puppy (Santali.lex.) V050

Vikalpa: kut.i = a nosegay (Ka.lex.) gun.d.ri = a quail (Santali.lex.) 328

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gun.d.agi = waterfowl (Te.lex.) kut.is = white-throated munis, uroloncha malabarica (Santali.lex.) gund.ral = a kind of quail (Go.)(DEDR 1696). Vikalpa: kut.i_ hut (G.Skt.) Rebus: kut.hi, kut.i (Or.; Sad. kot.hi) (1) the smelting furnace of the blacksmith; kut.ire bica duljad.ko talkena, they were feeding the furnace with ore; (2) the name of e_kut.i has been given to the fire which, in lac factories, warms the water bath for softening the lac so that it can be spread into sheets; to make a smelting furnace; kut.hi-o of a smelting furnace, to be made; the smelting furnace of the blacksmith is made of mud, cone-shaped, 2’ 6” dia. At the base and 1’ 6” at the top. The hole in the centre, into which the mixture of charcoal and iron ore is poured, is about 6” to 7” in dia. At the base it has two holes, a smaller one into which the nozzle of the bellow is inserted, as seen in fig. 1, and a larger one on the opposite side through which the molten iron flows out into a cavity (Mundari.lex.) cf. kan.d.a = furnace, altar (Santali.lex.)

ib 'two' (Ka.); rebus: ib 'iron' (Santali)

Sign 99 : at.ar a splinter; at.aruka to burst, crack, slit off, fly open; at.arcca splitting, a crack; at.arttuka to split, tear off, open (an oyster)(Ma.); ad.aruni to crack (Tu.)(DEDR 66). da_ravum = to tear, to break (G.) dar = a fissure, a rent, a trench; darkao = to crack, to break; bhit darkaoena = the wall is cracked (Santali) Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.) san:gad.a, ‘two’; san:gad.a, ‘portable furnace’; sal, ‘splinter’; sal, ‘workshop’ OR kin ‘two’ rebus: gina ‘metal vessel’ Alternative decoding for Sign 99: por space between joints (H.); per joint, articulation (M.) Two, pair par (To.) por- ‘to sell’ (Ko.) bari_ = blacksmith bari_ = anvil bat.i 'wide-mouthed metal vessel' (H.) rebus: bat.hi = smelting furnace, kiln (Santali) bhra_s.t.ra (Skt.) The pair could mean 'iron smelting furnace' san:gad.a, ‘two’; san:gad.a, ‘portable furnace’; kamat.ha, ‘widemouthe pot’; kammat.a, ‘furnace, coinage, mint’ Alternative readings of the ‘pot’ glyph: 329

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Glyph: mer.go ‘rimless vessel’; Rebus substantive: meruku ‘shine, glitter, silver’ Broad-mouthed pot ka_t.a = vessel for holding liquid (KS. X.6.4); ka_t.i (Ta.), kha_ri_ = a measure of capacity for grain (Ta. S.I.I., iii,9) ka_t.i-cca_l = broad-mouthed pot for keeping sour rice water (Ta.); ka_t.icca_lmu_lai = NE corner where waster water is emptied in a pot at a sacrifice (Ta.); gad.d.a proyyi = a fireplace or hearth with 3 or 4 inverted hemispherical clods placed on it (Te.) Rebus: ka_t.i = fireplace in the form of a long ditch (Ta.); ka_t.ya = being in a hole (VS. XVI.37); ka_t.a hole, depth (RV. i. 106.6) ka_t.i (Ta.)

knife

m0078 3118 m1097 2313 m0039a 1544 [The second sign on text 1544: glyph: eyebrows kut.i (Santali); kut.hi ‘furnace for smelting iron ore’]

m0290 2527 Dog (?) or antelope shown on text 2527: kut ‘dog’; Rebus: kut.asi ‘hammer’ (possession, together with homestead + kut.hi ‘furnace’: teeth of comb + dog + thigh: bakher kut.i) + dhar.a ‘underside of thigh’; dharao, dhard.harao ‘to pour, to pour into a mould’ (Santali) dad.ko a lump (G.) Tiger: kul, kol ‘smithy’.

sa~_pro = thigh (of animals)(N.); sa~_pr.i_ = leg of a goat or sheep killed for meat (Ku.) Bowl sambal.ige (Ka.), sa~_par. = cavity formed by two bowls placed together (G.)(IL 3564) V050 Glyph: ku_ran- dog (Ta.); ku_ra id. (Tu.)(DEDR 1901). Substantive: kuruku ‘whiteness’; kuru brilliancy (Ta.); kuro silver (Kol.Nk.Go.); khura (Nk.)(DEDR 1782). Word for Tin 330

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trapus = tin (TS iv, 7,5,1); cakra-sam.jn~a = tin (Skt.); [trapu = tin (AV xi.3.8); Taittiri_ya Bra_hman.a iii.12,6,5; Jaimini_ya Upanis.ad Brahman.a III.17.3; Chan_ndogya Upanis.ad IV.17.7); trapu = tin in enumeration of metals: Ka_t.haka Sam.hita_ xviii.10; Maitra_yan.i_Sa.hita_ii.11.5; Va_jasneyi Sam.hita_, xviii.13] The Sanskrit lexeme cakra sam.jn~a connoting tin points to an early use of hieroglyphs to represent minerals and metals. Since kana (perhaps connoting copper or compounds occurring naturally) represented by a rhombus-corner is to be distinguished from molten cast copper together with tin, a cakra sign was used; the sign is given by the lexeme which connotes the knave of a wheel: era. Hence, the term cakra sam.jn~a = lit. symbol of wheel.

Another explanation is possible. It is notable that Skt. attest to the use of the compound, cakra-sam.jn~a [lit. ‘circle’ glyph] to denote tin; an echo of the writing system of the civilization: mlecchita vikalpa! (cryptogrpahy); is the use of a circle (oval?) glyph to ligature (or enclose) the tagara (taberna montana) glyph an echo of this explanation?

(83)

(24)

Sign 391 (195)

era, er-a = eraka = ?nave; erako_lu = the iron axle of a carriage (Ka.M.); cf. irasu (Ka.lex.) Metal: akka, aka (Tadbhava of arka) metal; akka metal (Te.) arka = copper (Skt.) erka = ekke (Tbh. of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper (metal); crystal (Ka.lex.) erako molten cast (Tu.lex.) agasa_le, agasa_li, agasa_lava_d.u = a goldsmith (Te.lex.) Sign 99 : at.ar a splinter; at.aruka to burst, crack, slit off, fly open; at.arcca splitting, a crack; at.arttuka to split, tear off, open (an oyster)(Ma.); ad.aruni to crack (Tu.)(DEDR 66). Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.) aduru = gan.iyinda tegadu karagade iruva aduru = ore taken from the mine and not subjected to melting in a furnace (Ka. Siddha_nti Subrahman.ya’ S’astri’s new interpretation of the Amarakos’a, Bangalore, Vicaradarpana Press, 1872, p. 330); adar = fine sand (Ta.); adaru = a sparkle (Te.); ayir – iron dust, any ore (Ma.) tot.xin, tot.xn goldsmith (To.); tat.t.a_n- gold or silver smith (Ta.); goldsmith (Ma.); tat.t.e = goldsmith (Kod.); tat.rava_~d.u = goldsmith or silversmith (Te.); *t.hat.t.haka_ra brassworker (Skt.)(CDIAL 5493).

tat.t.ai = mechanism made of split bamboo for scaring away parrots from grain fields (Ta.); tat.t.e = a thick bamboo or an areca-palm stem, split in two (Ka.)(DEDR 3042).

When reduplicated, this may be read as: erako ‘nave’ san:gala ‘pair’; rebus: erako ‘molten cast’ san:gad.a ‘furnace’. As distinct from non-melted native metal, aduru.

331

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erako ‘molten cast (copper)’;

erako san:gala = furnace for metal.

This may explain the multiple use of the glyph on Dholavira signboard.

: erako ‘nave’; san:gala ‘pair’ Rebus: erako san:gad.a = furnace for

Glyph metal.

Glyphs:

erako (nave); rebus: erako ‘molten cast’.

kod.a, ‘one’; rebus: kod., ‘artisan’s workshop’. Glyph: aduru ‘native metal’

(9)

(10)

Sign 176 (355)

Glyph: ad.aren, d.aren ‘lid’; rebus:

Ivory or bone rods (12)

‘Tree’Field symbol 44 (12)

h172B Field Symbol 36 (17) Glyph: comb kangha (IL 1333) ka~ghera_ comb-maker (H.) Rebus: kan:g = brazier, fireplace (K.)(IL 1332) Portable brazier ka~_guru, ka~_gar (Ka.) whence, large brazier = kan:gar (K.) Pairing sign: kan.d. kanka ‘rim of pot’; rebus: kan.d. ‘furnace’ + kan-ka ‘copper metal’ The following seven pairs have between 93 and 291 occurrences in the inscriptions. Glyph: mer.go ‘rimless vessel’; Substantive: meruku ‘shine, glitter, silver’. Alternative: ka_t.i ‘pot’; rebus: ka_t.i ‘fireplace’; tebr.a = mint + attendant of an idol, tammat.a cf. tamta ‘coppersmith’ (Nepali); dambr.i ‘one-eighth of a pice (copper)’ ladle (tamali, cavat.u)+ ka_t.i = furnace for fuller’s earth (cavat.u); tebr.a, ‘three’; tamali, ‘ladle’ rebus: ‘attendant of an idol’;OR dambr.i ‘copper’

332

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kanac ‘corner’; rebus: kan~cu ‘bronze’ + kin ‘two’; rebus: gina ‘metal vessel’; hence, the pair connotes a bronze vessel Alternative: khu~t.a (corner) + s’il (splinter); rebus: kut.hi, ‘furnace’ + s’a_la (workshop) khu_n.t.ad.i_ = an angle (G.) mwehra_,’image’;mehara, ‘chief of village’; bakhor., ‘teeth of comb’; bakhor., ‘splicer for tassar cocoon’; bakher ‘homestead’. Alternative decoding of Sign 176: Comb kangha (IL 1333) ka~ghera_ comb-maker (H.) kan:g = brazier, fireplace (K.)(IL 1332) Portable brazier ka~_guru, ka~_gar (Ka.) whence, large brazier = kan:gar (K.) kolom, ‘sprout’; rebus: kolimi, ‘furnace’; paired: san:gad.a, ‘portable furnace’; kan.d, ‘furnace’. This pair depicts two types of furnaces: one, for smelting (ore); and the other for melting, refining or alloying. bharad.o ‘spine’; rebus: bharata ‘casting metals in moulds’. Alternative: kamra, ‘back’; kamar, ‘blacksmith’; kan.d. ‘furnace’. kan.d., ‘furnace’; the pairing: san:gad.a, ‘portable furnace’. Or, barea, ‘two’; barea, ‘smith’ Alternative: kan.d. kin ‘two furnaces’; rebus: kan.d. ‘furnace’ + gina ‘metal vessel’ Reduplication of signs – casting metal in mould Glyph: dol ‘likeness, picture, form’ (Santali) [e.g., two tigers, two bulls.] Rebus: dul ‘to cast in a mould’; dul me~r.he~t, dul mer.ed., dul; kot.e mer.ed. ‘forged iron’ (Santali) <batu'>(F),,<batuk' = o~'o~>(B) {NK} ``^twin''. @N160,B18280. #3451. <batuk' = o~'o~>(B) {NK} ``^twin''. @B18280. #26152. cf. bhra_trbha_n.d.a ‘twin brother’ (Skt.) Rebus: bhat.a ‘furnace’ In association with the six heads of animals, the term bhat.a ‘furnace’ or ‘casting in a mould – dul –‘ can be related to types of minerals subjected to smelting/melting in the furnace or kiln: One-horned heifer or steer: damr.i (rebus: ta_mbra ‘copper’) Bison: bali (rebus: bali ‘iron stone ore’) Antelope: melh (rebus: melukka ‘copper’) Thus, two antelopes can be read as dul melh; rebus: dul me~r.he~t ‘forged or cast in mould (copper)’. 333

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Tiger: kol (rebus: kol ‘smithy’) Homograph: Pk. vaḍḍaya— m., N. baḍḍāi (< vārtāka—?), A. batā—sarāi, B. batui, baḍuyā; va_rtika ‘quail’ (RV.)(CDIAL 11361).

There are also paired or re-duplicated occurrences of signs.

leaf, ‘lo’; rebus: metal; pairing: san:gad.a, ‘portable furnace’ pot, ‘kamat.ha’; rebus: kammat.a, ‘mint’; Alternative: ka_t.i ‘pot’; ka_t.i ‘fireplace’; + kin ‘two’; rebus: gina ‘metal vessel’; pairing: san:gad.a, ‘portable furnace’ field division, ‘khan.d.’; rebus: kand. ‘fire altar, furnace’; pairing: san:gad.a, ‘portable furnace’ sprout, ‘kolom’; rebus: kolimi, furnace [A count of four furnaces].

kut.aru, ‘cock’; kut.ha_ru, ‘armourer, writer’; pairing: san:gad.a, ‘portable furnace’

fish, ‘hako’; rebus: axe; pairing: san:gad.a, ‘furnace’

fellies, ‘put.ia’; rebus: put.ia, ‘copper’; put.a, ‘calcining’; pairing: san:gad.a, ‘furnace’

kan.d.era, ‘eyelid’; rebus; kand.ali, ‘billhook’ [A count of three billhooks]

and.ren ‘male’; rebus: aduru ‘native metal’; Vikalpa: ten:go, ‘standing’; rebus: ten:go, ‘assume responsibility’; pairing: san:gad.a, ‘portable furnace’; i.e. managing furnace.

s’an:ku, ‘twelve fingers’ measure’; rebus: arrowhead; or, talka, ‘palm of the hand (with twelve phalanges on four fingers)’; rebus; talika, ‘inventory, list of articles’; pairing: san:gad.a, ‘furnace’; thus a list of furnace articles. Alternative: bed.a ‘twelve (pies)’ (Te.); bed.a ‘hearth’. Thus two ‘twelves’ may be read as: bed.a + baria = hearth + blacksmith smith. 334

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Lute can:gu (IL 2909) Copulation san:ga_ (IL 2910) Pannier s'an:kara, akkha (IL 2892) Goose s'an:ku (IL 2879) (14)

Sign 121 (70)

barot.i = twelve (Santali) Rebus: bharata = a factitious metal compounded of copper, pewter, tin (M.) Glyph: twelve fingers' measure = s'an:ku (IL 2878), co~ga_ = two hand-breadths (IL 3121) Rebus: s’ankha = turbinella pyrum, conch shell (Skt.) kut.ila, ‘bent’; rebus: kut.ila, ‘bronze (8 parts copper, 2 parts tin)’; when duplicated a number of times, a count of bronze ingots Mirror-reflected pairs of graphemes This could be an orthograhic variant style to depict duplicated glyphs while conserving space on small objects used for inscribing epigraphs.

Pincer, sanni_, ‘smith’s vice’; rebus: saniya, ‘short sword’ Mountain, bo_re, ‘top of hill’; rebus: bo_riga, ‘hoe’ Corner, khu~t.a, ‘corner’; rebus: kut.hi, ‘furnace’ Furrow, khu~t.a, ‘furrow’; rebus: kut.hi, ‘furnace’ Alternative homonyms/hieroglyphs: ta_~ku = to touch, hit, attack, encounter, oppose in battle; n. combat, attack; ta_~cu = to kick (Te.); ta_n:ku = to hit against, strike (Ta.); ta_kuni = to hit, to touch (Tu.)(DEDR 3150). t.an:kamu = top or side of a hill (Te.) t.an:gu, t.an:guva_ru = a girth, surcingle (Te.) Rebus: t.an:ka = a stamped (gold) coin (Skt.); tan:kam = pure gold (Ta.Ma.)(DEDR 3013) t.an:kasa_la = a mint; tan:kava_t.u, t.an:kasa_lava_ru = an old gold coin (Te.) t.an:kutanamu = artistic pride (Te.) This could be an orthographic style of pairing to save space on a small inscribed object. Pairing may connote, san:gad.a, ‘two’; rebus: ‘portable furnace’ Mahadevan notes, "Compounds of mirror-reflected pairs. A rather curious feature of the script is the occurrence of mirror-reflected pairs as bound signs." (Mahadevan, 1977, p. 16) He adds that the mirror-reflected pairs may have the sign doubled on the horizontal or vertical axis. Mirror-reflection is also noticed on svastika_ glyphs with right-handed and left-handed arms. ‘Ligatured’ signs 335

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A characteristic feature of the use of graphemes in the inscriptions is ‘ligaturing’. Two or more signs can be combined into one sign motif. For example, the ‘jar’ sign is ligatured in four instances: An inverted ‘v’ is ligatured on Signs 65, 66, 75 (fishes), Sign 163 (corn sheaf), Sign 138 (cross-road), Sign 334 (pot). This inverted ‘v’ is also ligatured on a jar pictorial(Fig. 111 field symbol, Mahadevan corpus). FS111 m0478 The glyph to the left of the tiger is a rim of a short-necked jar ligatured with a 'lid' glyph: ad.aren 'lid'; rebus: aduru 'native metal'; kan.d.a kanka = kanka metal furnace, i.e. furnace for copper and native metal. 1 Sign 352, jar + corn sheaf kan.d. + kolom = kan.d. + kolimi = furnace + furnace [One could be a portable goldsmith’s furnace; the other, a blacksmith’s (kol) furnace]

Sign 394, jar and oval Sign 353, jar and pot kamat.ha + kan.d. = kammat.a + kan.d. = mint + furnace

Sign 15 itself seems to be a ligature of signs 12 and 342 kan.d., ‘jar’; rebus: ‘furnace, altar’; kut.i, ‘woman water-carrier’; kut.hi, ‘furnace’; one is a refining goldsmith’s furnace; and the other a blacksmith’s furnace.

(40)

(76)

Sign 171 (132)

(7)Sign 173 (38) Glyph: ad.ar ‘harrow’ (Santali); Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’(Ka.) The ligaturing pattern is extended further in Sign 418: Sign 15 is further ligatured with a harrow (Sign 171) and oval (Sign 374).

h346A

h346B Incised miniature tablet. h360A

h364A

h360B

h364B

4412 h360C

h364C

h364E

4584

4635 336

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Thus, Sign 348 may connote: phot. ‘sprout’ (substantive: copper ingot) + ad.ar ‘harrow’ (substantive: aduru ‘native metal’)

m0182 2154 m0293 Gharial (or lizard) 1360 {The duplication of the ‘harrow’ glyph may connote: ad.ar ‘harrow’ + bar ‘two’ (substantive: aduru ‘native metal’ + bara ‘oven, furnace’]

Sign 383 is a ligature of Sign 373, Sign 374, Sign 176 ‘comb’ glyph. Sign 373: kut.ila = bent, crooked (Skt.) kut.ila (Skt. Rasaratna samuccaya, 5.205) Humpbacked kud.illa (Pkt.) ( ) The glyph of a curved line when mirrored becomes a ligature, an enclosure to other glyphs. kut.ila, katthi_l = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) [cf. a_ra-ku_t.a, ‘brass’ (Skt.)] Sign 372: bed.a ‘ingot’. Sign 176: bakhor. ‘slicer, comb’; rebus: bakher ‘homestead’; bangala_ ‘portable gold furnace’.

m0917

1224

m0945

1208

Sign 373 could be a pairing of two ‘brackets’ (), thus, kut.ila san:gad.a, i.e. bronze furnace. Sign 373 could also cirumscribe when ligatured with other signs:

The ligature is made up of two glyphs: ( ) together with tagara = taberna montana (Skt.) Rebus: t.agromi = tin metal alloy (Kuwi) kut.ila = bent, crooked (Skt.) kut.ila (Skt. Rasaratna samuccaya, 5.205) Humpbacked kud.illa (Pkt.) Rebus: kut.ila, katthi_l = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) [cf. a_ra-ku_t.a, ‘brass’ (Skt.)] The ligatured signs could thus connote: bronze furnaces: kut.ila 'bronze' (Skt.) + kolmi 'furnace' (Ka.) Two additional glyphs are ligatured; one of these is khu~t., ‘harrow’; rebus: kut.hi, ‘(smelter’s) furnace’ [kud.e, a rat’s hole; thus, the type of furnace indicated by the water-carrier glyph may be different from a kut.hi, indicated by the harrow glyph] cf. gud.d.e = a heap, a pile (Ka.) One kut.hi (kud.e) may be by heaping up the ore; the other kut.hi (gud.d.e) may be a pit dug into the ground. Pot a phonetic determinative? d.a_~gra = blacksmith; da_ka = pot (rebus: da_kali, anvil)]. In front of a tree without leaves: d.ha_kal. = bare of leaves (M.) d.a_l. = a branch of a tree (G.) d.ha_l.ako = a large ingot (G.)

Sign 355 seems to ligature sign 347 and sign 391 337

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Sign 232 seems to be a liagure of sign 230 and sign 326 In Mesopotamia, cuneiform writing was used for two different languages: Akkadian and Sumerian. The rebus principle was used in Mesopotamian writing systems, i.e. to represent concrete objects using symbols which sound phonetically similar to the concrete object intended to be represented. It is likely that the symbols used on inscribed objects of SSVC were based on such a rebus principle. In addition to the languages of North India, South India and of Munda family of languages, there is an unknown, language X which is not associated with any of the known language families. (Walter A. Fairservis, Jr. and Franklin C. Southworth, Linguistic Archaeology and the Indus Valley Culture, in: Old problems and new perspectives in the archaeology of South Asia, ed., J. Mark Kenoyer, Madison, Wis., UW-Madison Department of Anthropology, 1989, 133-41). “In addition to the presence of different language families, there were undoubtedly many different dialects spoken throughout the Indus Valley. During the Early Historic period in South Asia many people spoke more than one dialect. For example, Sanskrit was spoken in the ritual and administrative contexts whereas regional Prakrit dialects were spoken at home. (AK Ramanujan, Toward an Anthology of City Images, in: Urban India: Society, Space and Image, ed., Richard G. Fox, Durham, Duke University, 1971, 224-44). Although it is possible that the Indus script represents the formal language spoken by elites, some names and words could reflect local dialects that varied from region to region. Consequently, if the writing on the seals does represent more than one language or dialect, we cannot decipher it until a bilingual text or a dictionary has been discovered.” (JM Kenoyer, 1998, p. 78). The association of the find spots in Harappa of inscribed objects with other objects such as seals, weights and pendants is to be noted as a pointer to the possible functions performed by the writing system. On the golden pendant described below, “all inscriptions appear to have been made by the same sharp, pointed tool by the same hand. These inscriptions are extremely important because they are clearly different from the types of inscriptions found on the large copper celts and chisels which also have been found in large hoards. On copper or bronze tools, the writing appears formal, carefully chiseled in a vertical line down the center of the ax or chisel. Other examples are oriented along the butt end of the celts, but in most instances the script would have been partially or totally obscured by hafting. One hoard found at Harappa contained fifty-six copper/bronze tools and weapons. Two of these objects, a dagger and an ax, both were inscribed with a sign that Parpola interprets as meaning ‘leader’ or ‘king’. Such inscriptions are uncommon and may represent the name of the owner or the deity to whom the valuable objects were dedicated. Beyond the commercial and personal uses of writing, the Indus script appears to have had protective or magical powers. Single and multiple signs were carved or painted on objects that were a part of daily life: shell and terracotta bangles, beads, pottery and tools. The repetition of specific signs at many different sites suggests that some signs were probably not personal names, but may have had some ritual significance. Painted on the inside of a plate or the interior of a terracotta bangle, thes signs may have blessed the food of protected the wearer…Short inscriptions associated with these (narrative) scenes (of probably rituals) may represent the names of deities, constellations or supernatural events. The script is also found carved on ivory and bone rods, possibly used in divining the future or perhaps part of a ritual game.” (JM Kenoyer, 1998, p. 76). Objects with inscriptions have been found in many sites and throughout the localities of larger sites such as Mohenjo-daro and Harappa – in the streets and in houses. “Many earlier excavators did not record the contexts in which seals were found, so we cannot assess whether they were in foundation fill (secondary deposits) or actual floor and street levels (primary deposits). Recent excavations at 338

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Harappa have defined these different contexts, and we can beging sorting out the complex problem of identifying where seals and inscribed objects were used in the city: the major streets leading into and out of city gateway, the craft workshop areas and near the houses in the high walled areas. Some houses have lots of seals and inscribed objects, and others have very few or none at all. In one pottery manufacturing area at the northwest edge of Mound E there are no seals or tablets, while in the bead and shellworking area of Mound ET there are a number of inscribed objects. After reviewing the different ways in which the script was used, we see several patterns emerge. First, only certain people owned seals and few people were literate. Nevertheless, the script was generally used in a manner that was openly visible to the general public. For example seals were probably worn and used in public, and graffiti was openly visible on trade vessels. Writing was used in everyday contexts as well as for religious purposes, but the presence of script on gold jewelry, copper tools and stoneware bangles suggests that only the very rich and powerful wrote their names or attributions on personal objects. Objects with writing were scattered in all parts of the city, and almost every settlement of the Indus Valley has produced one or more seals or inscribed objects. A large signboard from Dholavira shows large writing, but most inscriptions are small or miniature. Perhaps the most important recent discovery is that the style of writing and carving of seals changed over time; small tablets without animal motifs but with script, come from the middle to late part of the Harappan phase.These patterns indicate that writing was not static but a dynamic invention that had permeated every aspect of urban life. Landowners, merchants, religious leaders, administrators and professional artisans were probably the only people who owned or used inscribed seals, but many of them may not have been able to read or write. Nevertheless, everyone in the society understood the power and authority reflected in writing, and its use throughout the Indus and Sarasvati regions reveals a period of cultural and economic integration. The writing would have reinforced this integration and validated the power of the ruling classes. In combination with religious symbols and narratives the writing would have legitimized the power of the people who used it by associating them with supernatural powers. The writing on the seals is associated with symbolic animals representing clans or possibly trading communities. The most common animal, the unicorn, is mythical and the other animals must have had some important symbolic meaning. On the small tablets, writing and occasional narrative scenes are on a miniature scale, but they probably illustrate public rituals or events that were viewed by the entire community or city. Some tablets may have functioned as ritual tokens or souvenirs, not unlike the molded or inscribed amulets available at the tombs of saints or at important shrines in Pakistan and India today. It is closely associated with cities, trade and ritual. Writing and seals remained important to the politial and ritual elites as long as the trade networks and cities continued to exist. The script disappeared when the elites who used this means of communication in trade and ritual were no longer dominant. More than any other fact, the rapid disappearance of the seals and writing by 1700 BCE (based on recent dates from Harappa) demonstrates that writing was used exclusively by a small but powerful segment of the population and did not play a critical role in the lives of the common people. The seal carvers lost their jobs, and eventually, when new elites emerged, writing was not important. Molds used to make terracotta and faience tablets wee destroyed or discarded when they no longer had economic or ritual significance. Traders no longer stamped bundles with seals or scribbled names and messages on storage jars. And although many of the crafts continued to be practiced, the artisans had no need to inscribe copper tools or pottery vessels with the script…When Emperor Ashoka set up pillars and massive boulders inscribed with royal edicts around 250 BCE, he became the first ruler in ancient India to use writing to communicate to the masses…The important thing was that these edicts, placed throughout the imperial realm, from Afghanistan to southern India, were not written in Sanskrit, the language of the Brahmanical elites, but were in the major local dialects. Two new scripts were invented: Kharoshthi in the northwest was based on Aramaic, the language of the Achaemenid Persian Empire and was written from right to left; the Brahmi script in peninsular India was written from left to right and is thought to have been derived from a Western Semitic script. No one knows who invented these scripts, but they may have been commissioned by rulers and developed by Brahmans well versed in literature and phonetics. The recent discovery of Brahmi script on potsherds 339

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from Sri Lanka dates to around 500 BCE (Frank Raymond Allchin, ed., The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia, Cambridge University Press, 1995, 176-79), but the use of both Kharoshthi and Brahmi on stone edicts in the peninsular subcontinent dates somewhat later, around 250 BCE. Whey they first appeared, these newly invented scripts represent fully developed writing systems with no direct connection to the earlier Indus script. [Mohammad A. Halim and Massimo Vidale, Kilns, Bangles and coated vesssels: ceramic production in closed containers at Mohenjodaro, Interim Reports Vol. 1: Reports on Field Work carried out at Mohenjo-daro, Pakistain 1982-83 by IsMEO-Aachen University Mission, ed., Michael Jansen and Gunter Urban (Aachen: RWTH-IsMEO, 1984), 63-97]” (JM Kenoyer, 1998, p. 77).

Signs 391 and 392 317, 318 and Variants of Sign 393

Signs 395, 316,

The sign of a spoked wheel is also used on a metal weapon with ligatures: two short linear strokes and an arch. Part of the glyph in Sign 393 can thus be related to a copper vessel or plate. kumpat.i = chafing dish (Te.); rebus: gummat.a cupola, dome (Ka.) kin = sign of the dual; kamikin = the two workers; dar.et tahe~kanakin = they two were fleeing; gogockin = the two murderers (Santali.lex.) kincit = a little; kincit gan emanme = give me just a little (Santali) kincit = a little (Skt.) kinn- (kinni-) to tear into strips (Kod.); kini- (kinit-) to break into pieces (Kol.); kink- (kinikt-) id. (Kol.); kinup to break, crack knuckles (Nk.)(DEDR 104). Kin small (To.); kinni small, young (Tu.); kinyo small (Kor.(DEDR 1603). gina a metal vessel, metal cup (Kond.a); gina_ metal cup (Kuwi.Or.); kin.n.am, kin.n.i small metal cup (Ta.); metal plate (Ma.); kin.m metal eating vessel (To.); kin.n.alu brass cup (Tu.); ginniya, ginne cup, bowl, goblet (Te.); gina metal pot, cup (Ga.); gene a metal vessel (Go.)(DEDR 1543). The earliest references to cakra (Pali. cakka) as a weapon, a vajra, occurs in the R.gveda (see text box article). Arjuna describes the Vis'varu_pa and refers to gada_ and cakra of the divinity. (Bhagavad Gi_ta_, Ch. 11, v. 17).

V123 V124 badhi = ‘to ligature, to bandage, to splice, to join by successive rolls of a ligature’ (Santali) bata_ bamboo slips (Kur.); bate = thin slips of bamboo (Malt.)(DEDR 3917). Ligature! badhi! This becomes a characteristic feature of the orthography of epigraphs. Rebus: bad.hi ‘professional carpenter’ (B.) Glyph: badhi ‘to ligature, to bandage, to splice, to join by successive rolls of a ligature’ (Santali) bata_ bamboo slips (Kur.); bate = thin slips of bamboo (Malt.)(DEDR 3917). hadi = a layer of stone or brick in the ground (Ka.); padre a layer (Ka.); paduru = id., stratum (Tu.)(DEDR 3915). [Note glyph of ringstones on pillar on tablets in bas-relief.] Substantive: patam = sharpness (as of the edge of a knife)(Ta.); padm (obl. Padt-) temper of iron (Ko.); pada = keenness of edge or sharpness (Ka.); hada = sharpeness (as of a knife), forming (as metals) to proper degree of hardness (Tu.); panda_ sharpness (Go.); padanu, padunu = sharpness, temper (Te.); 340

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padnu = sharpening (of knife by heating and hammering)(Kond.a); pato = sharp (as a blade); patter = to sharpen (Malt.)(DEDR 3907). Two short linear strokes on the upper register [Frequency: 99] Mohenjodaro gold pendant is made from a hollow cylinder with soldered ends and perforated point. Museum No. MM 1374.50.271; Marshall 1931: 521, pl. CLI, B3. Naha_li_ baddi_ = ox ; pa_d.o_ = bull (Sikalga_ri_, mixed Gypsy language.)(CDIAL 9176). bal.ad = an ox; a bullock; a bull (G.lex.) baredi_ = herdsman (H.); baldi_ = oxherd (P.); baldiya_ cattle-dealer (Ku.)(CDIAL 9177). balivarda = ox, bull (TBr.); baleda_, baled = herd of bullocks (L.); baledo (S.); bald, baldh, balhd = ox; baled, baleda_ = herd of oxen (P.); bahld, bale_d = ox (P.); balad, bald = ox (Ku.); barad (N.); balad(h) (A.); balad (B.); bal.ada (Or.); barad(h) (Bi.); barad (Mth.); barad (Bhoj.);. bardhu (Aw.); balad, barad(h), bardha_ (whence baladna_ to bull a cow (H.); bal.ad (G.)(CDIAL 9176). pa_r-al = bull (Ta.)(DEDR 4020). bare itat = a bullock given at marriage by bridegroom to bride’s brothers (Santali.lex.) baro barabbar = opposite, face to face; baro, baron. = provisions, food rations, supplies (P.lex.) barotwa_la_ = a partner (K.)(P.lex.) There is another semantic stream, vad.d.e (Telugu), vad.d.haki (Pkt.), [?*barad.a] connoting, respectively, a digger of tanks (perhaps the same group of people who had the competence to createa rock-cut reservoir in Dholavira) and carpenter, mason. To depict him pictorially, in a writing system, a backbone (barad.o) or a bull (baradh) or a kneeling adorant (bharad.o, 'devotee of S'iva') are depicted, since all these semantics are represented by a word which sounds similar to the word used to connote an artisan -- a mason, a carpenter, a worker in wood and metal: *barad.o (vardhaki). barduga = a man of acquirements, a proficient man (Ka.) To add greater precision in the message conveyed , other pictorials -- as semantic determinants -- may be ligatured; for e.g. a trough may be shown in front of a bull; the trough is d.han:gar; a rebus representation of d.han:gara, t.hakkura, 'blacksmith'. A new principle in the writing system emerges: ligaturing as a means of conveying multiplicity of functions performed or alloys created, using multiplicity of ores and metals. bat., bat.e = a road; bat. par.a = a highwayman, a spy (Santali.lex.) bhat.akavum [Skt. bhra_nta wandered fr. bhram to wander] to roam, to wander; bhat.aka_m pl. wanderings (G.lex.) bhat.au to go about, to go here and there, as a dog in heat (Santali.lex.) bha_t.iyo = a class of va_nia_s; a milkman; a vegetable-seller; bha_t.hela_ pl. a class of bra_hman.as (G.lex.) dobat.ia ‘cross roads, the junction of two roads’ (Santali) bat.oi traveller (Ku.); bat.ohi (N.); ba_t.oi, ba_t.ei (N.); bat.ohi_, bat.ohia_, bat.ohini (Mth.); bat.o(h)i_ (H.)(CDIAL 11367).

(39) Sign 130 (63) h172B Field Symbol 36 (10) Sign 51 kaca kupi ‘scorpion’ (Santali) Rebus kacc = iron (Go.); kan~cu = bronze (Te.)

(44)

Sign 150 (63)

Sign 150 glyph: tat.am = road, path, route, gate, footstep (Ta.); dad.d.a road (Ir.); dar.v path, way (Ko)(DEDR 3024). 341

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tat.t.ai = mechanism made of split bamboo for scaring away parrots from grain fields (Ta.); tat.t.e = a thick bamboo or an areca-palm stem, split in two (Ka.)(DEDR 3042). tot.xin, tot.xn goldsmith (To.); tat.t.a_n- gold or silver smith (Ta.); goldsmith (Ma.); tat.t.e = goldsmith (Kod.); tat.rava_~d.u = goldsmith or silversmith (Te.); *t.hat.t.haka_ra brassworker (Skt.)(CDIAL 5493). bad.hi ‘a caste who work both in iron and wood’ (Santali)37 bar.ae = a blacksmith; bar.ae kudlam = a country made hoe, in contrast to cala_ni kudlam, an imported hoe; bar.ae mer.ed – country smelted iron; bar.ae muruk = the energy of a blacksmith (Mundari.lex.) bar.ae = bad.ae (Santali.lex.) bari_ = blacksmith, artisan (Ash.)(CDIAL 9464). The occurrence of bari_ in Ash. (CDIAL 9464) and bar.ae in Mundari and of vardhaka in Skt. point to the early phonetic form: bard.a; semantic: worker in iron and wood, artisan. Thus, it is suggested that the depiction of the backbone, barad.o is rebus for bard.a, artisan. barduga = a man of acquirements, a proficient man (Ka.) baddi_ ‘ox’ (Nahali) Nahali baddi ‘bull’ Gutob of Bastar state ba_d.i_

m1405Bt Pict-48 A tiger and a rhinoceros in file [kha~g ‘rhino’; rebus: kan:gar ‘furnace’; kol ‘tiger’; rebus: kolhe ‘smelters of iron’.] kol metal (Ta.) kol = pan~calo_kam (five metals) (Ta.lex.)

m1135 2140 Pict-50 Composite animal: features of an ox and a rhinoceros facing the standard device. This seems to indicate that the lexeme connoting the young bull may have be cognate with a lexeme connoting a boar. badhia = castrated boar, a hog; bhator. sukri = a huge wild boar with large tusks; rata sukri = a boar in hunting parlance; sukri kud.u = a boar; datela sukri = a wide boar (Santali.lex.) basa, bara (Has. Syn. of ekend.a, Nag.) = a male wild boar, whether living with one female (larger kind) or leading a herd (smaller kind) (Mundari.lex.)38 Glyph: badhor. ‘a species of fish with many bones’ (Santali) The glyph connoted by ‘road junction’: d.a~_d. ‘road’; tan.t.a ‘cast iron’ Line 3 includes a set of four + three strokes, preceding the ‘fish’ glyph: Glyphs: gan.d.a ‘four’; pene ‘three’; Rebus: kan.d. ‘furnace’; pen.e ‘griddle’ Glyph: bhed.a hako ‘fish’; bed.a ‘hearth’ kanac ‘corner’; rebus: kan~cu ‘bronze’ Alternatives: bat.hi = a furnace for melting iron-ore (Santali.lex.) bhati = the unripe kernel of certain fruits (especially of the Palmyra palm, the Ebony tree, and makar.kenda). The kernel 342

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is taken out and eaten, the palm kernel as it is, the Ebony kernel after cleaning with water rubbing it on a stone. (Desi. Bhati). Harappa. Miniature tablets: (a) H-302 and (b) 3452; after Vats 1940: II, 452B; cf. Asko Parpola, 1994, Fig. 10.21, p. 194. Harappa. Fish-shaped tablet (3428) incised. Eye is a dot in circle. Drawn after Vats 1940: II, pl. 95, no.428; cf. Asko Parpola, 1994, Fig. 10.22, p. 194. Silver ingot (Anatolia) The two signs on an Anatolian silver ingot may connote: silver brick (ingot). The signs on the silver ingot faintly visible are comparable to glyphs of Sarasvati Civilization:

V328 V330 mer.go ‘rimless vessel’; Substantive: meruku ‘shine, glitter, silver’]

V202

V331

V332 [Glyph:

V186

The two signs may connote: silver brick (ingot): mer.go bed.a Cf. be_d.a ‘two anna piece of 12 pies’ (Te.) Why the inscriptions cannot be sentences or personal names It would be a surprise indeed if, in a writing system used ca. 5000 years ago, it was possible to compose sentences using just five signs. Hundreds of inscribed texts on tablets are repetitions; it is, therefore, unlikely that hundreds of such inscribed tablets just contained the same ‘names’ composed of just five ‘alphabets’ or ‘syllables’, even after the direction of writing is firmed up as from right to left: Many attempts at decipherment of the inscriptions are summarized in Parpola (1994, pp. 57-61): "In summary, none of the attempts at deciphering the Indus script made so far (including that of our Finnish team) has gained wide acceptance… numerous tests agree in establishing right to left as the preponderant direction of writing in the Indus inscriptions… Mahadevan who has carefully recorded the direction of the original in each of his 3,573 lines, distinguishes 2,974 lines running right to left (83.23 percent) and 235 going left to right (6.57 percent), in addition to such ambiguous sequences as 190 single-sign lines, 12 symmetrical sequences and 155 cases that are doubtful on account of damaged or illegible lines. A top-to-bottom sequence is recorded for seven lines." Why the inscribed objects can be related to the life-activities of the people Many inscribed objects have been found together with other artifacts, suggesting a close relationship between the messages inscribed and the artifacts themselves.Many tablets (both incised and 343

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embossed varieties, generally made of faience, terracotta or stone) occur in multiples suggesting some form of distribution of common, identical ‘messages’ (or underlying material life-support phenomena). Seals have been found in almost every exposed room excavated in Mohenjodaro. In room 85 in house IX of the HR-area in Mohenjodaro were found five unicorn selas. In this room ‘a mass of shell-lay was found…along with…many waste pieces of sea-shells’ indicating this to be a shell-cutter’s room (Mackay, 1931a: I, 195).

[House I, HR-A area, Mohenjo-daro: Find spots of twelve seals together with many prestige objects, all from one house; Wheeler assumed that this was a temple; the house has rooms immediately adjacent to the exit, transit rooms having more than one door, terminal rooms with just one door; seals were found in all these rooms. After Jansen, Michael, 1986, Die Indus-Zivilisation: Wiederentdeckung einer fruhen Hochkultur, Cologne, 200f., fig. 125] Why the inscriptions cannot be interpreted as ‘religious’ texts Parpola suggests (Corpus, 1, 1987, p. xvi) that the pictorial motifs (some of which are iconographic) indicate religious motifs and some seals (such as M-319 with a carved hollow to hold an amuletic charm and a lid) which are probably charms provide clues to the Harappan religion. He also adds that many miniature tablets of Harappa may have functioned as tokens of votive offerings or of visits to temples. He cites the examples of moulded tablets Mk-478 and M-479 where the combination of 4 U signs stands next to an iconographic scene where a kneeling worshipper extends a pot shaped like the U-formed sign towards a tree. "Apparently the tree is sacred, and the man is presenting the pot (or according to the inscription, four pots) to it as an offering… The interpretation of the iconography of the Indus seals and tablets constitutes a major scholarly challenge…Sir John Marshall’s identification of a Proto-Siva in the buffalo-horned deity of a famous seal from Mohenjodaro (M-304) may well be correct, and so may be Alf Hiltebeitel’s even more convincing identification of this figure as ProtoMahis.a, although this deity and his ‘yogic posture’ have close counterparts in the earlier glyptic art of the Proto-Elamites. Comparative studies thus suggest that the Indus Civilization may have been an integral if marginal part of the West Asian cultural area and that there is an unbroken cultural continuity in South Asia from the Harappan times until the present day." An enormous time-depth separates the inscribed objects of the civilization and the cultural traditions recorded during the historical periods of Bha_rata. Unless the texts are read in the context of the perceived ‘religious’ heritage, it will be an article of faith to hypothesise that the inscribed objects embody what is evidenced, as a continuum, the later-day ‘cultural’ tradition. Roots of epigraphy tradition However, it can be established from archaeological evidence of the historical periods that a number of parallels can be drawn from the practices initiated during the mature periods of the civilization. Some examples can be summarized. 344

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Copper tablets found in Mohenjodaro are incised with pictorials in inscriptions and script signs. The historical periods record the evidence of the use of copper tablets to authenticate title deeds or property transactions. This evidence is an apparent legacy of the Sarasvati-Sindhu Civilization. No other contemporary civilization has produced such definitive evidence of conveying property through copper-plate inscriptions. There are 123 copper tablets with inscriptions excavated at Mohenjo-daro. Most of the tablets contain only one line inscriptions excepting on four tablets which have a second line. [See BM Pande, 1979, Inscribed copper tablets from Mohenjo-daro: a preliminary analysis in: GL Possehl, 1979, Ancient Cities of the Indus, Delhi, Vikas]. Among the ashes on a warehouse floor in Lothal were found a hundred clay tags, bearing inscriptions created by seal impressions on one side and of packing materials (bamboo, mattings, woven cloth, cords, reeds) on the other. Many had the glyph of an elephant. ib ‘iron’ (Ko.); needle (To.); irumpu iron, instrument, weapon (Ta.); irumpu, irimpu iron (Ma.); irimbi iron (Kod.); inumu id. (Te.); inum (pl. inmul) iron, sword (Kol.); rumba vad.i ironstone (Kui)(DEDR 486). Rebus: ipil ‘ a star’; can.d.bol ipil ‘a comet’; jonok ipil ‘a comet’ (Santali) Rebus: ibha ‘elephant’39 Lothal165A

7203

On 15 tags with seal impressions, the associated text is as shown on top line of Text 7236 and associated with ‘one-horned bull’ motif. On 9 tags with seal impressions, the associated text is as shown on top line of Text 7251 and associated with ‘one-horned bull’ motif.

Lothal194A2

7251

It has been noted in earlier attempts at decipherment that many seals with inscriptions have cord holes, suggesting that the seals might have been worn by their owners. If so, it is likely that the inscribed objects were lists of property possessions of the owners. Apart the use of copper tablets and in a few cases, the use of silver and copper for seals which indicates that the messages are possibly engraved by metal- and/or fire-workers (cf. the use of fired-in faience for seals), the dramatic clue to the decipherment of the script comes from the characteristic shapes of a few objects. There are also inscriptions on bronze implements, re-inforcing the deduction that the metal- and/or fire-workers were the major script-writers of the civilization. If the writers of the script were also the owners of or traders in the products made from metal- and fire-work, then the messages conveyed were likely to be related to their life-activities. This is a possibility because at this stage of the evolution of chalcolithic cultures, ca. 3000 BCE, the differentiation in the labour-force might not have reached a stage when a separate group of or the profession of 'script-writers' had been recognized.

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Taking a cue from the differentiation of functions among the artisans in Mesopotamian civilization, it is hypothesized that the inscribed objects of the civilization will present such a differentiation among the artisans of the Sarasvati Sindhu valleys. Smiths (Sum. simug, Akk. nappa_hum), responsible for (s)melting and casting, were distinguished from metalworkers (Sum. tibira, Akk. gurgurrum) who worked with metal and created objects. These, on the other hand, were distinctly different from jewellers (Sum. zadim) and goldsmiths (Sum. ku-dim/dim, Akk. kutimmum)... Given the large number of metal tools, weapons and vessels recovered from sites in southern Mesopotamia, there is, as with ceramics, a frustrating lack of excavated workshop facilities. (D.T.Potts, Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundations, 1997, Ithaca, Cornell University Press). In the Ur III period, the royal mausoleum of Shulgi at Ur yielded scraps of gold leaf which seem to have been part of architectural decoration, as was the case in the Jemdat Nasr period where the altar of the Eye temple at Tell Brak was decorated with gold leaf. The texts state that large numbers of metalworkers were employed by both the temple and the palace to produce a whole range of goods from tools to jewellery. These workers at Ur worked in groups under a foreman who reported to a general overseer. An assay office issued the metals to the foreman and weighed the finished article before counter-signing the receipts issued by the general overseer. In provincial towns, the governor himself issued metal from the treasury. Private metal merchants handled the supply of raw materials. (Mallowan 1947; Crawford, op.cit., p. 134). There are two objects with identical texts (found at two distant locations): Identical texts on two seals: 1. From Kish (IM 1822); cf. EJH Mackay, 1925, Sumerian connections with ancient India, JRAS, 697-701; 2. Mohenjo-daro (M-228). [cf. Parpola, 1994, fig. 8.5]. Epigraphs are not names of ‘owners’ Though the corpus is limited, it is notable that there is a substantial number of duplicate inscriptions; this is confirmed from the recent report of excavations at Harappa (1993 to 1995 and 2000 seasons). Obviously, the inscriptions do not represent ‘names’ of owners. The inscriptions could simply be ‘functions’ performed by or the ‘professional title’ of the person who carried the inscribed object on his or her wrist (or as a pendant attached to a necklace) or the list of objects he/she was invoicing for trade (as bill of lading or simply possessions of property items listed). This hypothesis gets re-inforced by (1) the finds of inscriptions on copper tablets (again, with many duplicates – all apparently made by a metal-worker and hence may relate to metal objects produced, say, in an armoury); and (2) the presence of over 200 inscribed objects with no sign (only pictorial motif) or with just one or two signs. [The signs could hardly have been alphabets or syllables since there are not many ‘names’ attested in the historical periods with just one or two syllables.] Direction of writing did not matter much “Although it seems established that the Indus script was read from right to left (summarized in Mahadevan, 1977, pp. 10-14; Parpola, 1994, pp. 64-67), seal cutters must have engraved it from left to right. This can be shown in some cases by inverting the logic used to establish directionality of reading…Mahadevan (1977, p. 14) has noted that over 6% of the written items he documented have the script running from left to right…Directionality, in at least some instances, perhaps did not matter much, leading one to suspect that it may have been what the piece represented and not what it literally said that was important. “ [Richard Meadow and Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, 1997, Excavations at Harappa 1994-1995: new perspectives on the Indus script, craft activities, and city organization, in: 346

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Raymond Allchin and Bridget Allchin, 1997, South Asian Archaeology 1995, Oxford and IBH Publishing, pp. 157-163].

Numerical sign systems used on Susa III-type tablets. Sexagesimal System (S); Bisexagesimal system (B and Bs); Decimal System (D); S’E systems (S’, S’# and S’”); Variant S’E system attested in Tepe Yahya; Gan2 system (G). “With the exception of the decimal and bisexagesimal B# systems, the rest of the numerical systems in use at Susa during the Susa III period were either identical oto or else derived from the systems found in the proto-cuneiform texts from Uruk.” (After P. Damerow and Englund, R.K., 1989, The Proto-Elamite Texts from Tepe Yahya, Cambridge: American School of ; D.T. Potts, 1999, The Archaeology of Elam, Cambridge University Press, p. 75 ). The dots are reminiscent of the raised dots which occur on the copper hoard objects in Bha_rata. Depending on the size used in Susa texts, the dots connote 3, 6, 10, 3600. While there could be no genetic link between the Susa III texts (c. 3000 BCE), the earliest Old Elamite inscriptions (c. 2300 BCE) and the Copper Hoards of Bha_rata (c. 2000 BCE), since pictographs could be similar in disparate cultures, the appearance of ‘dots’ on copper objects may reasonably be seen as some system of numeration related to the moulds used and perhaps the number of copper objects produced in one pouring of molten metal into the moulds. There is also a possibility that a phoneme may be indicated by the ‘dot’ which represented, say, the type of proportional mixing used in hardening an alloyed metallic object. [t.ud.ak = a dot; t.un.d.i = the point where the shafts of a bullock cart unite, and where the yoke is attached (Santali.lex.) If a dot represented a t.ud.ak and t.ud.u is a Santal sept, it is possible that the number of dots connoted the numerical order of the Sept to which the copper hoard product belonged]. Using signs to denote or to count objects Clay tokens compared with archaic Sumerian pictograms from Uruk. [After Denise SchmandtBesserat, 1978, The earliest precursor of writing, Scientific American, 238 (6): 5059: 56]. The Elamite inscriptions indicate the use of writing system to transfer bronze or wood articles. Ivory handle of a flint-bladed knife. Gebel el-‘Araq, Upper Egypt. Motif is Sumerian style of the Jemdet Nasr period.[After James Pritchard, 1969, The ancient near East in pictures, relating to the Old Testament, Princeton, 90, no. 290]. The carved flint knife from Gebel el-‘Araq shows on its handle a man in Sumerian dress subduing two lions, three jackals (tigers), two rams; two bulls (partially seen from hoofs); related to a period predating the First Dynasty of Egypt which started c. 3000 BCE. Rebus: ara = lion; copper; kol = jackal, tiger; metal; mr..eka = ram; meluhha, ‘copper’. A bilingual inscription of Puzur-Ins’us’inak, the last Elamite king of Awan dynasty (c. 2260-2225 BCE). Akkadian segment reads: ‘To the god Ins’us’inak, his lord, Puzur-Ins’us’inak, Governor of Susa, Regent of the land of Elam, son of S’imbis’huk, dedicated a bolt of bronze (and) cedar-wood’. Two identical sequences of four signs in the first two columns in Linear Elamite (I 7-10 and II 5-8) were read s’u-s’i-naak by F. Bork in 1905, immediately after the text was published by V. Scheil in 1905. [After Francois Vallat, 1986, Les Documents epigraphiques de l’acropole (1969-1971), Cahiers de la delegation archeologique Francaise en Iran, I, Paris: 341, fig. 3] While Linear Elamite with 103 known signs is likely to be syllabic, proto-Elamite writing had hundreds of signs used in c. 3100-2900 BCE, comparable to archaic Sumerian with wedge-like counting devices and pictograms.

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The point to note is the correlation between weapon objects and use system.

of a writing

Evidence for use in enumeration of goods This is a sample of the use of seals with pictographs typical of the Indian civilization found in Mesopotamia; an apparent indication of the use of seals as bills of lading: Clay tag from Umma, Iraq. (a) Obverse: impression of a stamp seal with typical Sarasvati civilization glyphs; (b) reverse: cloth impression indicating that the tag was part of a packaging. Department of Ancient Near East (accession no. 1931.120), Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. [After Parpola, 1994, fig. 7.16]. Plain tokens (Starting about 8000-7500 BCE to 3200 BCE, the tokens were plain); large and small spheres, tetrahedrons, cones, and cylinders from Uruk, Iraq. German Archaeological Institute, Berlin. Complex tokens, 3300 BCE (left to right) bent coils, triangle, paraboloids, and rectangle, from Susa, Iran. Louvre Museum, Paris. Triangle tokens (3300 BCE) with 2,3,4,5 and 8 lines, from Susa, Iran. Louvre

Godin Tepe, Iran. Royal Ontario jars of oil”: V represented a jar of represented 3 tens; and three making a total of 33. Counting closely interrelated processes of

Museum, Paris. Pictographic tablet (circa 3100 BCE) from Museum, Toronto. “33 oil; three circles wedges the numeral 3 and writing are two numeracy and literacy.

Tokens have been found in 43 and 40 sites in Iraq and Iran respectively. “Each token shape, with its own markings, had a specific meaning…For example, the cone and sphere seemingly represented two separate measures of grain equivalent to our modern liter (quart) and bushel (36 liters), respectively; the ovoid stood for a jar of oil; and a disk with an incised cross meant a sheep. Other tokens, such as the lenticular disk, may have referred to a collection of animals, such as a flock (perhaps ten animals)…The difficulting in storing the counters inspired the creation of clay envelopes so that they could be kept in discrete groups…From tokens to impressed tablets. The system of markings on envelopes ushered in a new phase of the token system. It became obvious to the accountants dealing with the envelopes that it was unnecessary to repeat the information, first with tokens inside the envelope and second with markings outside. Thus, solid clay tablets bearing impressed signs replaced the hollow envelopes, holding tokens…From tokens to pictographic writing. The impressed signs satisfactorily translated the shapes of the former plain tokens. The complex tokens with multiple markings, however, did not lend themselves to being impressed and gave rise to incised signs traced with a stylus (figure)…The token system paved the way not only for pictographic writing but also for the invention of the abstract numerals that are fundamental to mathematics.” The addresses on fragments of clay at Tello prove that sealings were employed on bundles despatched from city to city (L.W. King: A history of Sumer and Akkad, 1910, pp. 236-7). Cylinder seals are a typical Sumerian invention. The use coincides with the use of clay tablets, starting at the end of the 4th millennium up to the end of the first millennium. Thereafter stamp seals are used again. Many cylinder seals were used in trading moveable property items of the Mesopotamian civilization. Such seals were also used in the 348

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Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization. Clay tablets were used for accounting, literary, administrative documents; the invention was expanded to economic needs (the first tablets are predominantly economic in nature). The seals served as signature, confirmation of receipt, or to mark clay tablets and building blocks. Documenting ownership of possessions What started as a writing system to count objects was later extended either to define the objects themselves or to identify the owners of objects. Drawing of the design on the gold bowl from Hasanlu, circa tenth to ninth centuries BCE. The three individuals wearing patterned tunics (two men and one woman) wear garment pins at shoulder. The depiction of two chariots, three daggers and furniture are indicative of the property items significant enough to be incised on a gold bowl. A photograph of the bowl appears in ‘Art and Archaeology of Western Iran in Prehistory’ in Part 5, Vol. II. The bowl is in the Musee Iran Bastan, Tehran. Drawing by Maude de Schauensee; The University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. [Fig. 20 in: Jack M. Sasson (ed.), Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, p.2504]. [Denise Schmandt-Besserat, Record keeping before writing, in: Jack M. Sasson (ed.), Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, pp. 2097-2179]. Incised arrowheads. El-Khadr arrowheads I-IV. Reading down, I and III are inscribed hs. ‘bdlb’t (arrow of Abdlabi’at). The same inscription is found on II and IV, but II omits the aleph and IV omits the second beth; both omissions are probably accidental. Benjamin Sass, 1988, The genesis of the alphabet and its development in the second millennium BCE. The point to note is that the arrow-heads were important property items which required the owner’s to identify them with inscriptions.

Sign 328 (323)

The glyph is a rimless pot.

mer.go = rimless vessels (Santali) Rebus: med. iron, iron implements (Ho.) me~rhe~t ‘iron’; me~rhe~t icena ‘the iron is rusty’; ispat me~rhe~t ‘steel’, dul me~rhe~t ‘cast iron’; me~rhe~t khan.d.a ‘iron implements’ (Santali) (Santali.lex.Bodding)

Daimabad m1406At The glyph is the rim of a short-necked jar can be explained in the context of a metalsmith’s repertoire. 349

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Sign342 (1395) kan.d.a kanka = rim of pot (Santali) kanka = rim of pot (Santali) [cf. cognate, karn.aka Skt.] kankha, kan.d.a kankha = brim, rim of a vessel (Santali); ka~kh; kanna_ (H.)(Santali.lex.Bodding) kan.t.u = the rim of a vessel (Ka.lex.) kan.d.a = an earthenware pot (having a neck a little longer than that of a t.hili, but otherwise of about the same shape as this, only somewhat larger; ghar.a kan.d.a = a waterpot of brass (Santali.lex.Bodding) Rim (karn.aka, kan-) of a jar, kan, ‘copper’ Rimless pot and Rim of pot

4305 Harappa. at.ar a splinter; at.aruka to burst, crack, slit off, fly open; at.arcca splitting, a crack; at.arttuka to split, tear off, open (an oyster)(Ma.); ad.aruni to crack (Tu.)(DEDR 66) Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.) Warrior (bhat.a); rebus: bhat.a ‘kiln’. Three sides of a tablet (3305), each side showing the same sign and a warrior with bull's legs and a raised club. (After Asko Parpola, 1994, Fig.

6.3, p. 91). An identical imagery occurs on another tabet (h0714) h714At h714Bt Standing person with horns and bovine features (hoofed legs and/or a tail) Icon of a person has bull's legs and a raised club. Pict-90: Standing person with horns and bovine features holding a staff or mace on his shoulder. The only sign shown on all three sides of this tablet and perhaps on both sides of tablet h714 is a ligatured rim of a jar with a narrow neck Sign 344.

Sign 344 is a ligature of Sign 342 with inlaid two short strokes, which normally tag to a number of glyphs in the initial segments of inscriptions. Signd 343 and 345 are ligatured respectively with inlaid one short stroke and three short strokes. [kan.d., pot] kan.d. kankha = rim of a pot; rebus: kan.d.i, ‘furnace, altar’; karn.aka, ‘writer’ (Santali.Skt.lex.) [Ligatured with short linear stroke, at.ar ‘crack’; rebus: aduru ‘native metal’; vikalpa: s’al, ‘splinter’; rebus: workshop] Daimabad-001 (Seal). This is a clear demonstration that the Sign 342 has to be read as a substantive and not a grammatical particle or syllable or alphabet. kan.d.a = an earthenware pot (having a neck a little longer than that of a t.hili, but otherwise of about the same shape as this, only somewhat larger; ghar.a kan.d.a = a waterpot of brass (Santali.lex.Bodding) kankha = brim, rim of a vessel (Santali); ka~kh; kanna_ (H.)(Santali.lex.Bodding)

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kan.d. = a furnace, altar (Santali.lex.) The rim of the short-necked jar thus indicates kan.d. kanka = gold (or goldsmith’s) furnace. Sign 342 cf. ka~d.arn.e~ = jeweller’s hammer (M.); kam.d.a_re_i = scrapes, engraves (Pkt.)(CDIAL 2683). kan.t.u = the rim of a vessel (Ka.lex.) Rebus: khan.d.a instrument, implement, weapon (sword)(Santali) kham.d.a = sword (Pkt.); kan.t.am (Ta.); xar.o, xanro, xarno, xanlo, xenli_ (Gypsy); khano (S.); khan.d.a_ (P.); kha~_r. (Ku.); kha_n.d.a_ heavy knife (A.); kha~_r.o sword (N.); kha~_ra_ large sacrificial knife (B.); khan.d.a_ sword (Or.); kha~_r.a_ (H.); kha~_d.u~ (G.); kha_d.a_ (M.)(CDIAL 3793). [The Santali substrate kanka is Sanskritized as karn.aka = projection on the side of a vessel (S.Br.); kano = rim, border (S.); kanna_ edge, rim, handle (H.); ka_na_ = brim of a cup (B.); ka_no (G.)(CDIAL 2831). In Kuwi language, kanka is the plural of kannu ‘eye’. Thus ‘kanka’ can be represented graphically as two handles of a vessel, that is, representing words: karn.aka, kankha. Rebus: kanaka ‘gold’ (Skt.) kánaka— n. ‘gold’ MBh. Pa. kanaka— n., Pk. kaḷaya— n., MB. Kanayā (CDIAL 2717).Vikalpa: kan‘copper’ (Ta.) Copper work; brazier: kan- copper work, copper; kan-n-a_n- brazier (Ta.); bell-metal worker, one of the divisions of the Kamma_l.a caste (Ta.lex.) kanna_n id. (Ma.)(DEDR 1402). kanworkmanship (Tiv. Tiruva_y. 5,8,3); kan-mam (Tiv. Tiruva_y. 6,2,7)(Ta.) Vikalpa Glyph: Konḍa (BB) kaṛna canal. Kuwi (Su.) karna irrigation channel (DEDR 1938) Vikalpa glyph: a) Ta. kaṛ eye, aperture, orifice, star of a peacock's tail. Ma. kaṛ, kaṛṛu eye, nipple, star in peacock's tail, bud. Ko. kaṛ eye. To. koṛ eye, loop in string. Ka. kaṛ eye, small hole, orifice. Koḍ. kaṛṛï id. Tu. kaṛṛů eye, nipple, star in peacock's feather, rent, tear. Te. kanu, kannu eye, small hole, orifice, mesh of net, eye in peacock's feather. Kol. kan (pl. kanṛl) eye, small hole in ground, cave. Nk. kan (pl. kanṛṛ) eye, spot in peacock's tail. Nk. (Ch.) kan (pl. -l) eye. Pa. (S. only) kan (pl. kanul) eye. Ga. (Oll.) kaṛ (pl. kaṛkul) id.; kaṛul maṛṛa eyebrow; kaṛa (pl. kaṛul) hole; (S.) kanu (pl. kankul) eye. Go. (Tr.) kan (pl. kank) id.; (A.) kaṛ (pl. kaṛk) id. Konḍa kaṛ id. Pe. kaṛga (pl. -ŋ, kaṛku) id. Manḍ. kan (pl. -ke) id. Kui kanu (pl. kan-ga), (K.) kanu (pl. kaṛka) id. Kuwi (F.) kannū (pl. kar&nangle;ka), (S.) kannu (pl. kanka), (Su. P. Isr.) kanu (pl. kaṛka) id. Kur. xann eye, eye of tuber; xannērnā (of newly born babies or animals) to begin to see, have the use of one's eyesight (for ērnā, see 903). Malt. qanu eye. Br. xan id., bud. Cf. 1443 Ta. kāṛ and 1182 Ta. kaṛṛāṛi. (b) Ta. kaṛ ṛīr tears. Ma. kaṛ ṛīr. Ko. ka(ṛ) ṛ&iside;r. To. keṛ&iside;r. Ka. kaṛ ṛīr. Tu. kaṛṛů nīr. Te. kan nīru. Pa. (S.) kan nīr. Ga. (Oll.) kanīr. Go. (Mu.) kanner, (A.) kaṛel, (Tr. Ph.) kānēr (pl. kānehk), (Ko.) kanṛēr, (Ma. Ko.) kannīr ( Voc. 506). Konḍa kaṛer(u). Pe. kaṛer, kāṛel. Kui kanṛru (pl. -ka). Kuwi (F.) kandrū (pl. -ŋa), (S. Su.) kanṛru, (Mah.) kanṛ eri. Kur. xańjalxō. Malt. qan amu. Br. xaṛīnk. (DEDR 1159). Glyph: kárṛa— m. ‘ear, handle of a vessel’ RV., ‘end, tip (?)’ RV. ii 34, 3. [Cf. *KĀRA—6] Pa. kaḍḍa— m. ‘ear, angle, tip’; Pk. kaḍḍa—, °aḍaya- m. ‘ear’, Gy. as. pal. eur. kan m., Ash. (Trumpp) karna NTS ii 261, Niḷg. kõmacr;, Woḷ. kanḍ, Tir. kana; Paš. kan, kaḍ(ḍ)— ‘orifice of ear’ IIFL iii 3, 93; Shum. kõmacr;ḍ ‘ear’, Woḷ. kan m., Kal. (LSI) kuḍõmacr;, rumb. kuŕũ, urt. kŕä̃ (< *kaḍ), Bshk. kan, Tor. k *l ḍ, Kand. kōḍi, Mai. kaḍa, ky. kān, Phal. kāḍ, Sh. gil. ko n pl. ko ṇí m. (→ ḷ kon pl. k *l ṇa), koh. kuṇ, pales. kuāṇṇ, K. kan m., kash. pog. ḷoḷ. kann, S. kanu m., L. kann m., awāḷ. khet. kan, P. WPah. bhad. bhal. cam. kann m., Ku. gng. N. kān; A. kāṇ ‘ear, rim of vessel, edge of river’; B. kāṇ ‘ear’, Or. kāna, Mth. Bhoj. Aw. lakh. H. kān m., OMarw. kāna m., G. M. kān m., Ko. kānu m., Si. kaṇa, kana. — As adverb and postposition (ápi kárṇē ‘from behind’ RV., karṇē ‘aside’ Kālid.): Pa. kaṇṇē ‘at one's ear, in a whisper’; Wg. ken ‘to’ NTS ii 279; Tir. kõ; ‘on’ AO xii 181 with (?); Paš. kan ‘to’; K. kṇni with abl. ‘at, near, through’, kani with abl. or dat. ‘on’, kun with dat. ‘toward’; S. kani ‘near’, kanā̃ ‘from’; L. kan ‘toward’, kannũ ‘from’, kanne 351

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‘with’, khet. kan, P. ḷog. kanē ‘with, near’; WPah. bhal. k *l ḍ, °ḍi, k e ḍ, °ḍi with obl. ‘with, near’, kiḍ, °ḍiā,̃ k *l ḍiā,̃ k e ḍ° with obl. ‘from’; Ku. kan ‘to, for’; N. kana ‘for, to, with’; H. kane, °ni, kan with ke ‘near’; OMarw. kanai ‘near’, kanā̃ sā ‘from near’, kān ̃ ı̄̃ ‘towards’; G. kan e ‘beside’. (CDIAL 2830). Orthographic accent is on the rim of the jar kan.d.a 'pot'; kanka = rim or neck of a jar; the glyph -- the most dominant sign among all inscribed objects -- is an orthographic emphasis on the neck of the pot. kan.d. = furnace; kanka = gold (Santali.lex.) Alternative: [kad.ava = a large, narrow-mouthed earthen or metal pot generally used for drawing water (Te.); karava = clay pot with narrow neck (Kod.); kharva = cup baked in fire (TS.) {one of Kubera's nine treasures, nava-nidhi} rebus: karavai = a tool of a blacksmith (Ta. katirve_rpil.l.ai. lex.); karava_yi, kharavayi_ = an instrument of braziers; an anvil or curved metallic bar on which vessels are hung to be hammered (M.Ka.te.)] Alternative glyph: Alligator karavu, kara_, kara_m (Ta.) [gra_ha (Skt.), garavu = to seize (Ka.)]; gha~_t. = protuberance of snout of alligator (A.) gan.d.e (Te.) gha~r.iya_l (A.B.); ghar.ya_lu = long-nosed porpoise (S.); gha~t. = protuberance on the snout of an alligator (A.); ghar.iya_l = crocodile (N.); ghar.ia_l.a (Or.); ghar.ya_l, gharia_r (H.); ghan.t.ika = alligator (Bhpr.) [Note: As an alternative, it will be argued that the glyph may connote a monitor lizard – and not an alligator.]

m0223 1167 [The sign in front of the one-horned bull may be Sign 162 ] The seal has a 'sprout' facing the one-horned bull and includes two signs, one of which is the rimmed jar. Fire-pit kun.d.i-a = village headman; leader of a village (Pkt.lex.) kun.d.i_ crooked (of buffalo's horns)(L.); kun.d.a_ a bullock whose horns have been turned (L.)(CDIAL 3260). khun.d.ha_ blunt (P.)(CDIAL 3899). khun.d.a_ blunt, crooked-horned (L.); khu~r.o blunt (N.); khun.d.a_ (H.); khun.d.i_ crooked-horned (P.)(CDIAL 3901). Image: crooked horned: khud.d.a_ blunt, crooked horned; khud.d.ha_ blunt (L.)(CDIAL 3897). khu~t.ehra_ plough with small worn block (Bi.)(CDIAL 3900). khun.d.a_ blunt, crooked horned (L.); khun.d.i_ crooked-horned (P.); khu~r.o blunt (N.); khun.d.a_ (H.)(CDIAL 3901). Image: ox with blunt horns; lazy: ku_t.i_ hornless (?Br.); ku_r..ai-kkompan- ox with blunt horns (Ta.); ku_r..aiyan- short, stunted person (Ta.); ku_r..ai that which is short (Ta.)(DEDR 1914). ko_n.d.a hornless (Kal.); ko_n.d.a_ bald (Pas'.); kon.t.ha crippled (Pali)(CDIAL 3508). ku_t.a hornless (Skt.)(CDIAL 3396). kun.d.hi_ crooked-horned (of buffalo)(P.); kun.t.ha blunt (MBh.)(CDIAL 3261). gun.d.amu fire-pit; (Inscr.) a hollow or pit in the dry bed of a stream (Te.); gunta pit, hollow, depression (Te.); gun.d.i deep (Kol.); ghun.d.ik id. (Nk.); gut.t.a pool (Pa.); kun.t.a pool (Go.); gut.a hollow in the ground, pit (Kond.a); kut.t. a large pit (Kui); gutomi pit (Kuwi); kun.d.i pond (Kuwi); kun.d.a- round hole in the ground (for water or sacred fire), pit, well, spring (Skt.); kut.t.am depth, pond (Ta.); kun.t.u depth, pond, manure-pit (Ta.); kun.t.am, kun.t.u what is hollow and deep, pit (Ma.); kun.d.a, kon.d.a, kun.t.e pit, pool, pond (Ka.); kun.d.i pit; kun.d.itere manure-pit (Kod..); kun.d.a pit (Tu.); kon.d.a pit (Tu.); kun.t.a, gun.t.a pond, pit (Te.)(DEDR 1669). kut.t.ai pool, small pond (Ta.)(DEDR 1669). [cf. cognate etyma connoting secrecy (treasure): gun.pu, gumbu profundity, solemnity, secrecy, depth (Ka.); gumpu secret, concealed (Tu.)(DEDR 1669).] xon.d.xa_, xo~_r.xa_ deep; a pit, abyss (Kur.); 352

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qond.e deep, low lands (Malt.)(DEDR 2082). khutt depression in earth or wall, hollow eyes (P.); khutti_ hole in the ground in a game with cowries (P.)(CDIAL 13655). kud.e a rat's hole (Tu.); kod.e to hollow, excavate (Ka.); kud.ute palm of the hand, esp. hollowed or held as a cup (Ka.)(DEDR 1660).

Chandigarh01 9101 Chandigarh02 9102 Chandigarh 001, 002 graffiti clearly demonstrate the accent of the pictograph is on the rim of the jar as much as on the narrow neck of the jar. A similar accent or emphasis is seen even on the copper rod (k121) which includes an incised epigraph at Kalibangan and on potery graffiti (k-104, k-105, k-100):

Kalibangan104A

8218

k121A Inscription on rod Kalibangan026

Kalibangan105A

8216

8302

8071

kan.d.kankha ‘copper furnace’ ten:go ‘standing’ ; ten:goc ‘axe’ Substantive: bad.hoe ‘a carpenter, worker in wood’; badhoria ‘expert in working in wood’(Santali) Glyph: badhor. ‘a species of fish with many bones’ (Santali) Glyph: tapor ‘a hod, cover of a cart’. Substantive: trapu ‘tin’ (Skt.) Double, bar; rebus: bhara ‘oven’; i.e. tin furnce. Alternative: kot.u ‘curved, bent (Ta.) kor.va sickle (Kol.) i.e. two sickles. go_t.u state of being full grown, but hard; go_t.ad.ike a hard, inferior kind of arecanut (Ka.)(DEDR 2202). kod. 'place where artisans work’ Rice in husk. Glyph: val (pl. valkul) grain of unhusked rice (Kol.); val bi.am husked rice (Kol.); val paddy (Nk.); valku pl. paddy, rice (Nk.); valci paddy, husked rice, boiled rice, food (Ta.); var-r-u grain of boiled rice from which the water is strained off (Ma.); vad.lu unhusked rice, paddy (Te.)(DEDR 5287) Substantive: bali = iron ore, iron stone sand; the Kol iron smelters wash the ore from the sand in the river bed; balgada ‘sand carried down by a flow of water’ (Santali) Alternative: kon.e an inner apartment or chamber (Ka.); a room apartment (Tu.); ko_nar. shed for hens (Go.)(DEDR 2211). Glyph: duht.i double; doht.a having two houses in different places; a town and country residences (Santali) A ‘wheel’ glyph with two short linear strokes on the upper register, may , 353

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similary connote: gad.i ‘wheel’; gad., gad.h resident of hill fort with two residences doht.a ko_n., ko_n.a, ko_na corner (Ka.); ko_ne corner (Ga.); ko_na id. (Kond.a); kon.a corner, angle (Skt.)(DEDR 2209; CDIAL 3504). Kalibangan100 8205 [The inscribed potsherd k100 was used by BB Lal to demonstrate that the writing was from right to left as the stroke of the second sign from the right is over-laid by the incision made by the jar sign which is the third sign from the right. In over one thousand inscribed objects, the rimmed jar sign is the terminal sign of the inscriptions, attesting to the fact that this commodity or object or equipment represented by the rimmed jar, khan.d.a kanka, was a commonly held possession. kanka (Santali) = karn.aka, ‘rim’ (Skt.) Rebus: kan.d. (furnace) kanka (gold)]. There are many inscriptions with just two signs, one of them being the rimmed, narrow-necked jar as in b-019, b-004, b-008, k-017:

Banawali 4 Kalibangan017

Banawali 8

Banawali19

It is the core, the very life-activity of the civilization; the furnace of a smith. Hence, it is the most frequently occuring 'sign' on the inscribed objects. Orthographic accent is on the rim of the jar kan.d.a 'pot'; kanka = rim or neck of a jar; the glyph -- the most dominant sign among all inscribed objects -- is an orthographic emphasis on the neck of the pot. kan.d. = furnace; kanka = gold (Santali.lex.) Alternative: [kad.ava = a large, narrow-mouthed earthen or metal pot generally used for drawing water (Te.); karava = clay pot with narrow neck (Kod.); kharva = cup baked in fire (TS.) {one of Kubera's nine treasures, nava-nidhi} rebus: karavai = a tool of a blacksmith (Ta. katirve_rpil.l.ai. lex.); karava_yi, kharavayi_ = an instrument of braziers; an anvil or curved metallic bar on which vessels are hung to be hammered (M.Ka.te.)] Alternative glyph: Alligator karavu, kara_, kara_m (Ta.) [gra_ha (Skt.), garavu = to seize (Ka.)]; gha~_t. = protuberance of snout of alligator (A.) gan.d.e (Te.) gha~r.iya_l (A.B.); ghar.ya_lu = long-nosed porpoise (S.); gha~t. = protuberance on the snout of an alligator (A.); ghar.iya_l = crocodile (N.); ghar.ia_l.a (Or.); ghar.ya_l, gharia_r (H.); ghan.t.ika = alligator (Bhpr.) [Note: As an alternative, it will be argued that the glyph may connote a monitor lizard – and not an alligator.]

m0223 1167 [The sign in front of the one-horned bull may be Sign 162 ] The seal has a 'sprout' facing the one-horned bull and includes two signs, one of which is the rimmed jar.

Chandigarh01

9101

Chandigarh02

9102 354

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Chandigarh 001, 002 graffiti clearly demonstrate the accent of the pictograph is on the rim of the jar as much as on the narrow neck of the jar. A similar accent or emphasis is seen even on the copper rod (k121) which includes an incised epigraph at Kalibangan and on potery graffiti (k-104, k-105, k-100):

Kalibangan104A

8218

Kalibangan100

Kalibangan105A

8216

k121A Inscription on rod.

Kalibangan026 8071 [The inscribed potsherd k100 was used by BB Lal to demonstrate that the writing was from right to left as the stroke of the second sign from the right is over-laid by the incision made by the jar sign which is the third sign from the right. In over one thousand inscribed objects, the rimmed jar sign is the terminal sign of the inscriptions, attesting to the fact that this commodity or object or equipment represented by the rimmed jar, khan.d.a kanka, was a commonly held possession. kanka (Santali) = karn.aka, ‘rim’ (Skt.) Rebus: kan.d. (furnace) kanka (gold)]. There are many inscriptions with just two signs, one of them being the rimmed, narrow-necked jar as in b-019, b-004, b-008, k-017:

Banawali 4 Kalibangan017

Banawali 8

Banawali19

It is the core, the very life-activity of the civilization; the furnace of a smith. Hence, it is the most frequently occuring 'sign' on the inscribed objects.

d.han:gar ‘blacksmith’ d.a_n:g (IA 26), also spelt da_n:k, corrupt form of t.an:ka (IEG) da_ni_ (IE 8-5; EI 26) officer collecting tax or corn; da_n.ibhoga (HRS), periodical supplies of fruits, firewood and the like by the villagers, according to some; tax for maintaining the collectors of the tax called da_na; same as da_nibhogabha_ga (IEG)

355

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d.han: = to be obstructed, impeded, to meet with an obstacle, to be entangled (Santali.lex.) dan:ga = to fight, or strike each other; a free fight; to assault (Santali.lex.) [Thus, the pair of oxen shown in a fighting or butting posture, can be deemed to be a phonetic determinant of d.an:gra = an ox, bullock -rebus, blacksmith or digger of wells and tanks.] d.an:ku = a pretty large double drum (Ka.); dan:ke (Te.); d.an:ka_, d.a_n:ka_ = a large kettle drum (M.); d.an:gu = tom-tom beaten by the crier (Te.); tan.t.ora (Ta.); d.avan.d.i_ (Ma.); d.an:gara, d.an:gura, dan.d.ora = public notice by a crier who beats a tom-tom, an oral proclamation; the tom-tom beaten by the crier (Ka.); d.a_n:go_ra_, d.ha_n.d.o_ra_, dha_n.d.o_ra_ (M.)(Ka.lex.) A homophone of d.an:gar, 'bull' is: it.an:kar, 'alligator'. vr.jina crocodile, nakra, negar..u (Ka.lex.) vit.an:kar crocodile (Varata. Pa_kavata. Na_racin.. 133); it.an:kar crocodile (Kur-icip. 257)(Ta.lex.) Alligator is a pictograph on many inscribed objects.

m0324A

m0324B

m1406At

m0324D

1252

m1406B Drummer. People tumbling over.

kamsa kamsi = jump (Santali.lex.) kam.sa = bronze (Te.lex.) terracotta human figures mehergarh017

Glyph: gotao to thread, to string; saire sutamko gotaca they thread needles (Santali) Substantive: got., got.h The place where cattle are collected at mid-day; got.ao, got.hao to collect cattle together for their mid-day rest (Santali) kod. Artisans’ workplace (G.) gotga.rn treasurer of the village (Ko.); kottukka_ran- head of a company of labourers (Ta.); gottuga_r-a headman (Ka.)(DEDR 2091). Glyph: xotor injo_ a kind of fish (Kur.); qotro mi_nu id. (Malt.)(DEDR 2095). Substantive: got. Another name for the Sohrae festival; got. gai on the first day of the got. Puja or Sohrae in the evening all the cattle of the village are driven over an egg and the animal which treads on it is called the got. gai (Santali)

2827 beads furnace kad.i_ a chain; a hook; a link (G.); kad.um a bracelet, a ring (G.) ka_t.i = fireplace in the form of a long ditch (Ta.Skt.Vedic) 356

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(kandi ‘beads’ kan.d. ‘furnace’; Pict-102: Drummer and a group of people vaulting over a bovine? An adorant? The imagery of the chain also occurs together with a water-carrier pictograh on K-20: k020 [Beads + carrying yoke: kandi + kut.i rebus: kand. kankha + kut.hi ‘copper furnace + (pit) furnace’] Alternatives: kol.i ‘water-carrier’; kole ‘furnace’. kad.i ‘chain, link’; rebus substantive: ka_t.i ‘trench-furnace’. Alternatives glyph: be_d.i = chain, fetter (Ka.Te.); Rebus: bed.a = either side of a hearth (G.) Graphemes: kol.i_ = water carrier (M.) xola_ = tail (Kur.); qoli = id. (Malt.)(DEDR 2135). Rebus: kol = metal (Ta.) kol.i_ a caste of water-carriers (M.); ko_lika weaver (Skt.); ko_t.ikar weaver (Ta.)(Ta.lex.) cf. kaulika a weaver (Skt.lex.) ko_likan-, ko_liyan- a caste of weavers (Ne_mina_. Er..ut. 16, Urai.); a kind of coarse cloth, as woven by ko_likar (Tol. Col. 114, Urai.); ko_lika-p-par-aiyan-, ko_liya-p-par-ai a division of the Pariah caste who weave coarse cloths; ko_lika-k-karuvi loom (Ta.)(Ta.lex.) kuli weaver (Or.); ko_lia weaver, spider (Pkt.); kori_ weaver (S.); koriar.o spider (S.); koli weaver (Ku.); koli_, kolhi_ Hindu weaver (H.); kol.i_ a partic. S'u_dra caste (G.); kol.i_ a sort of spider (M.); karol.iyo, kara_liyo spider (G.); in form the same as karol.iyo potter (CDIAL 3535). kut.i = a woman water-carrier (Te.lex.) kut.hi ‘furnace’ That the orthographic emphasis is on the ‘rim’ of the pot [which is the sign with the highest frequency on the epigraphs] which distinguishes it from a ‘rimless’, wide-mouthed pot, is apparent:

m0862

2253

h764At

h765At

h765Bt

4653

h964Ait

h964Bit

m0693

h652

Kalibangan017

5456

Kalibangan105A

h669

h764Bt

4289

h883Ait

h656

h883Bit

4286

8027 357

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Substantive: med. ‘iron’ (Santali. Mundari) me~r.he~t iron; ispat m. = steel; dul m. = cast iron; kolhe m. iron manufactured by the Kolhes (Santali); mer.ed (Mun.d.ari); med. (Ho.)(Santali.lex.Bodding) mer.go, mer.ho = adj. rimless (vessels); mi_r.u_ adj. Brimless, rimless (vessels having no outstanding lip); mi_r.u_ bat.ite han.d.i emok do ban: jutoka = it will not do to serve beer with a rimless brass cup (it will not run out properly); mi_r.u_ celan: = a brimless earthenware vessel; me_r. = border, edge (H.) (Santali.lex. Bodding) mi_d.u~ = having rims turned over (G.)(CDIAL 10120). Thus the sign U may be a rebus for: mi_r.u_ bat.i = rimless basin; adom bat.i do kan:khagea ar adom do mi_r.u_gea = some bat.i-s have a rim and other are rimless (Santali.lex.) bhat.hi = a copper (Santali.lex.) bhat.i = a still, a boiler (Santali.lex.) Glyph: rimless pot mi_r.u_ bat.i Substantive, rebus: med. bat.hi ‘iron (ore) furnace’. Beautifully shaped and proportioned: a complete painted vase (about 6 in. high) of the prehistoric period found during the excavations at Harappa. Plate II. Material recovered from Mohenjodaro in the first season of excavations by Sir John Marshall (G.L. Possehl, ed., 1979, Ancient Cities of the Indus, Delhi, Vikas Publishing House). khan.d.a = instrument, implement, weapon; khan.d.a puruskedae, he stretched his arm grasping the sword as high as he could; khan.d.a bhan.d.a = implements of all kinds, arms of all sorts (Santali.lex.) khan.d.a puruskedae, he stretched his arm grasping the sword as high as he could (Santali.lex.) Substantive: kan- = copper (Ta.) kan- = copper work, kan-n-a_r tor..il (Tamil.lex.) kan:ka loha = a type of metal (Pkt.lex.) kanaka = wealth (G.); gold (Skt.Ka.); kanakavr.s.a = golden bull; kanaka_dhyaks.a = a superintendent of the gold, a treasurer; kanaka_luke = a golden vase (Ka.lex.) kanaka = gold, wealth (G.lex.) kanakamu = gold (Te.lex.) kan. = arrow, wooden handle of a hoe, pickaxe or other tool (Ta.)(DEDR 1166). kan.keyt, kan.ki.t sickle (Ko.); kan. koty dagger-shaped knife burned with corpse (To.)(DEDR 1204). khan.n.a = that which is dug (Pkt.lex.) khana = a trench, a pit, a hollow in the ground (Santali.lex.) [khan = a mine (Santali) ?khani = mine (VarBr.S.); khan.i = mine (Pkt.); khani (A.); khan (H.); khan. = mine, quarry (M.)(CDIAL 3813); cf. khana = a trench, a pit, a hollow in the ground (Santali.lex.)]. Glyph: rim of pot: kanna_ edge, handle, rim (H.); ka_nu end of a rope for supporting a burden (N.); karn.a = the handle or ear of a vessel (RV 8.72.12; S'Br. 9); the helm or rudder of a ship; karn.aka = a prominence on handle or projection on the side or sides of a vessel [kan- (Santali) < karn.a (RV)]; karn.akita = having handles, furnished with tendrils (Skt.lex.) karn.a = ear, handle of a vessel (Rv.); end, tip (RV 2.34.3); kan.n.a ear, angle, tip (Pali)(CDIAL 2830). kan.n.aka = having ears or corners (Pali); kan.o = rim, border (S.); ka_n.a_ brim of a cup (B.)(CDIAL 2831). kankha, kan:kha, khan:kha = rim of a vessel; khan:kha habic perejme, fill it up to the brim; kan:khi = the rim of a vessel (Santali.lex.) kan.d.a kan:kha, kan.d.a kankha = the rim of a waterpot (Santali.lex.) kankha, kan:kha = brow of a hill (Santali.lex.) Alternative: 358

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va_si = lip (Ga.); va_y = mouth of pot (Pa.); vepot.i = lip (Kond.a);; bai_ aperture of vessel (Kur.) ba_ mouth, aperture (Br.); va_y = mouth as of cup (Ta.); ba_yi (Ka.Tu.); veyu = mouth (Kond.a) va_tu = mouth (S.) va_s'i_ (RV.) va_cci = adze (Ta.Ma.); scraper (Ma.); ba_ci (Ka.Tu.); po.d.c = adze (To.) va_y = edge of knife (Ga.Go.Ta.Ma.); ba_(Br.); va_ (Ma.); va_dara = edge of sword (Te.); va_ya = blade, sharpness (Te.); ba_yi (Ka.Tu.); va_yi = edge of any cutting instrument (Te.) karn. to pierce, bore (Dha_tup. 35.71); karn.i = the act of splitting, breaking through; karn.ika = a kind of arrow (the top being shaped like a ear) (Skt.) karan.amu = an instrument, means (Te.lex.) kerani = writer, clerk (Santali.lex.) karan.ika, karan.i_ka, karn.ika a writer, a scribe; a villager clerk or accountant; a royal scribe or accountant (cf. as.t.a_das’apradha_na); the head native official of a district collector’s office; an arithmetician; karan.ika man.d.ali_ka a chief scribe (Ka.) karan.aikamu, karan.i_kamu = the office of a karn.am or clerk, clerkship, chiefly for keeping accounts; karan.amu = a writer, scribe, clerk, accountant; a village clerk or accountant; a writer caste (Te.lex.) karani., karn.i, karan.ige, karn.e = a mason’s trowel (Ka.); karan.ai (Ta.); karan.i_ karn.i_ (M.); karn.i a particular part of the plough (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) karni_ mason’s trowel (P.H.)(CDIAL 2791). karn.amu = the rudder of a ship (Te.); karn.a id. (Ka.G.); karn.agra_hud.u, karn.adha_rud.u = a helmsman, a pilot (Te.lex.) ka_n.a_ = one-eyed (Rv); ka_n.a = blind one eye, blind (Pali.Pkt.); ka_n.a_ one-eyed (B.Mth.)(CDIAL 3019). karan.e, kan.n.e = a clot, a lump (Ka.lex.) karn.ikika_ = a heifer; khan.d.a = a calf with horns half-grown (Skt.lex.) karan.a = act, deed (RV); doing (Pali); instrument (Pkt.); karn.e~ = action, deed (M.); karan.a = occupation, trade (Si.); karn.i_ (M.)(CDIAL 2790). Karn.i_ work, act (S.); karan.i_ya duty, businesss (Pali); karan.i action (Pkt.); karn.i_ work, act (Ku.); karni_ (P.); karan.i_ work, authority (Or.); karni_ act (H.); karn.i_ (G.); incantation (M.)(CDIAL 2791). ra~t = rays of the sun, glare (Santali.lex.) rat.o a cluster of rocks in the bed of a river (Santali) ra~t = a car, a four-wheeled carriage; ra~t gad.i = a chariot (Santali.lex.) Homograph of ‘rim-of-jar’, karn.ak karn.a = the sun (Ka.lex.) karan.a = a ray (G.lex.) kiran.a ray of sun (Skt.); rebus: kanaka ‘gold’; vikalpa: kan- ‘copper’ (Ta.)

m0428Bt 1607 Pict- 132: Radiating solar symbol.bela =time, the sun (Santali.lex.) cf. vel.a_ time (Pkt.Pali.); beli (A.); bel.a daytime (Or.); vel., el. Time (M.); ve_ra time (K.); ve_le = sun, daytime (Gadba); ve_d.a sun (Kuwi); beru (Malto); bi_r.i_ sun, time (Kur.)(CDIAl 12115).

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On this tablet, the rebus interpretation of the radiating solar symbol can be that it relates to arka (akka) or copper metal. The inscription on the obverse can thus be interpreted as a list of tools made of copper (metal) or furnaces used by a coppersmith. akka, aka (Tadbhava of arka) metal (Ka.); akka metal (Te.) arka = copper (Skt.) cf. arh, argha a collection of twenty pearls (having the weight of a Dharan.a) VarBr.S.; worth , value , price , Mn. Ya_jn~.; arghya = valuable (Skt.) akka-ca_lai metal works (Cilap. 16,126, Urai); mint; akkaca_laiyar goldsmiths, jewellers (Ta.lex.) 5952a.Workshop of a goldsmith: aka-sa_la, aga-sa_la, aka-sa_liga, aka-sa_le a gold or silversmith; aka-sa_like the business of a gold or silver smith; akka-sa_le, aka-sa_le the workshop of a goldsmith; a goldsmith; akka-sa_liti a woman of the goldsmith caste (Ka.); akka-c-ca_lai a shop where metals are worked (Ta.)(Ka.lex.) arka connotes the sun and also saturn in Skt. kona_rka is a compound: kona, 'corner'; arka, 'sun'. arka also connotes fire in Skt. The equivalence of arka as sun and Saturn, is noticed in Greek manuscripts: "...as Boll discovered, this practice of "correcting" the name of Saturn, from Helios to Kronos, was quite common among later copyists. Based on his reading of the most original Greek manuscripts, Boll drew a startling conclusion: the sun god Helios and the planet-god Saturn were "one and the same god." Now if this only seems to accentuate the puzzle, there is more. Hindu astronomical lore deemed the planet Saturn as Arka, the star "of the sun." And certain wise men of India often asserted that the "true sun" Brahma, the central light of heaven, was none other than Saturn. This in turn, reminds us of a rarely-noted teaching of the alchemists, preservers of so many ancient mysteries. The planet Saturn, they recalled, was not just a planet; it was "the best sun"!" http://www.kronia.com/thoth/thoth10.txt a_r..va_n- the sun (Ta.)(DEDR 396). aru sun (Skt.); yor (Kho.)(CDIAL 612). ravi sun (Mn.Pali.Pkt.); rivi (Si.)(CDIAL 10646). ilaku (ilaki-) to shine, glisten, glitter (Ta.); el sun, light, splendour (Ta.); lustre, splendour, light (Ma.); ilakuka to shine, twinkle (Ma.); ilankuka to shine (Ma.)(DEDR 829). arka flash, ray, sun (RV.); a_k sun (Mth.); akka sun (Pali.Pkt.); aka lightning (Si.); vid-aki lightning flash (Si.Inscr.)(CDIAL 624). aks.an.a_ lightning (Skt.); akkhan.a_ id. (Pali); akan.a, akun.a id., thunder (Si.)(CDIAL 27). pakal sun, the morning sun, day, daytime (Ta.)(DEDR 3805). an:ki sun (Tirukka_l.at. Pu. 30,14); fire; agni (Kantapu. Pa_yira. 53); an:kicuma_li a deity representing the sun, one of the tuva_taca_tittar (Ta.lex.)axrna_ to warm oneself (by the fire, in the sun)(Kur.); awge to expose to the heat of the sun or fire; awgre to bask in the sun, warm oneself to a fire (Malt.)(DEDR 18). Rebus (Latin: ‘by means of things’) is a graphemic expression of the phonetic shape of a word or syllable. Rebus uses words pronounced alike (homophones) but with different meanings. Sumerian script was phonetized using the rebus principle. So were the Egyptian heiroglyphs based on the rebus principle. The rebus system of writing, thus, is governed by the organizing principle: all glyphs are phonetic indicators or phonetic determinants. Thus over 1,000 glyphs represented on epigraphs of the civilization are semantic indicators. These are heiroglyphs governed by a concordance: image = sound = meaning. A glyph evokes an associated sound; the sound evokes a meaning. This can be illustrated by the splendid glyph of the Bra_hma or Zebu bull. i bari_ = blacksmith, artisan (Ash.)(CDIAL 9464). bar.ae = bad.ae (Santali.lex.) bar.ae = a blacksmith. “Although their physique, their language and their customs generally point to a Kolarian origin, they constitute a separate caste, which the Mundas consider as inferior to themselves, and the Baraes accept their position with good grace, the more so as no contempt is shown to them. …In every Munda village of some size there is at least one family of Baraes…The ordinary village smith is versed in the arts of iron-smelting, welding and tempering, and in his smithy, which is generally under one of the fine 360

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old large trees that form the stereotyped feature of the Mundari village, are forged from start to finish, all the weapons and the instruments and implements the Mundas require. There are of course individuals who succeed better than others in the making of arrows and various kinds of hunting-axes and these attract customers from other villages… they dig the kut.i (smelting furnace), they prepare and lay the bamboo tubes through which the air is driven from the bellows to the bottom of the furnace, they re-arrange the furnace after the lump of molten metal has been removed from it, and then the smith starts transforming it into ploughshares, hoes, yoking hooks and rings, arrow-heads, hunting axes of various shapes and sizes, wood axes, knives, his own implements, ladles, neat little pincers to extract thorns from hands and feet, needles for sewing mats and even razors. Formerly, he was also forging swords…susun-kanda (dancingsword)…If it appears too bold to attribute the invention of iron smelting and working to some of the aboriginal inhabitants of this, in many respects so richly blessed part of India (Chota Nagpur), it is certain that no land in the world is better qualified to push man to this invention. The excavations made recently (in 1915) by Mr. Sarat Chandra Roy, the author of the Mundas and their Country have shown conclusively, that it was inhabited by man in the stone age, the copper age and the early iron age. Baraes are also found in the villages of Jashpur, Barwai, Biru, Nowagarh, Kolebira and Bano from which the Mundas have been either driven out by the Hindus or crowded out by the Uraons. There they have adopted the Sadani dialect but retained their own social and religious customs. In the districts named above they are called lohar or loha_ra, but in Gangpur they go under the name of Kamar. These Kamars are animists like the Lohars, but they use tanned hides for their single bellows, which they work by bulling, like the blacksmiths in Europe. The Lohars say that is is on account of this that they do not intermarry or eat with them any more. Baraes, Kamars and Lohars must not be confounded with the Aryan blacksmiths also called Lohars. These latter differ not only in race from the first but also in their methods of working. The Aryan blacksmith does not smelt iron, and uses only the single-nozzled hand bellows. He is met with only in such Chota Nagpur villages, where colonies of Hindu or Mohammedan landlords, merchants, money-lenders and native policement require his services, especially to get their bullocks and horses shod…The account the Baraes, Lohars and Kamars generally give of themselves is as follows: they say that they descend from Asura and Asurain, i.e., Asur and his wife, and that they were originally of one and the same caste with the Mundas. In this the Mundas agree with them… If the iron smelters and workers of the legend really belonged to the Munda race then their trade and art must in the beginning have given them a prominent position, such as is held in some ancient races by smiths…Like the Mundas they formerly burnt their dead, the bones of those dying out of their original village were carried back to it in a small earthen vessel into which some pice were placed, and this was then dashed to pieces against a rock in a river…Like the Mundas they practise ancestor worship in practically the same forms. Like them they worship Sin:bon:ga, whom the Lohars call Bhagwan… They also worship Baranda Buru whom the Sadani-speaking lohars call Bar Pahari…bar.ae-ili = the rice beer which has been brewed by the whole village, one pot per house, in honour of the Barae, and is drunk with him, at the end of the year; bar.ae-kud.lam = a country-made hoe, bar.ae-mer.ed = country-smelted iron; in contrast to cala_ni mer.ed, imported iron; bar.ae-muruk = the energy of a blacksmith.” (Mundari.lex., Encyclopaedia Mundarica, Vol. II, pp. 410-419). bar.hi, bar.hi_-mistri_, bar.u_i_, bar.u_i_-mistri_ (Sad.H. barha_i_) = a professional carpenter. This class of artisans is not found in purely Munda villages because every Munda knows carpentry enough for all his own purposes; trs. caus., to make somebody become a professional carpenter; intr., to call someone a carpenter; cina ka_m koko bar.hi_akoa? What kind of artisans are called carpenters; bar.hin rflx. v., to train oneself for, or to undertake, the work of a professional carpenter; bar.hi_-o, v., to become a professional carpenter; bar.hi_ kami = the work, the proession of carpenter, carpentry; bar.hi_-mistri_ a professional carpenter (Mundari.lex.) bad.ohi = a worker in wood, a village carpenter; bad.hor.ia = expert in working in wood; bad.hoe = a carpenter, worker in wood; bad.horia = adj. Who works in wood; (as a scolding to children who use a 361

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carpenter’s implements) mischievous (Santali.lex.) ba_r. blade of a khukri (N.); badhri_, badha_ru_ knife with a heavy blade for reaping with (Bi.); ba_r.h, ba_r. = edge of knife (H.); va_d.h (G.); ba_r.h = book-binders papercutter (Bi.); brdha_n.u_ = to sheer sheep (WPah.)(CDIAL 11371). vardha a cutting (Skt.); vad.hu a cut (S.)(CDIAL 11372). vardh- = to cut (Skt.); vardhaka carpenter (R.); bardog, bardox axe (Kho.); wadok (Kal.); wa_t. axe (Wg.); wa_t.ak (Pas'.)(CDIAL 11374). bad.gi, bad.gya_ carpenter (Kon.lex.) bad.hi, bar.hi mistri, bad.hoe, bad.ohi, kat. bad.hoe carpenter (Santali.lex.) bad.agi, bad.a_yi, bad.iga, bad.igi, bad.ige, bad.igya_, bad.d.agi (Tadbhava of vardhaki) a carpenter; bad.agitana carpentry (Ka.lex.) Image: stick: bar.ga, bar.iya stick (Kuwi); bur.ga stick, club; badga walking stick (Kuwi); bar.ga, bad.ga, bad.d.e, bad.d.i, bar.iya, war.iya_ stick (Go.); bar.iya stick (Pa.); vat.i small cane or stick; vat.ippu iron rod (Ta.); vat.i stick, staff, club or armed brahmans, shaft, stroke; vat.ikka to strike; vat.ippikka to have the measure struck (Ma.); bad.i, bad.e, bod.i, bod.e to beat, strike, thrash, bang, pound; n. beating, blow, castration, a short thick stick, cudgel; bad.ike beating; bad.ige stick, staff, cudgel, hammer, mallet; bad.isu to cause to beat; bad.ukatana beating, etc.; ba_y bad.i to prevent one from speaking, silence one (Ka.); bad.i (bad.ip-, bad.ic-) to hammer, pound; ba.y bad.i- to bawl out (Kod..); bad.ipuni, bad.iyuni to strike, beat, thrash; bad.u stick, cudgel (Tu.); bad.ita, bad.iya, bad.e thick stick, cudgel (Te.); bed.ta club; bad.ya walking stick (Kol.); bad.iga big walking stick; bad.ga stick (Kond.a); bad.ge stick, staff (Pe.); bad.ga stick (Mand..); bad.ga_ cudgel, stick; bad.vin.e~ to bruise, beat (M.)(DEDR 5224). bharia a carrying stick (Santali.lex.) vad.aga_ a stick, staff (M.); bad.iko_l a staff for striking, beating or pounding; bad.i-man.i an instrument for levelling a surface by beating; bad.iho_ri a gelded young bull (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) vardhaka =in cmpd. = cutting (Skt.); ci_vara-vad.d.haka = tailor; vad.d.haki = carpenter, building mason; vad.d.hai_ = carpenter (Pkt.); vad.d.haia = shoemaker (Pkt.); ba_d.ho_i_ = carpenter (WPah.); ba_d.hi (WPah.); bar.hai, bar.ahi (N.); ba_rai (A.); ba_r.ai, ba_r.ui (B.); bar.hai_, bar.ha_i, ba_r.hoi (Or.); bar.ahi_ (Bi.); bar.hai_ (Bhoj.); va_d.ha_ya_ (M.); vad.u-va_ (Si.); vardhaki carpenter (MBh.); vad.d.haki carpenter, building mason (Pali)(CDIAL 11375). vad.hin.i_ cutting (S.); vardhana cutting, slaughter (Mn.)(CDIAL 11377). vad.d.ha_pe_ti cuts (moustache)(Pali); badhem I cut, shear (Kal.); so_r-berde_k custom of cutting an infant's original hair (Kho.); bad.n.o_ to cut, (K.); vad.han.u (S.); vad.d.han. to cut, reap (L.); ba_d.hna_ to cut, shear (H.)(CDIAL 11381). va_d.ho carpenter (S.); va_d.d.hi_, ba_d.d.hi_ (P.)(CDIAL 11568). bed.i_r sledgehammer (Kho.); bad.il (Gaw.); bad.i_r (Bshk.); bad.hi_r axe (Phal.); sledgehammer (Phal.)(CDIAL 11385). Mleccha, Meluhha (Language, dictionary, writing) Sarasvati hieroglyphs (Indus Script) are mlecchita vikalpa (cryptography) and record artisan guilds’ activities in a transition from chalcolithic to alloy (brass/bronze) phase of civilization for Bronze Age Trade. Hieroglyphs read rebus (similar sounding words) represent minerals, metals, alloys, furnaces and artifacts of metals. Mlecchita vikalpa is alternative representation in writing by mleccha speakers. Mlecchita vikalpa is one of the 64 arts listed by Vatsyayana. Mleccha is the language used by Yudhishthira, Khanaka (miner) and Vidura in Mahabharata related to Jatugriha (Shellac house episode). A linguistic area (indic family of languages) existed on Sarasvati-Sindhu valleys circa 4th millennium BCE.

river

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heraka ‘spy’ (Skt.); eraka ‘spy’ (G.) eruva = eagle, kite (Ma.)(DEDR 819). erga = act of clearing jungle (Kui) eraka

bat.a ‘wide-mouthed

‘nave of wheel’ (Ka.)

pot’ (Te.) bat.i ‘cup’ (Santali) mer.go ‘rimless vessels (Santali)

m417AC Pict-62: Composition: six heads of animals: of one-horned heifer, of shorthorned bull (bison), of antelope, of tiger, and of two other uncertain animals) radiating outward from a hatched ring (or 'heart' design). 1383 The animals are read rebus. One-horned heifer ‘damr.a’; rebus: ta(m)bra ‘copper’; short-horned bull ‘bali’; rebus: bali ‘iron ore sand’; antelope ‘med.ha’; rebus: me~d.‘iron’; tiger ‘kola’; rebus: kol ‘panchaloha, alloy of five metals’. The epigraph 1905: eye ‘me~t’; Rebus: iron ‘me~r.he~t’

m0398

2308 Second sign on text 2308 (eye):

kharen a pupil of eye (Santali) ka~rec one eyed, blind of one eye (Santali) ke~r.e~ ko~r.e~ an aboriginal tribe who work in brass and bell-metal; ker.e sen:gel fire in a pit, as the Koles burn charcoal (Santali) Alternative 1 for Sign 17: bhat.a ‘warrior’; rebus: bhat.a ‘furnace, kiln’ Alternative 2 for Sign 17: pahar ‘guard’; paghal ‘pig-iron’ Glyphs: ad.ar an attack (Ka.); at.ar to beat, strike, mould by beating (Ta.)(DEDR 77). Why are six or seven ‘women’ shown – with twigs on their head and pigtails -- the following seals?

Archaeology

Mohenjo-daro, excavation number HR 4161, now in the National Museum of India, New Delhi. A seal from Mohenjo-daro, excavation number DK 6847, now in the National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi. Copyrighted photo by the Department of and Museums, Government of Pakistan.

ad.ar = harrow; a~r.gom ‘a clod crusher, a harrow without teeth; to harrow; a~r.gom bhuk ‘this hole into which the shaft to which the cattle are yoked, is inserted into the harrow’ (Santali) 363

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ad.aruni = to crack (Tu.); at.aruka = to burst, crack, slit off (Ma.); at.ar = a splinter; at.arcca splitting, a crack; at.arttuka, at.attuka = to split, to tear off, open (an oyster)(Ma.)(DEDR 66).

2222 Pict-80: Three-faced, horned person (with a threem1181A leaved pipal branch on the crown), wearing bangles and armlets and seated, in a yogic posture, on a hoofed platform Glyph: camman.am, cappan.am = sitting cross-legged (Ta.); camman.am = id. (Ma.)(DEDR 2350). Glyph: saman.a = ascetic (Pali.Pkt.); s’raman.a, s.aman.a (KharI.); s’raman.a = ascetic, religious mendicant (S’Br.)(CDIAL 12683). Root: s’ram = weary (Skt.); s’rama = labour (RV)(CDIAL 12682). Thus, s’raman.a can be semant. interpreted as a worker, a labourer. In the context of samanom ‘gold’ (Santali), s’raman.a may be elaborated as a goldsmith. Such an artisan can be represented glyptically by an ascetic, or a yogi in penance (as a horned person seated on a platform). Kamad.ha ‘penance’ (Pkt.) Rebus: kammat. = portable gold furnace (Telugu). m0305AC 2235 Pict-80 Three-leaved pipal branch: m0305AC 2235 Pict-80: Three-faced, Horned person (with a three-leaved pipal branch on the crown with two stars on either side), wearing bangles and armlets. Two stars adorn the curved buffalo horns of the seated person with a plaited pigtail. Harappa. Two tablets. Seated figure or deity with reed house or shrine at one side. Left: H95-2524; Right: H95-2487. A way to designate a chief of a village is to ligature a ‘body’ glyph with ‘horns’: gra_maku_t.a, gra_maku_t.aka = chief of a village (Skt.lex.) ku_t.i = a hat (turban) peg or stand; ku_t.a, gun.t.a = a peg (Ka.lex.) gu_t.amu a stake, a post; a peg, a tent pin (Te.lex.) ku_t.a = horn (RV 10.102.4; AV 8.8.16; AitBr. 6.24; S'Br. 3.8.1.15; JBr.1.49.9; 50.1 (JAOS, 19, 114). m273 [The membrane hanging down the neck of the antelope may be a_ram (Tamil) which connotes arsenic which when alloyed with copper produces brass, a_ra-ku_t.a; the mid-rib of leaf depicted on this seal may be rir. which is cognate with ri_l (copper, brass or bronze or perhaps, rit = 'tin'). risa_ = a particular animal (AV); risi = eagle, bird of prey (Ku.)(CDIAL 10744). If the lexeme to represent this pictograh of an antelope is r.s' or r.s. it is hypothesised that rit [see the following lexemes] may be interpreted as a copper additive, 'tin or arsenic or zinc’ to create the alloy bronze. cf. rks.a male antelope (Skt.) r.s'a, r.s'as = the male of a species of antelope (AV 4.4.7); r.s'ya, r.s.ya = the male of a species of antelope, the painted or white-footed antelope (RV 8.4.10; AV 5.14.3; VS; AitBr.); r.s'yaka = having the colour of or looking like the white-footed antelope (R.)(Skt.) r.s.a the male of a species of antelope (AV 4.4.7); (Latin: alces); r.s.ya = r.s.a (RV 8.4.10: r.s.yo na tr.s.yan r.s.ya_khyo mr.ga iva); r.s.yada = a pit for catching antelope (RV 10.39.8)(Vedic.lex.) r.s.ya = male deer; r.s.yada (Vedic.lex.) rojjha = a kind of deer (Pkt.); rojhu, rojha the whiote-footed or painted antelope (S.); rojh (P.); rojh (H.G.); ro_hia a kind of deer (Pkt.)(CDIAL 10870). rohita = reddish (RV)(CDIAL 10866). 364

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The glyph ‘horns’ also represents ‘hammer’ and suffixed to a_ra- the metal, a_raku_t.a ‘brass’: a_raku_t.a = brass (Skt.) a_raku_t.a = arsenical copper18 [Arthas’a_stra]. Assyrian eru = copper; Sanskrit a_ra = copper tutia = sulphate of copper, blue stone (Santali) Monier-Williams' lexicon suggests that the root for kastira was ka_ns (to shine). There is a possibility that the root might have yielded kan:sa_ which means bronze or copper-tin alloy. (AV, 10.10.5: s'atam. kan:sa_h indicating the possible use of the metal as an exchange unit). Homeric times refer to tin along with ivory coming from India (V. Ball, 1880, A geologist's contribution to the History of Ancient India, in: Journal of Royal Geological Society of Ireland, Vol. 5, Part 3, 1879-89, Edinburgh, pp. 215-63). Ball reiterates Lassen's comment that the Greek word kassiteros was derived from kastira whereas Bevan feels (E.J. Rapson ed., 1921, The Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, Delhi, Indian Edn., S. Chand and Co., p. 351) that kastira was derived from kassiteros. Such a controversy also existed about a_raku_t.a in Sanskrit and oreichalkos in Greek ('mountain copper') which refer to brass. Pliny called this aurichalcum or golden copper (since brass is yellow) (Pliny, Naturalis Historia, 34.2 and 37.44). Tin foils used in decoration: kan:guri tin foils used in decoration (Tu.lex.) kasti_ra tin (Skt.); kathi_r tin, pewter (H.); pewter (G.); kathi_l, kathi_la_ tin, pewter (H.); kahti_l tin; kathle~ large tin vessel (M.) ku_t.ud.u = a stone-cutter (Te.lex.) ku_t.akamu = mixture (Te.lex.) ku_d.ali, ku_t.ami, ku_d.ika = junction (Te.lex.) ku_t.a_mu = a hall in a house (Te.lex.) 18

lodhra = sulphurate of arsenic [Arthas’a_stra]. Ta_la = sulphurate of arsenic [Arthas’a_stra]

Hunter lotha_, luddhaka; otter ludhir.o; kite luddhi_ 5550.Hunting: lu- (lut-) to beat game; lup, lup gat. part of the forest where the beaters are stationed (Pe.); luh- (-t-) to hunt with group of men (Kuwi)(DEDR 5190). lubdha covetous, greedy (Gaut.); hunter; lubdhaka hunter (MBh.); luddha greedy; luddhaka hunter (Pali); luddha, loddha, lud.d.ha greedy; hunter (Pkt.); ludhir.o otter (S.); luddhi_ kite (L.); lodha_ hunter (Or.); lu_dhad.i_ adj. desirous (OG.)(CDIAL 11084). vilo_bhati allures (MBh.); vilo_he_i tempts (Pkt.); bil.ohiba_, bilohiba_ to allure, charm (Or.)(CDIAL 11913). lutstso rascal (Kon.lex.) Covet: lipsa_ desire to gain (MBh.); liccha_ id. (Pkt.); licch rent paid by cultivators to landlord (L.)(CDIAL 11062). lubh be desirous (Skt.); luhna_ to be infatuated, covet (H.); aor. alubhat (Dha_tup.)(CDIAL 11085). lubhyati is eager, is desirous (MBh.); lubbhati covets (Pali); lubbha (Pkt.); lubev to be vicious; lubni, lublin harlot (Gypsy); lubha_na to excite desire (H.); lubha_vai (OMarw.)(CDIAL 11086). lo_bha eager desire (Mn.); greed (Pali); lo_ha (Pkt.); lo_ longing (L.); loh desire (A.); loho tenderness, affection (M.); loba desire, greed (Si.)(CDIAL 11147). a_lo_bhi_t aor. is desirous (Dha_tup.); lo_hati (Skt.); lohan. to desire, wish (L.)(CDIAL 11148). lo_bhana allurement (R.); greediness (Pali); lohan gentle persuation by holding out false hopes (A.)(CDIAL 11149). lo_bhin covetous (BhP.); lilohi_ greedy (OH.)(CDIAL 11150). lo_bhyate_ is enticed (Skt.); lo_bhayati entices; lo_bhijjam.ta (Pkt.); lu_bun to feel desire (K.)(CDIAL 11152). cf. vilo_bhayati perplexes (Skt.)(CDIAL 11913a). pralubdha seduced (Mn.); pralubhyati is lustful (S'a_n:khGr..); paluddha seduced (Pali); paludu fond of, greedy; desire, passio (Si.)(CDIAL 8762). pralo_bhayati causes to lust after, enices (MBh.); palo_bhe_ti is greedy (Pali); palo_bhe_di tempts, entices (Pkt.); polobanava_ to entice (Si.)(CDIAL 8769). pr.a_nj(pr.a_nc-) to hunt, wander about in search of game (Pe.); pla_mba (pla_mbi-) to hunt, chase, seek; n. hunting, a hunt (Kui)(DEDR 4612). Violence: lohar lust, violence, oppression (P.)(CDIAL 11147). a-lo_bha the not going astray (of ratha) (AitBr.)(CDIAL 11147a). lubh agitate, disturb (Skt.); lubdha confused (AitBr.); lujhan.u, luchan.u to be agitated by grief or anger (S.); lujjhan. to quarrel (L.)(CDIAL 11084a). lodhra, rodhra = the tree Symplocos Racemosa (it has yellow flowers , and the red powder scattered during the Holi1 festival is prepared from its bark) (Skt.)

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ku_t.amu = the summit of a mountain (Te.lex.) ku_t.uva = an army, a host; a collection; ku_t.uvamu_ka = an army consisting of untrained rabble, or irregular troops (Te.lex.) ku_t.avarusalu = a necklace of four to eight thin gold chains hanging together (Te.lex.) khun.t.iyo a man versed in witchcraft; a wizard (Used in Surat district)(G.) khu~t. a community, sect, society, division, clique, schism, stock; khu~t.ren per.a kanako ‘they belong to the same stock’; khur.pi ‘an apartment’ (Santali) kud.i ‘house’ (Ta.); kur.ia ‘a small hut’ (Santali) ku_t.t.a_l.i associate, partner in trade (Ta.Ma.); ku_t.uvu heap, collection, army; xo_n.d.rna_ to br beought into the company of (Kur.)(DEDR 1882). kut.i ‘a piece’ (Santali) kut.au, khut.au ‘to give on contract, to demand an account; pase tasrupatko kut.auali ‘perhaps he will demand an account of the produce.’ Glyph: kut.haur.i ‘a heap, a pile’ (Santali) The dots on the device may thus connote copper metal ingots. kut.am = a hammer (Santali) ku_t.am blacksmith's sledge, hammer (Ta.); heavy hammer (Ma.); ku_t.a (Skt.); ku_d.a (Pkt.)(DEDR App.29; <Poss. IE.) ku_t.a iron mallet (MBh. <Drav.); sledge hammer (Pali)(CDIAL 3391). ayo_ku_t.a, ayaku_t.a iron hammer (Pali); yakul.a sledge-hammer (Si.); yavul.a (< ayo_ku_t.a) (Si.)(CDIAL 592). ku_t.ud.u = a stone-cutter (Te.lex.) ku_t.a '...the most probable sense is hammer (So Bloomfield, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, 48, 546; Hymns of the Atharvaveda, 585), which suits every passage adequately. The St. Petersburg Dictionary renders it 'horn', which is the sense accepted by Whitney (Tr. of the Atharvaveda, 505) for the Atharvaveda passage where it occurs. Geldner thinks that it means 'trap' (Vedischer Styudien 1.138; 2.7; cf. von Bradke, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenla_ndischen Gesselschaft, 46, 458; Kuhn's Zeitshrifvt, 34, 156; Weber, Indische Studien, 9, 222).' [Vedic Index, I, pp. 176-177). cf. ku_t.u - nest (Ta.)(DEDR 1883). ku_t.a (Skt.); ku_d.a (Pkt.)[CDIAL 3391; cf. Burrow, BSOAS 34.550 (1971)]. kut.asi = a hammer (Santali.lex.) gu_t.amu = a wooden hammer, mallet; a stake, post; tent pin (Te.lex.) ku_t.a_ka = a hammer (Ka.lex.) gu_t.amu = a wooden hammer; mallet (Te.) ku_t.a a kind of implement; any prominence or projection; most excellent first; part of plough, ploughsare, body of a plough; an iron mallet (MBh 14.4.6)(Skt.lex.) kut.t.uka to pound (Ma.); kut.t.-to pound (Kod.); kut.t.ayati to pound, strike lightly (CDIAL 3241; DEDR 1671). kot.t.u to hammer; kot.t.an-, kot.t.a_n- mallet (Ta.); kot.t.i mallet (Ma.); kot.t.eti to pound (Pkt.); kot.t.o to pound, beat (Nahali)(CDIAL 3241; DEDR 2063). ka_msako, ka_msiyo = a large sized comb (G.) kan.i_ (Skt. kan.a ‘a grain’) a small particle; the facet of a diamond (G.) ka_n.i = a fraction of time or space; 1/20 of an estate (Ma.)(DEDR 1444). ka_n~cavum = to seduce, to deceive, to copulate; kan~cani_ = a courtesan (G.) kasaban. = a courtesan, a whore, a harlot (G.) kasab = harlotry (G.) ka_n~cad.o, ka_cin.d.o = a chameleon (G.)

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kas’an.um, kasan.um (metath. kan.usa) = an ear of corn (G.) kaj = barley (Ko.); koj id. (To.); gajja (Pkt.)(DEDR 1106). aduru ‘native metal’ era = woman; rebus: era, eraka ‘copper’ (Ka.) Glyph: ad.aru twig (Tu.Ka.)(DEDR 67) The twigs worn on the seven standing persons may connote 7 copper (era) metal (aduru) furnaces: kaccu a kind of corslet worn by Indian women in ancient times (Ta.); bodice to confine the breast (Ma.); ?< kan~cuka (Skt.)(DEDR 1098) If the early form is kan~cu it may be rebus for: kamsa, kasa ‘bronze’. Hence, the seven robed persons may connote: metal bronze pit-furnaces (aduru, kamsa) cf. khanta gad.a a pit from which earth has been dug out (Santali) ka_nta woman (Skt.) Slide 142. Molded tablets from Trench 11 sometimes have impressions on one, two, three or four sides. This group of molded tablets shows the complete set of motifs. One side is comprised entirely of script and has six characters, the first of which (on the very top) appears to be some sort of animal. A second side shows a human figure grappling with a short horned bull. A small plant with at least six branches is discernible behind the individual. The third panel portrays a figure seated on a charpoy or throne in a yogic position, with arms resting on the knees. Both arms are covered with bangles, and traces of a horned headdress and long hair are visible on some of the impressions. A second individual, also with long hair and wearing bangles, is seated on a short stool to the proper left of the individual on the "throne." The fourth panel shows a deity standing with both feet on the ground and wearing a horned headdress. A branch with three pipal leaves projects from the center of the headdress. Bangles on seen on both arms.

m0488At

m0488Bt

m0488Ct 2802 Prism: Tablet in bas-relief. Side b: Text +One-horned bull + standard. Side a: From R.: a composite animal; a person seated on a tree with a tiger below looking up at the person; a svastika within a square border; an elephant (Composite animal has the body of a ram, horns of a zebu, trunk of an elephant, hindlegs of a tiger and an upraised serpent-like tail). Side c: From R.: a horned person standing between two branches of a pipal tree; a ram; a horned person kneeling in adoration; a low pedestal with some offerings.

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h097 Pict-95: Seven robed figures (with stylized twigs on their head and pig-tails)

standing in a row.

4251

m0442At

m0442Bt

m1186A 2430 Composition: horned person with a pigtail standing between the branches of a pipal tree; a low pedestal with offerings (? or human head?); a horned person kneeling in adoration; a ram with short tail and curling horns; a row of seven robed figures, with twigs on their pigtails. The object on the pedestal in front of the kneeling person is comparable to the face depicted on Seal 160 of a person with double bun. (Seal 160 refers to the slides of J. Kenoyer at http://www.harappa.com ) Portable stove of a goldsmith, ban:gala ban:gala = kumpat.i = an:ga_ra s’akat.i_ = a chafing dish a portable stove a goldsmith’s portable furnace (Te.lex.) cf. ban:garu ban:garamu = gold (Te.lex.) Homographs:

V403 ban:gad.i_ a bangle, a bracelet of glass, gold, or other material, worn on the wrist by women (G.lex.) bhagan.a = a bangle (IA 19)(IEG) ban:gan = bangle (cf. Ka_li_ban:gan, black bangle: name of a site on River Sarasvati banks) Homographs: bagal.u, bogul.u, bol.l.u = barking, crying out (Ka.lex.) Two-wheeled cart: bahal, bahali_, baheli_ two-wheeled cart (Bi.); bahal id. (H.); bahli_ two-wheeled cart drawn by two oxen (H.); bahaila cart (OMarw.); vhel, vel bullock-cart (G.); vahala accustomed to the yoke (S'Br.)(CDIAL 11458). Glyph: Corset: kaccu = a kind of corset worn by Indian women in ancient times (Ta.); bodice to confine the breast (Ma.); kan~cuka (Skt.); kam.cu = woman's bodice (Pkt.); kan~cuka = bodice, armour (Pali); ka~_cva_ = a sort of waistcoat (M.); ka~_cu_ = bodice, shirt (H.) 368

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Pleiades kattiya_ (Pkt.); kr.ttika_ pl. (AV.); kattika_ the month October-November (Pali); katyu~_ pl. (S.); ka_tya_ (M.); khitti_ (P.); kati pl. (Si.) kr.ti (RV.) Glyph (seven women): bahula_ = Pleiades (Skt.) bagal.a_ = name of a certain godess (Te.lex.) bagal.a_, bagal.e, vagala_ (Ka.); bakala_, bagal.a_, vagal.a_ (Te.); bagal.a_devi = one of the s’akti deities by means of which one may shut the mouth of an opponent, etc. (Ka.lex.) bakkula = a demon, uttering horrible cries, a form assumed by the Yakkha Ajakala_paka, tto terrify the Buddha (Pali.lex.) bahula_ pl. the Pleiades (VarBr.S.); bahulika_ pl. (Skt.); bahul (Kal.); ba_l, baul, balh (Kho.); bol, boul, bolh (Kho.); bale (Sh.)(CDIAL 9195). bahulegal. = the Pleiades or Kr.ittika_-s (Ka.lex.) bahula_ (VarBr.S.); bahul (Kal.) six presiding female deities: vahula_ the six presiding female deities of the Pleiades (Skt.); va_kulai id. (Ta.)(Ta.lex.) 5719.Image: pleiades: bahulika_ pl. pleiades; bahula born under the pleiades; the pleiades (Skt.lex.) bahule, bahulegal. the pleiades or kr.ttika_s (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) Image: female deities of the pleiades: va_kulai < vahula_ the six presiding female deities of the Pleiades; va_kule_yan- < va_kule_ya Skanda (Ta.lex.) pa_kulam < ba_hula the month of Ka_rttikai = November-December; pa_kul.i full moon in the month of purat.t.a_ci (Vina_yakapu. 37,81)(Ta.lex.) ba_hule_ya Ka_rttike_ya, son of S'iva; ba_hula the month ka_rttika (Skt.Ka.)(Ka.lex.) Glyph (twig on head on seven women): adaru ‘twig’; rebus: aduru ‘native metal’. Thus, the seven women ligatured with twigs on their heads can be read as: bahula_ + adaru; rebus: bangala ‘goldsmith’s portable furnace’ + aduru ‘native metal’. cu_d.a ‘hairknot’; rebus: cu_l.a ‘furnace, kiln’. samr.obica, stones containing gold (Mundari.lex.) cf. soma (R.gveda) samanom = an obsolete name for gold (Santali). saman: = to offer an offering, to place in front of; front, to front or face (Santali) [Note the glyph of short-horned bulls facing each other.] era = a bait; food; a victim for sacrifice (Te.lex.) [Note. A bait (?) placed on a low stool as an offering on a glyptic representation of offering]. 40 er-agu = a bow, an obeisance; er-aguha = bowing, coming down (Ka.lex.) er-agisu = to bow, to be bent; to make obeisance to; to crouch; to come down; to alight (Ka.lex.) cf. arghas = respectful reception of a guest (by the offering of rice, du_rva grass, flowers or often only of water)(S’Br.14)(Skt.lex.) erugu = to bow, to salute or make obeisance (Te.) erka = ekke (Tbh. of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper (metal); crystal (Ka.lex.) cf. eruvai = copper (Ta.lex.) eraka, er-aka = any metal infusion (Ka.Tu.) eruvai ‘copper’ (Ta.); ere dark red (Ka.)(DEDR 446). Vikalpa: bha_gal.iyo = a bazaar shopkeeper (G.lex) baka_l.a (Ka.); baka_la = a shopkeeper with contemptuous implications (M.)(Ka.lex.) baka_l = [Ar. bakka_l, a greengrocer fr. bakchu_, vegetable] a petty shopkeeper; a va_nia (so called in contempt); baka_lu = fresh vegetables (G.lex.) bagalo = an Arabian merchant vessel (G.lex.) bagala = an Arab boat of a particular description (Ka.); bagala_ (M.); bagarige, bagarage = a kind of vessel (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) Rebus: bangala ‘portable gold furnace’ (Te.) bagalo = a stork; a crane (G.) 369

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bagal = the armpit; a side (Ka.); bagala (M.H.)(Ka.lex.) bagala = the armpit; the arm; a side (G.); bagal (Persian)(G.lex.) ba_kum, ba_korum = a bore; a large hole (G.lex.) baghun., bagu_n = A snub-nosed or true crocodile (crocodiles palustris) found in India only in one lake in Sindh. It is identical with the species found in the Nile. In the Indian rivers the long-nosed variety (i.e., alligator) alone exists (P.lex.) d.han:ga = a crook used for pulling down the branches of trees, for goats, sheep and camels (P.lex.)

Sign 130 d.hagara_m 'thigh' (G.); rebus: d.han:gar 'blacksmith' (H.) Rebus: d.a_n:ro = a term of contempt for a blacksmith (N.)(CDIAL 5524) t.ha_kur = blacksmith (Mth.); t.ha_kar = landholder (P.); t.hakkura – Rajput, chief man of a village (Pkt.); t.hakuri = a clan of Chetris (N.); t.ha_kura – term of address to a Brahman, god, idol (Or.)(CDIAL 5488). dha~_gar., dha_~gar = a non-Aryan tribe in the Vindhyas, digger of wells and tanks (H.); dha_n:gar = young servant, herdsman, name of a Santal tribe (Or.); dhan:gar = herdsman (H.)(CDIAL 5524). 4064. Blacksmith: t.ha_kur blacksmith (Mth.)(CDIAL 5488). d.a_n.ro term of contempt for a blacksmith (N.); d.a_n.re large and lazy (N.); d.an.ura living alone without wife or children (A.); d.a~_gar, d.a~_gra_ starving (H.); d.an.or unwell (Ash.); dan:gor lazy (Bashg.); d.angur (dat. d.anguras) fool (K.); d.a~_go lean (of oxen)(Ku.); d.a~_go male (of animals); d.a_n. wicked (A.); d.a_n:ga one who is reduced to a skeleton (Or.); d.i~glo lean, emaciated (Ku.); d.i~go, d.in.o abusive word for a cow (N.); d.in:gar contemptuous term for an inhabitant of the Tarai (N.); d.in:gara rogue (Or.); d.hagga_ small weak ox (L.); d.han:garu, d.hin:garu lean emaciated beast (S.)(CDIAL 5524). A tribe: d.ha~_gar., dha~_gar a non-Aryan tribe in the Vindhyas, digger of wells and tanks (H.); dhan:gar herdsman (H.); d.ha_n:gar. herdsman, name of a Santal tribe, young servant (Or.); dha_n:gar.a_ unmarried youth (Or.); dha~_gad. rude, loutish (M.); f. hoyden (M.)(CDIAL 5524). ad.ar d.angra ‘zebu’ (Santali)

A glyph of a standing or seated person ligatured to the back of a bull (adar), as a phonetic determinant. d.hagara_m = n. pl. the buttocks; the hips (G.) Or, as a person carrying a club: d.an:gorum, d.an:go, d.an:goro = a thick club; a cudgel (G.lex.) d.ango ‘branch of a tree’ (Nahali) d.angara ‘throwing’ (Skt.)

m1405At Pict-97: Person standing at the center pointing with his right hand at a bison

facing a trough, and with his left hand pointing to the sign kan.d.a kan-ka ‘rim of jar’; Rebus: kand. kan- ‘fire altar’, ‘copper’ (Santali.Ta.) + kut.hi ‘smelter’ (kut.i = female water carrier). d.hangar ‘trough’; rebus: d.hangar ‘blacksmith’. baddi_ ox (Nahali); bad.hi ‘worker in wood and iron’ (Santali) Naha_li_ baddi_ = ox ; pa_d.o_ = bull (Sikalga_ri_, mixed Gypsy language.)(CDIAL 9176). bal.ad = an ox; a bullock; a bull (G.lex.) baredi_ = herdsman (H.); baldi_ = oxherd (P.); baldiya_ cattle-dealer (Ku.)(CDIAL 9177). balivarda = ox, bull (TBr.); baleda_, baled = herd of bullocks (L.); baledo (S.); bald, baldh, balhd = ox; 370

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baled, baleda_ = herd of oxen (P.); bahld, bale_d = ox (P.); balad, bald = ox (Ku.); barad (N.); balad(h) (A.); balad (B.); bal.ada (Or.); barad(h) (Bi.); barad (Mth.); barad (Bhoj.);. bardhu (Aw.); balad, barad(h), bardha_ (whence baladna_ to bull a cow (H.); bal.ad (G.)(CDIAL 9176). pa_r-al = bull (Ta.)(DEDR 4020). bare itat = a bullock given at marriage by bridegroom to bride’s brothers (Santali.lex.) baro barabbar = opposite, face to face; baro, baron. = provisions, food rations, supplies (P.lex.) barotwa_la_ = a partner (K.)(P.lex.) er-aka ‘upraised arm’ (Te.) The bull (d.an:gra) facing a (phonetic determinant) trough (d.an:gra) is rebus d.hangar: blacksmith. Thus the inscription on m1405At can be read as: d.an:gra er-aka kan.d kanka kut.i = rebus: blacksmith copper gold furnace of the smelter. [kan.d. = a furnace, altar (Santali.lex.)] kottala ‘trough’ (Tu.) kottala ‘bastion’ (Tu.) kot.ho ‘a warehouse’ (G.) d.aula_ ‘upper arm’ (IL 4982) adaru ‘twig’ (Ka.Tu.) ku_ti_ ‘twig’ (Skt.) gan.d.a ‘male, hero’ (Ka.) gan.d.a ‘set of four’ (Santali) ||||

Sign 8 (105) A variant of Sign 8 is a horned, standing person buttocks of a bull.

ligatured to the

m1224A m1224B m1224 m1224e person with horns and bovine features (hoofed legs and/or tail).

4319 Standing

Indian Lexicon 8320. ra_dha_ (EI 8) a posture of standing with the feet a span apart. Rebus: Go<eraDaG>(ZA),,<eraDa?G>(A) [eraDaG] {V(u)} ``to ^roast (e.g. a pig, corn) in or over a fire(Z); to scorch (clothes, rice), to heat over a fire; to ^burn (intr.)(A)''. <JArADAD-a-s+G>(Z) {N} ``^hearth''. #9852. DEDR 3818 Ka. paḷga state of being astride or forked, forked branch of a tree; paḷgada astride, apart, distinct; bagaḷu to disjoin the legs, open the legs, straddle. Rebus: DEDR 3802 Tu. bagabaga the crackling noise of conflagration. Raised upper arm is er-aka. er-aka = upper arm, wing (Te.) Rebus: era, eraka = copper (Ka.) eruvai copper, blood (Ta.); ere a dark-red or dark-brown colour (Ka.)(DEDR 817). ere black soil (Ka.)(DEDR 820). ke~r.e~ ko~r.e~ an aboriginal tribe who work in brass and bell-metal (Santali) ker.e sen:gel fire in a pit (Santali) The two short numerical strokes is orthographically a crack, a splinter. In Santali, the glyph of the Zebu bull evokes a sound: adar, adar d.an:gra In Kashmiri d.an:gur = bullock. In Sanskrit, a tree evokes a sound: dru Cognate words in the linguistic area of Bharat, the dialectial continuum are: ad.aru = twig (Kannada. Tulu) ad.aru = twig; ad.iri = small and thin branch of a tree; ad.ari = small branches (Ka.); ad.aru = a twig (Te.)(DEDR 67). ad.d.o, ard.u = tree, wood (Nahali) Such a 371

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glyph can be ligatured, as a headdress, to a glyph of a standing or seated person ligatured to the back of a bull (adar), as a phonetic determinant. d.hagara_m = n.pl. the buttocks; the hips (G.) Or, as a person carrying a club: d.an:gorum, d.an:go, d.an:goro = a thick club; a cudgel (G.lex.) The early substratum forms are retained in Kannada and Telugu lexemes as: ad.aru Cognate: Skt. root dru = wood. d.ar = a branch of a tree; dare = a tree, a plant; to grow, to grow well; ban: darelena = it did not grow well; toa dare = mother, the support of life (Santali) dare kudrum = cultivated for its fibre, hibiscus cannabinus (Santali) da_ru = wood (Skt.G.) deva-da_ru (Skt.); devada_r a species of pine; dealwood (G.); devada_ri_ adj. made of fir-wood (G.) dru = wood; druma tree (MBh.); duma tree (Pali.Pkt.); duminda the Bodhi tree (Pali)(CDIAL 6637, 6639). da_rava = made of wood (Mn.); da_ru, da_ro wood (Dm.); da_rav beam, rafter (K.); da_ruvu wooden (K.)(CDIAL 6296). Da_ru piece of wood (MBh.); in RV. Nom. da_ru (gen. drun.ah, dro_h); da_ru = wood (Pali.Pkt.); dar timber, firewood (Kho.); da_r timber (Ku.N.H.)(CDIAL 6098). de_vada_ru = Himalayan cedar (MBh.); de_vada_ruka (Pali); de_vada_ru (Pkt.); di_a_r (K.); dya_r (Ku.); dya_ra_n.i deodar forest (Ku.); dewa_r (N.)(CDIAL 6531). deru, dreu-. To be firm, solid, steadfast; hence specialized senses “wood,” “tree,” and derivatives referring to objects made of wood. Derivatives include tree, trust, betroth, endure, and druid.1. Suffixed variant form *drew-o-. a. tree, from Old English tr ow, tree, from Germanic *trewam (Bartleby dictionary) Even a mere splinter can, as a glyph-- “--represent this sound: at.ar = a splinter (Ma.); ad.aruni = to crack (Tu.) which is rebus (sounds like) aduru 'native metal' (Ka.) aduru = gan.iyinda tegadu karagade iruva aduru = ore taken from the mine and not subjected to melting in a furnace (Ka. Siddha_nti Subrahman.ya’ S’astri’s new interpretation of the Amarakos’a, Bangalore, Vicaradarpana Press, 1872, p. 330); adar = fine sand (Ta.); adaru = a sparkle (Te.); ayir – iron dust, any ore (Ma.) The compounded ligature depicted as Sign 393 is thus an explanation of the nature of the forge: with a furnace for ‘native metal’. (at.ar ‘splinter’ + gummat.a ‘dome’; rebus aduru ‘native metal’ + kumpat.i ‘furnace’) Substantive: aduru ‘native metal’. ad.rna_ to twist back one’s limbs or bend the body inward (as under threat of a blow)(Kur.); ad.re to strut; ad.ro a swaggerer (Malt.)(DEDR 108). [cf. the glyphs of antelope and tiger with their heads turned backwards.] ad.aru twig; ad.iri small and thin branch of a tree; ad.ari small branches (Ka.); ad.aru twig (Tu.)(DEDR 67). Goblet, black on red slip, Nausharo ID, Kachi Plain, Baluchistan (After Samzun, A., 1992, Observations on the characteristics of the pre-Harappan remains, pottery, and artifacts at Naudsharo, Pakistan (2700-2500 BCE) in: C. Jarrige, ed., South Asian Archaeology 1989, 245-252, Madison, Wisc.: 250, fig. 29.4, no.2, Mission Archeologique de Indus. Goblet. Mundigak IV, 1, eastern Afthanistan (After Casal, J.M., 1961, Fouilles de Mundigak, I-II, Memoires de la delegation archeologique francaise en Afghanistan 17, Paris. II: fig. 64, no.171, Delegation Archeologique Francaise en Afghanistan. A twig of three ficus leaves are shown on the Nausharo goblets: kolmo = three; rebus: kolami ‘furnace, forge’; ficus religiosa = loa; rebus: iron ‘loha’; twig = aduru ‘metal’. Furnace 372

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h733At

h733Bt

5222

h755At

5287 h752At 5275 [At least 16 inscribed objects with epigraphs contain the sequence of last three signs (Statistics Mahadevan corpus; the first two of these signs (read from right) in Text 5287 pair in 88 epigraphs] Substantive: dar ‘a trench’; Glyph: dare ‘a tree’ (Santali) Glyph: sal a gregarious forest tree, shorea robusta; kambra a kind of tree (Santali) Substantive: sal workshop (Santali) Sharpened metal tool or python entwined around a pillar41

h254A h254B 5214 Is the sign on h254A a stylized representation of the standard device? The inscription is among the most frequently occurring on tablets in bas relief. (The first sign from r. on h252A is a roof over the pillar with ring-stones; the obverse has a one-horned bull pictograph) Glyph: tambu [Skt. stambha, a pillar, a pole, fr. stambh, to be stiff] a movable lodging place made of canvas extended upon poles; a tent; a pavilion (G.lex.) tambu = a tent (Ka.M.); tambu_ (H.)(Ka.lex.) tambu = a tent (Santali) tamba = copper (Santali) tam(b)ra = copper (Skt.) tamro = a precious stone (Santali.lex.) tamba_ku = an alloy of copper and other metals (Te.lex.) [cf. ba_ku = a dagger (Te.lex.)] Alternative: buru d.an:gra = the jambr.o or python (Santali.lex.) buru = a spirit, an object of worship, synonym of bon:ga; maran: buru = the chief of the burus, or bon:gas; buru = a mountain, hence buru d.an:gra may connote a mountain python. Rebus: d.ha~gar ‘blacksmith’ bata_ bamboo slips (Kur.); bate = thin slips of bamboo (Malt.)(DEDR 3917). hadi = a layer of stone or brick in the ground (Ka.); padre a layer (Ka.); paduru = id., stratum (Tu.)(DEDR 3915). [Note glyph of ringstones on pillar on tablets in bas-relief.] Substantive: patam = sharpness (as of the edge of a knife)(Ta.); padm (obl. Padt-) temper of iron (Ko.); pada = keenness of edge or sharpness (Ka.); hada = sharpeness (as of a knife), forming (as metals) to proper degree of hardness (Tu.); panda_ sharpness (Go.); padanu, padunu = sharpness, temper (Te.); padnu = sharpening (of knife by heating and hammering)(Kond.a); pato = sharp (as a blade); patter = to sharpen (Malt.)(DEDR 3907). An inscription on tablets in bas-relief recurs on 30 tablets in bas-relief, see for example: h-860 to h-870 (Freq. 30). 373

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kol, kolla ‘furnace’ (Ta.) kol ‘burning charcoal’ (L.P.) kulume (Te.) dhokra ‘metal

‘pancaloha’ (Ta.) kola_ kolame ‘deep pit’ (Tu.) worker’ (Santali)

xola_ ‘tail’ (Kur.) ko_le ‘stub of corn’ (Te.) kolmo ‘rice plant’ (Santali) crocodile ‘makara’ (Skt.) ; mangar (Bal.) ; magar (H.G.); manguro ‘sea-fish’ (S.) ko_l. ‘planet’ (Ta.) ko_lu = an orifice, hole (Te.) dohr.a ‘to double’ (Santali) kulai = hare (Santali) kola ‘foetus’ (OMarw.) gollemu ‘tub’ (Te.) kolom ‘cutting, graft,’ (Santali.B.) ko_le ‘stump of corn’ (Te.) kolma ‘paddy plant’ (Santali) kola, kolum ‘jackal’ (G.) kola ‘woman’ (Nahali) ibha ‘elephant’ (Skt.) kola_ ‘flying fish’ (Ta.) [kaulo may be derived from kola ‘fish’] bat.a ‘quail’ (Santali) kolmo ‘rice plant’ (Santali); rebus: kolame ‘deep pit’ (Tu.); kolame, kolme ‘smithy’ (Ka.); kolla ‘furnace’(Te.)

Sign 21

Sign 24 168

Sign 90

Sign 223

349

Sign 350

Sign 372

Sign 91

Sign 224

Sign 274

Sign 351

Sign 235

Sign 331

Sign 352

Sign 389

Sign 23

Signs 162 to

Sign 227

Sign 291

Sign 388

Sign 22

Sign 346

Sign 355

Sign 390

Sign 270

Sign 271

Sign 347 Sign 356

Sign 395

Sign 273

Sign48 Sign 357

Sign Sign 371

Sign 405 374

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Sign 21 is a ligature of Sign 162 and Sign 1 (person). That is, and.ren (person) + kolmo (sprout); rebus: aduru ‘native metal’; kolami ‘furnace’. Sign 19 (Sign 1 person + Sign 171 harrow glyphs) can be interpreted as : ad.ren (person) + kut.hi ‘harrow’; rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ + kut.hi ‘smelter furnace’. Numerical hieroglyph related to smithy (furnace) in Sarasvati civilization Rebus: kolimi-titti =bellows used for a furnace (Te.lex. kolime= furnace (Ka. kolime, kolume, kulame, kulime, kulume, kulme fire-pit, furnace (Ka.) kolame ‘a very deep pit’ (Te.) Ka. koḷḷa a deep place, a depth, the cleft in a rock, a cave, etc. Tu. kolamè a very deep pit, abyss, hell (DEDR 2157) Ta. kol working in iron, blacksmith; kollaḷ blacksmith. Ma. kollan blacksmith, artificer. Ko. koll smithy, temple in Kota village. To. kwall Kota smithy. Ka. kolime, kolume, kulame, kulime, kulume, kulme fire- pit, furnace; (Bell.; U.P.U.) konimi blacksmith; (Gowda) kolla id. Koḍ. kollë blacksmith. Te. kolimi furnace. Go. (SR.) kollusānā to mend implements; (Ph.) kolstānā, kulsānā to forge; (Tr.) kōlstānā to repair (of ploughshares); (SR.) kolmi smithy ( Voc. 948). Kuwi (F.) kolhali to forge (DEDR 2133) Ta. kulai (-pp-, -tt-) to shoot forth in a bunch (as a plantain); n. cluster, bunch (as of fruits, flowers); Koḍ. kola- (kolap-, kolat-) (plant) shoots against (one who planted it; in a proverb); kole bunch of plantains. (DEDR 1810) Go. (Tr.) kōḷsānā, kōrsānā to sprout, grow (of trees, plants, etc.) (DEDR 2149). mukulayati ‘*blossoms’ (Skt.) (CDIAL 10147) Vikalpa: kolom ‘three’ (Austro-asiatic) kolmo ‘rice-plant’ (Santali) That three long linear strokes is a hieroglyph is surmised from the fact that this glyph gets ligatured (with a lid) as in:

Kalibangan029 8018 [ad.aren ‘lid’; rebus: aduru ‘native metal’; the ligatured glyph may thus connote a furnace for native metal.] d.aren, ad.aren to cover up pot with lid (Bond.a); d.arai to cover (Bond.a.Hindi)

V089 V090 V091 Signs and sign variants 89 to 94 also indicate tha t the ‘plant’ glyph is ligatured to the three-linearstrokes glyph. This is an affirmation of ‘plant’ as a phonetic determinant of the three-linear-strokes glyph. The plant is ‘kolmo’ (rice plant – Santali); so is ‘kolmo’ (three) as in Austro-asiatic. Person with pigtail, metal pit furnace; boring instrument for epigraphwriters Nausharo09 375

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Kalibangan050c 8031 Pict-53: Composition: body of a tiger, a human body with bangles on arm, a pig-tail, horns of an antelope crowned by a twig. See also the text 8024 on Kalibangan 065 cylinder seal; one of the two glyphs is three-long-linear strokes followed by a ‘plant’ glyph.

Kalibangan065a

Kalibangan065A6

Kalibangan065E

8024 Pict-104: Composition: A tree; a person with a composite body of a human (female?) in the upper half and body of a tiger in the lower half, having horns, and a trident-like head-dress, facing a group of three persons consisting of a woman (?) in the middle flanked by two men on either side throwing a spear at each other (fencing?) over her head. Steatite, cylinder seal; Thapar, 1975, p. 28 No. 4; cf. During Caspers, 1982, Pl. 1b, a stamp seal from Mohenjodaro with a similar 'centaur', and Amiet, 1972. Collon, 1987, Fig. 605. This cylinder seal impression shows the duelling figures but with an extra arm; the ligatured body of an animal is also known on stamp seals. m0311 Pict-52: Composite motif: body of a tiger, a human body with bangles on arms, antelope horns, tree-branch and long pigtail. 2347 Substantive: sund ‘pit (furnace)’; sum, sumbh a mine, a pit, the opening into a mine, the shaft of a mine; sum bhugak the entrance to a mine, pit’s mouth (Santali). sun.d.i a semi-hinduised aboriginal caste; this caste are the distillers and liquor sellers; sun.d.i gadi a liquor shop (Santali) cun.d. to boil away (Ko.); sun.d.u to evaporate (Ka.); cun.d.u to be evaporated or dried up (Te.); s’un.t.hi to become dry (Skt.)(DED 2662). Glyph: su_nd gat. knot of hair at back (Go.); cundi_ the hairtail as worn by men (Kur.)(DEDR 2670). The person with pigtail is ligatured to a tiger, kol; rebus: kol ‘metal’; thus, the ligatured glyph can be read as: metal pit furnace: kol + sund On Kalibangan 065 cylinder seal, a glyph also shows fencing. Glyph: garid.i, garid.i_ fencing, fencing school (Te.); garad.i, garud.i fencing school (Ka.); garad.i, garod.i id. (Tu.); karat.i, karut.i, kerut.i fencing, school or gymnasium where wrestling and fencing are taught (Ta.) Rebus: gharr.a ‘an instrument for boring used principally to bore holes in arrow shafts to admit the arrow heads; to bore holes’; gharr.atek bhugakkeda ‘it was bored by means of a ‘gharr.a’; sen:gel gharr.ateko toda ‘they produce fire by friction’ (Santali) garad.avum to form or fashion (letters in learning to write) by drawing a style or dry pen through the letters of the copy-book (G.) Glyph: garad.o a copyslip for little children to write with a style or dry pen (G.) kan.t.am iron style for writing on palmyra leaves (Ta.); gan.t.amu id. (Te.)(DEDR 1170). gharad.a_yo, gharad.can.um, ghad.can.um compact structure, frame or make; closeness, compactness; ghad.avum [Skt. ghat. to form] to fashion, to forge; to shape; to make by hammering, chiseling, chipping; to manufacture; 376

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ghad.tar manufacture; an article manufactured by beating, hammering, or cutting; skill displayed in a manufactured article; the wages of a manufacturer or artisan, who makes an article (G.) Glyph: gharad.iyo a wooden ladle with which little cakes are turned in a frying pan (G.) Glyph: ghared.i_ a pulley; gha_ri_ the circumference (G.) d.a_kin.i = ‘sword’ of a female demon d.a_n:khli_, d.a_n:khal.um [Hem. Des. d.aggali_ = Skt. bhavanoparibhu_mi talam, an upper storey of a house] a small branch of a tree issuing from a larger one; a twig (G.lex.) [Note the imagery of a tree branch issuing from a larger one on a Kalibangan seal 050]. Glyph: sal a gregarious forest tree, shorea robusta; kambra a kind of tree (Santali) Substantive: sal workshop (Santali) Substantive: khanta gad.a a pit from which earth has been dug out (Santali) Glyph: ka_nta woman (Skt.) Glyph: ad.aru twig (Tu.Ka.)(DEDR 67) Substantive: kohle ‘smith’; aduru native metal (Ka.); ajirda karba very hard iron (Tu.) Glyph: kul ‘tiger’ kol metal (Ta.) kol = pan~calo_kam (five metals) (Ta.lex.) Thus, the entwined figures of 3 or more tigers may connote an alloy of 3 or more metals. The cylinder seal thus conveys the possession of a priest (garad.o, garod.o): metal furnace smithy: khanta gad.a, aduru kol; the epigraph (three linear strokes + sprout): 3 phut.ia (3 copper ingots) The ligatured person seems to speak out the possession [Glyph: vali to say, tell, narrate; n. sound (Ta.); valli to bark (Kor.); vallih to call, invite (Go.)(DEDR 5283)]: Substantive: bali = iron ore, iron stone sand; the Kol iron smelters wash the ore from the sand in the river bed; balgada ‘sand carried down by a flow of water’ (Santali)

m0007 1011 Four signs of the epigraph, from the left: ko_li a stubble of jo_l.a (Ka.); ko_le a stump or stub of corn (Te.); kol ‘smithy’; bal ‘bangle’; bal ‘iron ore, iron stone stand’; Alternative 1 for Sign 17: bhat.a ‘warrior’; rebus: bhat.a ‘furnace, kiln’ Alternative 2 for Sign 17: pahar ‘guard’; paghal ‘pig-iron’ kan.d.kankha ‘copper furnace’ Anau, 450 kms east of the Caspian, in Kara Kum desert. Glyphs used on Anau seal 377

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Anau (means: ‘new water’) seal (black stone 1.3 X 1.4 cm.); two views. The seal has four signs comparable to the signs which occur on epigraphs of Sarasvati Civilization. `The implication of the seal (dated to c. 2300 BCE) is incredible,'' Dr. Hiebert said, because there's no existing evidence that these people had a written language. And the characters engraved in the stone stamp are unlike any ever seen. “It's not ancient Iranian, not ancient Mesopotamian...not Chinese.'' Anau civilization 2200 to 1800 BCE; discoveries of Dr. Fredrik T. Hiebert Source: New York Times, July 31, 2001 http://www.nytimes.com/2001/07/31/science/social/31SEAL.html

4418 This text occurs principally on miniature tablets of Harappa over 21 times. A three-pronged glyph (duplicated ‘harrow’) -- comparable to a variant of Sign 171 -- appears on a copper ingot (the so-called ox-hide ingot): Crete. Inscribed Cretan copper ox-hide ingot (After Fig.82 in: Sinclair Hood, 1971, The Minoans: Crete in the Bronze Age, Thames and Hudson) In the Late Bronze Age, oxhide and plano-convex shaped ingots were used in the Aegean; elsewhere, only small planoconvex (bun-shaped) ingots were used."Bronze tools and weapons were cast in double moulds. The cire perdue process was evidently employed for the sockets of the fine decorated spear-heads of the Late Minoan period. Copper was available in some parts of Crete, notably in the Asterousi mountains which border the Mesara plain on the south, but it may have been imported from Cyprus as well. The standard type of ingot found throughout the East Mediterranean in the Late Bronze Age was about two or three feet long, with inward-curving sides and projections for a man to grasp as he carried it on his shoulder. Smaller bun-shaped ingots were also in use." (Sinclair Hood, opcit., p. 106). A variant of the inscribed sign, a comparable logograph, like a trident or a sheaf of corn, is used on inscribed objects of the Sarasvati Sindhu civilization. The reading, from left to right: (kod., artisan’s workshop; aduru bari_, native metal (blacksmith), dhokra, metal-worker, bakher, homestead) 1. | (The long linear stroke which occupies the entire width of the seal is: kod.a, kor.a = in arithmetic one; 4 kor.a or kod.a = 1 gan.d.a = 4 (Santali.lex.) Substantive rebus: kod., ‘artisan’s workshop’.The long linear stroke seen on this Anau stone seal, also appears on the Dholavira sign-board.

Sign 171 [See variants in Signs 172 and 173 V173] 2. duplication of sign ad.ar ‘harrow’; rebus: aduru ‘native metal’; bar ‘two’; rebus: bari_ ‘blacksmith’; Glyph: ma_va at.t. ‘to harrow’; at.t. to strike (Pa.); ad.ar an attack (Ka.); at.ar to beat, strike, mould by beating (Ta.)(DEDR 77). Cf. adru broken grain (Malt.); adar waste of pounded rice, broken grains (Kur.)(DEDR 134). a~r.gom ‘a clod crusher, a harrow without teeth; to harrow; a~r.gom bhuk ‘this hole into which the shaft to which the cattle are yoked, is inserted into the harrow’ (Santali) a Substantive: aduru ‘native metal’ 3. 378

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V149 V137 d.on:ka footpath (Te.); d.on:g way (Nk.)(DEDR 2981). [See the rock-cut reservoir in Dholavira, scooping out in stone.] dhokra metal-worker (Santali) d.hon.d.-jhod.o a stone-cutter; a stone-mason; d.hon.d.o a stone (G.) t.hok a blow or stroke with a stick or a cudgel; t.hoka_-t.hok repeated hammering (G.) 4.

V176 bakhor ‘teeth of a comb’ bakher ‘homestead’ Metal to which was attached a great price

Theban tomb painting showing man carrying an ox-hide copper ingot with a Minoan vase in his hand (After Clark, 1965; cf. Fig. 1.9 R.F.Tylecote, 1987, The early history of metallury in Europe, Longman, London) Ox-hide ingots of copper in the Heraklion Museum, Crete. Size 54X31 cm. weight: 20 to 30 kg (Fig. 6.15 R.F.Tylecote, 1987, The early history of metallury in Europe, Longman, London) "That Cyprus produced copper from its local ore bodies in pre-Classical antiquity is not an issue in dispute...All metal objects of Late Cypriot II and III from the island were tin bronze, showing that metallic tin or tin objects must have been imported, and it may be presumed that the re-use and recycling of tin bronze artefacts was a regular practce during this period. In this context it will be recalled that the Cape Gelidonya ship also carried tin ingots. Likewise objects of silver and gold from Cyprus belonging to the fourteenth and thirteenth centuries BCE could only have been made of imported metal, whether or not the craftsmen were local or foreign. The flourishing metal industry of the island at this time betrays morphological and stylistic influences from both the Aegean and the Near East, and the finds on the Cape Gelidonya shipwreck show that a tinker could have sailed with the vessel...The irruptions of the Sea Peoples in the Levant at the close of Late Cypriot IIC, that is, the thirteenth century BC, put an end to the trading and cultural interchanges between the two countries of the region, and transformed the material civilization of Cyprus..." (R.S.Merrillees, Archaeological Symposium: Early metallurgy in Cyprus 4000-500 BC; Historical Summary, in: James D. Muhly, Robert Maddin and Vassos Karageorghis, eds., 1982, Early Metallurgy in Cyprus, 4000-500 BC, Larnaca, Cyprus, Pierides Foundation, pp. 375-376). Seal-inscription; the antelope with its head turned back is associated with a sharp-edged singlebladed axe (pelekhys) (Semant. Tamil: pil.a = to split with an axe); in Harappan script, two animals are depicted with their heads turned back: the antelope and the tiger. The lexeme related to 'the looking back' and the antelope glyph will be related to metalsmith in Meluhha as the decoding process unravels. (Source: Scripta Minoa; After P 22b in Fig. 5: F. Melian Stawell, 1931, A Clue to the Cretan Scripts, London, G. Bell and Sons Ltd.) Cyriot copper, in the shape of so-called oxhide ingots (representing one talent, or about 29 379

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kg of copper), were shipped across the Mediterranean.

Copper plano-convex or ‘bun’ ingots with incised marks. The incisions are comparable to the signs:

Sign 256

Signs 249, 250, 251 and 252; the ligature is comparable to the short-tail shown on an antelope glyph and also

ligatured to many signs, for e.g. Sign 91: A pair of small ‘oxhide’ ingots of a shape representing an earlier type (Buchholtz’s type Ib). A total of five were found, of which two pairs were cast in the same mold. [After figures from: Bronze Age Shipwreck Excavation at Uluburun] http://ina.tamu.edu/ub-ingots.htm Controversy has surrounded the identification of the home port of the ship wrecked off Cape Gelidonya, Turkey. In an attempt to contribute further information pertinent to the solution of this problem, samples for metallurgical study were taken from eight of the copper ingots that were carried on the ship: four oxhide-shaped, two plano-convex, and two slab-shaped. Analysis of these samples shows that, with a single exception, the structure and composition of the ingots are little different from ingots found in Cyprus, Crete, Greece, and Sardinia. The inferences to be drawn from the metallurgical research are 1) that the ingots represented typical items of international trade and 2) that the home port of the ship and lading port of the ingots cannot be determined since the ship and crew were operating in the international sphere. It may also be surmised that at least a part of the Bronze Age trade was in the hands of private entrepreneurs. [James D. Muhly, Tamara Stech Wheeler and Robert Maddin The Cape Gelidonya Shipwreck and the Bronze Age Metals Trade in the Eastern Mediterranean Journal of Field Archaeology 4 (1977) 353—362].

Kalibangan082A

8122

Three summits topped in the centre by a fig-leaf: Kalibangan053

Lothal042 See three linear strokes as part of the epigraph (left-most glyph) on Seal 145. A square steatite unicorn seal with a unique inscription was found in the street debris on the inside of the city wall. The two sets of signs on the right hand side of the seal would appear in reverse, i.e. be on the left, when it was pressed into clay. Harappan Period, c. 2300 BC. 380

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Slide 142. Molded tablets from Trench 11 sometimes have impressions on one, two, three or four sides. This group of molded tablets shows the complete set of motifs. One side is comprised entirely of script and has six characters, the first of which (on the very top) appears to be some sort of animal. A second side shows a human figure grappling with a short horned bull. A small plant with at least six branches is discernible behind the individual. The third panel portrays a figure seated on a charpoy or throne in a yogic position, with arms resting on the knees. Both arms are covered with bangles, and traces of a horned headdress and long hair are visible on some of the impressions. A second individual, also with long hair and wearing bangles, is seated on a short stool to the proper left of the individual on the "throne." The fourth panel shows a deity standing with both feet on the ground and wearing a horned headdress. A branch with three pipal leaves projects from the center of the headdress. Bangles on seen on both arms.

Seal 160. Seal fragment of a man with double bun and three fingered hand or trident. Trench 39 North, upper levels, Harappa Phase.. Three long linear strokes is a dominant glyph in Sarasvati epigraphs.

m0295 Pict-61: Composite motif of three tigers joined together. 1386 Vikalpa: kola, kolum ‘jackal’ G. Vikalpa: kolom ‘three’ (Austro-asiatic) Rebus: kolume ‘furnace’

m0493At

m0493Bt Pict-93: Three dancing figures in a

row.

m0493Ct

2843

A person kicking a bull and spearing. A hooded snake follows the bull. Three persons standing near a tree:

381

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m1430Bt

m1430C

m1430At Pict-101: Person throwing a spear at a buffalo and placing one

foot on its head; three persons standing near a tree at the centre.

2819

Sa. mah kalom `three years ago'. Bh. maha `last year'. (Munda etyma) <kol>\\<kolma>(L) {N} ``^ghost''. #40322. (Munda etyma)

kolmo n. –kolmo n. ‘three’. GEN. –three. GEN. > ‘three each’ in Austroasiatic studies (vol.1), Honolulu, Univ. of Hawaii Press, pp. 129-187 http://journals.cambridge.org/production/action/cjoGetFulltext?fulltextid=441934 loc.cit. Kent Bach, 2006, Review of Christopher Potts The logic of conventional implicatures (Oxford Studies in Theoretical Linguistics 7). Oxford: Oxford University Press 2005 in: Journal of Linguistics, Volume 42, Issue 02, Jul 2006, pp 490-495 Vikalpa: rakha = a secret term for three (G.lex.) [Three long linear strokes is a recurrent motif in inscriptions of the civilization and appear in contexts where the 'sign' should be read not as a numeral but as 'rakha', tin or made of tin + copper, i.e .bronze]. Rebus: ran:ku ‘tin’ (Santali) ||| (Three linear strokes) Smelting furnace kut.i ‘smelting furnace’ (Mu.) bica_ ‘sand ore’ (Santali) bal, bali bica ‘iron sand ore’ (Mu.) med. ‘iron’ (Mu.) ` kut.i ‘tree’; kut.ha_ra (Skt.) kut.hi = the pubes (lower down than pan.d.e) (Santali.lex.) bica_ ‘scorpion’ (A.)

bali_vard ‘bull’ (Skt.)

kut.i = a slice, a bit, a small piece (Santali.lex.Bodding)

kut.i = the eyebrows (Santali.lex.) Sign 12 kut.i = a woman water-carrier (Te.) 382

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kut.ha_ru ‘monkey’ (Skt.)

m0223 1167 m0223 may be Sign 162 ] [Note: On these seals, where one would expect to find a standard device, one finds a surprise: a standing

monkey? or a stubble or a standing person or an arrow (spear?)].

Banawali 3

Mohenjodaro FEM, Pl. LXXXVIII, 316

Chanhudaro17a

6122

2316

[The sign in front of the one-horned bull on seal m0223 may be Sign 162 ] [Note: On these seals, where one would expect to find a standard device, one finds a surprise: a standing monkey? or a stubble or a standing person or an arrow (spear?)].

m450At m450Bt 2864 [One one side, the lizard is shown; and on the other, the monkey is shown; the epigraph seems to be the same. Thus, it is surmised that the same word may connote both ‘monkey’ and ‘lizard’: dok] Ths substantive is: possessions, occupancy: dok. d.ok the neck; d.okum the head (G.) [cf. the rings on the neck of a one-horned bull] The glyphs shown in front of the one-horned bull may all be interpreted as furnaces and other equipment of the artisan’s workshop, kod. Sign 162 Alternative: pasra ‘sprout’; pasra ‘smithy’ ‘arrow glyph’ kan.d.a; rebus: kan.d.a ‘altar, furnace’ mu~h metal ingot (Santali); rebus: muh face (Skt.) kut.aru ‘cock’ (VS) kut.ha_ra ‘axe’ (Skt.) da_ula ‘a gold or silver washer’ (P.) kand. ‘fire-altar’ (Santali) kut.hi furnace’ (Santali) man.d.a_ ‘warehouse, workshop’ (Kon.)

‘smelter,

man.d.ua ‘temporary shed, scaffold’ (Santali)

Bison (gaur) trampling a prostrate person (?) Chanhudaro 6113 Pict-98 underneath. Impression of a seal from Chanhujodaro (Mackay 1943: pl. 51: 13). The prostrate ‘person’ is seen to have a very long neck, possibly with neck-rings, reminiscent of the rings depicted on the neck 383

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of the one-horned bull normally depicted in front of a standard device. pa_r-u (Ta.Ma.Ka.); pak-r-i = coracle, boat, ship (Ta.) Rebus: copulation (IL 7339)]

[Alternative: Ship, catamaran pa_ru = to copulate, spring

khaeda khaidi = to tread on and leave foot marks (Santali.lex.) kha~edak kho~edak, kha~endak kho~endak pl. a succession of pits or mines (Santali.lex.) raunda = a carpenter’s plane (Santali.lex.) raunda raundi = to trample upon; raunda raundikedako = they trampled it down (Santali.lex.) me_r.sa = toss, kick with the foot. miti = tread on (Ta.)(CDIAL 10299). mer..e = tossing (Ka.lex.) me_d.hra = the penis (Ka.lex.) [Note the pictograph showing the penis of the bull which treads on something prostrate]. khu~_dna_ to trample on (H.); khu~dvu~ to trample on (G.); khum.dai pounds, grinds (Pkt.)(CDIAL 3717). kan.d.i = a furnace, altar (Santali.lex.) kamd.a = to copulate (Santali.lex.) ka_n.du_ = lasciviousness; ka_n.dua_ = lascivious; ka_n.d.ua_i_ = wanton woman (Or.)(CDIAL 2688) [cf. the copulation scenes depicted on many seals and other inscribed objects]. kan.d.a, ka_n.d.a, ka_d.e, kan.d.ike = a stalk, a stem (Ka.lex.) kan.t.u = the rim of a vessel (Ka.lex.) [cf. kan.d. kanka = rim of a pot (Santali.lex.)] kan.t.al = a ba_bul tree (G.lex.) kan.t.ha_l. = a double-sack (G.lex.)

Kalibangan033 8025 m0527Bt d.hagara_m ‘buttocks’ (G.) d.ango ‘branch of a tree’ (Nahali) d.angara ‘throwing’ (Skt.) d.han:ga = a crook used for pulling down the branches of trees, for goats, sheep and camels (P.lex.)

Sign 130

Iron merchant; mehto, med.ho ‘merchant’s clerk’ (Hem. Des’i. Skt.) medhas ‘yajna’ (Skt.) med.’iron, iron implements’ (Ho.) mer.ed ‘soft iron’ (Mu.) bhat.a, bhat.i ‘furnace’ (Santali) kumpat.i ‘chafing dish’ (Te.) 384

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mer.go ‘horns twisted back’(Santali) med.ho ‘ram’ (G.)

men.d.a ‘ram’ (Pali) mes.a (Skt.) me_t.am (Ta.) [kola_ ‘flying fish’ (Ta.) ; rebus : kolme ‘smithy’ (Ka.)]

ranku ‘tin’ (Santali) ranku ‘liquid measure’ (Santali) ranku ‘antelope’ (Santali) ba_t.a ‘road’ (Te.) bhat.a ‘six’ (G.) ib ‘two’ (Ka.) gummat.a ‘dome’ (Ka.) me~t ’eye’ (Santali) ko_l.e = the outer angle of

the eye

satthiya ‘svastika’

(P.)

(Ka.Ta.)

mer.hao ‘to entwine itself’ (Santali) med.ha_ ‘tangle in cord’ (M.) bhat.i ‘liquor from mohwa flowers’ (Santali) bat.i ‘to overturn’ (Mu.) kangara_ ‘spider’ (Tir.) kolhe = a species of small black ant (Santali.lex.) v057 ghangar ghongor ‘holes’ (Santali) kan.d.ola ‘lute’ (IL 1821) ; ‘smith’s forge’ (Ta.)

rebus : kan.d. ‘furnace, fire-altar’ (Santali) ula

kad.avu ‘turning lathe’ (Tu.) kat.avai ‘leap, jump’ (Ta.) kola ‘tiger’ (Santali) ; rebus : kollan ‘smith’ (Ta.) ri_ti ‘yellow brass, bell metal’ (Skt.) tutiya ‘blue stone, blue vitriol’ (Santali) ri_r. ‘backbone’ (WPah.) ko_lemu ‘backbone’ (Te.) rir. ‘high mountain’ (WPah.) ri_ti ‘stream’ (RV) rindi_ ‘breasts hanging down in old age’ (Pali) d.okri ‘old woman’ (Kurku)

tottra ‘goad for cattle’ (S’Br.) bad.hi ‘worker in iron and wood’ (Santali) bar.ae ‘blacksmith’ (Santali) ba~r.ia ‘merchant’ (Santali) 385

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baddi_ ‘ox’ (Nahali) Bull, ox Substantive: bad.hi = worker in wood and metal; rebus: baddi_ = ox (Nahali) Substantive: bali = iron ore, iron stone sand; the Kol iron smelters wash the ore from the sand in the river bed; balgada ‘sand carried down by a flow of water’ (Santali) Glyph: bel [Hem. Des. ba-i-lo fr. Skt. bali_vard] a bull; a bullock; an ox (G.) Glyph: bal ‘to bore a hole, or to puncture, with a red hot iron’ (Santali) Glyph: bala ‘a wristlet, worn by women’ (Santali)

Nausharo01

h580

m0547At

m0547Bt

m0557At

m0557Bt

m0578At

m0578Bt

3303 3341 2908

bar, barea ‘two’ (Santali)

V123 sal ‘splinter’ (Santali); rebus: sal ‘workshop’ (Santali)

V384 sal ‘wedge joining the parts of a solid cart wheel’ (Santali) badhi ‘to ligature, bandage, to splice’ (Santali) badhia = castrated boar (Santali) badhor. ‘fish with bones’ (Santali) badhor ‘cross-grained’ (Santali) bed.a ‘hearth’ (G.) ayas ‘metal’ (Skt.) cu_l.i ‘scales of fish’ (Ma.) Rebus: cu_lha ‘furnace’ (Pkt.) kor-r-a ‘fish, black murrel’ (Te.) rebus: kor-r-a ‘mason’ (Te.) koru ‘bar of metal’ (Tu.) bed.a ‘fish’ (Santali) me_r.sa ‘kick with the foot’ (Santali) s’u_li ‘spearman’ (Ka.) ayo, hako ‘fish’ (Mu.) a~s ‘scales of fish’ (Santali) Copper smithy 386

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kand. ‘fire altar’ (Santali) kan ‘copper, copperwork’ (Ta.) kanda_ya ‘tax on blacksmiths’ (Ka.) aduru ‘native (unsmelted) metal’ (Ka.) kan.d. kanka ‘rim of jar’ (Santali) ad.aren ‘lid’ (Santali) ad.ar ‘harrow’ (Santali) The ligaturing pattern is extended further in Sign 418: Sign 15 is further ligatured with a harrow (Sign 171) and oval (Sign 374). kan.t.am ‘arrow’ (Ta.) gan.d.e ‘carp fish’ (Ka.)

m0297a Head of a one-horned bull attached to an undentified

five-point symbol (octopus-like?)

2641

tam(b)ra ‘copper’ (Pkt.) kod. ‘place where artisans work’ (G.) damr.a ‘heifer’ (G. Santali) kod.iya ‘young bull’ (G.) kod. ‘a horn’ (Ta.) ver.ha_ ‘octopus’ (Lahnda)(mer.h, med. ‘iron, implements’ ?) kod.a ‘in arithmetic: one, four kod.a make a gan.d.a’ (Santali) s’ankha (turbinella pyrum) nidhi? kag ‘to perform or do anything or act’ (Skt. Dhatup. xix , 29.) s’ak ‘to be capable, competent’ (Skt.) kang, kangar ‘brazier, fireplace’ (K.) enga mer.ed ‘soft iron’ (Mu.) saga ‘kinsman’ (G.) si_nga ‘charcoal’ (Kui) sa_ngi ‘squirrel’ , ‘ladder’ (P.) Kh<sega>(B){NA}``a kind of grey ^squirrel''.

h419 5092 [ The first sign may be a squirrel as in Nindowaridamb 01 Seal]. The sign that appears close to the horn of the bull is a squirrel. (cf. Asko Parpola, 1994, p. 103). Squirrel sign

A harp san.i_ (P.)

Sign 187

sanni_, sannhi_ = pincers, smith’s vice (P.) 387

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tsa_ni, tsa_nye = squirrel (Kon.lex.) [Alternatives: tor. = squirrel; sega = squirrel; sisiar.in: = squirrel (Santali.lex.) Rebus: tor.a = a bag for holding money carried bound round the waist underneath the clothing, a long narrow purse; sisiar.i = thin, slim, as a stick (Santali)] canil, can.il (Tu.), an.n.al (Ma.), an.n.a_n (Ma.), an.il, an.ilam (Ta.)[Tol. po. 561] sanja_b = the grey squirrel (U.Pers.) sanil (Tu.); sa_n.a_, s'a_n.a (M.), saniyamu (Te.) = a bayonet or short dagger; [san.gi_n, s'ani_n = bayonet; hard, solid (P.); san:gin = bayonet (Santali)] san:gin = steel dagger at the end of a gun (G.), can-iyan- = bayonet, kuttuva_l. (Ta.) san.g = a stone; aki_k or carnelian stone (P.) a chisel for cutting metals s’a_ne, sa_n.e, sa_n.ekallu = a grind-stone; a whitstone; sa_n.e pattuni = to grind, to sharpen (Tu.lex.) sa_na = a grindstone, a whetsone, a hone; a kind of fine sandstone on which sandal paste is prepared; sa_nakatti = a kind of sword; sa_napat.t.u = to grind, as a knife, etc. to cut and polish as a precious stone (Te.lex.) sa_na = a demon shrine (Tu.); stha_na (Skt.)(Tu.lex.) san:gil = to look up, to raise or throw back the head (Santali.lex.)

m1188

2228

m0006a

m0222

2422

1194

h129A

kammat.a, ‘coiner’; kod.a, ‘workshop’

Sign 218 m0062 3112 Ligatures of Sign 218: kod.a + me~t me~t nepel = v. see face to face (Santali); rebus: med. 'iron'; (alternative: med.hi, ‘writer, merchant’s clerk’); kammat.a, ‘coiner’.

m0063

m0234

3068

Sign 229 and variant

1321

m1186A

2430

h082a Text 4238 388

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Kalibangan007

8043

m0026a

V053

1199

2074

m0632

1154

6120

1017

h515

1134

4162

vaka_ri_, vaka_riyo a ware-house keeper, a merchant; vaka_r [Hem. Des. vakkha_ri-am = Skt. ratigr.ham a brothel] a godown; a warehouse; a store-room (G.) baka_la [Arabic bakka_l a greengrocer] a petty shopkeeper; a va_nia (G.) bagalo an Arabian merchant vessel (G.) Alternative: bake forceps (Malt.); bakka_ claws of a crab, forceps, shears (Kur.)(DEDR 3814). bakr.ali, bark, brak to claw (Kui); bagaru to scratch with claws (Ka.)(DEDR 5202). (Glyph: claws; substantive: forceps). ban:ka_ crooked, bent, curved (Kur.); van:ka crooked, bend (of river)(Pali.Pkt.Skt.); vang to bend (Kol.); va~_ka crooked (Te.); va_n:ku bending (Ta.)(CDIAL 11191; DEDR 5335). baktale, bagutale parting of the hair by combing, combing the hair into curls, crown of the head, chaplet (Kod.)(DEDR 5202). va_gh [Dh. Des. vaggho fr. Skt. vya_ghra] a tiger; a bold man (G.)

A harp san.i_ (P.)

Sign 187

sanni_, sannhi_ = pincers, smith’s vice (P.)

Corset kaccu = a kind of corset worn by Indian women in ancient times (Ta.); bodice to confine the breast (Ma.); kan~cuka (Skt.); kam.cu = woman's bodice (Pkt.); kan~cuka = bodice, armour (Pali); ka~_cva_ = a sort of waistcoat (M.); ka~_cu_ = bodice, shirt (H.) Pleiades kattiya_ (Pkt.); kr.ttika_ pl. (AV.); kattika_ the month October-November (Pali); katyu~_ pl. (S.); ka_tya_ (M.); khitti_ (P.); kati pl. (Si.) kr.ti (RV.) 389

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kaciya_ = reaping hook (H.) kacca = to be cut off (Pkt.); kartya (Mn.); kattiya_ = scissors, shears (Pkt.); kati_ = goldsmith's or blacksmith's scissors (P.); ka_t (G.); ka_ti_ = scissors (A). tsa_ni, tsa_nye = squirrel (Kon.lex.) [Alternatives: tor. = squirrel; sega = squirrel; sisiar.in: = squirrel (Santali.lex.) Rebus: tor.a = a bag for holding money carried bound round the waist underneath the clothing, a long narrow purse; sisiar.i = thin, slim, as a stick (Santali)] canil, can.il (Tu.), an.n.al (Ma.), an.n.a_n (Ma.), an.il, an.ilam (Ta.)[Tol. po. 561] sanja_b = the grey squirrel (U.Pers.) sanil (Tu.); sa_n.a_, s'a_n.a (M.), saniyamu (Te.) = a bayonet or short dagger; [san.gi_n, s'ani_n = bayonet; hard, solid (P.); san:gin = bayonet (Santali)] san:gin = steel dagger at the end of a gun (G.), can-iyan- = bayonet, kuttuva_l. (Ta.) san.g = a stone; aki_k or carnelian stone (P.) a chisel for cutting metals Nindowari-damb01 Seal from Nindowaridamb. The sign that appears close to the horn of the bull is a squirrel. (cf. Asko Parpola, 1994, p. 103). Squirrel sign

h771At

squirrel ]. h811At of h811, the first sign on the left is a squirrel].

h771Bt

4678 [The second sign on line 1 is a

h811Bt

4349 [On side a

m1202A m1202C. 1325 [On line 1, the second sign from right is a squirrel]. Space on the side of the seal was used to inscribe a third line. co~ga_ ‘two handbreadths’ (IL 3121) co~ga_ stick used as a measure of two handbreadths (M.); s'an:ku a measure of twelve fingers; a measuring rod (Skt.); rebus: arrowhead; or, talka, ‘palm of the hand (with twelve phalanges on four fingers)’; rebus; talika, ‘inventory, list of articles’; pairing: san:gad.a, ‘furnace’; thus a list of furnace articles. Alternative: bed.a ‘twelve (pies)’ (Te.); bed.a ‘hearth’. kanku ‘ridge to retain water in paddy fields, dam’ (Ta.) co~ga_, co~gi_ pipe of smith's bellows (Mth.); con:ga a bamboo tube (Santali) Stable pairs of signs There are some stable sequences of signs in inscriptions, stability being measured by the frequency of occurrence of two signs within each inscription. There are five pairs with between 65 and 87 occurrences in the inscriptions. 390

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ten:go, ‘to stand’; ten:go, ‘to assume responsibility Rebus: tan:kam = pure gold (Ta.Ma.); t.an:ka = a stamped (gold) coin (Skt.)(DEDR 3013). mountain kan.d., ‘pot’; kan.d., ‘furnace’ [i.e. person managing a furnace]. te_jate_ = is sharp, sharpens (RV); te_jati = is sharp, shapens, incites (Pali); te_ai sharpens (Pkt.); tevn.e~ = to shine, burn (M.)(CDIAL 5945). Te_jas = sharp edge of a knife, glow (RV); fiery energy (AV); te_h = fire, arrogance (K.)(CDIAL 5946) tega = a sword; tega_ = a scimitar (G.Persian) tega_r = property, substance (G.Persian) ken.t.a ‘fish’; ke~r.e~ brass or bell-metal; Alternative 1: hako, ‘fish’; hako, ‘axe’; Alternative 2: a~s = scales of fish (Santali); rebus: aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.) kun.t.e, khu~t.i, ‘harrow, stake’; kut.hi, ‘furnace’ Alternative: ad.ar ‘harrow’; aduru ‘native metal’ V171 ib 'two' (Ka.); rebus: ib 'iron' (Santali)

Sign 99 : at.ar a splinter; at.aruka to burst, crack, slit off, fly open; at.arcca splitting, a crack; at.arttuka to split, tear off, open (an oyster)(Ma.); ad.aruni to crack (Tu.)(DEDR 66). Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.) san:gad.a, ‘two’; san:gad.a, ‘portable furnace’; sal, ‘splinter’; sal, ‘workshop’ OR kin ‘two’ rebus: gina ‘metal vessel’ Alternative decoding for Sign 99: por space between joints (H.); per joint, articulation (M.) Two, pair par (To.) por- ‘to sell’ (Ko.) bari_ = blacksmith bari_ = anvil bat.i 'wide-mouthed metal vessel' (H.) rebus: bat.hi = smelting furnace, kiln (Santali) bhra_s.t.ra (Skt.) The pair could mean 'iron smelting furnace' san:gad.a, ‘two’; san:gad.a, ‘portable furnace’; kamat.ha, ‘widemouthe pot’; kammat.a, ‘furnace, coinage, mint’ Alternative readings of the ‘pot’ glyph:

391

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knife

ken.t.a ‘fish’; ke~r.e~ brass or bell-metal; Alternative: hako, ‘fish’; hako, ‘axe’; a~s = scales of fish (Santali); rebus: aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.) Sign 67 with four scales may be a count of ‘four’, gan.d.; rebus: kan.d. ‘furnace’. kor-r-a, ‘a fish’; kot.ra hako a species of fish (Santali); kor-r-a, ‘mason’ Why the inscriptions cannot be sentences or personal names It would be a surprise indeed if, in a writing system used ca. 5000 years ago, it was possible to compose sentences using just five signs. Hundreds of inscribed texts on tablets are repetitions; it is, therefore, unlikely that hundreds of such inscribed tablets just contained the same ‘names’ composed of just five ‘alphabets’ or ‘syllables’, even after the direction of writing is firmed up as from right to left: There are 123 copper tablets with inscriptions excavated at Mohenjodaro. Most of the tablets contain only one line inscriptions excepting on four tablets which have a second line. [See BM Pande, 1979, Inscribed copper tablets from Mohenjo-daro: a preliminary analysis in: GL Possehl, 1979, Ancient Cities of the Indus, Delhi, Vikas]. Signs which pair with Sign 104: (21) (24) Pairing signs could be graphemes or variants of the same glyph, i.e., glyphs connoting the same lexeme. tagara = taberna montana (Skt.) Rebus: t.agromi = tin metal alloy (Kuwi) If distinct, Sign 161 could be koli ‘stubble’. s’ankha cultural continuum A skilled sawyer and shells ready for sawing, Calcutta. gongha snail’s shell (Santali) konkhos ‘shell’ (Gk.) ha_ngi snail (K.); sa~_khi possessing or made of shells (B.); ho~gi pearl oyster shell, shell of any aquatic mollusc (K.); ha_ngi snail (K.) s’ankha ‘turbinella pyrum’, 392

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conch-shell (Skt.) kaud.i enga id. (Santali) sa_g ‘body to be stretched out to full length’ (Kond.a) Turbinella pyrum shell bangle manufacturing process. [a to f]: preliminary chipping and removal of internal columella; [g to k]: sawing shell circlets; [l to n]: finishing the shell blank; [o]: final incising [After Fig. 5.23 in Kenoyer, 1998]. sak, sak ghon:gha, sak rokoc a conch (Santali.lex.) sa~k gon:gha, sa~k rokoc conch shell (Santali.lex.) s’angu (Tamil), s’ankha (Vedic) kr.s’a_nu = bowman? Shell-cutter with a bow saw ! Yaabhih kr.s’a_num asane duvasyatho jave yaabhir yu_no arvantam aavatam Madhu priyam bharatho yat sarad.bhyas taabhir u_ s.u u_tibhir as’vina_ gatam RV 1.112.21 With those aids by which you defended Kr.s'a_nu in battle, with which you succoured the horse of the young Purukutsa in speed, and by which you deliver the pleasant honey to the with them, As'vins, come willingly hither. [Kr.s'a_nu are somapa_las, vendors or providers of hasta-suhasta-kr.s'a_navah, te vah somakrayan.ah (Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_ 1.2.7); kr.s'a_nu = agni; purukutsa was the Mandha_ta_ and husband of Narmada_, the river; the text has the young', Purukutsa is added]. S’ankhah kr.s’a_nah = pearl shell won from the ocean and worn as amulet (AV 4.10.1)

bees; Soma; son of only 'of

S'ankha shell bangles, Harappa, ca. 30th cent. BCE S'ankha conch, Mohenjodaro, ca. 25th cent. BCE S'ankha ladle, Mohenjodaro, ca. 25th cent. BCE Bhairava, carrying a cut s'ankha on his left hand, artisan ! Sandstone sculpture of historical periods at Baroda. Vel.ir of the Sangam age It is apposite to refer to the vel.ir of the sangam age; in particular, the cera kings. Even today,diving for s’ankha takes place in ki_r..akkarai near Tiruchendur in the Gulf of Mannar and the West Bengal Development Corporation spends upto Rs. 50 crores annually to acquire the s’ankha to sustain the s’ankha bangle industry in the eastern region of Bharat. For, no Bengali marriage is complete without a s’ankha bangle. After all, Parvati wore the s’ankha bangle during her wedding with S’iva. This astonishing continuum of s’ankha tradition and veneration of s’ankha is an abiding example of the maritime traditions which have defined Hindu civilization from Himalayas to Gulf of Mannar and into the Straits of Malacca along the Indian Ocean Rim spanning over 60,000 miles. Maritime tradition and Sangam Age interactions 393

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Tamil Velir kings coming from Dwaraka. 49 generations ago is cited in Sangam text (Patirruppattu): neeye, vad.apa_l munivan tad.avinul. to_nr-i cempu punaintu iyar-r-iya ce_n.ned.um puricai uvara_ i_kai tuvarai a_n.t.u na_r-pattonpadu var..imur-ai vanta ve_l.irul. ve_l.e_ vir-ar- po_r an.n.al ta_r an.i ya_naic ce_t.t.u irunko_ve tuvarai a_n.t.u na_r-pattonpadu var..mur-ai vanta ve_l.irul. ve_l.e means 'king among kings, ruling Dwaraka and descending from 49 generations' and refers to a Cera king (i.e. king in Kerala). Averaging 25 years per generation, the 49 generations mentioned in this verse traces the genealogy of ve_l.ir back by 1225 years. If the movement of the people (yadava, a_yarkulam) from Dwaraka is related to the submergence of Dwaraka as mentioned in the mausala parvan of Mahabharata, the early presence of ve_l.ir in Dwaraka may be traced to c. 3000 BCE and hence, dating the ve_l.ir of Sangam Age in southern Bharat to 1775 BCE (that is 3000 BCE minus 1225). Workshop, smithy, turner er-e ‘to cast as metal’ (Ka.) sal ‘workshop’ (Santali) kamarsa_ri_ ‘smithy’ (Ka.) kad.a-i-o ‘turner’ (G.) sal ‘workshop’ (Santali) kolme ‘smithy’ (Ka.) kand. ‘fire-altar’ (Santali) kan- ‘copper, copperwork’ (Ta.) da_ula ‘a gold or silver washer’ (P.) kamarasa_la = waist-zone, waist-band, belt (Te.) kad.um ‘ring’ (G.) kor.i_ ‘breast of a quadruped’ (L.); kaula_ ‘lap’ (H.) krammar-a ‘to turn, return’ (Te.) er-e ‘to overflow’ (Ta.) e-re, ele ‘pouring’ (Ka.)

kand.a kanka ‘rim of jar’ (Santali) dhaul ‘bull with one horn’ Mint loa ‘iron’ (Gypsy) kammat.a = portable furnace (Te.) kammat.i_d.u ‘silversmith, goldsmith’ (Te.) kampat.t.am coiner, mint (Ta.) kamat.ha_yo = a learned carpenter or mason, working on scientific principles; kamat.ha_n.a [cf. karma, ka_m, business + stha_na, tha_n.am, a place fr. Skt. stha_ to stand] 394

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arrangement of one’s business; putting into order or managing one’s business (G.lex.) lo, loh = metal (Santali) kamad.ha ‘penance’ (Pkt.) kamat.ha ‘crab’ (G.) kama_t.hiyo ‘archer’ (G.) lo ‘nine’; loa (Santali)

‘ficus

glomerata’

The meaning conveyed by penance itself can be composed as a glyph: a person seated in a yogic posture. kamad.ha, kamat.ha = a type of penance (Pkt.). This word can also be imaged like a ficus leaf,: kamat.ha (Skt.) or a bat, kabat.a (Ka.) This sound of this word evokes meanings related to tools of trade of a professional artisan : kamat.a = a portable furnace for melting precious metals (Te.) kamat.ha_yo = a learned carpenter or mason, working on scientific principles (G.) kammat.i_d.u = a goldsmith, a silversmith (Te.) kampat.t.am = mint (Ta.) Sign 28

Ligature on sign 28: dhanus ‘bow’ (Skt.) dhan.i_ = the owner, the possessor (G.)

Buffaloes sitting with legs bent in yogic a_sana. Susa Cc-Da, ca. 30002750 BC, proto-Elamite seals: (a-c) After Amiet 1972: pl. 25, no. 1017 (=a); and Amiet 1980a: pl. 38, nos. 581-2 (b-c) Motif of buffalo horns is combined with six-pointed star. [After Parpola, 1994, Fig. 14.19: Painted pottery, c. 3000-2600 BCE. a. Kot Diji, Sind; b,c. Gumla, NW Frontier Province; d. Burzahom, a Kashmir Neolithic site. After H.D. Sankalia, 1974, The prehistory and protohistory of Bha_rata and Pakistan. Poona, 354, fig. 88: k]. go.l- (god.d.-) to beat, shoot with bow; god. to cut with axe (Kol.); gor.- (got.-) to strike, beat, kill (Nk.); kol. (kol.v-, kon.t.-) to strike, hurt; ko_l. killing, murder (Ta.); kol.ka (kon.t.-) to hit, take effect, come in contact (Ma.); kol.l.ikka to hit; ko_l. hitting, wound, damage (Ma.); kol.-/kon.- (kod.-) to pain, trouble 395

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(Ko.); kwil. (kwid.-) to quarrel (To.); kon.pini to hit; kol.puni, kolpuni to come into collision (Tu.); konu to be pierced as by an arrow (Te.)(DEDR 2152). ko_l. = a planet, navagraha; ra_ku (planet)[Skt. ra_hu] (Ta.lex.) ko_l.am = round (Ta.lex.) ko_l.ai = mouse (Ta.lex.) Water-carrier (rebus homonyms: ko_l., planet; kol.i_ water-carrier: hence, the hieroglyph depicting two stars with the water-carrier pictograph; thus, the depiction of fig around many standing persons in inscriptions may be treated as a phonetic determinative of the lexeme ko_l.i which also represents a fig family of trees which bear fruit without blossoming). Alternative 1: ko_l. ‘planet’; rebus: kol ‘metal’ Alternative 2: ukka_, ‘stars’; rebus: ukka_, ‘furnace’; ka_~vad.iyo, ‘water-carrier’; rebus: kamat.ha_yo, ‘carpenter’; alternative: kut.i, ‘woman water-carrier’; rebus: kut.hi, ‘furnace’.

ukka_, ‘stars’; rebus: ukka_, ‘furnace’; together with horns, ku_t.a; rebus: ku_t.am, workshop; the glyph on m0305 is partly read as: furnace, workshop. Substantive: suki ‘a small silver coin, a four anna or two anna bit’; t.aka ‘silver, rupee, money’ (Santali) suk’erika ‘stars’ (Kuwi)(DEDR 2646) sukar, sukor ‘the planet vennus as evening star’ (Santali) Rebus: sokol ‘fire’ (Santali) bar ‘two’; Rebus: bara ‘oven’ Buffalo's horns. Gumla, NW Frontier province. After Sankalia 1974: 354, fig. 88: b (=b), c (=c) sal ‘Indian gaur’; sal sakwa ‘horns of indian gaur’. Buffalo-horns twisted (mer.ha) med. ‘iron, implements’ kad.awa.n hor. a man who has buffaloes; . kad.ru ‘buffalo’ (G.); kad.a buffalo (Santali) kat.ra_ bull calf; kat.hr.a_ young buffalo bull; kat.iya_ buffalo heifer (H.); kat.r.a buffalo calf (WPah.); kat.ai buffalo calf (Gaw.); kat.r.a_ young buffalo (P.)(CDIAL 245). kat.a_damu = a he-buffalo (Te.lex.)42 ko_r.i buffalo (Kond.a); kud.ru (Pe.Mand.); ko_ru pl. ko_rka (Kui); ko_d.ru, ko_dru, ko_d.ru, go_d.ru (Kuwi)(DEDR 2256). ra~_go buffalo bull (Ku.N.)(CDIAL 10559)

396

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m0305AC 2235 Pict-80: Three-faced, horned person (with a three-leaved pipal branch on the crown with two stars on either side), wearing bangles and armlets. Two stars adorn the curved buffalo horns of the seated person with a plaited pigtail. The pigtail connotes a pit furnace: Substantive: sund ‘pit (furnace)’; sum, sumbh a mine, a pit, the opening into a mine, the shaft of a mine; sum bhugak the entrance to a mine, pit’s mouth (Santali). sun.d.i a semi-hinduised aboriginal caste; this caste are the distillers and liquor sellers; sun.d.i gadi a liquor shop (Santali) cun.d. to boil away (Ko.); sun.d.u to evaporate (Ka.); cun.d.u to be evaporated or dried up (Te.); s’un.t.hi to become dry (Skt.)(DED 2662). Glyph: su_nd gat. knot of hair at back (Go.); cundi_ the hairtail as worn by men (Kur.)(DEDR 2670). V051 Sign 51 might have been normalised from an early variant which depicts a mouse or rat seen from the back. There could be two glyphs involved: one, that of kaca 'scorpion'; rebus: kacc 'iron' and the second, that of rat sun.d.a; rebus: sun.d. 'pit furnace'. sun.d.a musk-rat (Ka.)(DEDR 2661)]. s'un.d.i-mu_s.ika_, s'un.d.a-mu_s.ika_ musk-rat (Skt.)(CDIAL 12517). kac, kas, kacci iron (Go.); kacc iron, iron blade (of spade)(Go.); kacci iron sword (Go.); sword (Kol.) ? < IA (DEDR 1096; CDIAL 2866)

V205 Sign 205 and variants: son.d.a = a tusk, as of wild boar, elephant (Santali.lex.) sonda = a billhook, for cutting fire wood (Santali.lex.) Rebus substantive: samanom = an obsolete name for gold (Santali) hom = pom, hem = gold; hombat.t.al = a golden cup; hombara.ni = a gold jar or vase; hombar-e = go gild; hombesavu = gold soldering (Ka.) hem = a medicinal garden plant with yellow heads of flowers, spilanthes semella (Ka.) hon, honnu = gold (Ka.) honnu = gold, an old gold coin; honnittad.i = a kind of brass which has the appearance of gold (Te.) somn.a = gold (Pkt.); son.n.a = golden (Pali); suvarn.a = of bright colour, golden (RV); gold (AV); sovnakay, so_nakai, somnakay = gold (Gypsy)(CDIAL 13519) soni = jeweller (Bi.)(CDIAL 13623). Concordant with Rigveda ‘soma’ ! Workshop, smithy, turner kundan = pure gold (G.Persian); the socket of a gem (G.) kundanamu = fine gold used in very thin foils in setting precious stones; setting precious stones with fine gold (Te.lex.) kundamu = one of the seven nidhi-s of Kubera (Te.) kunda = a city of vidya_dhara-s (Pkt.lex.) kuntan-am = interspace for setting gems in a jewel; fine gold (Ta.); kundan.a = setting a precious stone in fine gold; find gold; kundana = fine gold (Ka.); kundan.a = pure gold (Tu.) kunda_r turner(A.); ku~da_r, ku~da_ri (B.); kunda_ru (Or.); kundau to turn on a lathe, to carve, to chase; kundau dhiri = a hewn stone; kundau murhut = a graven image (Santali) kunda a turner's lathe (Skt.)(CDIAL 3295)43.

sa~gad. ‘part of a turner’s apparatus’ (M.) pasara ‘smithy’ (Santali) pa_slo ‘nugget of gold like a die’ 397

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ukka_ ‘furnace’ (Pkt.) jan:gad.iyo (G.) Military guards who carry government treasury from one place to another; san:gad.amu (Te.) = army sangad.a ‘joined animals’ (M.) sangad.a ‘drill-lathe’ (G.) saghad.i_ ‘pot for holding fire’ (G.)

har612 faience tablet, bas-relief.

pasaramu ‘quadruped’ (Telugu) khagga ‘rhinoceros’ (Pkt.)

pa_slo ‘dice’ (G.)

ukka_ ‘thigh’ (Vedic) Minerals, alloys, tools d.ha_lako ‘a large metal ingot’ (G.) jasta ‘zinc’ (H.) sattu, sattva (Ka.) svastika ‘pewter’ (Ka.) ranku ‘tin’ (Santali) tagara ‘tin’ (Ta.) ranga ‘pewter, alloy of tin, lead and antimony’ (Santali) ranku ‘tin’ (Santali) ku_t.akamu ‘mixture, alloy’ (Te.) a_raku_t.a ‘brass’ (Skt.) kuduru ‘portable gold furnace’ (Te.) kamar ‘smith’ (Santali) d.hangar ‘blacksmith’ (WPah.) ku_t.am ‘workshop’ (Ta.) kun.d.ia ‘headman’ (Pkt.) tagaraka ‘tabarnaemontana, wild jasmine’ (Skt.) ranga ‘thorny’ (Santali) ranga_ ‘buffalo’ (Santali) d.hanga ‘long, shanky’ (Santali) it.ankar ‘alligator’ (Ta.) kun.d.i_ ‘crooked buffalo horns’ (L.) ku_t.amu ‘mountain-summit’ (Te.) khun.t.a ‘peg’ (Te.) med.h ‘stake’ (H.) kudur d.okke ‘lizard’ (Santali) kammara ‘turning head backwards’ (Te.) d.a_l. ‘branch of a tree’ (G.) rakha ‘three’ (G.) ran:ku ‘tin’ (Santali) ||| (Three linear strokes) bal ‘to bore a hole, or to puncture, with a red hot iron (Santali)’ khan.d.i ‘piece of elephant’s trunk’ (S.); ivory in rough (Jatki) bali ‘iron softstone sand’ (Santali)

kangha ‘comb’ (IL 1333) kang ‘brazier, fireplace’ (K.) 398

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samanom = gold (Santali) Glyph: samna samni = face to face (Santali) The bulls standing face to face: samna samni = face to face (Santali); rebus: samanom 'gold' (Santali) homa = bison (Pengo); rebus: soma = electrum (RV) pasra’smithy’ (Santali) pisera_ ‘a small deer brown above, black below’ (H.) kan.d.i = a hole, an opening (Ka.Ma.Tu.); gan.d.i (Te.)(Ka.lex.) kor.o ‘duck’ (Mu.) kod. ‘workshop’ kut.ila ‘bent’ (Skt.) kut.ila ‘bronze, 8 parts copper, 2 parts tin’ (Skt.) kut.he ‘leg of bedsteador chair’ (Santali) put.a = an eyelid (Ka.) put.a = the purifying or calcining of metals etc. by fire (Tu.lex.) Rebus homonyms (glyphs) and readings (similar sounding mleccha words) Gharial, = it.ankar; mangar ‘crocodile’ d.hangar ‘smith’; mengro ‘smith’ Lizard = kuduru kuduru ‘gold portable furnace of Fish = ayo smith’ Tiger = kola ayas ‘metal’ Nine = lo; Ficus = loa kol ‘pancaloha’; kolla ‘furnace’ Nave of wheel = eraka loh = metal Spy = heraka eraka = metal infusion Look back (tiger, antelope) = kammara kamar = smith Goat, antelope = mr..eka mleccha, melakkha ‘copper’ Penance = kamad.ha kampat.t.a ‘mint’ Tree = kut.i kut.hi ‘furnace’ Bird = bat.a bat.a ‘furnace’ Heifer = kad.a ka_d.i ‘fire-trench’ Horn = kod. kod. ‘workshop’ Die (dice) = pa_slo pasara ‘smithy’ Bracelet, headdress, tiger’s mane = cu_lha ‘furnace’ cu_d.a na_ga ‘lead’ Serpent = na_ga Message on Dholavira Signboard: metal services at a smithy Dholavira (Kotda) on Kadir island, Kutch, Gujarat; 10 signs inscription found near the western chamber of the northern gate of the citadel high mound (Bisht, 1991: 81, Pl. IX); each sign is 37 cm. high and 25 to 27 cm. wide and made of pieces of white crystalline rock; the signs were apparently inlaid in a wooden plank ca. 3 m. long; maybe, the plank was mounted on the facade of the gate to command the view of the entire cityscape. Ten signs are read from left to right. The 'spoked circle' sign seems to be the divider of the three-part message. (Bisht, R.S., 1991, Dholavira: a new horizon of the Indus Civilization. Puratattva, Bulletin of Indian Archaeological Society, 20: 81; now also Parpola 1994: 113). 399

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Nave of wheel: eraka; rebus: eraka, (copper) ‘metal infusion’ Set1 (3 glyphs): copper furnace merchant eraka ‘furnaced copper’; bar.ea ‘merchant’ (pair, ‘barea’; eraka ‘nave of wheel’) kangar ‘furnace’ (crab ‘kakr.a_)

Set 2 (four glyphs) copper, iron, bronze merchant; native metal furnace eraka ‘furnaced copper’ (eraka ‘nave of wheel’) med.h ‘merchant’; med. ‘iron’ (met ‘one’) Lid ‘ad.aren’; rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ kancu ‘bronze’ (Te.) [kanac ‘corner’ (Santali)]

Set 3 (three glyphs): copper, metal workshop eraka ‘furnaced copper’ (eraka ‘nave of wheel’) loh ‘(copper) metal’ (Fig leaf ‘loa’) Peg ‘khun.t.a’; rebus: ku_t.a ‘workshop’

The epigraphs of the civilization found in over 4000 inscribed objects has been an unsolved problem since no decipherment claim has so far been accepted as valid. This situation is caused by the absence of a ‘Rosetta Stone’ to convincingly establish the validity of any decipherment claim. Rosetta stones There are a few ‘rosetta stones’ of the writing system. These ‘rosetta stones’ are seals found in Mesopotamian civilization area with glyphs which occur again on many epigraphs of the Sarasvati Civilization. Three such seals found in Mesopotamia are: MS 4602 Indus Valley cylinder seal with a glyph of two seated monkeys and other motifs characteristically comparable to those in many epigraphs of the Civilization Umma seal or Gadd Seal 1 square-shaped, with a cuneiform inscription and with a bison (short-horned bull) glyph Seal Impression of a round seal found at Ur depicting a water-carrier with two stars Ur cylinder seal BM 122947 containing early glyphs comparable to Signs 162 and 169 These ‘rosetta stones’ are two tin ingots found in a ship-wreck in Haifa, Israel containing glyphs which are comparable to those recorded on epigraphs of the civilization; Haifa was on a caravan-cumshipping route from Sarasvati Civilization! Sarasvati-Sindhu doab cylinder seal containing glyph of monkey

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Sarasvati-Sindhu doab cylinder seal, ca. 3000 BCE depicting a palm tree and a man between two lions with wings and snakeheads, holding one arm around each, two long fish below, and one fish jumping after one lion’s tail or the tail of a sitting monkey above it. MS 4602 (Manuscript in Metropolitan Museum of Art) Mehrgarh. Seal matrix on creamy stone or shell, Indus Valley, Pakistan, ca. 3000 BCE, 1 cylinder seal, diam. 2,0x3,7 cm, in fine execution influenced by the Jemdet Nasr style of Sumer. Cylinder seal in Jemdet Nasr style of Sumer, shows two seated monkeys, in addition to typical glyphs of the Sarasvati Civilization. MS 4602 Apart from a seated monkey, the glyphs shown are: three fishes, one of which is jumping up to the tail of one of the two tigers. [hako ‘fish’; rebus: ‘axe’; a~s = scales of fish (Santali); rebus: aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.)] A quiver with arrows, ligatured with two bows and other unidentifiable weapons within. (sar, d.ol = arrow); bat.i = a small brass bow; khora = a large brass bow; d.ubha = a metal bow (Santali) Rebus: bat.i = a metal cup or basin; bat.hi = a furnace for melting iron-ore (Santali) Two tigers standing up with their heads turned backwards and being subdued by a standing person. (kol ‘tiger’; rebus: ‘metal’). kaidau = to subdue; rebus: kaida = a kind of knife with a curved blade; a big thick sickle, used to pollard trees or to cut branches (Santali) A sprout with five petals (taberna montana, ‘tagara’; rebus: tagara ‘tin’) in front of the legs of the standing person. Since the context is clearly a reference to kol ‘metal’ (rebus: ‘tiger’), the cylinder seal depicts the metallic (bronze) weapons in possession of the seal owner. Molded faience figurine with a hole in centre. Three ligatured monkeys. This miniature carved faience bead or pin ornament is possibly placed on a stick or cord. Possibly molded and carved. Material: yellow brown glazed faience; 1.6 cm. high and 1.4 cm. dia; Mohenjodaro K 1053. Marshall 1931: pl. CLVIII.5; after Fig. 8.23, Kenoyer, 2000.

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The ligaturing comparable to the ligature of three tigers on a tablet is an indication that the count of three is related to three objects made of copper (tebr.a ‘three’; ta(m)bra ‘copper’). Glyph: ga~r.i~ = a monkey; sakam ga~r.i~ a small species of monkey (Santali) Monkey gad.ava = male monkey (Ka.); gad.d.i, gad.d.e_ (Go.); kat.uvan= (Ta.)(DEDR 1140) [Note a seal where a monkey is shown in lieu of a standard device in front of a one-horned bull]. sakam ga~r.i~ a small species of monkey (Santali) Substantive: kan.d.i = furnace (Santali) gadiau = to carry a sword, to be armed with a sword (Santali) kar.c ib = very excellent iron (Ko.) kad.tale (Tu.) long-edged sword Glyph: gad.i markers or lines in a children’s game; enec gad.iko benaca they make lines for the game (Santali) gad.i_ the groove of a pulley; a globule formed in fried cakes (G.) ga_d.i_ a cart; ga_d.um a cart (G.) gad.i ‘a wheel, a cart, a carriage, anything that runs on wheels’; ra~t gad.i ‘a chariot’; ghar. ghar.i ‘a pulley wheel’; ghar.ghar.ao ‘to roll, as a ball; to revolve, as a wheel, or as a spindle; to whir’; gharr.iko ghar.ghar.aoa (Santali) ghared.i_ a pulley; gharad., gharod. A cart-road; a wheel-rut (G.) Glyph gad., ga_n.t.h, gra_nth a knot, an entanglement (G.) Substantive: ga_n.t.h possession (G.) Substantive: gadi a shop (Santali) kat.ai shop, bazaar, market (Ta.); kat.a market (Ma.)(DEDR 1142). Substantive: gar. a fort. a palace; gad.hi_ ‘resident of a hill-fort’; gad.i_ a companion, a servant (M.); a domestic servant, a labourer (G.) gada gad, gad.a gud. in crowds, numerous; gadi populous, as a village; gadi t.an.d.i the capital of T.an.d.i; gadi sirampur the capital of Serampore; gad crowd; hor. gad a crowd of people; gad.i lair of certain animals, as of a hare, pig (Santali) gad.di_ a crowd (G.) gad.o an octroi; a duty levied at the gates of a town (used in Ka_t.hia_wa_d.). A residence of a zamindar, a fort is: gad.hi_ the inhabitant of a hill-fort (G.) gar., gar.h (Santali) ghar ‘house’ (Hindi) gharana ‘household’ (Santali) gad.h a hill-fort; a hill; a mount (G.); gad.ho (Hem.Des.) gad.hvi_ the governor of a fort (G.); kat.t.at.am building (Ta.); ket.t.akam house (Ma.); kat. To build, manage (house) (Ka.); kat.t.e platform build under tree on village green (Ka.); kat.t.ad.a a building (Ka.); kat.t.alme building (Tu.); kat.t.ad.amu building (Te.); ghat.t.a quay, landing-place, bathing place (Skt.)(DEDR 1147). Glyph: gad.do [Hem. Des. gud.da_liyam = Skt. pin.d.i_kr.tam formed into a ball] a beating with the fist (G.) Glyph: gad.i a seed bed (Santali) Bracelet khar.ua_ = wrist ornament (H.); khad.u_ (Skt.); kha_ruwa_ = large iron ring (A.) kat.akam (Ta.) kat.avu = cattle-path (Ta.) kad.avu = turning lathe (Tu.) To throw (Ma.)

kad. (kat.t.-) = to throw (Pa.); kat.a_vu = to drive in a nail

kat.avu = male of sheep or goat (Ta.)(DEDR 1123); Ram gar.era (Or.); xar. (Br.); ga_d.ar = sheep (G.) gad.ariya_= shepherd (H.) kad.ava = elk, Indian stag, rusa aristotalis (Ka.) gad.d.ar small sheep (G 402

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kat.avai = leap, jump (Ta.) [Note the glyph of a jumping tiger]. kat.a = stride Glyph: gan.d.e ‘to place at a right angle to something else, cross, transverse’; gan.d. gan.d. ‘across, at right angles, transversely’ (Santali) [Note: A slanted line Lahn.d.a writing of accounts connotes a quarter; a straight line connotes ‘one’.] ka~t.a = a hook; kat.a = a pit saw (Santali.lex.) kat.a kat.i = cutting, to slash, kill; kat.ao = to cut (Santali.lex.); kat.aha = fierce, ravening; applied also to any cutting instrument used to kill an animal with; den, kat.aha odoktape, bring out your cutting instrument (to kill the goat with)(Santali.lex.) khat., khat. marte = with one blow, or with one cut; khat. menteye get topakkeda, he cut it right through with one blow; khar, khar marte = sharp[; to whish as when cutting with any sharp instrument (Santali.lex.) khad.u_ra = swing (AV 11.9.6) (Vedic.lex.) gan.t.ave_t.a = batfowling, nightfowling wherein lights and lowbells are used; gan.t.a = bat (Te.lex.) " Sign 99 gan.t.u = a notch, cut, indentation (Te.lex.) granthi = a joint or articulation of the body; a knot or prutuberance of any kind (Ka.lex.)

Sign 161 Forkbara_s carpenter's forked instrument (Tu.lex.) kan.t.a = a fork, grapnel (Santali.lex.) kan.t.a = throat, tonsils (Santali.lex.); cf. kan.t.ha throat (Skt.lex.) khar. = a herd, a flock; khar. ke khar. = in multitudes, flock after flock (Santali.lex.) gan.t.e = a spoon; a ladle (Te.lex.) Glyph: gan.d.a ‘a set of four’; gan.d.a gut.i to divide, to make up an account (Santali) gan.d.i hole, orifice (Te.); kan.d.i, gan.d.i opening, hole, window (Tu.)(DEDR 1176). kad.uve = hero (Ka.) Substantive: gan.d.a male person; gan.d.iga a valliant man (Ka.)(DEDR 1173). Substantive: kan.t.am iron style for writing on palmyra leaves (Ta.); gan.t.amu id. (Te.)(DEDR 1170) gan.t.a = a stub, the stump of a corn-stalk; gan.t.e = the cereal holcus picatus; pl. gan.t.elu = id., also called sajjalu in southern Telugu districts (Te.lex.) Alternative: Small monkey ko_d.a (Ir.), ko_d.ag = monkey (Ir.) ko_t.aram (Ta.), korg = black monkey (Ko.) god.d.ali = axe (Te.) kuran:ku = monkey (Ta.lex.) [On a seal, a monkey is shown in lieu of the standard device; this may be a rebus for an anvil, kuraga]. ku_r-ige a seed-drill, sowing machine drawn by oxen (Ka.cf. MIAI, p.29. kurgi is a distance that may be ploughed and sown in one day, with a pair of bullocks and drill plough (M.). ku_ru to fill or stuff anything, to load (Te.); ku_r-ige hod.e to work with the ku_r-ige (Ka.lex.) korn:ga a Hindu caste of wood turners (Santali.lex.) 403

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kuraga = an instrument of goldsmiths; a sort of anvil (Ka.); khura_rya_ (M)(Ka.lex.) kura = ploughshare (L.); kurelna_ to poke (P.); to dig (H.); kuredna_ to scrape (H.)(CDIAL 3319). [kora-mut.t.u = tool, instrument (Ka.)] Decoding of cuneiform in Gadd Seal 1 using lexemes from the substrate language It is possible that the early lexeme for cassiterite or tin ore was 'kasa'. “aurichalcum…In the poetic phase, which loves the vague, this ‘mountain-copper’ was a mythic natural metal, ranking between gold and silver…Plato (the ‘Critias’ ix, treating of Atlantis, America) makes oreichalc, ‘now known only by name,’ the most precious metal after gold. Pliny (xxxiv.2) tells us truly enough that aurichalcum no longer exists…Festus speaks of ‘orichalcum (copper), stannum (zinc or pewter?), cassiterum (tin), and aurichalcum (brass).’..When Dioscorides (v.cap.84) seems to allude to artificial or furnace-calamine, an impure oxide of zinc, he may mean the more modern tutiya (Avicenna), toutia, thouthia, cadmie des fourneaux, or tutty. Reduced to powder, and mixed with an equal quantity of wetted charcoal by way of fondant or flux, it is melted with copper to form brass…aurichalcum was made synonymous with electrum, natural or artificial…Brugsch (i.345) understands by ‘usem’ brass, and thinks asmara or asmala equivalent to the Hebrew hasmal or hashmal = electrum. In Bunsen (v.757) Kasabet and kakhi are brass (aurichalcum), and Khesbet is a metal connected with Kassiteros = tin…Herodotus (iii.115), in the historic age (BCE 480-30), gives the name of the mythical metal to the ‘tears of the Heliades,’ which the Latins called succinum (succum), the Low-Latins ambrum, the Arabs anbar, and we Amber…The staters of Lydian Croesus, held by the Greeks to be the most ancient of coins, were, according to Bockh, of electrum, three parts gold and one part silver…” (Richard F. Burton, 1884, The book of the sword (repr. 1987), New York, Dover Publications, pp. 85-87). Umma seal or Gadd Seal 1 If the cuneiform reading of this seal is: sak kasi, the lexemes may connote: sak 'shell or conch' and kasi 'cassiterite'. The bull may be read as: d.han:gar 'smith'. Thus the message of the seal is the possession of the smith or the commodities traded by the smith: shell and copper. Gadd Seal 1 Seal impression and reverse of seal from Ur (U.7683; BM 120573); image of bison and cuneiform inscription; cf. Mitchell 1986: 280-1 no.7 and fig. 111; Parpola, 1994, p. 131: signs may be read as (1) sag(k) or ka, (2) ku or lu or ma, and (3) zi or ba (4)?. The commonest value: sag-ku-zi Or, SAG.KU(?).IGI.X or SAG.KU(?)P[AD]?

It has been posited by Dr. S. Kalyanaraman in his 7-volume work on Sarasvati (to be released in September 2003) that even without a Rosetta stone, the reading of mlecchita vikalpa becomes selfevident because many of the hieroglyphs used on the epigraphs can be interpreted rebus using lexemes of dialects of many languages from Bharat. These lexemes relate to the tools-of-trade of a brazier or metallurgist: minerals, metals, smelting and melting furnaces, other artifacts produced by braziers and lapidaries, metallic tools and weapons. Prof. Srinivasa Tilak makes the following observations about the use of the term, mlecchita vikalpa by Vatsyayana: “At one stage, mleccha referred to an alien or an outsider. According to the Bhavishya Purana, it was King Shalivahana who demarcated Sindhurashtra as the land and nation of the Aryas that lay east of the Sindhu River effectively separating it from the land of the mlecchas on the west of the Sindhu River(sthapita tena maryada mleccharyanam prithak prithak. Sindhu sthanam iti jneyam 404

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rashtram aryasya ca uttamam. Mleccha sthanam param sindhoh kritam tena mahatmana (Pratisarga adhyaya 2). Mimamsa, usually dismissed as the most orthodox school of Indian philosophy, nevertheless paid more attention to the mlecchas and unhesitantly lauded their accomplishments in secular matters than any other darshanas. For instance, commenting on Jaiminisutra (1:3.10), Shabara raised and discussed the problem whether the meaning of certain Vedic words like pica or nema (which were not common among the Aryas but well known among the mlechhas) should be derived from Sanskrit roots or from their actual usage among the mlechhas. He advocated the linguistic usages of the mlecchas in secular matters and encouraged their incorporation at the Prakrit (lokavani) level. Kumarila (ca. 700), another great Mimasa philosopher, granted them a potentially superior competence in worldly and secular laukika) matters. In his Tantravartttika he discusses the mlecchas at length and advises to engage with them in empirical transactions (drisharthavyavahara) and learn from them such secular professions and skills as agriculture, astrology, and drama. Acknowledging that the mlecchas were more qualified in fields like building houses, producing silk products, and making harnesses he credited them for providing appropriate terminology and words in these areas (I am wondering if Dr Kalyanraman's reference to and discussion of 'Mlecchita vikalpa' would be relevant here)? Kumarila also invited Indians to explore countries inhabited by the mlecchas (see Tantra Varttika # 150, 153 on Jaiminisutra 1:3.10). Prabhakara, another leading exponent of the Mimamsa school, also rejected parochial attempts to (1) derive all mleccha words from Sanskrit roots and (2) construe their meanings `etymologically' regardless of their actual usage by the mlecchas (see Shabara and Kumarila on Jaiminisutra 1:3.10)(also Wilhelm Halbfass 1990: 179). As a result, there has been a long tradition of Sanskrit scholars who were diglossic (i.e., bilingual = dvaibhashika)(see Wilhelm Halbfass, India and Europe: An Essay in Philosophical Understanding, Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass, 1990:185). Such an early positive perception of the mlecchas however changed over the centuries. Some of the reasons may be found in Bodhayana's Dharmasutras where he defined the mleccha as one who eats beef, records his disagreement repeatedly [assertively?], and is devoid of righteous behaviour (Gomamsa khadako yastu, viruddham bahu bhashate, sarvacara vihinasya mleccha iti abhidhiyate). “Whenever the Indian tradition came across new ideas and practices, they naturally tested the hermeneutical ingenuity of its thinkers and commentators to address them according to the known rules preserved in the tradition of Mimamsa. Vikalpa has been one favoured strategy wherein one is invited to choose from one or the other of the alternatives if they seem to have about the same power or authority. Thus, Arjuna is offered the option of selecting any one or more of the three types of yogas taught in the Gita. Badha, however, is recommended in a situation where it can be demonstrated that one idea or practice is more uthoritative than the other. In that event, the injunction, idea or practice with the lesser authority is annulled allowing the one having greater authority to stand. Samuccaya is the third available strategy according to which all the items enjoined by [conflicting] injunctions, ideas or practices are considered equally valid or obligatory. Any apparent conflict is then resolved by adjudicating the implicated views or practices to different times, authorities, or ages. This strategy is discernible in the concept advocating the joint deployment of knowledge and action(jnanakarmasamuccaya). See Jaiminisutra 12:3.9-17; P.V. Kane History of Dharmashastra: Ancient & Medieval Religious & Civil Law 2:1326-30; Patrick Olivelle The Ashrama System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. The expression Mlecchita vikalpa suggests that the tradition opted for the vilakpa option (rather than the badha or samuccaya) when evaluating or assessing the ideas or practices (whether as language,art or professions)described as Mlecca.” (Personal communication, Nov. 2007) Reverting to my interpretation of mlecchita-vikalpa. Clearly, mleccha-speakers had the competence to work with technologies, say, of agriculture or metals. Hence, the following lexemes: mlecchita {mlis.t.a} from mla_na `faded, withered'; hence, mlis.t.a `spoken indistinctly' Pa1n2. 7-2 , 18; mleccha `a person 405

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who lives by agriculture or by making weapons' The compound mlecchita-vikalpa as one of the 64 arts is normally associated with representation of des'a bhaashaa in an alternative representation (vikalpa), say, a glyptic writing or pictorial writing system. The triad of arts listed by Vatsyayana among the 64 arts are: akshara mushtika kathana, des'a bhaashaa jnaana, mlecchita vikalpa. All three relate to social communication methods. I suggest that mlecchita vikalpa was the ONLY writing system related to des'a bhaashaa jnaana -- that is expression of language through writing. And, the invention of this writing system complemented the invention of alloying metals and also complemented the method of communication called akshra mushtika kathana (story-telling using fingers and wrist, also called mudra?). If there were alternative writing systems, wouldn't Vatsyayana have mentioned it? I agree about the samuccaya strategy of absorbing inventions. Rasaratnasamuccaya is the title of an early work in chemistry (alchemy). It is not mere coincidence that most of the Sarasvati hieroglyphs find their expression on 5 or 6 devices on early punch-marked coins of janapada-s including yaudheya. It appears, therefore, that vikalpa is in the context of an option, an alternative method of representing spoken language. The code of the hieroglyphs is claimed to have been cracked stating that hieroglyphs connoted lexemes (as distinct from Egyptian hieroglyphs which connoted syllables). Kalyanaraman argues that the Sarasvati hieroglyphs were neither alphabetic nor syllabic but lexemic. The validity of the code will become self-evident (without any Rosetta stones) as we run through the rebus lexemes, alchemical nature of soma and the nature of the vra_tya tradition elaborated in the Rigveda. To explain the rebus (use of similar sounding words to connote substantive messages using glyphs or pictures) method, the following examples may be cited from Kalyanaraman’s work: The following are examples taken from a few dialects of ancient languages of Bharat; many of these lexemes have cognates in all the language families of Bharat, though only one lexeme is cited from one dialect for brevity of presentation in this summary: homa = bison (Pengo); hom = gold (Kannada) soma = electrum (Rigveda) assem = electrum (Old Egyptian) ra_ngo = buffalo (Santali); kuranga = antelope (Sanskrit); ran:ku = antelope (Santali) ran:ku = tin (Santali) kola = woman (Nahali); kola = tiger (Santali); kol = alloy of five metals (Tamil) mlekh = antelope (Br.); mr..eka id. (Telugu); milakkhu = copper (Pali); mleccha id. (Sanskrit) ibha = elephant (Sanskrit); ib = two (Kannada); rebus: ib = iron (Santali) adar d.angra = Brahmani bull (Santali); aduru = native metal (not smelted)(Kannada); d.angar = blacksmith (Western Pahari) damra = heifer, steer (Gujarati); tambra = copper (Kannada); tamba id. (Santali); tamra id. (Sanskrit) tibira = merchant (copper) (Akkadian) [The one-horned heifer is the most frequently occurring hieroglyph on epigraphs. The glyph is a ligature composed of one horn, a pannier and a heifer. kod. = horn (Tamil); kod. = artisan’s workshop (Kuwi) kammarsa_la = waistband (Tamil); kamar = smith; sa_la ‘workshop’] svastika = glyph (Sanskrit); satthiya id. (Prakrit); rebus: sattu, satva = zinc, pewter (Kannada) kor.o Has. Syn. of ged.e, ger.e Nag. A domesticated duck, anas domestica 406

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(Mundari.lex.) ged.e = a duck (Santali.lex.) ka_ran.d.avamu = a sort of duck (Te.lex.) ka_ran.d.ava = a duck (G.lex.) Thus, the animals shown on Sarasvati epigraphs – bison, buffalo, tiger, antelope, Brahmani or zebu bull, elephant, and heifer and the glyph ‘svastika’ shown together with an elephant and tiger on a tablet, are minerals and metals worked on by smiths, kammara (Telugu) kut.i = tree (Telugu); kut.i = woman water carrier (Telugu); rebus: kut.hi = smelting furnace (Mundari) bat.a = paddy bird (Telugu); bat.i = wide-mouthed rimless jar (Telugu) bat.hi = smelting furnace (Hindi Santali) bhra_s.t.ra id. (Sanskrit) na_ga = snake (Sanskrit); rebus: na_ga = lead (Sanskrit) lo = nine; loa = ficus religiosa (Santali); rebus: loh = metal (Sanskrit) kamad.ha = ficus religiosa (Santali); rebus: kampat.t.amu = portable gold furnace; kampat.t.am = mint (Tamil) ku_t.am = summit of mountain (Telugu); mountain + leaf ligature = kampat.t.aku_t.am = mint (Tamil) a~s = scales of fish (Santali); rebus: ayas = metal (perhaps iron); ams'u = scales of soma, electrum (Rigveda) bed.a hako = a species of fish (Santali); rebus: bed.a = one end of a hearth (Gujarati) hako = axe (Ho. Boda) era = nave of wheel (Kannada); ara_ = spokes (Rigveda); rebus: ara, era = copper (Pali. Pkt.) aru = copper (Akkadian) Two animals – tiger and antelope – are orthographically depicted as looking backwards. There is a lexeme in Telugu to explain this: krammarincu = to turn backwards. The rebus is: kammara ‘smith’ (Telugu). One is a smith working with an alloy of five metals (kol) and another is a smith working with copper (milakkhu). m0488ct m0272

2554

Glyph: krem = the back (Kho.)(CDIAL 2776). krammar-a =

krammar-

to turn, return (Te.); krammarilu, krammar-illu, krammarabad.u = to turn, return, to go back; krammar-u = again; incu = to turn or send back (Te)

The most that of a rim read as: kand ‘altar, hieroglyph

frequently occurring glyph is of a narrow-necked jar. This is khanda kanka. The rebus is: furnace’; kan- ‘copper’; thus the connotes a copper furnace.

Similarly, the device in front of the onehorned heifer is read as: sangada = furnace, gimlet of a lathe. The device is thus a ligature of a portable furnace (shown on the lower part) and a lathe (shown on the upper part). Sangada is a furnace. sangada also means a joined animal (Marathi)

407

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An archer is kamadha; a person sitting in a yogic posture is kamadha (Pali) The rebus is: kammata = portable gold furnace (Telugu). The list continues for hundreds of hieroglyphs virtually covering all the frequently occurring sign pairs or pictorial motifs on the epigraphs. On these lines, all the hieroglyphs contained in pictorial motifs and signs (which average 5 per epigraph) can be read in the context of brazier’s possessions, some of which are traded. The lexemes tagged to the hieroglyphs point to a dialectical continuum among all ancient languages of Bharata – be the dialects of Munda, or Dravidian or Indo-Aryan categories. The civilization circa 5000 years ago constituted a linguistic area where all the speakers of these dialects were intelligible to all and the hieroglyphs functioned as a writing system to validate, like bills of lading, the trade transactions in minerals and metals. There are also hieroglyphs related to beads and other artifacts made by lapidaries, braziers and metallurgists. Many epigraphs are inscribed on copper plates. This tradition continues in the historical periods in Bharat. Many glyphs used on punch-marked coins mark a continuity from Sarasvati hieroglyphs. Copper plate inscriptions during historical periods were used to record property transactions, again a continuing from Sarasvati civilization tradition. Only a brazier had the competence to inscribe on metal plates and even on weapons themselves. The brazier was recording property transactions using Mleccha language and Mlecchita vikalpa

Mackay cxxvi2

2923 Mackay

xvi3 2924 Mackay cxxvi5 2925 Mackay cxxvii1 [Four slanted strokes; 7 short numeral strokes]

408

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[See: J.S. Pettersson, 1999, Indus Numerals on Metal tools, in: Indian Journal of History of Science, 34(2), pp. 89-108. “By internal evidence, then number of times a numeral can occur in sequence appears to be bound by eight. That is, if the different numerals together formed a system, as supposed here, that system was octal…it demolishes the hypothesis that the numerals represent weight units, at least the common units described by Hemmy (1938).” The stone sculpture of "Priest" from the Civilization may have originally had a horned head-dress affixed to the back of its head. Graphic reconstruction of the "Priest" [courtesy of Professor Michael Jansen (RWTH, Aachen University)] After http://bosei.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp/~indus/english/2_3_02.html The zebu is: ad.ar d.an:gra (Santali); rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.) d.han:gar ‘blacksmith’ (WPah.) The bull is tied to a post. tambu = pillar (G.); stambha id. (Skt.) Rebus: tamba = copper (Santali) tamire = the pin in the middle of a yoke (Te.) Rebus: ta_marasamu = copper, gold (Te.) Woman with horns and two stars: ko_la = woman (Nahali); rebus: kol ‘metal’ ko_d.u ‘horns’ (Ta.); kod. artisan’s workshop (Kuwi) ko_l. = planet (Ta.); kol ‘metal’; a pair (planets): sagal.a = pair (Ka.); saghad.i_ = furnace (G.) Ficus glomerata: loa, kamat.ha = ficus glomerata (Santali); rebus: loha = iron, metal (Skt.) kamat.amu, kammat.amu = portable furnace for melting precious metals (Te.) kampat.t.am = mint (Ta.) kammat.i_d.u = a goldsmith, a silversmith (Te.) Seated person adorned with horns: kamad.ha = a person in penance (G.) Rebus: kamat.amu, kammat.amu = portable furnace for melting precious metals (Te.) kampat.t.am = mint (Ta.) kammat.i_d.u = a goldsmith, a silversmith (Te.) cu_r.i = bangles (H.); rebus: culli = fireplace, kiln (Ka.) The seated person’s face is like a tiger’s mane: cu_r.i Priest: tammad.a, tammad.i = an attendant on an idol (Ka.); tammal.ava_d.u, tammal.i, tammad.i, tammali, tambal.ava_d.u (Te.) Rebus: tamba = copper (Santali) tamire = hole; t.ebra = three (cf. glyph of trefoil inlaid on the uttari_yam – upper garment); Rebus: tamara = tin (Ka.) me~t = the eye me~t me~t nepel = v. see face to face mer.ed, me~r.ed iron; enga mer.ed soft iron; sand.i mer.ed hard iron; ispa_t mer.ed steel; dul mer.ed cast iron; i mer.ed rusty iron, also the iron of which weights are cast; bicamer.ed iron extracted from stone ore; balimer.ed iron extracted from sand ore; mer.ed-bica = iron stone ore, in contrast to balibica, iron sand ore (Mu.lex.) mlecchamukha = copper (Skt.); what has the copper-coloured complexion of the Greek or Mahomedans]. mer-iya = a rock; mer-ayu = to shine, glitter (Te.lex.) mer = a kind of large copper or brass pot (G.lex.) cf. melukka = copper (Pali); mleccha = copper (Skt.) mr..eka = goat (Te.); mlekh (Br.) mer.h, mer.ha_, me~d.ha_ ram (H.), med.hia_o (Dh.Des.) ram, goat, sheep (G) mid.iyo = having horns bent over forehead (G.)(CDIAL 10120). me~r.a_, me~d.a_ = ram with curling horns (H.)(CDIAL 10120). me_t.am = goat (Ta.lex.) [cf. the pictorial motif of antelope with head turned backwards]. merom me~t = the goat’s eye (Santali.lex.) mes.a = ram (RV 8.2.40) mer.om = a goat; mer.om jel = the hind of the ravine deer, gazella bennettii; mer.om (Santali) 409

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mer.go = with horns twisted back; mer.ha, m., mir.hi f.= twisted, crumpled, as a horn (Santali.lex.) mer.hao = to entwine itself, wind round, wrap around, roll up (Santali.lex.) [Note the endless knot motif]. Substantive: na_g lead (K.); na_ga id. (Skt.); nan lead (Sh.)(CDIAL 7040). nakar..-tal to creep, crawl along (Kampara_. Atika_. 136)(Ta.)(Ta.lex.) na_ga, na_gara, na_gala a snake, especially the coluber or cobra capella (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) na_ga snake (S'Br.NiDoc.); n.a_ya (Pkt.); nay, na_, naya_ snake (Si.); na_ga-danta elephant tusk, ivory < snake-shaped tusk (Skt.); na_ga (Pali); n.a_ya (Pkt.); n (Gypsy); naa euphem. term for snake (Or.); na_ng (Bshk.); non. (Kt.Pr.); nhon. name of a god (Kal.)[<? Pers. nahang](CDIAL 7039). na_kam cobra (Man.i. 25,195); serpent (Kampara_. Kalanka_n.. 37)(Ta.)(Ta.lex.) s'is'una_ka young snake (R.); young elephant (Skt.); susva_l. crocodile (G.)(CDIAL 12477). A pattern of associations emerges from these inscribed objects: eagle is associated with (1) tiger; (2) elephant; (3) zebu bull; (4) serpent44. kol metal (Ta.) kol = pan~calo_kam (five metals) (Ta.lex.) Thus, the entwined figures of 3 or more tigers may connote an alloy of 3 or more metals. kul, kol ‘tiger’ aru_ = lion (As god of devastation, Nergal is called A-ri-a) (Akkadian) a_ru = offspring, child (Akkadian) eru_, aru = eagle (Akkadian) eruvai = a kind of kite whose head is white and whose body is brown; eagle (Ta.); eruva = eagle, kite (Ma.)(DEDR 819). Cf. Akkadian/Assyrian aru, eru eagle eru_ = copper (?), bronze [ eru_ = engrave, carve]; urudu_ = bronze (Akkadian) eruvai = copper (Ta.); ere - a dark-red colour (Ka.)(DEDR 817). Cf. Akkadian/Assyrian eru_ = copper (?), bronze [ eru_ = engrave, carve] eraka, er-aka any metal infusion (Ka.Tu.); urukku (Ta.); urukka melting; urukku what is melted; fused metal (Ma.); urukku to melt (Ta.Ma.); eragu to melt (Tu.); eraka molten state, fusion; erakaddu any cast thing; eraka hoyi to pour melted metal into a mould, to cast; erako_lu the iron axle of a carriage (Ka.); er-e to pour any liquids; to pour (Ka.); to cast as metal (Ka.) erande sp. fruit, red in colour (Ka.); re_cu, re_cu-kukka a sort of ounce or lynx said to climb trees and to destroy tigers; a hound or wild dog (Te.)(DEDR 817). re_-gad.a, re_-gad.i clay (Te.)(DEDR 820). erkem = billhook (Go.)(DEDR 824) kere to prepare charcoal, to carry out the process by which charcoal is made (Santali.lex.) here, ere black grease for wheels (Ka.); heregombu a horn or hollow piece of bamboo in which such grease is kept (Ka.) (Ka.lex.) ere a dark-red or dark-brown colour, a dark or dusky colour (Ka.); er-e, er-upu (Te.); eruvai blood, copper (Ta.); irumpu iron (Ta.); inumu (Te.); irul. the colour black (Ta.); ere black grease for wheels; soil of a dark colour, black soil (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) The longest epigraph occurs with glyphs and sign inscribed on a multi-faced seal. This indicates that what is sought to be conveyed is a series of ‘sets’. The composition of the epigraph is unlikely to be a sentence. The signs could be a set of property items of the owner of the inscribed object, in this case, a seal. 410

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m0326A

m0326B

m0326C

m0326D m326E m0326F 2405 A similar interpretation is possible for a seal impression from Kalibangan with about 20 ‘signs’:

Kalibangan089A14c

8101

khod.rao = to cut, to scrape; khoda = to tattoo, to prick, as when tattooing; khodna (M.), khudni (F.) the male and female members of two tribes, one semi-hinduized and the other semimohammedanized, who gain a subsistence by tattooing (Santali.lex.) khodao = to carve, as letters on a stone; dhiri reak pat.are gel hukum khodao kateye emadea, he wrote the ten commandments on a stone slab and gave it to him (Santali.lex.) khodro = rough, unpolished (Santali.lex.) ku_d.ali = a meeting of several roads (Te.lex.) ku_d.alir-a_yi = a boundary stone, a corner stone (Te.lex.)

m0068

3108 [Note the sign on line 2 depicting the cross-roads, perhaps a variant

Sign 149

Sign 149 and variants

[Ligatured glyphs: ‘mountain range’; ‘sprout’ ] Ligaturing elements of Sign 151 and Sign 152: damha ‘a fireplace’; d.ha~gar ‘blacksmith’ 411

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d.amgi ‘hillock’; d.agar ‘mountain’ pasra = a smithy, place where a black-smith works, to work as a blacksmith; kamar pasra = a smithy (Santali) kamar pasra = a smithy; pasrae lagao akate se ban:? Has the blacksmith begun to work? Pasraedae = the blacksmith is at his work (Santali.lex.) The furnace used by Dhokra/.Maral artisans of Burdwan dist. Bengal (Deripur) was a brick-built structure called pasra. Prastarika = a trader dealing in minerals (Pa_n.ini, As.t.a_dhya_yi 4.4.72; cf. VS Agrawala 1953: 231). Pra-stara in RV 10.14.4 is interpreted as the grass strewn as a seat for performing the yajn~a; cf. AV 16.2.6; TS 1.7.7.4; VS 2.18.18.64; ABr. 1.26; 2.3; S’Br. 1.3.3.5. Pra-stotr. is the name of an assistant of Udga_tr. priest who sings the Prasta_va, or prelude to the Sa_man chant (Vedic Index, II, p.44) RV 8.81.5 mentions his function as pra stos.at; he is mentioned in TS 3.3.2.1; 6.6.3.1; TBr. 8.8.2.3; ABr 5.34; 7.1; S’Br. 5.4.5.22; 12.1.1.6; Ch.Up. 1.10.8. pajhar. = to sprout from a root; pagra = a cutting of sugar-cane used for planting (Santali.lex.) Image: saddle with its gear: praks.ara iron armour for horse or elephant; pra(k)khara id. (Skt.); pakkhara bordering or trimming (of a carriage) (Pali); pakkhara, pakkhara_ horse-armour (Pkt.); pakhara dress given by faqir to layman (S.); pa_khar armour for elephant or horse (H.); saddle with its gear (P.L.); net of flowers for bed-cover, horse-armour (G.); pa_khariyo a species of horse (G.); pa_khar caparison of a horse (M.)(CDIAL 8452). cf. pa_gran. bedding, decorations (G.)(CDIAL 8477). 5607.Images: saddle; balustrade; central platform of a chariot: pa_kar wooden balustrade in a car (Cir-upa_n.. 258, Urai.); car; pa_ central platform of a chariot (Ta.lex.) pa_kan- elephant driver, mahout (Na_lat. i,213); charioteer, muleteer, horseman, rider (Tiv. Periyati. 7,5,2); pa_ga_ (M.)(Ta.lex.); Main road da~_r.a_, da_n.d.a (Or.H.)

tan.d.ava_l.a = cast iron (Ka.); tan.t.ava_l.am = cast iron, iron rail, girder (Ta.)(DEDR 3050). Cf. va_l. ploughshare (Ta.); karava_la sword (Skt.)(DEDR 5376). va_l. luster, brightness (Ta.)(DEDR 5377). da~_twa_l = ploughman (WPah.); da_ta = mowed (Pa_n.) d.an.d.a = the loins, waist; d.an.d.oli = a string worn round the waist (d.ora) with a large tassel attached to it (Santali.lex.) d.an: = a pole; d.an.d.om = a handle, shaft (Santali.lex.) Stalk d.a~_t. (B.H.); foot stock of lotus (Mth.); d.an.t.a_ = stick (Bhoj.); t.a_n.d.a_ = dry stalk of ba_jra_ (L.); t.a~_d.a_ (P.) tan.t.iyam = cross-pole (Ta.)(IL 4340) Lute tan.t.u (Ta.) ta_n.t.uni to touch, hit, come into collision, quarrel, fight; ta_n.t.a_vuni to make collide; ha_n.t.u to collide; ta_d.uni to gore, butt; ta_d.u goring; ta_d.elu act of goring or butting; ta_d.uni to gore, butt; ta_d.u goring (Tu.); ta_n.t.i to hit (Kor.); ta_t.u to strike against; ta_d.u to hurt with horns (Ka.)(DEDR 3156). Oppose tan.d.u (IL 4347) da_~d.o = the backbone (G.)

412

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da~d. part of a tank at each of the embankments where it is prolonged into a narrow channel, often leading to the overflow channel (Santali) d.an.d.ka, dhan.d.ka = a fish (Santali.lex.) [The next sign after fish, from right, on an epigraph, is a skeleton]. dan.d.ike = a string of pearls (Ka.lex.)

h043

4077

urseal18 9902 Prob. West Asian find Pictorial motif: Pict-45 Bull mating a cow. Seal and impression (BM 123059), from an antique dealer, Baghdad; script and motif of a bull mating with a cow; the tuft at the end of the tail of the cow is summarily shaped like an arrow-head; inscription is of five characters, most prominent among them the two 'men' standing side by side. To the right of these is a damaged 'fish' sign.cf. Gadd 1932: no.18; *Parpola, 1994, p.219. Gadd Seal 18. BM. "Above there is an inscription of five characters, most prominent among them two 'men' standing side by side. To the right of these (in the impression) is a damaged 'fish' sign, and to the left two others which closely resemble CCXCVII and XXVIII of the Sign Manual in M. Below is a unique representation of a bull in the act of mating with a cow; the head and legs of the cow are rather obscured by damage and the tuft at the end of the tail is summarily shaped like an arrow-head, but nevertheless the purport of the device is quite clear."(C.J. Gadd, Seals of Ancient Indian Style Found at Ur', in: G.L. Possehl, ed., 1979, Ancient Cities of the Indus, Delhi, Vikas Publishing House, p. 119). Axe-head, knife, and hoe, Tell Sifr, Mesopotamia [British Museum, 1904, A Guide to Antiquities of Bronze Age, London, British Museum, pp. 67-68; Fig. 123]. 'In Babylonia the copper implements (axes, lance-heads etc.) of Tello go back probably beyond 4000 BC, the bronze vase of the time of Ur Gur (about 2500) and the bronze statuette of Gudea proving the extreme antiquity of copper, and showing that bronze-working cannot have been introduced very much later than 3000 BC. The discoveries in graves at Mukayyar and Warka (the Biblical Ur of the Chaldees and Erech respectively) throw further light upon metallurgical knowledge at a period estimated between 2500 and 1000 BC. The graves contained weapons of stone, copper, and bronze; and in some of the latest, iron also appears, but is only used for ornamental purposes: lead and gold also occurred in the tombs, but no silver. At Tell SIfr, north of Mukayyar, between the Tigris and the Euphrates, a number of copper or bronze implements and weapons have been excavated. They include axes and adzes with shaft-holes at one end, semi-circular tools split at the butt, straight daggers with riveted tangs, and curved knives; one of the latter on analysis proved to contain no tin. These objects, some of which are in the collection (fig. 123), are said to have been all found together, and are conjectured to date, if not from the first half of the second millennium, at least from between 1500 and 1000 BC, a period towards the close of which iron was coming into use. That iron was not generally employed much before the year 1000 BC may be assumed from the existence of a bronze sword with a cuneiform inscription, giving the name of an Assyrian king (Abad-nira_ri I) of the fourteenth century, as well as from the presence of bronze weapons in the ruins of Nimrudf,m a city which was only founded abourt 1300 BC...The forms of Babylonian and Assyrian weapons and implements are simple, and there is no attempt at decoration. The swords have only one edge, and socketed selts are absent, though the axes with split butts represent a type from which a socketed celt might easily be derived.' [British Museum, 1904, A Guide to Antiquities of Bronze Age, London, British Museum, pp. 127-128]. 413

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Sumerian single-bladed axe, Ur. [V. Gordon Childe, 1929, The Most Ancient East: the oriental prelude to European prehistory, London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co. Ltd., Fig. 72 a]. Sumerian transverse axe, Ur. [V. Gordon Childe, 1929, The Most Ancient East: the oriental prelude to European prehistory, London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co. Ltd., Fig. 73] Sumerian axe, Kish [V. Gordon Childe, 1929, The Most Ancient East: the oriental prelude to European prehistory, London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co. Ltd., Fig. 74 a]. 'The axe-heads were of course provided with a shaft-hole and include both the sloping and the transverse type...It is, however, curious that the shaft-hole was still formed in some cases by folding the butt over into a loop.' (Childe, opcit., p. 178). Sumerian axe, Kish [V. Gordon Childe, 1929, The Most Ancient East: the oriental prelude to European prehistory, London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co. Ltd., Fig. 74 b.] '...segmental baldes with a scalloped back mounted in curved wooden shafts, derived from the boomerang-club formed a sort of weapon intermediate between the axe and the sword. They constitute the prototypes from which the harpe was subsequently evolved'. (Childe, opcit, p. 179). pin.d.ha, pin.d.he = a ridge, as of a rice field; an embankment, as of a tank, dam etc. (Santali.lex.) pin.d.a = a raised platform round a house occupying the space between the wall and the drip of the eaves (Santali.lex.) pin.d. = an altar, a small raised platform for the purpose of an altar (Santali.lex.) Rafters on roof Glyph: va.cr eaves (Ko.); va_cu_ru id. (Te.)(DEDR 5338).. va_cci adze (Te.); adze, scraper (Ma.); ba_ci adze (Ka.); ba_ci, ba_ji (Tu.); va_s’i_ adze (Skt.)(CDIAL 11588; DEDR 5339). Glyph: bali to pull (Kor.); velba to pull; pulling (Kui); vali to draw, pull, row (Ta.); drawing, pull, tug (Ma.)(DEDR 5282).

m0018Ac 1548 Sign 318 Note the ^ ligatured on the last sign read away from the neck of the one-horned bull. The ligature ^ is vividly depicted like the neck of a horse; the ear of the horse and the eye of the horse is also seen. (No optical illusion this). The ^ could also be read as: dhakna, ‘lid’ ku_d.ali va_yi = the gable end of a house, the meeting place of two roofs whose lengths are at right angles to each other (Te.lex.) If this semant. is applied to Sign 318, the inscription on m018 may be read as d.a_kin.i_ 'sword’ + kud.ali, ‘hoe' = (dakhna, image: lid) (ku_d.ali, image: gable). Alternative: dagad.a, dagad.o = a large stone; a large lump of earth (G.); cf. dr.s’ad (Skt.) 414

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bind = a pin of wood, used instead of a nail (Santali.lex.) [Note the glyph of a pin on the Dholavira signboard]. bin.d.i = a straw stand for earthe pots, rim round the bottom of any vessel to make it stand steady (Santali.lex.) bindu = a drop, atom (Santali.lex.) ce_rcukka = bindi_ = an ornament suspended on the forehead from the parting of the hair; a pearled spot on the forehead, i.e. mutya_labot.t.u (Te.lex.) Glyph: bal.e, bale reepers or slips of bamboo used to fasten the rafters of a roof; bal.ara a kind of cornice ornamenting the beam on a wall, window or door-sill (Tu.); val.a crossbars that support the rafters of a roof, wooden needle driven into the rafters; val.ar large beam, smaller beam put on the main beam of a roof, big stick (Ma.); val.ar twig, tender branch; val.ai small beam, long piece of wood (Ta.)(DEDR 5309). Glyph: val.a bracelet, ring (Ma.); val.ai bangle, bracelet (Ta.); valaya bracelet, ring, girdle, circle (Skt.)(DEDR 5313; CDIAL 11405, 11407). Possibly worn on the wrists of prehistoric women some 3000 years ago: bangles (about 2 1/2 in. across) of blue glass paste, found at Harappa. Plate II. Material recovered from Mohenjodaro in the first season of excavations by Sir John Marshall (G.L. Possehl, ed., 1979, Ancient Cities of the Indus, Delhi, Vikas Publishing House). 2914.Image: beam laid across the roof: san:ga, san:gi a beam laid breadthwise supporting the roof of a house (Santali.lex.) Image: crossbeam in triangular thatch: san:gha_, san:ga_ bamboo scaffolding inside triangular thatch, crossbeam of thatched house (Or.)(CDIAL 12862). si~gha_ra_ triangular packet of betel (Bi.); si~gha_r.a_ piece of cloth folded in triangular shape (H.)(CDIAL 12859). bhindran: = to fall to the ground, to knock down (Santali.lex.). A synonym could be:

m0290

2527pin.d.i_ = the calf of the leg (G.lex.) [Note the glyph on a seal].

bhin.d.iva_la, pin.d.iva_l.a, bhindama_la, pin.d.iva_la, bhin.d.ima_la, bhindipa_la = a short javelin or arrow thrown from the hand; an iron-bound club, used as a weapon (Ka.lex.) bhin.d.i-pa_la is a compound term: bhin.d.i < min.t.i instrument to thrust; + < pa_l.a ingots; i.e. some sort of tubular mechanism to catapult round stone or metallic missiles. Kaut.ilya categorises this as a weapon with piercing points.] bhindati splits (Dha_tup.); bhinatti (RV.); bhindati splits, breaks (Pali); bim.nam.ti they break pret.3 sg. bim.nida, bhinita (NiDoc.); bhim.dai pp. bhim.dia (Pkt.); bhi~dn.e~ to pierce, penetrate, soak into (M.); bindinava_, pret. binda_ to break, be broken (Si.); caus. bhinda_pe_ti (Pali); bindavanava_, binduvanava_ (Si.)(CDIAL 9496). cf. Image: javelin: vit.t.-e_r-u missile weapon, javelin (Ta.); javelin (Ma.); bit.t.-e_r-u missile weapon, dart, javelin (Ka.); bit.ing to throw, throw down (Br.)(DEDR 5393). Image: a missile: pin.t.ipa_lam a missile (Ci_vaka. 2269)(Ta.); bhin.d.iva_la id. (Skt.)(Ta.lex.) bhindama_la, bhin.d.iva_la, pin.d.iva_l.a a short javelin or arrow thrown from the hand; an iron-bound club, used as a weapon (Ka.Skt.lex.) [Note the spear used on scenes spearing a buffalo or a bull]. bhin.d.ipa_la short javelin or arrow thrown by hand or shot through a tube (MBh.); bhin.d.ipa_la 415

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(BHSkt.); bhin.d.ima_la (Skt.); bhindiva_la a sort of spear (Pali); bhim.diva_la, bhim.d.ima_la a sort of weapon (Pkt.); bendi-vala, benduvala a sort of spear (Si.)(CDIAL 9497). [Prob. this was a heavy club with a broad and bent tail end, measuring one cubit length; the weapon was used to cut, hit, strike and break; it was like a kunta (metal lance with darts and six edges) but with a big blade; used by Asuras in their fight with Ka_rtavi_rya Arjuna; cf. Agni Pura_n.a, 252,v.15; S'ukrani_tisa_ra,IV.30-31; loc.cit. V.R. Ramachandra Dikshitar, War in Ancient India, 1944, repr. 1987, p.106.]

me~r.he~t iron; ispat m. = steel; dul m. = cast iron; kolhe m. iron manufactured by the Kolhes (Santali); mer.ed (Mun.d.ari); med. (Ho.)(Santali.lex.Bodding) me_r.sa = v.a. toss, kick with the foot, hit with the tail (Santali.lex.) cf. me_s.a = goat (Skt.lex.) med.h = the helper of a merchant (Pkt.lex.) me_t.i, me_t.ari = chief, head, leader, the greatest man (Te.lex.) ?med.i (EI 9), also called meli, a kidnapper of victims for sacrifices (IEG). mehara = (EI 33) a village headman (IEG). mehto [Hem. Des. med.ho = Skt. Van.ik saha_ya, a merchant’s clerk, fr. mahita, praised, great] a schoolmaster; an accountant; a clerk; a writer (G.lex.) mel. = tallying, balancing of accounts; a cash book; mel.van. = a mixture, a composition; mixing (G.lex.) me_r..iyar = pu_vaiciyar, ve_l.a_l.ar, i.e. agriculturists, traders (Ta.lex.) mesri_ = a class of va_n.ia_s (G.lex.) metr. = builder, one who creates a column (RV 4.6.2) meteva dhr.mam stabha_yadupa dya_m sthu_n.eva (Vedic.lex.) me_t.i, me_t.ari = chief, head, leader, lord, the greatest man (Te.lex.) mehto [Hem. Des. med.hi = Skt. van.ik-saha_ya: a merchant’s clerk, fr. Skt. mahita praised, great fr. mah to praise, to make great] a schoolmaster; an accountant; a clerk; a writer (G.lex.) milakat [Ar. Milkate] property; estate; effects; chattels; goods (G.lex.) medin = ally, friend, companion; sahamedyedhi snigdhah (RV 10.84.6)(Vedic.lex.) But, me_dara = the basket-maker caste; a basket-maker; of or pertaining to the basket-maker caste; me_dari = a basket-maker (Te.lex.) cf. me_stri = a head workman (Ka.Te.M.Ma. fr. Portuguese mestre)(Ka.lex.) Could this be a re-borrowing – metr., ‘builder’ > mestri (Portuguese) > me_stri (Ka.)? me_t.u = a heap, a stack, rick, as of hay (Te.lex.) [Note the haystack shown next to an antelope on the platform on which a horned person is seated]. me_d.hramu = the penis (Te.lex.) [Note the penis on the horned seated person].

m1400At

m1400B

2851 animal. [Perhaps a ram with horizontal curving horns is shown in two parts of the tablet m1400B]

Vedic Sarasvati. Tamasa (with Yamuna) and Sutlej rivers, and Dr.s.advati (now represented by Chautang) were tributaries of River Sarasvati. [KS Valdiya, 1996].

416

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Bronze Age Trade and Writing System of Meluhha (Mleccha) Evidenced by Tin Ingots from the Near vicinity of Haifa Summary The discovery of two pure tin ingots in a ship-wreck near Haifa has produced two “Rosetta” stones to decode the “Indus script”. The epigraphs on the tin ingots have been deciphered as related to ranku “antelope”, “liquid measure”; read rebus: ranku 'tin'. As J.D. Muhly noted, the emergence of Bronze Age trade and writing system may be two related initiatives which started approximately in the Third Millennium B.C. It is surmised that the maritime-trade links between Ugarit and Meluhha might have extended from Crete to Haifa. Linking archaeology and philology is a challenging task. What language could the writings on Haifa tin ingots be? The breakthrough invention of alloying may have orthographic parallels of ligatured signs and ligatured pictorial motifs (such as a bovine body with multiple animal heads, combination of animal heads, combination of lathe and furnace on a standard device, ligaturing on a heifer, damr.a -- unicorn -- with one curved horn, pannier, kammarsala). A ligature of a tiger's face to the upper body of a woman is also presented in the round. The hieroglyphic code has been deciphered as words of Mleccha. Mleccha (Meluhha) was the language in which Yudhishthira and Vidura converse in the Mahabharata about the non-metallic killer devices of a fortification that was made of shellac. There is a depiction of a Meluhha trader accompanied by a woman carrying a kamandalu. There are, however, substratum words in Sumerian such as tibira “merchant” and sanga “priest” which are cognate with tam(b)ra “copper” (Santali) and sanghvi “priest” (Gujarati). Lipshur litanies state: 'Melukkha...is the land of carnelian' (Sumerian NA4.GUG, Akkadian sa_mtu). In the 17th century BC, the Neo-Assyrian king Esarhaddon called himself, 'king of the kings of Dilmun, Magan, and Melukkha'. The Sumerian myth Enki and the World Order has Enki exclaiming: 'Let the magilum-boats of Melukkha transport gold and silver for exchange!' Enki and Ninkhursag (lines 1-9, Tr. by B. Alster) has references to the products of Melukkha: 'The land Tukrish shall transport gold from Kharali, lapis lazuli, and bright...to you. The land Melukkha shall bring carnelian, desirable and precious, sissoo-wood from Magan, excellent mangroves, on big-ships! The land Markhashi will (bring) precious stones, dus'ia-stones, (to hand) on the breast, mighty, diorite-stones, u-stones, s'umin-stones to you!' This monograph presents four ‘rosetta stones’ to decipher the Indus script. 1. First and second are pure tin ingots with Sarasvati hieroglyphs discovered in the Haifa shipwreck; 2. Third is an Akkadian cylinder seal attesting to Meluhha as a language of bronze-age traders (sea-faring merchants); 3. Fourth is a cylinder seal from Ur showing tabaernamonta flower (used as hair-fragrance) which is read in Meluhha as tagaraka, rebus: tagara ‘tin’. The cryptography of the writing system is mlecchita vikalpa (which is recognized by Vatsyayana as one of 64 arts). Bronze age trade and cryptography: mlecchita vikalpa Two tin ingots with Sarasvati epigraphs Two other rosetta stones are the two late bronze age tin ingots from the harbor of Haifa, Israel contain glyphs used in epigraphs of Sarasvati civilization!

417

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The following picture of these two ingots incised with epigraphs was published by J.D. Muhly [New evidence for sources of and trade in bronze age tin, in: Alan D. Franklin, Jacqueline S. Olin, and Theodore A. Wertime, The Search for Ancient Tin, 1977, Seminar organized by Theodore A. Wertime and held at the Smithsonian Institution and the National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., March 14-15, 1977]. Muhly notes:"… copper is likely to be a local product; the tin was almost always an import... A long-distance tin trade is not only feasible and possible, it was an absolute necessity. Sources of tin stone or cassiterite were few and far between, and a common source must have served many widely scattered matallurgical centers. This means that the tin would have been brought to a metallurgical center utilizing a nearby source of copper. That is, copper is likely to be a local product; the tin was almost always an import...The circumstances surrounding the discovery of these ingots are still rather confused, and our dating is based entirely upon the presence of engraves signs which seem to be in the Cypro-Minoan script, used on Cyprus and at Ugarit over the period 15001100 BCE. The ingots are made of a very pure tin, but what could they have to do with Cyprus? There is certainly no tin on Cyprus, so at best the ingots could have been transhipped from that island. How did they then find their way to Haifa? Are we dealing with a ship en route from Cyprus, perhaps to Egypt which ran into trouble and sank off the coast of Haifa? If so, that certainly rules out Egypt as a source of tin. Ingots of tin are rare before Roman times and, in the eastern Mediterranean, unknown from any period. What the ingots do demonstrate is that metallic tin was in use during the Late Bronze Age...rather extensive use of metallic tin in the ancient eastern Mediterranean, which will probably come as a surprise to many people." (Muhly, J.D., 1976, Copper and Tin, Hamden, Archon Books, p.47). We do not know where the tin ingots were moulded, and where the epigraphs were incised, but it is possible to read the epigraphs using references to cryptography in Mahabharata and mlecchita vikalpa ‘cryptography’ mentioned by Vatsyayana in vidya samuddes’ah (objective of education in 64 arts).In the old Akkadian period, the ingots of tin are called s'uqlu and weigh about 25 kg. The two ingots found at Haifa weigh about 5 kg. each.(details of the find and archaeological, archaeo-metallurgical contexts are elaborated at http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati/roots.htm) The following epigraphs show the use of glyph: tagara = taberna montana; rebus: tagara ‘tin’; alternative: phut.ia (sprout); substantive: copper ingots.

m0223

m0224

1167 [The sign in front of the one-horned bull may be Sign 162

2215

m404AC

]

1422 418

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m1365A m1365B 2658 Cricket, spider crab or prawn? Glyph: kat.kom ‘crab’; substantive: kat, kaitha ‘the hindu caste of kayasth’; kat. bad.hoe a worker in wood, a carpenter (Santali). bindi = a spider; kul bindi = the tiger spider, a species of poisonous spider resembling the tarantula of Italy (Santali.lex.)

m0673 Chanhudaro22a

1025

m0822

1249

6115

Two remarkable insights provided by Muhy and Potts have made this possible. Muhly noted, the emergence of bronze age trade and writing system may be two related initiatives which started circa 3rd millennium Before Common Era (BCE). Potts identified a glyph in what is clearly an Indus script epigraph as tabernaemontana flower which in Indic family of languages and in many ancient ayurveda texts is called tagaraka, read rebus tagara ‘tin’, also tagara ‘hair fragrance’. The epigraphs inscised on the tin ingots are Sarasvati hieroglyphs of mleccha (meluhha) language which is part of the Indic language family. (These are called ‘Sarasvati hieroglyphs’ because, about 80% of the archaeological sites of the so-called Indus Valley civilization are on the banks of this Vedic river). The epigraphs ‘certify’ the metal as ranku, ‘tin’ (moulded out of) bat.a, a furnace; ranku is represented by two homonys: antelope, liquid-measure both phonetically read as ranku. bat.a is represented by X glyph, bat.a is a homonym meaning ‘road’. Thus, bot the epigraphs connote ‘tin (out of) furnace’. The two tin ingots become the two ‘rosetta stones’ validating the decipherment of sarasvati hieroglyphs (so-called Indus script) as the repertoire of a smithy/metalsmith-merchant engaged in the bronze-age trade of minerals, metals and alloys and using types of furnaces/smelters. It will be an erroneous assumption to make that a writing system emerged only to write long texts. The system could have emerged to convey messages about valued artifacts in bronze age trade.. “Obviously no script could have survived indefinitely as a simple mixture of pictures and puns; its scope would have been far too restricted and it would have had in course of time to evolve into a syllabic script,” notes Chadwick in: Gerard Clauson and John Chadwick, 1969, Indus script deciphered?, Antiquity XLIII. Yes, indeed. The Sarasvati hieroglyphs continued to be used on products manufactured in mints, such as early punch-marked coins of Asia Minor and India. The writing system of Sarasvati hieroglyphs continued on three media and not for writing long texts: 1. Line 1 of Sohgaura copper plate followed by text in Brahmi script to represent the facilities provided to itinerant smiths/merchants for metalwork; 2. About 5 devices on punch-marked coins to represent the repertoire of a mint; and 3. On sculptures of Barhut stupa and many representations in Angkor Wat, representing extraordinary ligatured glyptics such as those of makara. Two Sarasvati hieroglyphs became abiding metaphors: 1. narrow-necked jar which is shown on a Yajurveda manuscript discovered in Gujarat; 2. svastika which adorns many temple walls in India. It is possible that the glyphs and the underlying rebus or pun words, provided the basis for the choice of graphs used in the syllabicphonetic scripts of Brahmi or Kharoshthi. "A lengthy prehistoric sequence has been established at the important site of Mehrgarh in Pakistani Baluchistan, where an aceramic occupation beginning around 7000 BCE that formed the foundation for the later ceramic Neolithis and Chalcolithic cultures in the region has recently been documented. Despite innovations and changes in the prehistoric sequence of the greater Indus Valley, there is an essential thread of unity and a strong stamp of cultural 419

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identity throughout that underscores the essentially indigenous, deeply rooted nature of Indian civilization. While points of contact with other regions are attested, they can hardly have accounted for the strength and individuality of civilization in the subcontinent." (Potts, 1995, p. 1457). It is also possible that the glyph, for example, of a scorpion – and the underlying metaphor, meaning as kacc ‘iron’ -- could also have survived in the kudurru of Nebuchadnezzar, to depict him as a hero, an iron-man (illustrated). Kudurru (boundary stone) marking of Nebuchadnezzar I (1126-1050 BCE), marking the king's land grant to Ritti-Marduk for military service in the inscription (not shown). The symbols appear in six registers. The first register is the eight-pointed star of Ishtar, the crescent of Sin and the sun-disk of Shamash. The second register represents the shrines of Anu, Enlil, and Ea. The third register consists of serpent daises upon which are the hoe of Marduk, the wedge of Nabu, and an unidentified symbol. The fourth register includes an eagle-headed scepter, a double-lion-headed mace, a horse's head on a double base with an arch, and a bird on a rod. The firth register shows the goddes Gula seated on a throne, with a dog (her symbol) lying beside her, and a scorpion-man, with the legs and feet of a bird, holding a bow and arrow. The last register includes double lightning forks supported by a bull (Adad), a tortoise, a scorpion, and a lamp on a pedestal (the symbol of Nusku, the god of light). A snake twists along the side of the kudurru. Ht. 56 cm. London, British Museum (After the notes in: Karen Rhea Nemet-Nejat, 1998, Daily life in Ancient Mesopotamia, London, Greenwood Press, p. 262). The 'star' sign denoted AN, sky god and also was the cuneiform sign to represent the word and syllable: AN. Many of these logographs are found among the Harappan glyphs. It is notable that the pictorial motifs are associated with weapons. Mlecchita vikalpa The term, mlecchita vikalpa, is used by Vatsyayana in Kamasutra in the verse related to vidyasamuddes’ah (objectives of education). Together with art of talking with letters and fingers (handsign language), and knowledge of dialects, Vatsyayana lists mlecchita-vikalpa as cryptography (cipherwriting) – as three of the 64 arts (education) to be learnt by a youth. Va_tsya_yana lists 64 arts to be studied (1.3.15). (47) aksara-mustika-kathana--art of talking with letters and fingers (48) mlecchita-vikalpa—cypher writing (49) desa-bhasa-jnana--art of knowing provincial dialects The term, mlecchita, means ‘made by mleccha’, that is, mlecchita vikalpa refers to cryptography of copper-smiths. (It has been noted elsewhere that milakkhu in Pali and mleccha-mukha in Sanskrit, both mean ‘copper’. It is no mere coincidence that many epigraphs of the historical periods were inscribed on copper-plates recording economic transactions and edicts by rulers. It is also no mere coincidence that there are about 250 epigraphs with Sarasvati hieroglyphs inscribed on copper plates and metal objects. “Dealers when bargaining in the presence of others from whom they wish to conceal their business, join their right hands under cover of the gown or sleeve of one of the parties; by touching the different joints of the fingers they note the numerals, and thus silently conclude their bargain.” (Burckhart, J.L., 1829, Travels in Arabia, Comprehending an Account of Those Territories in Hadjaz which the Mohammedans Regard as Sacred, London: H. Colburn, p. 191; cf. Karl Menninger, 1969, Number words and number symbols: a cultural history of numbers, MIT Press). This cryptography using mleccha language is described in Mahabharata jatugriha parva (shellac house with non-metallic killer devices). Vidura and Yudhishthira converse in mleccha language. So does the khanaka, the miner sent by Vidura to warn Yudhishthira about the jatugriha as a trap to kill the Pandavas. 420

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Linking archaeology and philology is an exploration in cryptography. What language could the writings on Haifa tin ingots be based on? The breakthrough invention of alloying may have orthographic parallels of ligatured signs and ligatured pictorial motifs (such as a bovine body with multiple animal heads, combination of animal heads, combination of lathe and furnace on a standard device, ligaturing on a heifer, damr.a -- unicorn -- with one curved horn, pannier, kammarsala). A ligature of a tiger's face to the upper body of a woman is also presented in the round. The hieroglyphic code has been cracked as words of Mleccha. Mleccha (Meluhha) was the language in which Yudhishthira and Vidura converse in the Mahabharata about the non-metallic killer devices of a fortification made of shellac. There is a depiction of a Meluhha trader (accompanied by a woman carrying a kamandalu). There are, however, substratum words in Sumerian such as tibira 'merchant' and sanga 'priest' which are cognate with tam(b)ra 'copper' (Santali) and sanghvi 'priest' (Gujarati). (Kalyanaraman, S., 2003, Sarasvati, 7 vols. 1. Civilization, 2. Rigveda, 3. River; 4. Bharati, 5. Technology, 6. Language, 7. Epigraphs, Bangalore, Babasaheb Apte Smarak Samiti http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati http://spaces.msn.com/members/sarasvati97 ) Such a collation of disparate evidences point to the indic family of languages as a possible part of the crypt. Note on the one-horned young bull as a hieroglyph The one-horned young calf could be dam.ra ‘heifer’; rebus tam(b)ra ‘copper’ or khad.ai_ ‘heifer’; rebus: kha_d. ‘trench fire-pit’ or kad.iyo ‘brick-layer’. kad.iyo [Hem. Des. kad.a i o = Skt. sthapati a mason] a bricklayer; a mason; kad.iyan.a, kad.iyen.a a woman of the bricklayer caste; a wife of a bricklayer (G.) ka_t.i = fireplace in the form of a long ditch (Ta.Skt.Vedic) ka_t.ya = being in a hole (VS. XVI.37); ka_t.a hole, depth (RV. i. 106.6) kha_d. a ditch, a trench; kha_d.o khaiyo several pits and ditches (G.) khan.d.run: ‘pit (furnace)’ (Santali) A homonymous glyph could be kad.i ‘chain’.

kad.i_ a chain; a hook; a link (G.); kad.um a bracelet, a ring (G.) [Note the orthography of rings shown on the neck of the one-horned young bull.] khad.a_i_ a heifer (used in the Sorat.h Pra_nt)(G.) kat.ra_ bull calf; kat.hr.a_ young buffalo bull; kat.iya_ buffalo heifer (H.); kat.r.a buffalo calf (WPah.); kat.ai buffalo calf (Gaw.); kat.r.a_ young buffalo (P.)(CDIAL 245). The pannier on the one-horned young bull is kammarasa_la (Telugu); rebus: karma_ras’a_la ‘smith’s workshop’. The one-horn is kod.u (Tamil); rebus: kot. ‘workshop’. Find-spot of the first two ‘rosetta stones’ At the port of Dor, south of Haifa, fisherfolk had raised about 7 tonnes of copper and tin ingots in the 1970’s. In 1976 two ingots were found in a shipwreck in the sea near this Phoenician port. Ingot 1 and Ingot 2; Museum of Ancient Art, Municipal Corporation of Haifa. These two tin ingots contain epigraphs in ‘Indus script‘ which will be elaborated as Sarasvati hieroglyphs using underlying Indic language family (mleccha, meluhha!) To what period the two ingots belonged is uncertain. The conjectures are that they could have come from Ugarit or Cyprus. 421

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The glyphs incised on the ingots DO NOT resemble Cypro-Minoan symbols used in Cyprus or Hittite hieroglyphs used in Ugarit or Cretan hieroglyphs ca. 1500 to 1100 BC. (Appendix A: A Note on CyproMinoan symbols, Hittite hieroglyphs and Cretan hieroglphs on Phaistos Disk One possibility is that they were weighed at Ugarit and stamped as they travelled through the long overland caravan route right upto the western end. [Sources: Anon., 1980, Ingots from wrecked ship may help to solve ancient mystery, Inst. Archaeo-Metallurgical Studies Newsletter, No. 1, 1-2; Maddin, R., T.S. Wheeler and J. Muhly, 1977, Tin in the ancient Near East: old questions and new finds, Expedition, 19, 35-47] . Hypothesis: The epigraphs on the ingots could have been incised by tin-smiths/merchants, the underlying language of Indic family being: mleccha (meluhha). Evidence of Meluhhan presence: a third ‘rosetta stone’ One region from which these tin ingots could have originated may be from smithe/merchants who spoke the Meluhha (mleccha) language which is part of the Indic language family. Such Meluhha speakers might have been in colonies of traders in Mari. An Akkadian cylinder seal provides evidence for the presence of a Meluhhan in Mesopotamia. Akkadian seal (after Powell, p. 390: The Bronze Age Civilization of Central Asia, New York, 1980). The translator of the Meluhhan (Sindhu Sarasvati) language (EME.BAL.ME.LUH.HA.KI) is received by a person of high rank and sitting by his lap. Another Meluhhan sitting by three jars makes a greeting gesture. Two persons enter: one carries an animal, the other a kamandalu (alchemical water-vessel?). British Museum tablet #79987 enumerates a 'man of Meluhha' named (...)-ibra in a list of foes of Naram-Sin, King of Akkad, ca. 2250 BC. Cylinder seal impression; Legend: Shu-ilishu, Meluhha interpreter. Louvre AO 22310 (De Clercq Coll.); greenstone; De Clercq and Menant, 1888, No. 83. Collon, 1987, Fig. 637. Note: British Museum tablet #79987 enumerates a 'man of Meluhha' named (...)-ibra in a list of foes of Naram-Sin, King of Akkad, ca. 2250 BCE. "During the second half of the 3rd millennium BC, textual sources frequently refer to trade with Dilmun, Magan and Meluhha. Dilmun is known to be the island of Bahrain, Magan is probably present-day Makran and the territory opposite it in Oman, while at this period it seems that Meluhha referred to the Indus Valley where the flourishing cities of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa have been excavated. The Indus Valley civilisation used square stamp seals but under the impetus of trade some cylinder seals appear and a Meluhhan interpreter used a typical Akkadian seal." (Collon, 1987) The Meluhhan being introduced carries an antelope on his arm.The Meluhhan is accompanied by a lady carrying a kaman.d.alu. Since he needed an interpreter, it is clear that the Meluhhan did not speak 422

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Akkadian. Antelope carried by the Meluhhan is a hieroglyph: mlekh ‘goat’ (Br.); mr..eka (Te.); me_t.am (Ta.); mes.am (Skt.) Read rebus: me-la-hha.Thus, the antelope conveys the message that the carrier is a Meluhha (speaker). The hieroglyph is thus a phonetic determinant. Impression of a cylinder seal. Chlorite or steatite. 1.8 cm. High. L. 1983.125.4 The incision is in drilled style. A caprid faces right; to its left and floating in the field is a small, unidentified creature followed by a boar, placed along the vertical axis. The undulating lines above and below the boar are probably snakes. The pictographs also occur on SSVC inscribed objects.[After Fig. 27 in: Holly Pittman, 1984, Art of the Bronze Age: Southeastern Iran, Western Central Asia, and the Indus Valley, New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, p. 58]. Modern Impression of a stamped seal: hunters and goats, rectangular pen (?), early 2nd millennium B.C. Gulf region (ancient Dilmun) Steatite or chlorite; H. 1/2 in. (1.27 cm) “The earliest stone seals of the Gulf region were made of steatite hardened by firing and often glazed after they were carved. The impression of the hemispherical stamp seal depicted here shows a male figure in the upper field who grasps a caprid by the neck. To the left, a male figure holds a staff. Below, a recumbent caprid reclines beneath a gridded rectangle. A snake and perhaps a monkey(?) are also depicted in the field. The hemispherical form and round sealing face are typical of seals of the Gulf region, as are the incised lines and concentric circles that decorate the back of this seal. Similar seals have been found in Mesopotamia, Iran, and the Indus Valley, areas with which Gulf merchants traded and with whom they shared a common visual vocabulary.” http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ho/03/wap/hod_1987.96.22.htm The caprid may connote: mlekh ‘goat’, mer.go ‘antelope (with horns turned backwards)’; rebus: meruku ‘glitter, silver’; hence, the glyph may connote silver smith. The figure of a person holding a staff

is reminiscent of the sign of Sarasvati Civilization: me~d ‘body’. with a short tail

h286A Goat-antelope with a short tail

h286B

m0418acyl

h349A

4429 Incised miniature tablet

m0419acyl

h349B

2565 Pict-37 Goat-antelope

h701At

m0419dcyl

h701Bt

m0419fcyl

5329

Lothal048 7025 Chanhudaro Seal obverse and reverse. The oval sign of this Jhukar culture seal is comparable to other inscriptions. Fig. 1 and 1a of Plate L. After Mackay, 1943. 423

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Glyph: me~t ‘eye’ (Santali) Glyph: me_d.i glomerous fig tree, ficus racemosa (Ka.); ficus glomerata (Te.); me_r.i id. (Ko.)(DEDR 5090). [Thus lo ‘iron’ + me_d.i ‘iron implement’ may be both phonetic determinants reinforcing the substantive (‘iron’) indicated by the glyph: ‘leaf’.] A treasure: kharva, kharba one of the nine treasures of Kube_ra (Skt.lex.) kharb one hundred arbs, equal to 100 billion (Punjabi.lex.) kharva = baked pottery (Skt.lex.) karavi, karu, garu a mould (Tu.lex.) karuvi instrument, tool, implement (Cilap. 16,186) (Ta.); id. (Ma.); means, materials, as for a sacrifice (Kur-al.. 421); armour, coat of mail; saddle; assembly, collection, flock, group (Tol. Col. 354, Urai); karuvi-p-put.t.il scabbard, sheath; karuvippai instrument-case, barber's bag (Ta.lex.) khap = a notch, a hollow into which another piece of wood is fixed, a mortise; khapur kha~yu~k = a pit, a pitfall (Santali) 2082.Prong of a trident; groove: Image: notch; rung of a ladder: khop rung of a ladder (orig. 'notch in a plank or trunk used as a ladder')(A.); dint (M.); khupiya_ notch to place the foot on (A.); khopani pressing the toes in to prevent slipping (A.)(CDIAL 3937). 2084.Image: pair; separation: 2079.Waterlift: kavalai a kind of waterlift (Ta.); kapile (Te.); kapali (Ka.); kappi (Ma.); kapi (Tu.) kabba_re = a heron (Ka.lex.) kapar = head, skull, fate, luck; khapri = the skull; adh khapri = one half of the head or skull (Santali) kapa_laka smal bowl (Pali). ka~rwas a small earthenware vessel in which a little dhan is placed and sent with a bride to her new home. The pot is ornamented with figures drawn in white; korpa to gather together by little, perquisites received by yearly servants when harvesting crops, also by daughters previous to marriage; kara a large iron pan used to boil sugar cane juice in (Santali.lex.) cf. khappara shard, begging bowl (Pkt.)(CDIAL 3831). karpara an iron sauce-pan, a frying-pan; a pot or vessel in general (as of a potter); a potsherd, piece of a broken jar as in ghat.akarpara; the skull; a kind of weapon (Skt.lex.) khapar ghara = a tiled house; khapra = a roofing tile, a large piece of broken earthenware; khapra pit.ha = bread made from flour and water and baked in a piece of broken earthenware; khaprol = roofing tiles, tiled; khaprol or.ak = a tiled house (Santali) Buffalo: kavari < gavala buffalo (Kalla_. 53,30)(Ta.lex.) gavala wild buffalo (Pkt.Skt.); gauri ga_i (N.)(CDIAL 4096). Buffalo's horn: gavala a buffalo's horn (Ka.Skt.lex.) kavari = chowrie (Ta.); kavaram = hair plait (Ma.); kavari id.; woman with fine hair; yak (Ma.); kabari tufted hair of females (Tu.); kavara, kabara, kavari_, kabari_ braid of hair (Skt.)(DEDR 1327). kabri_ = a braid of hair (G.lex.) kabari, kavari a braid or fillet of hair; a knot of braided hair; kabari-yagra the point of a braided hair (Ka.lex.) kapardin having braided hair (RV.)(CDIAL 2743) kavar tine, as of a trident (Ta.); kava (Te.Tu.Ma.); kaval (Ka.); groove or a kind of mortise on the top of a gate or door-post to receive a beam; kavat.u (Ta.)(Ta.lex.) kavat.u separation, division (Malaipat.u. 34)(Ta.lex.) kava pair, couple (Te.); kavalu twins (Te.); kapli a pair of branches, horns or antlers (Malt.)(DEDR 1325). kavari = chariot (Katirve_l Pil.l.ai Ta. lex.) 424

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If the two tin ingots with epigraphs containing Sarasvati hieroglyphs constitute the first two ‘rosetta stones’, this cylinder seal constitutes the third ‘rosetta stone’ attesting to Meluhha as a non-Akkadian language. There is evidence for the presence of meluhhan (Indus valley people) along the Persian Gulf region, along the sea/river route to Mari, on the right bank of Euphrates river, Mesopotamia. "...More recent arcaheological researches in East Arabia have brought to light many finds which are related to the presence of Indus valley people. In the settlements of Hili 8 and Maysar-1, both of which have been investigated, Indus valley pottery is frequently found. Seals with Indus valley script and typical iconography indicate influences in Makkan down to the level of business organization. Marks identifying pottery in Makkan were taken from those used in the Indus valley, including the use of the signs on pottery used in the Indus valley. The discovery of a sea-port-- which may be ascribed to the Harappans-- at Ra's al-Junayz on Oman's east coast by an Italian expedition would seem to indicate that trade routes should be viewed in a more differentiated fashion than has been done upto now." [Sege Cleuziou, Preliminary report on the second and third excavation campaigns at Hili 8, Archaeology in the United Arab Emirates, vol. 2/3, 1978/79, 30ff.; Gerd Weisgerber, '...und Kupfer in Oman', Der Anschnitt, vol. 32, 1980, 62-110; Gerd Weisgerber, Makkan and Meluhha- 3rd millennium copper production in Oman and evidence of contact with the Indus valley, Paper read in Cambridge 1981 and to appear in South Asia Archaeology 1981; Tosi, M. 1982. A possible Harappan Seaport in Eastern Arabia: Ra's Al Junayz in the Sultanate of Oman, paper read at the 1st International Conference on Pakistan Archaeology, Peshawar]." Gerd Weisgerber, Dilmun--a trading entrepot; evidence from historical and archaeological sources, 135-142 in: Shaikha Haya Ali Al Khalifa and Michael Rice (eds.) Bahrain through the ages: the archaeology, London, KPI, 1986. [Simo Parpola/Asko Parpola/Robert H. Brunswig, The Meluhha village. evidence of acculturation of Harappan traders in the later third millennium Mesopotamia?, Journal of the Economic and Political History of the Orient, vol. 20, 1977, 129-165. 'If the tablets and their sealed envelopes had not been found, in fact, we might never have suspected the existence of a merchant colony.' (T. Ozguc, An Assyrian trading outpost, Scientific American, 1962, 97 ff.). The city-state of Lagash (ca. 2060: king Shulgi) records a toponym about the presence of a 'Melukkhan village'. (A. Parpola and S. Parpola, 1975, On the relationship of the Sumerian Toponym Meluhha and Sanskrit Mleccha, Studia Orientalia 46). The word 'Melukkha' also appears, occasionally, as a personal name in cuneiform texts of the Old Akkadian and Ur III periods. Seals of the Indian civilization have been found in Mesopotamia and Iran at Kish (modern Tell Ingharra), Ur, Tell Asmar, Nippur (modern Nuffar), and Susa; a shard with an inscription has been found at Ras al-Junayz, the southeastern extremity of the Oman Peninsula; seal impressions of the civilization have been found at Umma (Tell Jokha) and Tepe Yahya; pottery of the civilization has been found at Ras al-Junayz, Asimah, Maysar, Hili 8, Tell Abraq -- in Oman and United Arab Emirates. Susa, Qalat al-Bahrain, Shimal (Ras al-Khaimah) and Tell Abraq (Umm al-Qaiwain) -- sites around the Arabian Gulf -- have yielded cubical weights of banded chert (unit weight: 13.63 grams) which are the hall-mark of the civilization. In Ras al-Janyz, in the southeast coast of Oman, a large quantity of bitumen was found in a mud-brick storeroom; the surmise is that the bitumen was used to caulk reed or wooden boats. This find also points to a significant presence of traders from the Indian civilization, during the late third and early second millennium, in Magan (Oman). A copper seal with a Sarasvati hieroglyph was discovered at Rasal-Junayz. (The port has a green-back turtle reserve). Turtle or tortoise shells were an item of trade from Meluhha, according to Mesopotamian records. “Mats, sarcophagi, coffins and jars, used for funeral practices, were often covered and sealed with bitumen. Reed and wood boats were also caulked with bitumen. Abundant lumps of bituminous mixtures used for that particular purpose have 425

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been found in storage rooms of houses at Ra's al-Junayz in Oman. Bitumen was also a widespread adhesive in antiquity and served to repair broken ceramics, fix eyes and horns on statues (e.g. at Tell alUbaid around 2500 BC). Beautiful decorations with stones, shells, mother of pearl, on palm trees, cups, ostrich eggs, musical instruments (e.g. the Queen's lyre) and other items, such as rings, jewellery and games, have been excavated from the Royal tombs in Ur.” [Connan, J., 1999, 'Use and Trade of Bitumen in Antiquity and Prehistory: Molecular Archaeology Reveals Secrets of Past Civilizations', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society London B 353: 33-50.] http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/(qoptgors11gb1p45iz5i3wup)/app/home/contribution.asp?referre r=parent&backto=issue,4,14;journal,86,116;linkingpublicationresults,1:102022,1 See also: http://www.sabi-abyad.nl/tellsabiabyad/projecten/index/0/19/?sub=32&language =en which has a map pointing to origin of bitumen somewhere between Iraq and Israel. Sea-faring merchants of Melukkha (Meluhha) and trade route of tin ingots Mleccha trade was first mentioned by Sargon of Akkad (Mesopotamia 2370 B.C.) who stated that boats from Dilmun, Magan and Meluhha came to the quay of Akkad (Hirsch, H., 1963, Die Inschriften der Konige Von Agade, Afo, 20, pp. 37-38; Leemans, W.F., 1960, Foreign Trade in the Old Babylonian Period, p. 164; Oppenheim, A.L., 1954, The seafaring merchants of Ur, JAOS, 74, pp. 6-17). The Mesopotamian imports from Meluhha were: woods, copper (ayas), gold, silver, carnelina, cotton. Gudea sent expeditions in 2200 B.C. to Makkan and Meluhha in search of hard wood. Seal impression with the cotton cloth from Umma (Scheil, V., 1925, Un Nouvea Sceau Hindou Pseudo-Sumerian, RA, 22/3, pp. 55-56) and cotton cloth piece stuck to the base of a silver vase from Mohenjodaro (Wheeler, R.E.M., 1965, Indus Civilization) are indicative evidence. Babylonian and Greek names for cotton were: sind, sindon. This is an apparent reference to the cotton produced in the black cotton soils of Sind and Gujarat. Ca. 2150-2000 BC, ivory from Meluhha is mentioned in connection with ivory bird figurines (Oppenheim 1954: II, 15 n.24). About 2000 BCEat Ur, ivory is attributed to Dilmun (Bahrein), perhaps shipped up the Gulf from the Indus where tusks and ivory objects were plentiful. Isin-Larsa period (ca. 2000-1800 BCE)texts refer to rods, combs, inlays, boxes, spoons, and 'breastplates' of ivory donated to temples by merchants returning from Dilmun (Oppenheim 1954: 6-12). ‘Melukkha’ is cognate with Pali ‘milakkha’ or Sanskrit ‘mleccha’. In Pali, ‘milakkha’ also means, 'copper'. In Sanskrit, ‘mleccha-mukha’ means ‘copper’. The trading route through Mari on the Euphrates to Ugarit (Mediterranean Sea) and on to Minoan Crete. This routing may explain the presence of Harappan script inscription on tin ingots found at Haifa, Israel! [After Potts, 1995] The body of water called the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Arabian Gulf, Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea were referred to by Herodotus as the Erythraean Sea. Dilmun is identified with Bahrain, Magan with Oman and Melukkha with the Indian Civilization. Sargon of Akkad boasts that ships from Dilmun, Magan and Melukkha docked at the quay of his capital Akkad. This inscription affirms that Melukkha was accessible by the sea-route, through the Arabian gulf. 426

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There is significant evidence for the presence of people and goods from and frequent interaction with the Indian Civilization in the Mesopotamian and Gulf areas. There is, however, little evidence of a Sumerian, Akkadian or Babylonian presence in India. "Tin procurement at Mari was highly organized (Dossin 1970; Villard 1984: nos. 555-6). It travelled in the form of ingots weighing about 5 kg. each. It reached Mari by donkey caravan from Susa (Susiana) and Anshan (Elam) through Eshnunna (Tell Asmar). The relevant records contain the names of Elamite rulers and Elamite agents (Heltzer 1989). Tin was transmitted westwards, both as an item of royal giftexchange and as a trade commodity...it may well often have travelled by sea up the Gulf from distribution centres in the Indus Valley. In the Old Babylonian period tin was shipped through Dilmun (Leemans 1960: 35), as it had been a millennium earlier to judge by references in the Ebla texts...Strabo (xv.ii.10) referred specifically to Drangiana, the modern region of Seistan in south-west Iran (into Afghanistan) as a source of tin. Muhly (1973: 260) associated this directly with Gudea's report of receiving tin from Meluhha...A number of scholars have pointed out the possibility that tin arrived with gold and lapis lazuli in Sumer through the same trade network, linking Afghanistan with the head of the Gulf, both by land and sea (Stech and Piggott 1986: 41-4)." (P.R.S. Moorey, 1994, Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries, Oxford, Clarendon Press pp. 298-299). Map showing locations of Mari and Ugarit. The trading route through Mari on the Euphrates to Ugarit (Mediterranean Sea) and on to Haifa. This may explain the presence of Harappan script inscription on tin ingots found at Haifa, Israel ! Tin from Meluhha; Mleccha as a language Tin used in Indus Valley civilization is well attested. (Hegde 1978; Chakrabarti 1979; Muhly 1985: 283; Stech and Pigott 1986: 43-4). Gudea c. 2100 BC, identified Meluhha as the source of his tin (Falkenstein 1966: i.48: Cylinder B: XIV). "...tin may well often have travelled by sea up the Gulf from distribution centres in the Indus Valley. In the Old Babylonian period tin was shipped through Dilmun (Leemans 1960: 35)... It is now known that Afghanistan has two zones of tin mineralization. One embraces much of eastern Afghanistan from south of Kandahar to Badakshan in the north-east corner of the country (Shareq et al. 1977); the other lies to the west and extends from Seistan north towards Herat (Cleuziou and Berthoud 1982), the valley of the Sarkar river, where the hills are granitic. Here tin appears commonly as cassiterite, frequently associated with copper, gold, and lead, and in quantities sufficient to attract attention in antiquity. Bronzes at Mundigak, and the controversial Snake Cave artefacts, indicate local use of bronze by at least the third millennium BCE(Shaffer 1978: 89, 115, 144). A number of scholars have pointed out the possibility that tin arrived with gold and lapis lazuli in Sumer through the same trade network, linking Afghanistan with 427

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the head of the Gulf, both by land and sea (Stech and Pigott 1986: 41-4)." (P.R.S. Moorey, 1994, Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries, Oxford, Clarendon Press p. 298-299). van:ga is also tin with the possible association of chalcolithic cultures in Bengal (2nd millennium B.C.) with possible links with the culture of Thailand of the same period (Solheim, W.C., Sciene, Vol. 157, p. 896). Hegde suggests the possibility that water-concentrated placer deposits referred to as 'stream tin' (alluvial cassiterite or mineral tin) in the proximity of Aravalli and Chota Nagpur Hills might have also been the sources of tin. Meluhha (ancient Sindhu (Indus)-Sarasvati valley) could have been the early source of ancient tin. “There is an extensive belt of placer deposits in the Malay peninsula which stretches over a distance of 1000 miles. The location of the early tin mines is lost to history, but the first documented use of tin seems to be in Mesopotamia, followed soon by Egypt. The tin probably came in through the Persian Gulf, or down what would later be the Silk Route. Some tin has been found in central Africa, and could have supplied a small amount to Egypt. However, the earliest needs for the mineral must have been met by Indian sources, the material being carried westward by migrations from southern and eastern Asia toward the Mediterranean area or from nearby sources.” http://www.ancientroute.com/resource/metal/tin.htm There is evidence from a cylinder seal of Gudea, the king of Lagash (2143 – 2124 BCE) that tin came from Melukkha. (Muhly, J.D., 1976, Copper and Tin, Hamden, Archon Books, pp. 306-7). + Meluhha is the region where bharatiya languages, such as mleccha (cognate, melukkha, meluhha) were spoken; Mahabharata attests, in the context of a cryptographic reference, that Vidura and Yudhishthira spoke in mleccha. (Appendix B Cryptography and reference to mleccha as language in Mahabharata, and to khanaka, the miner contains text from the epic with a translation). An Akkadian cylinder seal has been cited as a ‘rosetta stone’ attesting to meluhha as a language. A cognate term in Indic language family is: mleccha. The antelope carried by the bearded Me-lah-ha on an Akkadian cylinder seal may be a phonetic determinant: mel.aka or mr..eka (Telugu)(melu-hha; also, melech, 'king'; plural form, 'melechim'). [cf. Melech Hamashiah: King Messiah; Akad: {Akkad} A city in Mesopotamia (now Iraq) which was part of Nimrod's kingdom, founded by Melech Sargon around 2350 BCE Genesis 10:10; KP Jayaswal notes that mleccha was the Samskr.tam representation of Hebrew melekh meaning, 'king' and that the utterance: he lavah! he lavah! in the S'atapatha Bra_hman.a was a specimen of mleccha speech; that this spech is cognate with Hebrew e_loa_h (plural e_lo_him) meaning, 'God' (Jayaswal, KP, 1914, 'Kleine Mitteilungen', Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschraft,, vol. LXXII, p. 719). For the specimen of mleccha speech, an alternative explanation is provided in Maha_bha_s.ya with a variation, helayo helayo; Sa_yan.a_ca_rya notes that the speimen of Asura/mleccha speech is a variant of he 'rayo, he 'raya meaning, 'O the (spiteful) enemies', explained by the asuras' inability to pronounce the sounds, r- and –y-. (Maha_bha_s.ya 1.1.1; KC Chatterjee, 1957, Patanjali's Maha_bha_s.ya, Calcutta, pp. 1011; Sa_yan.a on S'atapatha Bra_hman.a, 3.2.1.23).] The word me-la-hha may also be cognate with: mer.h, med.h, 'copper merchant'. Another example of a substrate term: Sumerian tibira, tabira (Akkadian. LU2 URUDU-NAGAR =. "[person] copper-carpenter"); a word indicating borrowing from a substrate. In Pkt. tambira = copper. According to Gernot Wilhelm, the Hurrian version of tabira is: tab-li 'copper founder'; tab-iri 'the one who has cast (copper)'. 428

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This may explain why two statuettes made of solid gold and solid silver of Elamite kings also shown carrying an antelope/zebu in their hands: melech, 'king'.Elamite worshipper, Susa, Iran 12th century BCE (middle Elamite period), excavated by Ronald de Mecquenem in 1904. The Elamite is announcing himself as: ku_t.a, ‘chief’; khu~t., ‘bra_hman.i (zebu) bull’. On a silver statue, he carries a short-horned bull; on a gold statue, he carries a zebu bull. The short-horned bull is homa 'bison'; rebus: soma 'electrum'. The zebu is: adar d.an:gra; rebus: adaru 'native metal, panned gold' d.an:gra, t.hakkura 'blacksmith, chief''. Elamite king, gold and silver statuette 12 Century BC, 3" high discovered 1904 by archaeologist Roland de Mecquenem at Susa's (shoush) acropolis. Melukka, copper; melh, goat On some glyphs, the antelope is held by its neck (med.a or melkha_): urseal8Seal; BM 118704; U. 6020; Gadd PBA 18 (1932), pp. 9-10, pl. II, no.8; two figures carry between them a vase, and one presents a goat-like animal (not an antelope) which he holds by the neck. Human figures wear early Sumerian garments of fleece. melkha_ throat, neck (Kur.); melque throat (Malt.)(DEDR 5080). This glyph of holding by the throat of the animal is a phonetic determinant of the animal itself: me_lh goat (Br.); mr..e_ka (Te.); meque to bleat (Malt.); me_ke she-goat (Ka.); goat (Nk.) me~_ka, me_ka goat (Te.); me.ke (Kol.); me_ge goat (Ga.); meka_, me_ka (Go.); me_xna_ to call, hail (Kur.)(DEDR 5087). med.a = neck (Te.lex.) met.e = the throat (Ka.); men-n.a, men-n-i (Ta.); menne (Ma.); mid.ar-u = the neck, the throat (Ta.Ma.); met.regat.t.u = a swelling of the glands of the throat (Ka.lex.) [The dotted circle connoting the eye: khan:gar ‘full of holes’; rebus: kan:gar ‘furnace’] This is rebus for: melukka copper (Pali) [cf.Meluhhan interpreter shown on a cylinder seal; the Meluhhan is shown carrying a goat on his hands.] Melakkha, islanddwellers According to the great epic, Mlecchas lived on islands: "sa sarva_n mleccha nr.patin sa_gara dvi_pa va_sinah, aram a_ha_ryàm àsa ratna_ni vividha_ni ca, andana aguru vastra_n.i man.i muktam anuttamam, ka_ñcanam rajatam vajram vidrumam ca maha_ dhanam: (Bhima) arranged for all the mleccha kings, who dwell on the ocean islands, to bring varieties of gems, sandalwood, aloe, garments, and incomparable jewels and pearls, gold, silver, diamonds, and extremely valuable coral… great wealth." (MBh. 2.27.25-26). According to Geiger and Kern, Pa_li term, mila_ca meaning 'forest dweller' was the original variant of milakkha and was used in Ja_takas and Di_gha Nika_ya (Ja_taka, XIV, 486; XVII, 524; Geiger, Wilhelm, Pa_li Literature and Language, tr. BK Ghosh, Calcutta, 1956; repr., 2958, New Delhi, 1978; Kern, H., Toevoegselen op't Woordenbock van Childers, 2 pts., NR., XVI, nos. 4 and 5).This term, mleccha, should be differentiated from another term, pa_s.an.d.a, who were opposed to the doctrines of the times. There is no indication, whatsoever, in any text that mleccha were pa_s.an.d.a; the mleccha were in fact, an integral and a dominant part of the community called in the Rigveda as, Bha_ratam janam – the people of the nation of Bha_rata (RV 3.53.12). Similarly, there is no indication whatsoever that mleccha were a distinct linguistic entity. The only differentiation indicated in the early texts that mleccha is ‘unrefined’ speech, that is, the lingua franca (as distinct from the dialects used in mantra-s 429

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or Samskr.tam). Thus mleccha is a reference to a common dialect, the spoken tongue in the Indic language family. What distinquished mleccha and a_rya, when used in reference to language-speakers or dialectspeakers, were only places of habitation, norms of behaviour and dialectical variations in parole (ordinary spoken language) juxtaposed to grammatically 'correct' Samskr.tam or inscriptional Prakrits or Pali. Mleccha in Sanskrit is milakkha or milakkhu in Pali, and the term describes those who dwell on the outskirts of a village. (Shendge, Malati, 1977, The civilized demons: the Harappans in Rigveda, Abhinav Publications). A milakkhu is disconnected from va_c [refined speech, for e.g. as Samskr.tam, as distinguished from the natural (spoken dialect or lingua franca) Prakr.t] and does not speak Vedic; he spoke Prakrt. "na a_rya_ mlecchanti bha_s.a_bhir ma_yaya_ na caranty uta: aryas do not speak with crude dialects like mlecchas, nor do they behave with duplicity (MBh. 2.53.8). a dear friend of Vidura who was a professional excavator is sent by Vidura to help the Pa_n.d.avas in confinement; this friend of Vidura has a conversation with Yudhisthira, the eldest Pa_n.d.ava: "kr.s.n.apakse caturdasyàm ràtràv asya purocanah, bhavanasya tava dvàri pradàsyati hutàsanam, màtrà saha pradagdhavyàh pa_n.d.avàh purus.ars.abhàh, iti vyavasitam pàrtha dha_rtara_s.t.ra_sya me šrutam, kiñcic ca vidurenkoto mlecchavàcàsi pa_n.d.ava, tyayà ca tat tathety uktam etad visvàsa ka_ran.am: on the fourteenth evening of the dark fortnight, Purocana will put fire in the door of your house. ‘The Pandavas are leaders of the people, and they are to be burned to death with their mother.’ This, Pa_rtha (Yudhis.t.ira), is the determined plan of Dhr.tara_s.t.ra’s son, as I have heard it. When you were leaving the city, Vidura spoke a few words to you in the dialect of the mlecchas, and you replied to him, ‘So be it’. I say this to gain your trust.(See Appendix B). This passage shows that there were two Arya-s distinguished by language group, Yudhis.t.ra and Vidura. Both are aryas, who could speak mleccha language (mleccha va_casi); Dhr.tara_s.t.ra and his people (who could also speak mleccha) are NOT arya (respected persons) only because of their behaviour. On sources of tin: tin from Melukkha ! "Tin from 'Meluhha'...According to the Larsa texts, merchants were there (in Mari and Lrsa) to purchase copper and tin: the copper came from Magan in Oman, via Tilmun (Bahrain), but the origin of the tin is left in question. Tin mines in north-west Iran or the Transcaucasus are highly unlikely. Fortunately, there is evidence for another tin source in texts from Lagash. Lagash, about 50 km east of Larsa, was of minor importance except under the governorship of Gudea (ca. 2143-2124 BC). His inscriptions indicate extensive trade: gold from Cilicia in Anatolia, marble from Amurra in Syria, and cedar wood from the Amanus Mountains between these two countries, while up through the Persian Gulf or 'Southern Sea' came more timber, porphyry (strictly a purplish rock), lapis lazuli and tin. (Burney, 1977, 86; Muhly, 1973, 306-7, 449 note 542; Muhly, J.D., 1973, Tin trade routes of the Bronze Age, Scientific American, 1973, 61, 404-13). One inscription has been translated: Copper and tin, blocks of lapis lazuli and ku ne (meaning unknown), bright carnelian from Meluhha. "This is the only reference to tin from Meluhha...either Meluhha was a name vague enough to embrace Badakhshan (the northernmost province of Afghanistan) as well as some portion of the Indian subcontinent including the Indus valley, or 'tin from Meluhha' means that the metal came from some port in Meluhha -- just as 'copper from Tilmun' means copper from elsewhere shipped through the 430

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island of Bahrain. Whichever interpretation is correct, the result is the same. Tin must have come from somewhere in India, or from elsewhere along a trade route down the Indus valley. India is not without its tin locations, rare though they are...The largest deposits in India proper are in the Hazaribagh district of Bihar. 'Old workings' are said to exist... (Wheeler, R.E.M., 1953, The Indus Civilization, CUP, 58)...Tin bronzes from Gujarat are at the southernmost limit of Indus influence. The copper could have come from Rajasthan, though copper ingots at the port of Lothal, at the head of the Gulf of Cambay, suggest imports from Oman or some other Near Eastern copper mining district. Tin supplying Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, most famous of the Indus cities, may have been sent overland to Lothal for export, though the scarcity of tin in the Indus cities makes this idea unconvincing. "At Harappa, three copper alloys were used in the period 2500-2000 BC: copper and up to 2% nickel; copper and up to 5% nickel; copper with ca. 10% tin and a trace of arsenic. Ingots of tin as well as of copper were found at Harappa. (Lamberg-Karlovsky, C.C., 1967, Archaeology and metallurgy in prehistoric Afghanistan, India and Pakistan, American Anthropologist, 1967, 69, 145-62). The rarity of the metal is seen at Mohenjo-daro where, of 64 artifacts examined, only nine were of tin bronze. (Tylecote, R.F., 1976, A History of Metallurgy, The Metals Society, p. 11). Ingots of tin bronze have also been found at Chanhu-daro. Yet in spite of its scarcity, tin bronze was widely used. Its occasional abundance and, in the case of the bronzes from Luristan in southern Iran, the high quality of the tin bronzes produced, equally underline the fact that rich source of tin existed somewhere... "The archaeological evidence from Afghanistan is not unequivocal...What is surprising is the discovery in 1962 of corroded pieces of sheet metal bearing traces of an embossed design and made of a low tin content bronze (5.15%)...The uncorroded metal is thought to have contained nearer 7% tin. (Caley, E.R., 1972, Results of an examination of fragments of corroded metal from the 1962 excavation at Snake Cave, Afghanistan, Trans. American Phil. Soc., New Ser. , 62, 43-84). These fragments came from the deepest level in the Snake Cave, contemporary with the earliest occupation dated by 14C to around 5487 and 5291 BC. (Shaffer, J.G., in Allchin F.R. and N. Hammond (eds.), 1979, The Archaeology of Afghanistan, Academic Press, 91, 141-4)...If this dating is acceptable, not only is this metal the earliest tin bronze known from anywhere, but it is also an isolated occurrence of far older than its nearest rival and quite unrelated to the main development of bronze age metallurgy... "Even more exciting is the evidence from Shortugai… In 1975, French archaeologists discovered on the surface at Shortugai, sherds of Indus pottery extending over more than a millennium - the whole span of the Indus civilization. (Lyonnet, B., 1977, Decouverte des sites de l'age du bronze dans le N.E. de l'Afghanistan: leurs rapports avec la civilisation de l'Indus, Annali Instituto Orientali di Napoli, 37, 1935)… Particularly important is a Harappan seal bearing an engraved rhinoceros and an inscription which reinforces the belief that the site was a trading post. Shortugai is only 800 km from Harappa, as the crow flies, though the journey involves hundreds of kilometres of mountainous terrain through the Hindu Kush...Lyonnet's conclusion was that the most likely explanation for their existence was an interest in 'the mineral resources of the Iranian Plateau and of Central Asia', to which can now be added those of Afghanistan itself. Indus contacts extended well into Turkmenia where the principal bronze age settlements, such as Altin-depe and Namasga-depe, lie close to the Iranian border… "A fine copper axe-adze from Harappa, and similar bronze examples from Chanhu-daro and, in Baluchistan, at Shahi-tump, are rare imports of the superior shaft-hole implements developed initially in Mesopotamia before 3000 BC. In northern Iran examples have been found at Shah Tepe, Tureng Tepe, and Tepe Hissar in level IIIc (2000-1500 BC)...Tin was more commonly used in eastern Iran, an area only now emerging from obscurity through the excavation of key sites such as Tepe Yahya and Shahdad. In level IVb (ca. 3000 BCE)at Tepe yahya was found a dagger of 3% tin bronze. (LambergKarlovsky, C.C. and M., 1971, An early city in Iran, Scientific American, 1971, 224, No. 6, 102-11; Muhly, 1973, Appendix 11, 347); perhaps the result of using a tin-rich copper ore. However, in later levels tin bronze became a 'significant element in its material culture' comparatble with other evidence from south-east Iran where at Shadad bronze shaft-hole axes and bronze vessels were found in graves dated to ca. 2500 BC. (Burney, C., 1975, From village to empire: an introduction to Near Eastern Archaeology, 431

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1977, Phaidon). The richness of Tepe Yahha, Shahr-i-Sokhta, and Shadad, are all indicative of trade and 'an accumulation of wealth unsuspected from the area'. (Lamberg-Karlovsky, 1973, reviewing Masson and Sarianidi (1972) in Antiquity, 43-6)....Namazga-depe and neighbouring sites are a long way from the important tin reserves of Fergana...The origin of Near Eastern tin remains unproven; the geological evidence would favour the deposits of Fergana and the Tien Shan range..." (Penhallurick, R.D., 1986, Tin in Antiquity, London, Institute of Metals, pp. 18-32). See Appendix D Some excerpts from Muhly, Forbes, Serge Cleuziou and Thierry Berthoud on sources of tin; tin of Melukkha ! [The cuneiform characters meluh-ha should be read with an alternative phonetic value: me-lah-ha. (Parpola, Asko, S. Koskenniemi, S. Parpola and P. Aalto, 1970, Decipherment of the Proto Dravidian Inscriptions of the Indus Valley, no. 3, Copenhagen, p. 37; me-la_h-ha are a clan from a Sindhi tribe known as Moha_na.)] D.K. Chakrabari (1979, The problem of tin in early India--a preliminary survey, in: Man and Environment, Vol. 3, pp. 61-74) opines that during the pre-Harappan and Harappan periods, the main supply of tin was from the western regions: Khorasan and the area between Bukhara and Samarkand. The ancient tin mines in the Kara Dagh District in NW Iran and in the modern Afghan-Iranian Seistan could have been possible sources. Harappan metal-smiths used to conserve tin by storing and re-using scrap pieces of bronze, making low-tin alloys and substituting tin by arsenic. It is possible that some of the imported tin (like lapis lazuli) was exported to Mesopotamia. Among Sarasvati hieroglyphs, there are homophonous glyphs, that is a variety of glyphs with the same phonetic value. This may explain why two distinct hieroglyphs + one common hieroglyph (X glyph) are used on each of the two tin ingots. Use of rebus method Rebus (Latin: by means of things) is a graphemic expression of the phonetic shape of a word or syllable. Rebus uses words pronounced alike (homophones) but with different meanings. Sumerian script was phonetized using the rebus principle. So were the Egyptian hieroglyphs based on the rebus principle. The use of the rebus method is justified on the following collateral evidence and analysis: According to the Parpola concordance which contains a corpus of 2942 inscriptions, 300 inscriptions are composed of either one sign or two signs. Many signs occur in predictable pairs; 57 pairwise combinations account for a total frequency of 3154 occurrences (32% of 9798 occurrences of all pairwise combinations). Given the statistical evidence that the average length of a text is 5 signs, it is apparent that one sign or a pair of signs represents a ‘substantive category’ of information, i.e., a complete message. In addition to the field symbol, the texts of the inscriptions are composed of an average of five signs. The longest inscription has 26 signs (found on two identical three-sided tablets: M-494 and M-495 of Parpola corpus). There are over 170 inscriptions with only one sign (in addition to the field symbol); about 30 inscriptions have only two signs (Seppo koskenniemi et al., 1973, p. x) A number of signs appear in duplicated pairs: for example, Sign 245 occurs in 70 pairs. (Sign 245 represents nine squares in a rectangle or a chequered-rectangle) These are apparently not duplicated alphabets or syllables. 432

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(nine squares in a rectangle or a chequered-rectangle) [cf. lo = nine; loha = metal, ore (Santali.lex.)]

Signs 245, 246 + variants The duplications of divided rectangles are apparently not duplicated alphabets or syllables. Animals have bound feet and surround a square object on which the person stands. Fig. 89; Susa, stamp seal from the Gulf, Teheran Museum, MDAI, 43, no. 1718; a person, naked and thin, has a stylised head shaped like a narrow arch with indentations to mark the nose and mouth. Two bull heads emanating from a chequered square; two persons drinking; altar and sun; bull in the lower register. Fig. 99; Failaka; no. 174 impression. A person flanked by two bulls, each standing atop a chequered square. Fig. 100; Failaka no. 83 impression. Entwined serpent in the middle; two antelopes standing atop a chequered rectangle; two bulls in lower register. Fig. 101; Failaka no. 82. Bulls; antelopes; person; chequered square; trough? Fig. 104; Failaka; no. 89 impression. Many pictorials in inscriptions in field symbols also occur in pairs: two tigers, two bisons, two heads of the unicorn. These statistics establish the following facts: A combination of pictorials without the use of any sign constitute the message. One or two signs and/or a pair of signs are adequate to compose the core of the messages. This leads to the apparent conclusion that the solus sign or each sign in pairwise combinations (which constitute the core of information conveyed) is not an alphabet or a syllable, but a WORD. This apparent evidence is echoed in Koskenniemi et al: "... the Indus script is in all likelihood a relatively crude morphemographic writing system. The graphemes would usually stand for the lexical morphemes... This hypothesis is based on the approximate date this writing system was created (circa 26th century B.C.), the parallel presented by the Sumerian writing system of that time (the Fara texts of the 26th century), the brevity of recurring combinations, and the number of different graphemes." (Koskenniemi and Parpola, 1982, pp. 10-11). Another echo is found in the structural analysis of Mahadevan: " G.R. Hunter (1934, p. 126) formulated a set of criteria for segmentation of the texts and 433

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found that almost every sign of common occurrence functioned as a single word. The Soviet group (M.A. Probst and A.M. Kondratov in Y.V. Knorozov et al., Proto-Indica, Moscow, 1965) analyzed texts on the computer and concluded that the Indus script is essentially morphemic in character, resembling the Egyptian hieroglyphic system in this respect. I have described the logical word-division procedures developed by me (I. Mahadevan, "Recent advances in the study of the Indus script", Puratattva, Vol. 9, p. 34), which show that most of the signs of the Indus script are word-signs... no one has so far been able to establish by objective analytical procedures the existence of purely phonetic syllabic signs in the Indus script... Phonograms formed by the rebus principle can be recognized only if the underlying language is known or assumed as a working hypothesis. Since the identity of the Harappan language has not yet been established beyond doubt, it cannot be said that any phonogram has been recognized with certainty... It is however very likely that there are rebus-based phonograms in the Indus script, as otherwise, it is very difficult to account for the presence of such unlikely objects such as the fish, birds, animals and insects in what are most probably names and titles on the seal-texts. It is likely that the Indus scrip resembles in this respect the Egyptian script in which pictographic signs serve as phonetic signs based on the rebus principle (e.g. the picture of a ‘goose’ stands for ‘son’ as the two words are homonymous in the Egyptian language). It is no always possible in the present state of our knowledge to distinguish between ideograms and phonograms..." (I. Mahadevan, "Towards a grammar of the Indus texts: ‘intelligible to the eye, if not to the ears’, Tamil Civilization, Vol. 4, Nos. 3 and 4, Tanjore, 1966, pp. 18-19). Glyptic art in epigraphs The pictorials in inscriptions are composed of both signs and field symbols (glyphs). Many signs of the script are clearly derivatives from pictorial motifs (glyphs). For example, there are over 50 seals depicted in the Parpola pictorial corpus containing the motif, svastika as a field symbol. Similarly there are inscriptions containing the motif of a dotted circle which has not been recognized as a sign of the script by the corpus compilers. Many such pictographic signs (or glyphs/graphemes) may be identified.

Orthography and analysis of some sequences of graphemes in the inscriptions 434

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Parpola notes (1994, pp. 84-85), echoing similar observations by Mahadevan: "…a few signs are indeed found mostly at the end of inscriptions, notably sign 342 (‘jar’ grapheme)and sign 211 (‘arrow’ grapheme) and they are major aids in the segmentation of texts. The sign 342 (‘jar’ grapheme) is by far the most common sign of the Indus script, representing about 10 percent of all sign occurrences. About one-third of all inscriptions end with this sign…the sign is never found at the beginning of inscriptions…The sequence sign 102 (‘three short strokes’) followed by sign 192 mainly occurs at the end of inscriptions, and is never followed by the usual ‘end’ sign 342 (‘jar’

grapheme)…"

The sign 190 appears to be a four-fold ligaturing of the underlying basic

sign: , clearly indicating that it is a ‘rice-plant’ in a seed-bed with water.. http://hindunet.org/saraswati/signs/script4.htm

Parpola notes (1994, pp.103-104): "A comparative study of the allographs provides one important means of identifying the iconic meaning of even fairly abstract shapes…the (allograph) continuum)…Taken together, these signs can be understood as pictures of a single object, namely, ‘steps, staircase or ladder’; taken individually, such a conclusion would hardly be possible." Messages convey through inscriptions: lists of articles traded or furnaces used to smelt/melt the minerals, or to produce the metals or alloys. In addition to the field symbol, the texts of the inscriptions are composed of an average of five signs. The longest inscription has 26 signs (found on two identical three-sided tablets: M-494 and M-495 of Parpola corpus). Pictorial motifs (glyphs) are also messages, words There are over 50 inscribed objects with just the svastika_ pictorial motif. There are over 25 inscriptions with only pictorial motifs, 40 inscriptions with only one sign (in addition to the field symbol); about 110 inscriptions have only two signs; and nearly 150 inscriptions have only 3 signs. (See also: Seppo koskenniemi et al., 1973, p. x). A number of inscriptions use from 1 to 12 short strokes, an apparent system of marking 'quantities'. This is a remarkably cryptic (economical) use of graphemes and an indication that the graphemes (or signs) and (perhaps, also pictorials) may refer to physical objects and numbers. Inscribed objects with only pictorial motifs (no texts)

435

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h128

m1654D ivory cube

m0438atcopper jhukar1

Maski

m448t

Kalibangan057 m0496At Kalibangan058 m1256

m125

m1259

m126

Turkmenistan with the pictograph of a ligatured animal with three heads. Indian influence is seen in the three-headed ligature which occurs on the silver seal from Altin-depe. That this object is in silver metal is significant. The existence of silver and copper seals (apart from the use of copper plates as inscribed objects) denotes the importance attached to and value conveyed conveyed by the message on the seal.

m0496Bt Prabhas Patan (Somnath) 1A m0270 [Incomplete seal?]

Prabhas Patan (Somnath)1B m0271 Goat-antelope with horns turned backwards and a short tail Sibri-damb01A Sibri-damb01B

m0352A m0352C

m0352D

m0352E m0352F

Amri06 m1171 Composite animal with the body of an ox, and three heads: of one-horned bull (looking forward), of antelope (looking backward) and of a short-horned bull (bison) (looking downward.

m1654A ivory cube

Altin-depe; metal (silver) seal from southern

m1654B ivory cube 436

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Among the ashes on a warehouse floor in Lothal were found a hundred clay tags, bearing inscriptions created by seal impressions on one side and of packing materials (bamboo, mattings, woven cloth, cords, reeds) on the other. It has also been noted by earlier attempts at decipherment that many seals with inscriptions have cord holes, suggesting that the seals might have been worn by their owners. Many have also suggested that the epigraphs would have been used for trade transactions. Association with sites:

h172B Field Symbol 36 (Alligator? Lizard!): Out of 49, 36 occur at Harappa; Field Symbol 37 (Inscribed object in the shape of fish), 14 out of 14 occur at Harappa ‘Tree’ Field Symbol 44 (Tree) 28 out of 34 occur at Harappa h352C Field Symbol 83 (Dotted circles) 57 out of 67 occur at Harappa

Recurrent pairs of signs and paired lexemes

Pairing sign (Relatively high frequency, to the left of the sign read from right to left)

Sign (Frequency)/ Pictograph

(14)

Sign 1 (134)

(93)

Sign 8 (105)

Association of sign with: (a) Inscribed object (frequency)/ (b) Field symbol (frequency)

Sign 12 (80) (26)

Sign 15 (126) Sign 17 (91) Sign 18 (27)

(25)

Sign 25 (53)

(10)

Sign 28 (50)

Copper tablets (15) Copper tablets (12)

Copper tablets (13) (114)

Sign 48 (168) Field Symbol 36 (10) 437

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(58)

Sign 51 (105)

(16)

(40)

(55)

(44)

Sign 53 (130) Copper tablets (14) Sign 59 (381) Field Symbol 36 (17) Copper tablets (16)

(44)

(24)

(18)

(20)

(28)

(26)

(32)

(21)

Sign 65 (216)

Sign 67 (279)

Copper tablets (8)

Copper tablets (5) (10)

Sign 70 (73) Copper tablets (20) (24)

Sign 72 (188)

(12)

(10)

Sign 86 (149)

(67)

(78)

Sign 87 (365)

(124)

Sign 89 (314)

(10) (21)

Copper tablets (21)

(42) Copper tablets (29) (44) (58)

Sign 95 (64)

(12)

Sign 97 (91)

Copper tablets (16)

Sign 98 (88) (17)

(16)

(40)

(65)

(43)

Sign 99 (649)

438

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(24)

(17)

(29)

(20)

(19) (18)

Sign 102 (151)

(21)

(24)

Sign 104 (70)

(27)

(11)

Sign 112 (70)

(14) (11)

Copper tablets (9)

Copper tablets (10)

Sign 121 (70) (11)

Sign 123 (193)

(16)

Sign 124 (78)

(30) (30)

Copper tablets (17)

(13) (9)

Sign 127 (50)

(39)

Sign 130 (63) h172B Field Symbol 36 (10)

(44)

Sign 149 (92)

Sign 150 (63)

(44) (10)

Sign 155 (49)

(40)

Sign 162 (212)

(48)

Sign 169 (240)

(40)

(76)

h352C Dotted circles. Field symbol 83 (10) Copper tablets (60) Hare. Field symbol 16 (19)

Sign 171 (132) Sign 173 (38)

(7) (11)

h172B Field Symbol 36 (10)

(16)

Sign 175 (54) 439

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(9)

(10)

Sign 176 (355)

Ivory or bone rods (12) Field symbol 44 (12) h352C Dottec circles. Field symbol 83 (23)

h172B Field Symbol 36 (17) Field symbol 44 (6) (29)

Sign 178 (35)

(18)

Sign 180 (44)

(30)

Sign 182 (43)

Sign 183 (11) (27)

Sign 194 (58)

(14)

Sign 197 (60)

h172B Field Symbol 36 (11) Copper tablets (10) Hare. Field symbol 16 (9)

Copper tablets (22) (12)

(31)

Sign 204 (76) Field Symbol 14 (19) Sign 211 (227)

(11)

m1148 Field Symbol 7 (9) Ivory or bone rod (3) (23)

(29)

Sign 216 (90)

440

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(14)

(13)

(34)

Sign 230 (54)

‘Tree’ Field symbol 44 (5)

Sign 244 (89) Copper tablets (48)

(70)

(21)

Sign 245 (207)

Field Symbol 14 (20)

Field Symbol 29 (10)

(54)

(47)

Sign 249 (170)

Sign 252 (51)

(13)

Copper tablet (11); bronze implements (2) ‘Tree’ Field symbol 44 (7)

Sign 258 (20)

h172B Field Symbol 36 (8)

Sign 254 (73)

(291) (9)

(32)

Sign 267 (376)

Sign 284 (41) Copper tablets (15)

(37)

Sign 287 (88)

Field Symbol 52 (6)

(54)

Sign 293 (136)

(28)

Sign 294 (53)

h172B Field Symbol 36 (12) Hare. Field symbol 16 (10)

441

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Sign 296 (35)

(32)

Sign 307 (69)

(8)

Copper tablets (6) (18)

Sign 326 (35)

(16)

Sign 327 (42)

(10)

Sign 328 (323) Copper tablets (27)

(126)

(12)

Sign 336 (236)

(13)

m1148 Field Symbol 7 (10)

(16)

Sign 341 (59) Copper tablets (82)

(87)

(17)

Sign 342 (1395) h172B Field Symbol 36 (38)

(184)

h352C Field symbol 83 (33) Sign 343 (177)

(12)

Sign 345 (51) Ivory or bone rods (5) (110)

Sign 347 (118) Copper tablets (20)

(31)

Sign 358 (32) Field Symbol 14 (19) Copper tablets (14) Sign 373 (61)

(17)

Sign 375 (57)

(10) (12)

(16)

Sign 387 (102) 442

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Copper tablets (25) + (28)

(15)

Sign 389 (134)

(15)

(11)

(83)

(24)

Sign 402 (99)

(16) (34)

Sign 391 (195)

(21)

Sign 403 (93) Copper tablets (34)

(10)

(17)

Sign 407 (48)

(26)

(17)

Sign 409 (26)

Notes: Association with sites:

443

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Analysis of hieroglyphs on the tin ingots Two shipwrecks were found with tin ingots; one was in Haifa, Israel and another was in Cape Gelidonya, southern Turkey (Anatolia). Two tin ingots found in Haifa, Israel contained epigraphs incised on the ingots. The epigraphs were roughly like these (excluding the ligatures): Considering that both the ingots were almost the same weight and had the same purity of tin, it may be surmised that the two glyphs preceding the ‘X’ were glyphonyms (that is, glyphs connoting the same message). Let us also assume that the two glyphs are hieroglyphs with underlying homonyms (that is, similar sounding lexemes) of a language. It should be noted that Mayan hieroglyphs and Mesopotamian cuneiform were are hieroglyphs read rebus. The significance of the hieroglyphs is that they will be readable only with ONE language. The ‘indus script’ had about 400 signs and about 100 pictorial motifs both constituting the framework for such a rebus reading of the language. There are cognate glyphs used on Rongorongo script used on Easter Island; the language represented could be Rapa Nui, a Polynesian language. There is no need for bilingual texts to decipher a script. The script of Sumerian, a linguistic isolate, was phonetically deciphered in reference to Semitic family of languages. Similarly, it is possible to decipher the Sarasvati hieroglyphs (Indus script) using the Indic family of languages. This may cause some concerns about the ‘indo-european’ links. Let us for now assume that there was a linguistic area ca. 5th-4th millennia BCE in the bronze age trade area. (A linguistic area is defined as an area with languages interacting and absorbing features from one another, making the features their own; a good example is the use of duplicative words which are common across indo-aryan, Dravidian and munda streams and also in Nahali, a language spoken on the banks of River Tapati, not far from Bhibhetka caves (now declared a World Heritage site) with paintings showing spoked-wheels, chariots and horses ! There is a way to get to the Indic family of languages. A proto-vedic continuity theory has been postulated to explain the semantic interactions among all indic language family members. http://protovedic.blogspot.com If the underlying language is of indic family or family of bharatiya languages (that is from the ancient Melukkha (mleccha region), a surprising result emerges. The underlying lexeme is ‘ran:ku’ ‘ran:ku’ connotes: liquid measure, antelope and also tin (ore). (See Appendix C). This pictograph which zooms into tin ingot 1, clearly refers to an antelope as depicted on the Mohenjodaro copper plate inscription: (m-516b shown). Sign 182 is a stylized glyph denoting a ram or antelope: tagar (Skt.); rebus: takaram ‘tin’ (Ta.) Liquid measure: ran:ku; rebus: ran:ku = tin; rebus: ran:ku = antelope. Thus both liquid measure glyph and antelope glyphs are graphonyms (graphically denoting the same rebus substantive: ran:ku, ‘tin’. Tin ingot 1 (zoomed in) Tin ingot 2 (zoomed in) 444

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The three signs zoomed-in in the illustrations, have parallels in the inscriptions of the civilization; in m1336 the 'antelope' pictograph appears together with the 'liquid-measure' pictograph; X sign occurs on many inscriptions with many variants elaborating it as a junction of two roads:

We will demonstrate that the symbols incised on the ingots are not Cypro-Minoan symbols but Sarasvati hieroglyphs.

m-1336a 2515 (Mahadevan) m-1097 (On this seal, the antelope appears in the middle of the inscription; it is apparently this pictograph that gets normalised as a 'sign', Sign 184 and variants].

m1341

2092

m0516At

m0516Bt 3398 m0522At m0522Bt 3378 (Note: m0516 and m-522 are copper plates; on m0516 side A of the copper plate shows the antelope glyph; on m0522 side B the antelope glyph becomes a middle segment of a three-glyph epigraph. This is a clear demonstration of the continuum of the so-called field symbols or pictorial motifs and the so-called sigs of the so-called Indus script. Both the ‘pictorial motifs or field symbols’ and ‘signs’, a bi-partite categorization used in the corpuses of Parpola and Mahadevan, are hieroglyphs). ran:ku ‘liquid measure (Mundari)

Sign 249

Sign 252 and variants

Sign 252 occurs on the following seals and tablets with epigraphs:

m1290

m1203A

h558

m1103

1463

m1203B

1018

4220

1337

The Sign 249 which is shown on the second tin ingot of Haifa, Israel is a representation of an ingot, assuming that this shows an ingot is shaped like the one taken out of a mould. The X sign (with a ligatured perpendicular short linear stroke) is common on both the tin ingots. 445

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The hieroglyphs may be read:

ran:ku ‘liquid measure’;

ran:ku ‘antelope’. Read rebus, the hieroglyphs connote ran:ku

‘tin’. Both the glyphs may be decoded as denoting ‘tin’ (ore) to describe the nature of the ingots being moved on the ships to Haifa and to Cape Gelidonya. The ‘liquid measure’ glyph may be seen to be a liquid measure by the orthographic styles shown on Sign Variants of Sign 252 with part filling of the liquid measuring container (with a handle). That the ‘antelope’ sign is a derivative from the ‘antelope’ glyph is seen from the Sign Variants of Signs 182 to 184 Antelopes

This pictograph on a tin ingot clearly refers to an antelope as depicted on the Mohenjodaro copper plate inscription: (m-516b shown). Sign 182 is a stylized glyph denoting a ram or antelope: tagar (Skt.); rebus: takaram ‘tin’ (Ta.)

(30)

Sign 182 (43)

h172B Field Symbol 36 (11)

Sign 183 (11) Copper tablets (10) Hare. Field symbol 16 (9) Hare = kulai (Santali) Rebus: kol 'metal of 5 alloys, pan~caloha' (Ta.)

V182 V184 Signs 182, 183, 184 The sign 182 is repeatedly used on a copper plate epigraphs and substitutes for an ‘antelope’ glyph. Note: Since the antelope is denoted by both the words: ranku and mr..eka, this could also connote a bronze (tin + copper, i.e. bronze) smelter. This may expxlain why on copper plates m0522 and m0516, both the ‘liquid measure’ and ‘antelope’ glyphs are shown. Alternatively, when shown on a tin ingot, the antelope sign may denote that the tin ingot was cast in a bronze smelter. It appears that there were distinct smelter/furnace types used for specific metals and specific alloys.

Sign 149 Sign 149 and variants This glyph could connote the junction of two roads: bat.a means ‘road’; rebus: bat.a means ‘furnace, smelter’. An alternative interpretation for the X glyph and its variants, is possible, again in Indic family of languages. 446

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X may refer, rebus, to dha_tu ‘mineral’. ta_tu = powder, dust, pollen (Ta.); to.0 = powdery, soft (of flour or powdered chillies)(To.). There is a possibility that the early semant. Of ‘dha_tu’ was cassiterite, powdery tin mineral. If X glyph connotes a cross over: da~_t.u = cross over; da.t.- (da.t.-t-) to cross (Kol.); da_t.isu – to cause to pass over (Ka.); da.t.- (da.t.y-) to cross (mark, stream, mountain, road)(Ko.); ta_t.t.uka to get over or through (Ma.); ta_n.t.u = to cross, surpass (Ta.)(DEDR 3158). In RV 6.044.23 the term used is: tridha_tu divi rocanes.u = ‘three-fold amr.tam hidden in heaven’ is the metaphor; and in RV 8.044.12 the term is: tridha_tuna_ s’arman.a_. 6.044.23 This Soma made the dawns happily wedded to the sun; this Soma placed the light within the solar orb; this (Soma) has found the threefold ambrosia hidden in heaven in the three bright regions. [ayam tridha_tu divi rocanes.u, trites.u, trites.u vindat amr.tam nigu_l.ham = Soma becomes as it were ambrosia when received or concealed in the vessels at the three diurnal ceremonies, which ambrosia is properly deposited with the gods abiding in the third bright sphere, or in heaven]. 8.040.12 Thus has a new hymn been addressed to Indra and Agni, as was done by my father, by Mandha_ta_, by An:girasa; cherish us with a triply defended dwelling; may we be the lords of riches. [Triply defended dwelling: tridha_tuna_ s'arman.a_ = triparvan.a_ gr.hen.a, with a house of three joints; in RV. 1.34.6, tridha_tu s'arma = va_tapitta s'les.ma dha_tutrayas'amana vis.ayam sukham; in RVV 1.85.12 s'arma tridha_tu_ni = pr.thivya_dis.u tris.u stha_nes.u avasthita_ni sukha_ni gr.ha_ni va_; Note: it is possible that the term may simply mean, three elements, three minerals, copper, silver, gold]. Rebus (for the glyptic of crossing over): da~_t.u = cross over; da.t.- (da.t.-t-) to cross (Kol.); da_t.isu – to cause to pass over (Ka.); da.t.- (da.t.y-) to cross (mark, stream, mountain, road)(Ko.); ta_t.t.uka to get over or through (Ma.); ta_n.t.u = to cross, surpass (Ta.)(DEDR 3158). Rebus: ta_t.u = to strike against, come in contact with (Ka.); ta_d.uni = to gore, butt; ta_d.u = goring (Tu.); ha-n.t.u to collide (Tu.); ta_n.t.i = to hit (Kor.)(DEDR 3156). ta_tu = powder, dust, pollen (Ta.); to.0 = powdery, soft (of flour or powdered chillies)(To.). There is a possibility that the early semant. Of ‘dha_tu’ was cassiterite, powdery tin mineral. The three signs used have parallels in the inscriptions of the civilization; in m-1336 the 'antelope' pictograph appears together with the 'mould' pictograph; X sign occurs on many inscriptions with many variants elaborating it as a junction of four roads: The Sign 249 which is shown on the second tin ingot of Haifa, Israel is a representation of an ingot, assuming that this shows an ingot is shaped like the one taken out of a mould. The X sign (with a ligatured perpendicular short linear stroke) is common on both the tin ingots. ran:ku a species of deer; ran:kuka (Skt.)(CDIAL 10559). ra_n:kava made from the hair of the ran:ku deer (Ka.lex.) ra~_kat. big and boorish (M.)(CDIAL 10538). cf. ran:ka slow, dull (Skt.)(CDIAL 10538). cf. ro_hi a kind of deer (R.)(CDIAL 10870). rauhis.a, ro_his.a a kind of deer (Ka.lex.) ran:ku ‘antelope’ (Santali) ran:ku = a species of deer (Skt.); ran:kuka id. (Skt.)(CDIAL 10559). ra_n:kava belonging to the ran:ku deer (MBh.); made from the hair of the ran:ku deer, woollen (R.); coming from ran:ku (said of animals) (Pa_n. 4.2.100); a woollen cover or blanket (MBh.R.); ra_n:kava ku_t.a s'a_yin lying on a heap of 447

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woollen rags (MBh.); ra_n:kavajina a woollen skin; ra_n:kavastaran.a a woollen coverlet (R.); ra_n:kavastr.ta covered with a woollen rug (Skt.); ra_n:kavaka coming from ran:kiu (said of men) (Pa_n. 4.2.134); ra_n:kava_yan.a coming from ran:ku (said of animals) (Pa_n. 4.2.100). ran:ku a species of deer or antelope (Skt.lex.) ran:ku = a species of deer or antelope, the spotted axis (mare)(Ka.lex.) kurunga = a kind of antelope; kurunga miga = the antelope deer (Pali); kulunga, kulanga (Skt.)(Pali.lex.) kulan:ga (MaitrS.); kulun:ga (TS); kuran:ga, kurun:ga (Pkt.); kuram.ga (Pali); kuran:g (P.); karam.gi_ (OG.); kura~g (G.); kurunga (Si.); kurangu the elk Rusa aristotelis (Si.)(CDIAL 3320). cf. kuran:g light chestnut colour (Kho.)(CDIAL 3321). kuran:ga = a species of antelope, antelope or deer (in general); kulun:ga = an antelope (VS 24; TS 5); kuran:gaka, kulan:ga = antelope; kuran:gama = an antelope; kuran:ga_yate to take the shape of an antelope (Skt.lex.) kurahu antelope (Kuwi), kuran:ga (Ka.) kulanga, kulunga = going in a herd, antelope (VS.); kulmi = a herd (TS. ii.4.5.2) Cognate sign pictographs are:

Sign 137 and variants

Sign 142 and variants Vikalpa: kulhi ‘the village street’ (Santali) Rebus: kol metal (Ta.) In addition to the glyphs of antelope and liquid-measure to read rebus: ranku ‘tin’, there is another homonymous lexeme which also refers to tin: Tin, Pewter ran:ga, ran: pewter is an alloy of tin lead and antimony (an~jana) (Santali). ran:ku 'tin' (Santali) Tin, solder: ran:ga tin (Skt.); ram.ga (Pkt.); ra~_g pewter, tin (P.H.); ra~_ga_ pewter, tin (P.H.); solder (Or.Bi.Mth.); ra_n. tin, solder (Ku.N.A.B.); ra~_k (Ku.); ra_n.o (N.); ra_n:ga tin (Or.); ra_n:ga_ solder (Or.); ra_m.ga (OAw.); ranga tin (Si.)(CDIAL 10562). ra_n.(g)ta_ tinsel, copper-foil (B.)(CDIAL 10567). [cf. ren. cement for metallic objects (G.); ren.i_ ingot (L.)(CDIAL 10639).] ran: t.odor a wristlet of pewter (Santali.lex.) ran:ga = tin; splendour, brilliance, glow and glitter (Ka.lex.) ran:garincu = to mix or rub with the finger, as any liquid and a solid or semi-solid substance (Te.lex.) ran:ga, ran:gada borax (Skt.); run. saline ground with white efflorescence, salt in earth (Kho.)(CDIAL 10563). run:got solution of saline earth (Kho.)(CDIAL 10573). rakamu = an item or article (of an account); an amount of money; an appointed quantity; a piece (Ka.M.H.); rakamu va_ru = article by article, piece by piece (Ka.M.H.)(Ka.lex.) rakam (Arabic rakm) an item; an article; a sum, an amount, a number (G.lex.) rakam upa_d.vi_ to borrow a sum of money; rakam na_me lakhvi_ to sell on credit a sum of money or an article of value, and enter it in the account-book (G.lex.) ran:ku ‘liquid measure (Mundari)

(54) (47) Sign 249 (170) rebus: kulme 'furnace'

ran:ku 'measure'; rebus: ran:ku 'tin' + kolmo 'sprout'; 448

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(13)

Sign 252 (51)

Copper tablet (11); bronze implements (2) ‘Tree’ Field symbol 44

(7) may be a grapheme, a synonym of sign 99 : at.ar a splinter; at.aruka to burst, crack, slit off, fly open; at.arcca splitting, a crack; at.arttuka to split, tear off, open (an oyster)(Ma.); ad.aruni to crack (Tu.)(DEDR 66). Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.) aduru = gan.iyinda tegadu karagade iruva aduru = ore taken from the mine and not subjected to melting in a furnace (Ka. Siddha_nti Subrahman.ya’ S’astri’s new interpretation of the Amarakos’a, Bangalore, Vicaradarpana Press, 1872, p. 330); adar = fine sand (Ta.); adaru = a sparkle (Te.); ayir – iron dust, any ore (Ma.)

Liquid measure: ran:ku; rebus: ran:ku = tin (Santali) ra~_go buffalo bull (Ku.N.)(CDIAL 10559). ra~_kat. big and boorish (M.)(CDIAL 10538). cf. ran:ka slow, dull (Skt.)(CDIAL 10538). ron:ke, ran:ke the grunt of a wild buffalo (Ka.lex.) rakha = a secret term for three (G.lex.) [Three long linear strokes is a recurrent motif in inscriptions of the civilization and appear in contexts where the 'sign' should be read not as a numeral but as 'rakha', tin or made of tin + copper, i.e .bronze]. r-an:ku, ran:ku = fornication, adultery (Te.lex.) This semantics explains the extraordinary glyptics employed on many epigraphs, showing the sexual act. Vikalpa: ran:ga ran:gi = fiercely quarrelling or disputing fiercely (Santali) A bull mating with a cow. Seal impression (BM 123059). From an antique dealer in Baghdad. Cf. Gadd 1932: no. 18. m0489Atm0489Btm0489Ct m0489At m0489Bt A standing human couple mating (a tergo); one side of a prism tablet from Mohenjo-daro (m489b). Other motifs on the inscribed object are: two goats eating leaves on a platform; a cock or hen (?) and a three-headed animal (perhaps antelope, one-horned bull and a shorthorned bull). The leaf pictorial connotes on the goat composition connotes loa, the copulation motif connotes kamd.a; hence, the reading is of this pictorial component is: lohar kamar = a blacksmith, worker in iron, superior to the ordinary kamar, a Hindu low caste (Santali.lex.)] Seal, Dilmun seal from Failaka island in the Gulf. A standing human couple mating (a tergo). [After Paul Kjaerum, 1983, Failaka/Dilmun: the second millennium settlements, I.1: the stamp and cylinder seals, Jutland Archaeological Society Publications, 17.1, Aarhus: no. 269]

449

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Seal, Dilmun seal from Failaka island in the Gulf. A standing human couple mating (a tergo). [After Paul Kjaerum, 1983, Failaka/Dilmun: the second millennium settlements, I.1: the stamp and cylinder seals, Jutland Archaeological Society Publications, 17.1, Aarhus: no. 269] Coitus a tergo. A symbolism which recurs on some Sarasvati epigraphs.

m0489At m0489Bt A standing human couple mating (a tergo); one side of a prism tablet from Mohenjo-daro (m489b). Other motifs on the inscribed object are: two goats eating leaves on a platform; a cock or hen (?) and a three-headed animal (perhaps antelope, one-horned bull and a short-horned bull). The leaf pictorial connotes on the goat composition connotes loa, the copulation motif connotes kamd.a; hence, the reading is of this pictorial component is: lohar kamar = a blacksmith, worker in iron, superior to the ordinary kamar, a Hindu low caste (Santali.lex.)] Cylinder-seal impression from Ur showing a squatting female. L. Legrain, 1936, Ur excavations, Vol. 3, Archaic Seal Impressions “It seems probable that these seals (with erotic art scenes) were products meant for a lower level of state officials (the owners of the country estates, for instance) instead of those living in town in close contact with the center of administration.” (Jack M. Sasson (ed.), Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, p. 2527).

kamd.a = to copulate (Santali.lex.) [cf. the copulation scenes depicted on many seals and other inscribed objects]. Rebus: kamar = blacksmith (Santali.lex.) ka_ma_t.i_ a caste of Hindus who are generally labourers and palanquin bearers (G.); komat.i_ (M.)(G.lex.) Glyphs: animal in heat and trampling upon a long necked person (?)

It is seen from an enlargement of the bottom portion of the seal impression that the ‘prostrate person’ may not be a person but a ligature of the neck of an antelope with rings on its necks or of a post with ring-stones. The head of the ‘person’ is not shown. So, it may be surmised that this is an artist's representation of an act of copulation (by an animal) + a ligatured neck of another bovine or alternatively, a pillar with ring-stones ligatured to the bottom portion of a body (perhaps of a cow, why not?). It is not uncommon in the artistic tradition to ligature bodies to the rump of, for example, a bull's posterior ligatured to a horned woman (Pict. 103 Mahadevan) or 450

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standing person with horns and bovine features (hoofed legs and/or tail) -- Pict. 86-88 Mahadevan. Bison (gaur) trampling a prostrate person (?) underneath. Impression of a seal from Chanhujodaro (Mackay 1943: pl. 51: 13). The prostrate ‘person’ is seen to have a very long neck, possibly with neckrings, reminiscent of the rings depicted on the neck of the one-horned bull normally depicted in front of a standard device. 6114 The pictorial motif on this Chanhudaro seal is compared with a pictorial motif on a Margiana stamp seal using line-drawings: Left. Margiana, stamp seal: obverse, attacking lion; reverse: a bull copulating with a woman. ; Right: Chanhujo-daro seal: the bull is leaning over a lying woman with opened legs (Mackay, 1943, pl. 51: 13). Tosi notes the occurrence of Harappan steatite seals and etched carnelian beads at ‘Bactrian sites’, materials which were found in the ‘looted graveyards of Bactria’. (Tosi, M., 1979, The proto-urban cultures of eastern Iran and the Indus civilization’, in in M. Taddei (ed.) South Asian Archaeology 1977, II. Naples: 643-59; Francfort, H.P., 1984, The Harappan settlement of Shortughai, in B.B. Lal and S.P. Gupta, eds., Frontiers of the Indus Civilization, Delhi, 301-10.) The prostrate ‘person’ pictograph is comparable to the ‘scorpion’ glyph, ligatured to a lanky woman, shown at the bottom register of a Failaka seal. Obverse of steatite Dilmun stamp seal from Failaka Island (c. 2000 BCE). d.han:ga = tall, long shanked; maran: d.han:gi aimai kanae = she is a big tall woman (Santali.lex.) Rebus: d.han:gar 'blacksmith' Obverse of steatite Dilmun stamp seal from Failaka Island (c. 2000 BCE). A human figure and a variety of animals – two antelopes one with its head looking backward; possibly a scorpion at the feet of the human figure. A dotted circle is seen above one antelope and a vase in between the antelope and the human figure. Kuwait National Museum. French Archaeological Expedition in Kuwait. Several inscriptions at Failaka mention the Dilmunite god Enzak and his temple or Mesopotamian deities. [Remi Boucharlat, Archaeology and Artifacts of the Arabian Peninsula, in: Jack M. Sasson (ed.), Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, pp. 1335-1353]. Glyph: field symbol: kulai = hare (Santali) Rebus: kol ‘pancaloha, alloy of five metals’ (Ta.) Crab, claws of crab er-r-a = an earthworm; era a bait, food (Te.lex.).

An earthworm is flanked by two antelopes.Lothal123ALothal123B (Socalled Persian gulf seal).

era_ = claws of an animal that can do no harm (G.) 451

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Substantive: dha_tu ‘mineral’ (Vedic); a mineral, metal (Santali); dha_ta id. (G.) tan.t.ava_l.am = cast iron, iron rail, girder (Ta.); tan.d.ava_l.a cast iron (Ka.)(DEDR 3050). Glyph: d.ato ‘claws or pincers (chelae) of crabs’; d.at.om to seize with the claws or pincers, as crabs, scorpions (Santali) Rebus: ere ‘a dark-red or dark brown colour, copper’ (Ka.); eruvai copper (Ta.)(DEDR 817). era, eraka = copper (Ka.) mlekh = antelope; melukka = copper. What is depicted is Meluhha copper. Molten cast, metal: arka = copper (Skt.) erka = ekke (Tbh. of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper (metal); crystal (Ka.lex.) araka = sublimation, sublimate (Ka.); arka id. (M.) erako molten cast (Tu.lex.) agasa_le, agasa_li, agasa_lava_d.u = a goldsmith (Te.lex.) akka, aka (Tadbhava of arka) metal; akka metal (Te.) [See

also: nave of wheel: Sign 391 era, er-a = eraka = ?nave; erako_lu = the iron axle of a carriage (Ka.M.); cf. irasu (Ka.lex.)] This may explain the multiple use of the glyph on Dholavira signboard. Sign 393 occurs on two copper 'daggers' from Harappa (the inscriptions -- 4901 and 4902 -- are the lists of 'property' items owned). h381

4901 Bronze dagger h380

4902 Bronze dagger

The first sign begins with Sign 393 and the third sign [ ) ligatured with an 'eye-ball' ] is the same as that shown on Chanhudaro inscription 6306 incised on both sides of a bronze tool; the inscription includes a graphemic ) sign without the 'eye-ball'; two other examples are on m257a seal, depicting a zebu bull as

a field symbol and on inscription which is incised on a Harappan bronze weapon or tool 5601 The X on line 1 (top line) and the first sign of line 2 (bottom line) is relatable to the signs incised on two tin ingots (each weighing about 11 kgs.) found from an ancient (ca. 1400 BC?) ship-wreck at Haifa, Israel -- the sign apparently connotes the nature of the 'alloy or metal' used. The first sign of line 2, inscription 5601 (Sign 182) may also be a variant an animal pictograph, the wild goat, tagara or ba~ont.ia, a species of deer; rebus: bat.i = oven (Santali.lex.) The ligatures Sign 184 may be a specific bat.i = can.d.bol bat.i = tail + furnace = refined silver furnace.

Signs 312 to 315 The inverted U sign also k121A and B inscribed

occurs on one side of Kalibangan bronze rod

Kalibangan121A, B 8302 See Chanhudaro bronze tool: Inscription 6306 incised on two sides c040 a,b; the crosshatched oval sign follows the sign three inverted U-s: 452

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Chanhudaro40AChanhudaro40B 6306 The first line of this incription 6306 (which includes the three inverted U signs ligatured one on top of another) is incised on one side of copper tool.

Signs 313-317, 393+variants kumpat.i = ban:gala = an:ga_ra s’akat.i_ = a chafing dish, a portable stove, a goldsmith’s portable furnace (Te.lex.) kumme = a dent, a notch, depression (Te.lex.) 2134.Image: dome, arch: gumat.a, gumut.a, gumuri, gummat.a, gummut.a a copula or dome (Ka.); ghumat.a (M.); gummat.a, gummad a dome; a paper lantern; a fire-baloon (H.Te.); kummat.t.a arch, vault, arched roof, pinnacle of a pagoda; globe, lantern made of paper (Ta.)(Ka.lex.); gumat.a a high, huge figure of stone, representing a Jaina saint (Ka.); gummat.e id. (Tu.)(Ka.lex.) kumbutalaya place of an elephant's frontal globes (Si.)(CDIAL 3314).

h180A h180B 4304 Tablet in bas-relief h180a Pict-106: Nude female figure upside down with thighs drawn apart and crab (?) issuing from her womb; two tigers standing face to face rearing on their hindlegs at L. h180b Pict-92: Man armed with a sickleshaped weapon on his right hand and a cakra (?) on his left hand, facing a seated woman with disheveled hair and upraised arms. kamat.ha = a crab, a tortoise (G.lex.) kamat.ha = tortoise (Skt.) kamt.ao, kapt.ao = to grab, to grasp, to seize, as a hawk a bird (Santali.lex.) kamad.ha, kamat.ha, kamad.haka, kamad.haga, kamad.haya tortoise (Pkt.lex.) Glyph: kamat.hi_, ka_mat.hum a bow (G.); kamat.ha a tortoise, a bamboo (Skt.)

Tortoise

FS 70: Inscribed object in the shape of a tortoise

h241A h337A circle on obverse.

h241B

4663 Pict-69: Tortoise. kumd.hia horo ‘a species of tortoise’ (Santali)

h337B

4417 Pict-79: Inscribed object in the shape of a leaf. Dottec

453

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h338A h338B 4426 Pict-39: Inscribed object in the shape of a tortoise (?) or leaf (?). Dotted circles on obverse. kul.ir battle-axe; trident; sickle (kul.irpurai kot.un:ka_y : Malaipat.u. 110); knife for cutting the stems of leaves (Ta.lex.) cf. kulis'a or s'u_la (Skt.) kor..u awl (Tol. Pa_yi. Urai)(Ta.lex.) kurul.ai tortoise (?Ta.)(DEDR 1795). horo, kat. horo, kumd.hia horo tortoise (Santali.lex.) kurul.ai tortoise; young of certain animals (dog, pig, tiger, hare, jackal); young of a snake(Ta.lex.) ku_rma tortoise (VS.); kumma (Pali.Pkt.); ku_rmi_ (MBh.);krum, krumu, kurm (K.); kumi_ tortoise, turtle (S.); kar.-kumma_ tortoise (L.); kar-kumma_ turtle (L.); kumma~_, kummi~_ tortoise, turtle (P.); kumu tortoise (Si.)(CDIAL 3414). Roof: kaurma appertaining to a tortoise (Skt.); kum portion of a roof midway between ridge-pole and eaves (A.); klo_m roof (Ash.); krum (Kt.); krem back (Kho.); lu_nd roof; kundu_r, s.ond, tu_n, te_n, plen, obl. plende (Pas'.)(CDIAL 3415). Glyph: vahur.o young bullock (S.); vohur. heifer (L.); vahar., vahir. heifer (P.);(CDIAL 11459). paghaia d.an:gra a pack bullock (Santali) Substantive (trader) vahoro, vohharo: vahoro, voro (Hem. Des. vohharo = Skt. ma_gadha a mixed tribe, a bard) a trader, a bora_ khon.d. = a square (Santali.lex.) ku_t.ara = a hornless animal; ku_t.a = an ox whose horns are broken (Ka.lex.) gutrut = a deer that has lost his horns (Santali.lex.) ibha s’un.d. elephant + trunk; ib iron + sund furnace pit kot.iyum a wooden circle put round the neck of an animal (G.) kot.iyum a canoe, a small boat; kot.d.i_ a room (G.)

(37)

Sign 287 (88)

Copper tablets (15)

Field Symbol 52 (6)

kapt.a kapt.i = to quarrel and pull or strike each other (Santali.lex.) kamad.ha = pot for curds; Baladeva; face (Pkt.lex.) kamad.ha, kamat.ha, kamad.haka, kamad.haga, kamad.haya = a type of penance (Pkt.lex.) Leaves ligatured with crab is a sign which occurs on these seals and the sign sequences are comparable. [cf. Parpola, 1994, fig. 13.12] Two copper tablets. Mohenjodaro. The archer shown on one tablet seems to be a synonym of the leaves ligatured with crab on another tablet since the inscription on the obverse of each of the tablets is identical. [cf. Parpola, 1994, fig. 13.13] This ligatured sign appears on two seals- one from Harappa and another from Lothal.

454

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Allographs of a leaf sign, ligature with crab sign [After Parpola, 1994, fig. 13.15]

List of ten groups of similar signs in the corpus. After Parpola, 1994, fig. 6.18 [Based on affinities with other signs within texts of inscriptions].

Alternations at the end of some recurring sequences of signs. [After Parpola, 1994, fig. 6.7]. Last sign missing. Jar sign dropped.

‘man’ sign types and equivalence.

.With and without ‘man’ sign

m0582At m0582Bt 3365 Horned Archer?

3358

m0587At

m0587Bt

455

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m0588At

m1540Act

m0588Bt Horned archer.

m1540

Old Akkadian illustration on a cylinder seal Another rosetta stone is MS 2645 cylinder seal found in NW Afghanistan (Kalenao near the Turkmeni frontier) showing Old Akkadian glyphs together with an epigraph of the civilization with four signs: MS 2645 Sarasvati-Sindhu valley script, and old akkadian illustration. North West Afghanistan, ca. 21st cent. BCE Name of owner or scribe? This seal links Indus Valley and Old Akkadian civilizations. The seal is of blue stone, North West Afghanistan, ca. 23rd-21st c. BC, 1 cylinder seal, 3,9x2,7 cm, 5 Indus valley signs, illustration standing archer aiming his bow at a falling boar, in the style of the best Old Akkadian art in Sumer. Provenance: 1. Bronze age site, Kalenao near the Turkmeni frontier, North West Afghanistan. Commentary: While numerous Indus Valley stamp seals are known (cf. MS 2394), this is the only known cylinder seal (MS 2645) with the hitherto undeciphered Indus Valley script. Furthermore, this is the only known document linking together over land two of the great civilisations of the Old Akkadian period in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley. Sea-borne trade has been known for a long time, and documented in practical terms by the Norwegian explorer and scientist, Thor Heyerdahl, in his expedition with the reed boat, Tigris, in 1977. MS 2814, a copy of a Sargonic royal inscription mentioning the defeat of Melukham, the Indus Valley civilisation. Exhibited: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, from October 1999.

(10)

Sign 28 (50)

Ligature on sign 28: dhanus ‘bow’ (Skt.) dhan.i_ = the owner, the possessor (G.)

Sign 287: kut.ila = bent, crooked (Skt.) kud.illa (Pkt.)

kut.ila (Skt. Rasaratna samuccaya, 5.205) Humpbacked

Rebus: kut.ila, katthi_l = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) [cf. a_ra-ku_t.a, ‘brass’ (Skt.)] 456

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( ) The glyph of a curved line when mirrored becomes a ligature, an enclosure to other glyphs. As a circumgraph or enclosure, it may be orthographically represented by an ‘oval’ glyph, a ligature of a pair of ‘curved lines’. The pair may be read as: sangad.a ‘two’; rebus: sangad.a ‘furnace’.

V009

(54) Sign 293 (136) Hare. Field symbol 16 (10) (28)

Sign 294 (53)

(32)

Sign 296 (35)

h172B Field Symbol 36 (12)

(8) Sign 307 (69) Glyph: ka_mat.hum = a bow; ka_mad.i_, ka_mad.um = a chip of bamboo (G.) Rebus: kammat.amu = gold furnace (Te.) The archer shown on one copper tablet seems to be a synonym of the leaves ligatured with crab on another copper tablet since the inscription on the obverse of each of the tablets is identical. [cf. Parpola, 1994, fig. 13.13] This ligatured sign appears on two seals- one from Harappa and another from Lothal. Leaves ligatured with crab is a sign which occurs on these seals and with similar sign sequences. [cf. Parpola, 1994, fig. 13.12] The language in which such a synonym can be found is mleccha! ProtoBharatiya language! kamar.kom = fig leaf (Santali.lex.) kamarmar.a_ (Has.), kamar.kom (Nag.); the petiole or stalk of a leaf (Mundari.lex.) ka_mat.hiyo a bowman; an archer (Skt.lex.) ka_m.t.hi, ka_mat.hum [Skt. kamat.ha a tortoise, a bamboo] a bow (G.lex.) kamat.ha_yo = a learned carpenter or mason, working on scientific principles; kamat.ha_n.a [cf. karma, ka_m, business + stha_na, tha_n.am, a place fr. Skt. stha_ to stand] arrangement of one’s business; putting into order or managing one’s business (G.lex.) kamarsa_ri_ smithy (Mth.); kamarsak_yar (Bi.)(CDIAL 2899). karma_rud.u a blacksmith, an artisan (Te.lex.) kamar a semi-hinduised caste of blacksmiths; kamari the work of a blacksmith, the money paid for blacksmith work (Santali.lex.) karma_ra blacksmith (RV); karuma_ smith, smelter (Ta.); kamma_ra worker in metal (Pali); kamma_ra, kamma_ raya blacksmith (Pkt.); kama_r (A.); ka_ma_r (B.); kama_ra 457

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blacksmith, caste of non-Aryan, caste of fishermen (Or.); kama_r blacksmith (Mth.); kam.bura_ (Si.)(CDIAL 2898). karuma_r = blacksmiths, kollar (Ta.lex.)

3414

m0606At

m1563Act

6232

h643

m0990

m1563Bct

h138a

4273

h951Ait

2472 One-horned bull.

5072 h951Bit

m0948

m0502At

m0502Bt

3345 m0503 Text

m0504At

m0504Bt

3323 Copper tablet

(18)

Sign 326 (35)

m1563 b

4498

2250

3346

Copper tablets (6)

(16) Sign 327 (42) kamar.kom = fig leaf (Santali.lex.) kamarmar.a_ (Has.), kamar.kom (Nag.); the petiole or stalk of a leaf (Mundari.lex.)

V326 V327 lo = nine (Santali) [Note the count of nine fig leaves on m0296] Vikalpa: loa = a species of fig tree, ficus glomerata, the fruit of ficus glomerata (Santali.lex.) Rebus: loha = iron, metal (Santali) loha lut.i = iron utensils and implements (Santali.lex.) lauha = made of copper or iron (Gr.S'r.); metal, iron (Skt.); lo_haka_ra = coppersmith, ironsmith (Pali); lo_ha_ra = blacksmith (Pt.); lohal.a (Or.); lo_ha = metal, esp. copper or bronze (Pali); copper (VS.); loho, lo_ = metal, ore, iron (Si.)

m0451At

m0451Bt

3235

kamat.ha ‘ficus’; lo ‘ficus glomerata’ 458

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pajhar. ‘eagle’; rebus: pasra ‘smithy’ Vikalpa: eru_, aru = eagle (Akkadian/Assyrian) eruvai = a kind of kite whose head is white and whose body is brown; eagle (Ta.); eruva = eagle, kite (Ma.)(DEDR 819). Since the eagle is ligatured with a tiger on a Bluchistan potsherd, it is likely that the eagle is connoted by eruvai; rebus: copper + tiger ‘kul’ rebus: kol alloy of five metals + na_ga ‘snake’; rebus: na_ga ‘lead’ (Skt.) The ficus is kamat.ha; rebus: kamat.amu, kammat.amu = a portable furnace for melting precious metals (Te.) The fish are bed.a hako (Santali); rebus: bed.a = either end of a hearth (G.) Griffin, Baluchistan (Provenance unknown); ficus leaves, tiger, with a wing19, ligatured to an eagle. Lentoid seal with a griffin, ca. Late Minoan II Minoan; Greece, 1/16 in. (2.7 cm), W. 1 1/16 (2.7 in. (1.2 cm) It is engraved with an crouching griffin, a powerful mythical creature with the head bird and the body of a lion. http://www.metmuseum.org

1450–1400 B.C.; Crete Agate; H. 1 cm), Diam. 1/2 image of a and wings of a

aru_ = lion (As god of devastation, Nergal is called A-ri-a) (Akkadian)

aba_ru = lead; antimony (annaku is most unlikely to be lead rather than tin).(cf. CAD A (II): 126; AHw 49) (Akkadian/Assyrian). abru = wing (Akkadian/Assyrian) abaru = enclose, surround; aburru = enclosure (Akkadian/Assyrian) abaru = be strong, powerful; strength, power (Akkadian/Assyrian) 459

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3255; Louvre Museum; Luristan; light yellow stone; seal impression; one side shows four eagles; the eagles hold snakes in their beaks; at the center is a human figure with outstretched limbs; obverse of the seal shows an animal, perhaps a hyena or boar striding across the field, with a smaller animal of the same type depicted above it. The depiction of eagle on Luristan seal is comparable to the seal found in Harappa, Vats 1940, II: Pl. XCI.255.

BMAC Compartment seal; double-headed eagles.20 Taxila, temple of the double-headed eagle. The sculpted double-headed eagle may be seen on top of the niche/door on the left. 883-59 BCE Mesopotamian, Neo-Assyrian; Limestone; height 1 m (39 3/8 in.);47.181 Detroit Institute of Arts, USA. An eagle-headed, winged divinity stands facing a tree of life (the ends of the branches are just visible at the right edge). The figure was a small section of the wall decoration in the state

apartments of the royal palace at Nimrud in northern Iraq, built by Assurnasirpal II, King of Assyria. The deity holds a bucket in one hand and in the other a spathe (leaflike sheath for the flowers) of the date palm. http://www.dia.org/collections/ancient/mesopotamia/47.181.html

Glyph: ‘pincers’

Signs 36, 216-229,251,362-364 + variants, ligatures kut.ilikaka_ smith’s tongs (Skt.)(DEDR 2052). Tongs (1) kot.il (Ma.), kot.iru (Ta.); kor. Hook of tongs (Ko.) Rebus: kut.ila, katthi_l = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) [cf. a_ra-ku_t.a, ‘brass’ (Skt.)] kut.ila (Skt. Rasaratna samuccaya, 5.205)

ke~he a kite; arak ke~he the male kite (Santali) arak ‘red, scarlet’ (Santali) arakku resin melted with turpentine, lac (Ta.); gumlac (Ma.); alakta(ka) (Skt.)(DEDR 199). 460

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Fish and Lizard Inventory of Hearth and Furnace The pairing of fish and lizard is to connote possessions or an inventory of a hearth and a furnace. Tepe Yahya. Six-legged lizard and opposing footprints shown on opposing sides of a doublesided steatite stamp seal perforated along the lateral axis. Lamberg-Karlovsky 1971: fig. 2C Six legs of a lizard is an enumeration of six ‘furnaces’; rebus: kakra. ‘lizard’; kan:gra ‘portable furnace’. That an enumeration is intended is seen from the glyph of a pair of soles depicted on the obverse side of the seal from Tepe Yahya: talka sole of foot; tala, tola sole of shoe (Santali) talka = palm of the hand, ti talka (Santali.lex.) ti = the hand, arm (Santali.lex.) [A count of 12 phalanges on a palm, constitutes a palm of the hand]. Thus, the rectangle depicts, two talka-s or two palm-counts, i.e. two (san:gad.a) twelves or 24. bar, barea = two (Santali.lex.) ba~r.ia~ = merchant (Santali.lex.) talika = inventory, a list of articles, number, to count, to number; hor.ko talkhaetkoa = they are counting the people; mi~hu~ merom reak talikako hataoeda = they are taking the number of the cattle (Santali.lex.) The boxed count of 24 (on one side of tablet shown in Slide 205 represents an inventory of san:gha_ta or component articles, represented by the inscription of 4 glyphs: carpenter's axe (badhor. hako), anvil (d.ha~go), furnace (kan.d.a kanka), razor (bakhor.) (an instrument, with which tassar cocoons are cut into narrow strips for splicing purposes; teeth of a comb represented by E). bhed.a hako a species of fish (Santali) bedha cross-grained (Santali) The fish sign incised on an anthropomorph with ram’s horns, a copper hoard find, is a phonetic determinant: bhed.a ‘ram’ boda, bhed.a = a ram, the male of certain graminivorous animals, as goats, deer; boda jel = a stag; boda merom = a he-goat; bod khasi = a goat not effectually castrated (Santali.lex.) bhe_d.a = sheep; bhaid.aka of sheep (Skt.); bhi_r.o (Phal.)(CDIAL 9604). bhe_d.ra, bhe_n.d.a = ram (Skt.)(CDIAl 9606). a~s = scales of fish (Santali); rebus: aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.) [Assuming that the orthographic emphasis is on the scales of fish. The depiction of a fish glyph on a copper anthropomorph (copper hoard) may thus be: bed.a ayas = hearth for metal; rebus: bhed.a ‘ram’; a~s ‘scales of fish’] Substantive: bed.a either of the sides of a hearth (G.) 461

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m0298 2133 The bed.a ‘hearth’ is for melting iron stone sand (bali; rebus: bali ‘bullock’) and copper ore (dam.ra ‘heifer’; ta_mbra ‘copper’): Early Harappan bowl. Fish. [After Fig. 23.35 in, Asko Parpola, New correspondences between Harappan and near Eastern glyptic art, in: in Allchin, ed., South Asian Archaeology, 1981, Cambridge].

kakra. lizard (Santali) kan:gar furnace (K.) d.okke lizard (Kol.)(DEDR 2977). Thus when a lizard is shown holding a fish in its jaw, the message is: possession, hako (glyph: fish, substantive: axe); ke~r.e bell-metal, brass; ken.t.a fish m0410 Pict-64: Gharial (or lizard) snatching, with its snout, the fin of a fish kakr.a ‘common lizard’; kakr.a hako a species of fish (Santali)

2133 Glyph:

a~s = scales of fish (Santali); rebus: aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.); hence, lizard + fish = kan:gar + a~s = furnace + metal Substantive: kan:gar furnace; ken.t.a (ke~r.e~) bell-metal, brass; hence, lizard snatching fish may be read as a compound term: bell-metal, brass furnace. A logonym for a kakr.a is khan:gar ‘dotted circle, hole’ which gets depicted as the eye of ‘fish’ glyphs. Mohenjo-daro. Sealing. Surrounded by fishes, gharials? (monitor lizards) and snakes, a horned person sits in 'yoga' on a throne with hoofed legs. One side of a triangular terracotta amulet (Md 013); surface find at Mohenjo-daro in 1936. Dept. of Eastern Art, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. soksoko, sekeseke, sekseke covered, as the arms with ornaments, full; seke doke, seke meke covered with ornaments, as the neck (Santali) seke seke to rage, fume (Santali) sekra a Hindu caste who work in brass and bell metal; sekra sakom a kind of armlet of bell metal (Santali) The lizard is: kudur d.okka; the rebus: kuduru ‘goldsmith’s portable furnace’; dokr.a ‘a coin of value of one-fourth of a pice’; dhokra ‘a metal worker’. kuduru = a goldsmith’s portable furnace (Te.lex.) kudru top of fireplace (Kuwi)(DEDR 1709). dhokra dom = a section of the semi-hinduised caste of doms; dhokra could connote craftsmen or metal workers (Santali.lex.) 462

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dokr.a = a coin of the value of one fourth of a pice (Santali.lex.) kudur d.okka = a kind of lizard (Pa.); kudur d.okke, kudur d.ekke = garden lizard; kidri d.okke house lizard (Go.)(DEDR 1712). d.okke = lizard (Kol.); d.okka (Pa.); d.okod. (Ga.); dokke garden lizard; d.oke lizard; dokke_ small lizard; pidri_ dokke_ the house-lizard; d.ogga_l chameleon (Go.); d.o_ki lizard (Kond.a); d.oi chameleon (Kui); d.rui’I lizard (Kuwi); droi, d.orgi, d.rogi chameleon; d.ro_gi lizard (Kuwi); tuska (Kur.)(DEDR 2977). [Note the glyphs of what is often called the gharial or alligator; could it be the common house lizard?] Rakhigarhi: Cylinder Seal (Courtesy ASI)

Sign 84 and 85 and variants of Sign 84

d.o_n:ga = lower leg (Wot.); d.on:g, d.on:, za~_d.o~_ = knee (Ash.); d.udlik = id.; d.un:gurik = elbow (Shum.); d.un:go = knee (Gaw.); d.un:gi_ = elbow (Wot.); d.uin:gya = elbow, ankle-bone (Sv.); d.ho~ga_ = elbow (H.); do_ni = knee (Gypsy)(CDIAL 5605). t.o~_ka = scorpion; tu_n:ga -= id. (Wg.); t.a~uke (Shum.); t.o~k = beak, point (H.);. t.o~k, t.o~kri_ (M.); t.o~g = point, beak (H.); t.hon:go = peck (S.); t.hu~_gn.a_ go peck (P.)(CDIAL 5478). d.ho_ki_ = agapa, abaka, a ladle, spoon (Te.lex.) d.ok. d.oki_, d.okum = the neck; d.oka_vavum = to poke the head forward; d.okiyum = looking at by raising the head (G.lex.) d.oi_ = head (H.M.); d.oke~ = head (M.); d.ok kor.ik = to take someone on one’s back (Kho.)(CDIAL 5566) d.hon:ga = a dugout, a boat made from a hollowed tree, a wooden trough (Santali.lex.) t.okn.a_ = to hinder (P.); t.oka_ = to thwart (B.)(CDIAL 5476) d.okke = the body (Ka.); dokke (Tu.); d.okka skeleton, belly (Te.); d.okka bone (Nk.); ciparta d.okka rib (Nk.); d.okka belly (Go.); nenja-d.aki chest (Pe.); d.aki breastbone, chest (Kui); do_kku_ skeleton (Kuwi)(DEDR 2976). d.on:ka footpath (Te.); d.on:g way, road (Nk.); it.an:kar narrow path (Ta.)(DEDR 2981). d.haukana = a present (Skt.); d.ho_a_ a present (of fruits etc.)(P.); d.howa_ (Aw.)(CDIAL 5609). d.hok = obeisance (Ku.); d.hok (N.H.); d.hoka (OMarw.); d.hoknu = to bow down before, salute respectfully (N.); dhokna_ = to bow down before (H.); dhok = obeisance (H.)(CDIAL 5611). Cf. d.okum = the head (G.lex.) doggalu = kneeling; doggu adj. kneeling; doggu sala_m saluting on one’s knees; submission; dogguni to kneel (Tu.lex.) d.on:ku, d.on:ka = to bend, to be crooked (Ka.); the state of being bent, curved (Ka.) d.on:kan.i, d.on:kal.i, d.hon:kan.i = a spear, a lance (Ka.); don:kane (Te.) 463

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d.on:gara, don:gara = a steep rock; a precipice (Ka.); d.o_n:gara = a hill (M.) do_ra = a heap, pile, stack (Te.) d.okkara, d.okkal.a, d.okkara, d.hokkara = thumping, striking; a blow, a cuff (Ka.); t.ho_kara thmping, striking against (H.M.) d.oke, doge = to make a hole, to excavate a hole (with the hand, a crow, the nails or claws etc.)(Ka.); do_ku (Te.); d.ogar-u, do_r-u, dogar-u, do_r-u. = a hollow, a hole in a wall, in a tree, in the ground etc. (Ka.); d.on:gu id. (Te.Ta.); d.ogar-u bi_r-u = a hole to be formed (Ka.); d.ok pp of d.oge, in: d.okkol.l.u (Ka.) da_ra = hole, rent, cleft (Ta_n.d.yaBr.); da_ri_ (Sus.r.); da_ru = fissure, cleft (S.)(CDIAL 6292). dara = piece; daram = a little (Skt.Pkt.); a half (Pkt.); dara = a little, partially (common in cmpds.) (Or.)(CDIAL 6187). dara = hole in the ground, cave (R.); dar = cave (K.); cave, hole, hollow in ground (B.); hole, burrow (G.); hole for putting a tree or stake in (M.); dara = cave, chasm (Si.); d.aro = hole in ground to fix anything in (S.); daro = hole, crack (Ku.); deri = hole (D.); d.ari = hole, den, burrow (of wild animal or reptile (S.); dari – hole, cave (B.)(CDIAL 6188). d.o_ki, d.ho_ki_ = ladle, abaka, agapa (Telex.) kakr.a = the common lizard; dhiri kakr.a, arak kakr.a, d.hibri kakr.a, species of lizards (Santali.lex.) gr.hago_laka = house lizard (Ma_rkP.); gharago_li_, gharo_li_, gharo_liya_ (Pkt.); gharol.i, ghar.oli_ (G.)(CDIAL 4431). gha~t. = protuberance on snout of crocodile (A.)(CDIAL 4420). Ghar.ya_lu longsnouted porpose (SS.); ghar.iya_l crocodile (N.); gha~r.iya_l alligator (A.B.); ghar.ia_l.a (Or.); ghar.ya_l, gharia_r (H.)(CDIAL 4422). [The semant. of lizard X alligator are so close that it is difficult to identify if the orthography on many seals and tablets relates to a lizard or a crocodile; the presence of a remarkable lizard made of stone at Dholavira points to the possibility of recognizing kakr.a (lizard) as the rebus kakar., Pilcu har.am, the first man of the Santal tradition]. Cf. khe~kad. crayfish, crab (M.)(CDIAL 2816). Karkara = stone (Skt.); kakkara stone, pebble (Pkt.); ka~_kro pebble (G.)(CDIAL 2820). A homonym is: kakkat.a = a large deer (Pali)(CDIAL 2585). On epigraphs m0410 and m1429, the scale of fish is orthographically ligatured to the snout of a crocodile. If crocodile is: it.an:kar (Ta.), the scale of fish is a~s (Santali). The rebus lexemes are: d.han:gar ‘smith’ + ayas ‘metal’, i.e. metal-smith.

m1223

m0410

2133Pict-64: Gharial snatching, with its snout, the fin of a fish.

m1429Ct

3246 Gharial holding a fish in its jaws

2045

m1429At

m1429Bt Pict-125: Boat..

m0482At m0482Bt in its jaw and/or surrounded by a school of fish.

Kalibangan078A

1620 Pict-65: Gharial, sometimes with a fish held

Kalibangan078B 464

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8104 [Tablet in bas-relief; on one side, lizard (gharial?) holds a fish]

m0292 Gharial (or lizard)

1361

h599A

h283A

h283B

5253

h284A

h284B

5229

h287A

h287B

h705At

h705Bt

h599D

5076

4430 4337

Chanhudaro Pict-67: Gharial (or lizard), sometimes with a fish held in its jaw and/or surrounded by a

school of fish.

Chanhudaro. Tablet. Obverse and reverse. Alligator and Fish. Fig. 33 and

33a. of Plate LII. After Mackay, 1943.

6233

h172B

h173A

4333

5305 h174A

h174B

h173B 4338

h172A h172B 5305 Pict-66: Gharial (or lizard), sometimes with a fish held in its jaw and/or surrounded by a school of fish. Glyph: kakkare partridge (Kol.); ka_kral id. (Pa.); kakra_nj, kakranj id. (Go.); karkara a gallinaceious bird (Skt.); kakkara jungle cock (Pali)(DEDR 1078). Stone Lizard (not a gharial) Dholavira. Stone sculpture of monitor lizard. Stone sculpture of monitor lizard is a pointer the identification of the commonly-occurring glyph as a lizard (and NOT alligator or gharial).

http://asi.nic.in/vsasi/album_dholavira8.html 465

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That it is a lizard and not a gharial (alligator) is surmised from the find of a monitor lizard in the round, made of stone and discovered at Dholavira, a site which has some remarkable workings in stone including stone-cut reservoirs and stone drains. Substantive: ka_~guru, ka~_gar portable brazier (K.); ka~_gri_ small portable brazier (H.)(CDIAL 3006). Glyph: kakr.a = the common lizard; dhiri kakr.a, arak kakr.a, d.hibri kakr.a, species of lizards (Santali.lex.) Substantive: ka_karn.i_ a file for blacksmiths (used in Surat.h); kakra_vavum to sharpen with a file (of the teeth of a saw); kakarum adj. rough; not smooth; karkarum adj. rough; sharp (G.) Glyph: ir-avu, ir-a_l honeycomb (Ta.)(DEDR 518). Rebus: ira_vuka, ra_kuka to file; aram file (Ma.); ira_vu to file, polish; aram file (Ta.)(DEDR 228).

Lothal051a 7057 Pict-127: Upper register: a large device with a number of small circles in three rows with another row of short vertical lines below; the device is horned. A seeddrill? Substantive: kakar. ‘another name for Pilcu har.am, the first man according to Santal tradition (Santali) Sumerian cylinder seal impression from Tell Asmar; the animals are: rhinoceros, elephant and alligator (or, lizard); glazed steatite, height 3.4 cm.; cylinder seal rolled over wet clay. (After Frankfort, 'The Indian Civilization and the near East’, Annual Bibliography of Indian Archaeology, 1932, p.3, Pl. I and Heras, 1953, p. 219; Tell Asmar (Eshnunna), Iraq. IM 14674; glazed steatite; Frankfort, 1955, No. 642; Collon, 1987, Fig. 610.)

hako it.an:kar = fish, alligator; i.e. axe, blacksmith. The alligator, it.an:kar could be a pictorial motif equivalent of a bull, d.an:gar.

Pictorial motifs 63 to 67 (Gharial sometimes with a fish held in its jaw or surrounded by a school of fish) h705At

h705Bt

Kalibangan078A bas-relief; on one side, gharial holds a fish)

4337 (Tablet in bas-relief)

Kalibangan078B

8104 (Tablet in

466

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m1429At

m1429Ct

m1429Bt Pict-125: Boat.

3246 Gharial holding a fish in its jaws: side cof a

prism tablet in bas-relief)

Ib is the name of a railway station, a place near Jharsaguda on the railwayline between Kolkata and Nagpur. Lohardaga is the name of a place in Bha_rata associated with Mun.d.a community, a place where minerals are found. > How to explain > > the suffix -daga in the place name? The word is a compound: loha + d.a_n:ga_ (n:g= velar nasal; d. = alveolar). There are many place namees in Eastern Bha_rata with the ending –d.a_n:ga_ in Bengali, and Bihari languages. Some place names with lohar-: loharwala, Punjab, Pakistan; Loharwala, Rajasthan, India, Lohari Ragho, Haryana, India, Loharia, Rajasthan, India; Lohariana, Madagascar; Loharkhola, Lohachala, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Lohara, Madhya Pradesh, India. Glyph: tagar. ‘a trough’ (Santali) Glyph: d.a_n:gra_ = wooden trough or manger sufficient to feed one animal; tagar.re surti ar cunko sipia = they mix surti and lime in a trough (Santali.lex.) taga_rum [Pers. tagarih] a bricklayer’s trough (G.lex.) [Is this a representation of a trough shown in front of the shorthorned bull and other animals on many seals? The possibility is enhanced because the shrub also appears in front of a short-horned bull.] This resolves two major issues. We seem to have just cracked the code of the trough and bull pictorials on inscribed objects of the Civilization! d.an:gar = a blacksmith. 4064.Blacksmith: t.ha_kur blacksmith (Mth.)(CDIAL 5488). d.a_n.ro term of contempt for a blacksmith (N.); d.a_n.re large and lazy (N.); d.an.ura living alone without wife or children (A.); d.a~_gar, 467

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d.a~_gra_ starving (H.); d.an.or unwell (Ash.); dan:gor lazy (Bashg.); d.angur (dat. d.anguras) fool (K.); d.a~_go lean (of oxen) (Ku.); d.a~_go male (of animals); d.a_n. wicked (A.); d.a_n:ga one who is reduced to a skeleton (Or.); d.i~glo lean, emaciated (Ku.); d.i~go, d.in.o abusive word for a cow (N.); d.in:gar contemptuous term for an inhabitant of the Tarai (N.); d.in:gara rogue (Or.); d.hagga_ small weak ox (L.); d.han:garu, d.hin:garu lean emaciated beast (S.)(CDIAL 5524). A tribe: d.ha~_gar., dha~_gar a non-Aryan tribe in the Vindhyas, digger of wells and tanks (H.); dhan:gar herdsman (H.); d.ha_n:gar. herdsman, name of a Santal tribe, young servant (Or.); dha_n:gar.a_ unmarried youth (Or.); dha~_gad. rude, loutish (M.); f. hoyden (M.)(CDIAL 5524). And, surprise, surprise! d.han:gar = bull, ox; the clear reference to the pictograph of a short-horned bull in front of the trough. d.an:gra = an ox, a bullock; mun.d.ra d.an:gra = a polled ox; a tiger; ran:gia d.an:gra = a red ox; fire; a tiger; d.an:gri = cattle in general, a cow (Santali.lex.) it.an:kar = a type of crocodile (kur-in~ci); crocodile (Ta.lex.) it.an:karam = menses of women (Ta.lex.) [Note the glyph of a woman with spread thighs]. d.an:gara, d.an:gura public notice by a crier who beats a tom-tom (Ka.); d.a_n:gora_ (M.); d.angura (Te.); tan.d.ora (Ta.); d.avan.di_ (M.)(Ka.lex.) it.an:ka_ram = left-hand side of a double drum (Ta.lex.) [Note a drummer glyph] Yet another re-affirmation: d.a_n:gra_ = a wooden trough just enough to feed one animal. cf. id.ankar..i = a measure of capacity, 20 id.an:kar...i make a par-r-a (Ma.lex.) d.aNga_ = small country boat, dug-out canoe (Or.); d.o~ga_ trough, canoe, ladle (H.)(CDIAL 5568). d.hakkai = shuts (Pkt.); d.hakan.u to cover (S.); d.hakna_ cover of a grain-pot (Bi.); d.ha_ka_ large open basket (N.); d.ha_kar = a kind of large basket (N.)(CDIAL 5574). da_gara = a large flat basket woven of thin bamboo strips in which articles are fried or exposed to the sun; d.a_gara, d.a_gara_ = a large winnowing basket; a large shallow, square tray of bamboo splints (Te.) Thus, it is possible to decode the ‘trough’ as a rebus representation of the word, d.a_n:gra_ (trough) which also means ‘blacksmith or metalsmith’. When the trough occurs with the tiger, the total pictorial motif of tiger + trough may be read as: axe (kr.a_n.d.i ‘tiger’, ‘axe’)-(metal)smith; alternative: kol ‘metal’ (rebus: kul ‘tiger’) + d.a_n:gra_ (smith).. kamba = a post, pillar (Ka.Te.Tu.Ta.Ma.); sthambha (Skt.) kamat.amu = a portable furnace for melting precious metals (Te.) tagara = tavara Tbh. of tamara or trapu = tin (Ka.Te.Ta.Ma.) takaram = tin, white lead (Ta.); tagarm (obl. tagart-) tin (Ko.); tamaru, tamara, tavara id. (Tu.); tagaramu, tamaramu, tavaramu id. (Te.); t.agromi tin metal, alloy (Kuwi); tamara id. (Skt.)(DEDR 3001). Glyph of trefoil or three dotted circles: tebr.a ‘three’ + t.a_~ko, t.a_ka, d.a_ga ‘dotted circle’; rebus: tamb(ra) ‘copper’ + d.han:gar ‘smith’; alt. t.an:ka ‘mint, gold’. t.hakkura = idol, deity, title (Skt.); Rajput, chief man of a village (Pkt.); t.ha_kor = god, idol (G.)(CDIAL 5488). Dotted circle is read as syllable t.ha in Brahmi script. This glyph and corresponding phoneme provides a basis for a hypothesis that the hieroglyphic script of Sarasvati civilization evolved into a syllabic Brahmi script. It is notable that Brahmi is another name for Sarasvati.

468

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Sign 70 Another glyph (inverted) which may so relate the hieroglyphs with a syllable in Brahmi is ma-45 All the orthographic contexts in which the dotted circle and the trefoil motifs are inscribed can be explained with reference to the sememe: d.a_~ga (r) [d.a_ga ‘a mark put on cattle with red-hot iron’] [Semantics: bull, thigh/leg of a seated woman (kola ‘woman’; rebus: kol ‘metal’), idol (t.hakkura), head-man, smith (d.han:gar), eye of ram (dotted circle: me~t ‘eye’ + t.agar ‘ram’ = me~r.he~t ‘iron’ + tagar ‘tin’), eye of fish (dotted circle: a~s ‘scale of fish’+ d.han:gar = rebus ayas + d.han:gar = metal smith), dotted circle on a portable (gold) furnace] Hence, the ligaturing of ‘dotted circle’ glyph on: the hip of a bull, on the shawl of a statuette of a person (head-man), on the hip/leg of a seated woman. Hence, the ligaturing of ‘trefoil’ on the back of a bull, on the shawl of a statuette of a head-man statuette, on a pedestal to install s’iva lin:ga. t.agaru, tagaru, tagar, t.agara, t.egaru = a ram (Ka.Te.); tagara, tan:gad.i_ (M.H.); tagade_ra, tagate_ra = having a ram for his vehicle, fire; tagarven.agisu = to cause rams to fight (Ka.) takar = sheep, ram, goat, male of certain other animals (ya_l.i, elephant, shark)(Ta.); takaran- huge,powerful as a man, bear (Ma.); tagaru, t.agaru ram (Tu.); tagaramu, tagaru id. (Te.); tagar id. (M.)(DEDR 3000). Substantive: tibira ‘merchant’ (Akkadian) tamba ‘copper’ (Santali) Glyph: tebr.a, tebor., tibr.a ‘thrice, three times’ (Santali) tagad.o = [Skt. trika a group of three] the figure three (3)(G.lex.) [A ligature of threee tigers: tebr.a ‘three’, kol ‘metal’; rebus: tibira ‘merchant’ kol ‘metal’] Glyph: taber ‘face downwards, upper side down’; taber akanae, ‘he is lying on his face, or stomach’ (Santali) Glyph: tapor ‘a hod, cover of a cart’ t.agara = squinting (Skt.); t.agra_ cross-eyed (H.)(CDIAL 5425).kudur d.okka a kind of lizard (Pa.); kudur d.okke id. (Go.); kudur d.ekke garden lizard (Go.); kidri d.okke house lizard (Go.)(DEDR 1712). d.okke lizard (Kol.Go.); d.okka id. (Pa.); d.okod.e a kind of lizard (Ga.); pidri_-d.okke_ the house-lizard (Go.); d.ru'i sp. lizard (Kuwi); d.o_ki lizard (Kond.a); d.oi chameleon (Kui)(DEDR 2977). kudur a wall; ke_r, go_d.e (Ka.lex.) torhot, ghirr.i a lizard (Santali.lex.) sarat.u a lizard (Skt.lex.) kuduru = lizard (Santali) kuduru ‘goldsmith’s portable furnace’ (Telugu); kudru ‘top of fireplace’ (Kuwi)(DEDR 1709) Dholavira. Stone sculpture of monitor lizard Here are the passages in the Maha_bha_rata: " na a_rya_ mlecchanti bha_s.a_bhir ma_yaya_ na caranty uta: aryas do not speak with crude dialects like mlecchas, nor do they behave with duplicity (MBh. 2.53.8). a dear friend of Vidura who was a professional excavator is sent by Vidura to help the Pa_n.d.avas in confinement; this friend of Vidura has a conversation with Yudhisthira, the eldest Pa_n.d.ava: "kr.s.n.apakse caturdasyàm ràtràv asya purocanah, bhavanasya tava dvàri pradàsyati hutàsanam, màtrà saha pradagdhavyàh pa_n.d.avàh purus.ars.abhàh, iti vyavasitam pàrtha dha_rtara_s.t.ra_sya me šrutam, kiñcic ca vidurenkoto mleccha469

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vàcàsi pa_n.d.ava, tyayà ca tat tathety uktam etad visvàsa ka_ran.am: on the fourteenth evening of the dark fortnight, Purocana will put fire in the door of your house. ‘The Pandavas are leaders of the people, and they are to be burned to death with their mother.’ This, Pa_rtha (Yudhis.t.ira), is the determined plan of Dhr.tara_s.t.ra’s son, as I have heard it. When you were leaving the city, Vidura spoke a few words to you in the dialect of the mlecchas, and you replied to him, ‘So be it’. I say this to gain your trust.(MBh. 1.135.4-6). This passage shows that there were two Aryans distinguished by language and ethnicity, Yudhis.t.ra and Vidura. Both are aryas, who could speak mlecchas’ language; Dhr.tara_s.t.ra and his people are NOT aryas only because of their behaviour. Fourth ‘rosetta stone’: Ur cylinder seal showing tagaraka flower; rebus: tagara ‘tin’ Ur cylinder seal impression (cut down into Ur III mausolea from Larsa level; U. 16220), Iraq. BM 122947; enstatite; Legrain, 1951, No. 632; Collon, 1987, Fig. 611. Source: Editors of Time-Life Books, 1994, Ancient India: Land of Mystery, p. 12. The link to Sarasvati hieroglyphs is provided by the hieroglyph: zebu bull (or, brahmani bull). Seen in the context of comparable glyph on a Tell Abraq comb and a BMAC flask, this five-petalled flower fronting the zebu bull is identified by DT Potts as tabernaemontana. "The seal was discovered in a pre-2000 BCE tomb in Ur, but the bull image is stylistically like those found in the Indus Valley. The seal and similar ones unearthed elsewhere in Mesopotamia offer compelling evidence of trade contacts between Harappans and Mesopotamians." Trader who? Trading, what? This becomes the fourth ‘rosetta stone’ because there is a word in Indic family of languages, also attested in ayurveda texts of historical periods referring to this flower and with homonymous words representing ‘tin’. t.agara = tabernaemontana (Skt.) This is a flower, tagaraka, used as a hair-fragrance (Skt.) and hence is also depicted on a bonecomb.

[D.T. Potts, South and Central Asian elements at Tell Abraq (Emirate of Umm al-Qaiwain, United Arab Emirates), c. 2200 BC—AD 400, in Asko Parpola and Petteri Koskikallio, South Asian Archaeology 1993: , pp. 615-666] tagara-mallika_ two kinds of gandha_ (P.lex.) t.agara (tagara) a spec. plant; fragrant wood (Pkt.lex.) tagara = a kind of flowering tree (Te.lex.) Seal impression from Harappa (Kenoyer, 1998); a woman is carrying a three-petalled flower (interpreted as tagaraka, used as an aromatic unguent for the hair; see the emphasis on the hair-do, with two buns of hair). takaram means 'tin' (Tamil). Shaft-hole axe with relief decoration (both sides). Copper alloy. Southeastern Iran. C. late 3rd or early 2nd millennium BCE 6.5 in. long, 1980.307 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. “However, the combined problems of unknown provenance and unparalleled features make this attribution tentative. 470

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The symmetrical axe has a splaying blade, an elliptical shaft hole with semicircular outline pierced by rivet holes, and a fan-shaped butt. Both sides are ornamented with low-relief figural decoration, cast as one with the axe. The features of the figures were detailed by chasing that has been partially obscured by corrosion. On one side is a male figure in a smiting posture, with his left hand raised above his head holding a club and his right leg extended and carrying the weight of his body. On the butt is a threepetalled floral form with two leaves emerging from a circular stem. On the other side are two registers: above is a standing figure turning his head back and perhaps raising his left hand …; below, in front of a tree, is a bound, kneeling prisoner, behind whom is the upper body of a victim falling headfirst to the ground…it is possible to suggest that it was made in the east under the influence of Akkadian imagery.”[After Fig. 7 in: Holly Pittman, 1984, Art of the Bronze Age: Southeastern Iran, Western Central Asia, and the Indus Valley, New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, pp. 29-30]. Rebus: eraka ‘copper’

Signs 45/46 (seated person) seem to ligature the pictorial of a kneeling-adorant with sign 328 erugu = to bow, to salute or make obeisance (Te.) er-agu = obeisance (Ka.), ir_ai (Ta.) m0309 Pict-109: Person with hair-bun seated on a tree branch; a tiger looks at the person 2522 heraka = spy (Skt.); rebus: era, eraka with its head turned backwards. ‘copper’ Glyph: d.a_l., d.a_l.i_, d.a_l.um [Dh.Des. d.a_l, d.a_li_ = Hem. Des. d.a_li_ = Skt. s’a_kha_ a branch of a tree] a branch of a tree (G.) Rebus: d.ha_l.ako = a large metal ingot; d.ha_l.aki_ = a metal heated and poured into a mould; a solid piece of metal; an ingot (G.) d.ha_l.avum = to fuse; to melt; to cast (a metal)(G.) dul ‘to cast metal in a mould’ (Santali) d.ha_l.u cast, mould; way, style (Ka.); d.ha_l.a (M.); d.a_l.a lustre, radiance; beauty, loveliness, gracefulness (Ka.); d.ha_l.a (M.); d.a_lu, d.a_l.u, da_l.u (Te.)(Ka.lex.) d.ha_lan. to melt, to mould, to form, to figure, to shape, to coin; d.hala_i_, d.hala_un. the price of casting, pouring, melting; d.halna_, d.halja_n.a_ to be cast, to be poured out (as wine into a cup); d.halwa_i_ pouring out, melting; the price of pouring out, melting out (P.lex.) Glyph: d.ha_l.iyum = adj. sloping, incliding; d.ha_l. = a slope; the inclination of a plane (G.) Glyph: d.ha_l.iyo = a water-course, an aqueduct (G.) Glyph: dol ‘the shaft of an arrow, an arrow’ (Santali) d.an:gra janum = a rather uncommon plant, one of the very few prickly thistles found in Santalia, echinops echinatus, D.C. (Santali.lex.) d.ha_kal. = bare of leaves (M.) d.hen.d.ra = bare as a tree; having think scanty hair (Santali.lex.) Rebus: d.hangar ‘blacksmith’ (H.) The key glyph is the three-petalled flower; two other petals are hazily seen. This five-petalled flower is tagaraka; rebus: tagara ‘tin’. Hieroglyphs are incised on the axe ! Raised upper arm is er-aka. er-aka = upper arm, wing (Te.) Rebus: eruvai copper, blood (Ta.); ere a dark-red or dark-brown colour (Ka.)(DEDR 817). ere black soil (Ka.)(DEDR 820). ke~r.e~ ko~r.e~ an aboriginal tribe who work in brass and bell-metal (Santali) ker.e sen:gel fire in a pit (Santali) 471

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kola = killing, e.g. a_d.ukola = woman-slaying (Te.) Rebus: kol ‘pancaloha, alloy of five metals’; kolami ‘furnace’ (Te.) The axe has been produced in an alloying furnce. It is an axe made of an alloy containing tin and copper. takaram tin, white lead, metal sheet, coated with tin (Ta.); tin, tinned iron plate (Ma.); tagarm tin (Ko.); tagara, tamara, tavara id. (Ka.) tamaru, tamara, tavara id. (Ta.): tagaramu, tamaramu, tavaramu id. (Te.); t.agromi tin metal, alloy (Kuwi); tamara id. (Skt.)(DEDR 3001). trapu tin (AV.); tipu (Pali); tau, taua lead (Pkt.); tu~_ tin (P.); t.au zinc, pewter (Or.); taru_aum lead (OG.); tarvu~ (G.); tumba lead (Si.)(CDIAL 5992). Dotted circles on the fore-arm of the person (as on the Tell Abraq comb) connote kan.d. ‘fire-altar, furnace’. kan.d. = altar, furnace (Santali) This yajn~a kun.d.am can be denoted rebus, by perforated beads (kandi) or on ivory (khan.d.): A dotted circle connotes a fire altar. Slide 203 (Kenoyer, 2002). Steatite button seal Fired steatite button seal with four concentric circle designs from the Trench 54 area (H2000-4432/2174-3). kandhi = a lump, a piece (Santali.lex.) [The dotted circle thus connotes an ingot taken out of a kan.d.i, furnace]. ka_ndavika = a baker; kandu = an iron plate or pan for baking cakes etc. (Ka.lex.) A dotted circle is like the depiction of a perforated bead. The glyph also adorns the bottom vessel of the standard device (sangad.a – gimlet, furnace) which normally appears in front of the one-horned heifer on over a thousand inscribed objects. kandi (pl. -l) beads, necklace (Pa.); kanti (pl. -l) bead, (pl.) necklace; kandit. bead (Ga.)(DEDR 1215). The three stringed beads depicted on the pictograph may perhaps be treated as a phonetic determinant of the substantive, the rimmed jar, the khan.d.a kanka: khan.d.a, xanro, sword or large sacrificial knife. kandil, kandi_l = a globe of glass, a lantern (Ka.lex.) The thorny shrub in front of the zebu bull is also a hieroglyph. ran:ga ron:ga, ran:ga con:ga = thorny, spikey, armed with thorns; edel dare ran:ga con:ga dareka this cotton tree grows with spikes on it (Santali)

472

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Rebus: ran:ga, ran: pewter is an alloy of tin lead and antimony (an~jana) (Santali). Logographs: (1) Dotted circles and (2) five-petal motif Tell Abraq comb (TA 1649; 11x8.2x0.4 cm); decorated bone comb in a context datable to ca. 2100-2000 BCEat Tell Abraq, emirate of Umm al-Qaiwain, United Arab Emirates, on the southern coast of the Arabian Gulf (Fig. 2 a and b in: D.T. Potts, 1993, A new Bactrian find from southeastern Arabia, Antiquity 67 (1993): 591-6) Two logographs used are: dotted circles (3) and two flowers, long-stemmed, with lanceolate-linear leaves with undulate margins (like Tulipa montana, Lindl. or mountain tulip). The flower motif occurs on a Bactrian flask (picture below). A soft-stone flask, 6 cm. tall, from Bactria (northern Afghanistan) showing a winged female deity (?) flanked by two flowers similar to those shown on the comb from Tell Abraq (After Pottier, M.H., 1984, Materiel funeraire e la Bactriane meridionale de l'Age du Bronze, Paris, Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations: plate 20.150) The orthography of the two glyphs of tabernaemontana (tagaraka) is comparable to the orthography of the ‘sign’ shown on an early potsherd from Harappa which could represent the early emergence of a writing system (Sarasvati hieroglyphs). The potsherd has been discovered in 1998: See Slide 124 Inscribed Ravi sherd (1998 find at Harappa: Kenoyer and Meadow); the sherd contains the same sign (ca. 3300 BC). Source: http://www.harappa.com Location of Tell Abraq, southern coast of Arabian Gulf It will be established through the use of lexemes from the Indian linguistic area that the motifs: (1) dotted circles which recur on ivory combs; and (2) the flower -- 'five-petal motif' (which looks like a mountain tulip)-- both motifs are related to the cosmetic substances used by women to beautify their hair and bodies (unguents for hair and body). The 'dotted circles' motif also occurs in metallurgical contexts. Primary marks on metal ingots of shipwreck at Gelidonya Gelidonya shipwreck. Ca. 1200 BCE Primary marks impressed in the metal ingots before it solidified. (Photo: INA) Slide# CG94 (Photo: INA) Slide# CG100 http://ina.tamu.edu/CG-ingots.htm The primary marks are glyphs of a rimless pot and a peg. These glyphs are comparable to the following Sarasvati hieroglyphs, representing two typeof smelting/metal furnaces: bat.a and kut.hi. The primary marks thus denote the types of furnaces or smelters used to create the metal (mould or ingot or alloy). V328 (323 ocurrences)

V177

m1409At

m1409Bt (Glyph of a pillar with ringstones?)

bat.i =wide-mouthed rimless jar (Telugu) bat. hi =smelting furnace (Hindi Santali) bat.a `rimless pot' Kannada) bat.a `kiln, furnace' Gujarati) 473

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khut.i Nag. (Or. khut.i_) diminutive of khun.t.a, a peg driven into the ground, as for tying a goat (Mundari.lex.) khun.t.i = pillar (Santali.lex.) Many homonymous glyphs There could be a number of homonymous glyphs to represent the substantive message of bat.a or kut.hi or the specify the minerals involved, since the homonyms are phonetically similar sounding. Sign 12 kut.i = a woman water-carrier (Te.) kut.i = to drink; beverage (Ta.); drinking, water drunk after meals (Ma.); kud.t- to kud.i to drink; drinking (Ka.); kud.i to drink (Kod.); kud.i right, (Te.); kut.i_ intoxicating liquor (Skt.)(DEDR 1654).

drinking, drink (To.); right hand

H183b kut.i, kut.hi, kut.a, kut.ha a tree (Kaus'.); kud.a tree (Pkt.); kur.a_ tree; kar.ek tree, oak (Pas;.)(CDIAL 3228). kut.ha, kut.a (Ka.), kudal (Go.) kudar. (Go.) kut.ha_ra, kut.ha, kut.aka = a tree (Skt.lex.) kut., kurun: = stump of a tree (Bond.a); khut. = id. (Or.) kut.amu = a tree (Te.lex.)

V051 Sign 51 might have been normalised from an early variant which depicts a mouse or rat seen from the back. There could be two glyphs involved: one, that of kaca 'scorpion'; rebus: kacc 'iron' and the second, that of rat sun.d.a; rebus: sun.d. 'pit furnace'. sun.d.a musk-rat (Ka.)(DEDR 2661)]. An alternative to kacc ‘iron’ could be the lexeme Kansa_ (Skt.), kancu ‘bronze’ (Telugu) Ball reiterates Lassen's comment that the Greek word kassiteros was derived from kastira (V. Ball, 1880, A geologist's contribution to the History of Ancient India, in: Journal of Royal Geological Society of Ireland, Vol. 5, Part 3, 1879-89, Edinburgh, pp. 215-63). But Bevan feels (E.J. Rapson ed., 1921, The Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, Delhi, Indian Edn., S. Chand and Co., p. 351) that kastira was derived from kassiteros. Such a controversy also existed about a_raku_t.a in Sanskrit and oreichalkos in Greek ('mountain copper') which refer to brass. Pliny called this aurichalcum or golden copper (since brass is yellow) )(Pliny, Naturalis Historia, 34.2 and 37.44). Monier-Williams' lexicon suggests that the root for kastira was ka_ns (to shine). There is a possibility that the root might have yielded kan:sa_ which means bronze or copper-tin alloy. (AV, 10.10.5: s'atam. kan:sa_h indicating the possible use of the metal as an exchange unit). Metal to which was attached a great price Painting on the wall of the passage in the tomb of Rekh-mi-Re (Wise of God), ca. 1470-1445 BCEat Thabes; porters carry metal ingots; one carries on his shoulder an ox-hide ingot of copper; following two porters carry two baskets containing oblong ingots. The accompanying text says: 'bringing Asiatic copper which his Majesty carried off from his (Syrian) victory in the land of Retenu in order to cast two doors of the temple of Amun.' (After Plate LIII, Norman de Garis Davies, 1943, The Tomb of Rekh-mi-Re 474

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at Thebes, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Davies notes that temple doors were made of copper in the mixture of six parts to one part; it is likely that the one part refers to tin). Expounding on the reference to Asiatic copper in this text, Harris noted that it referred to a special copper alloy, and its notably light colour could indicate a high tin content. (Harris, J.R., Lexicographical Studies in Ancient Egyptian Minerals, 1961, Deutsche Akademie de Wissenschaften zu Berlin Institut fur Orientforshung). Lepsius described it as a 'variety to which was attached a great price.' (Harris, opcit., p.57). It is likely that the oblong ingots carried by two porters are tin ingots of the type discovered in the shipwreck at Haifa. It is well known that many animal motifs dominate even small seals or tablets which contain epigraphs of the civilization; animals such as bull, heifer, rhinoceros, tiger, antelope, ram, buffalo, elephant, alligator or lizard. One explanation is that, in a linguistic area of the times, each of these animals could be represented rebus (by similar sounding homonyms) to write the property items of the smithy or mint or forge. These homonyms are detailed elsewhere. (Kalyanaraman, 2003, opcit.) But, why are groups of animals used as a recurrent motif? There is a word in Telugu which can explain such a group, lexeme clusters which can, semantically, be interpreted as an 'animal specie'. pasaramu, pasalamu = an animal, a beast, a brute, quadruped (Te.lex.) cf. pasu = animal; ato posu = domestic animal; bir pasu = wild animal (Santali); pas'u = animal (Skt. Ta.) Another homonymous word is pa_so ‘die’ (orthography: dotted circle). pa_s'o = a silver ingot; pa_s'a_ta_n.iyo = one who draws silver into a wire (G.) pa_slo = a nugget of gold or silver having the form of a die (G.) The rebus word is: pasra 'smithy'. pasra = a smithy, a place where a blacksmith works; to do a blacksmith's work; kamar pasrat.hene sen akantalea = our man has gone to the smithy; pasrao lagao (or ehop) akata = he (the blacksmith) has started his work (Santali ); pasra (Mundari)(Santali.lex.Bodding) pasra, pasa_ra (Sad.; Or. pasra_, a blacksmith's implements) = a blacksmith's forge; the place where a brazier (t.ent.era, malar.a) makes his bowls, armlets; ne pa_l t.apuakana pasarate idiime = this ploughshare is blunt, take it to the smithy; the set of a blacksmith working in his forge; pasra o = of the blacksmith's work in the forge; pa nasra = the length of a blacksmith's work n the forge; pasraili = rice beer offered for sale; pasra mer.ed , pasa_ra mer.ed = syn. of kot.e mer.ed = forged iron, in contrast to dul mer.ed, cast iron (Mundari.lex.) pan~ja_va_, pa~ja_va_ = brick kiln (P.); pa~_ja_ kiln (B.); paja_vo (G.)(CDIAL 7686). paya_n = potter's kiln (B.)(CDIAL 8023). paja_vo = a kiln; cf. paca_vavum, to digest in the stomach ( G.lex.) pa_car-ai = pa_t.i vi_t.u, i.e. town house or army house (Pur-ana_.) Thus, when a group of animals is represented as a composite pictorial motifs, the intention is to depict a smithy, while individual animals relate to specific property items of the smithy: furnace types, minerals, metals or alloys. A smithy or a kiln could also be depicted by the following glyphs and read rebus: The ligature on the Nal pot ca 2800 BCE(Baluchisan: first settlement in southeastern Baluchistan was in the 4th millennium BCE) is extraordinary: an eagle's head is ligatured to the body of a tiger. In BMAC area, the 'eagle' is a recurrent motif on seals. Ute Franke-Vogt: "Different pottery styles link this area also to central and northern Balochistan, and after about 2900/2800 BCE to southern Sindh where, at this time, the Indus Civilization took shape. The Nal pottery with its particular geometric and figurative patterns painted in blue, yellow, red and turquoise after firing is among the earliest and most dominanstyles in the south." 475

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pajhar. = the Indian tawny , the Indian black eagle, the Indian crested hawk; eagle, buru pajhar., the hill-eagle, aquila imperialis; hako sat.i pajhar. = a fish-eating eagle (also called dak pajhar.); huru pajhar. = the imperial eagle (Santali .lex.) panji-il = a certain feather in each wing of a vulture (Mundari .lex.) [See the hieroglyph of an eagle ligatured to a tiger on a Nal pot. kol is pancaloha, alloy of five metals (Tamil); kollan ‘smith’ (Tamil); rebus kol ‘tiger’ (Santali)]

Eagle incised on a ceremonial axe made of chlorite. Tepe Yahya. (After Fig. 9.6 in Philip H. Kohl, 2001, opcit.) Eagle incised on the lid of perhaps a compartmented box made of chlorite. Tepe Yahya. (After Fig. 9.7 in Philip H. Kohl, 2001, opcit.) Vikalpa: hila a kite (S.); hill, hili (L.); ill kite, a kind of hawk (P.); ill kite, vulture (WPah.)(CDIAL 1593). i_lagradda = a species of vulture (Te.lex.) illala = a species of bird; hilla = a kind of aquatic bird (Skt.lex.) hil = a kite (P.lex.)

m1390At

m1390Bt

2868 Pict-74: Bird in

flight.

m0451At

m0451Bt

3235

h166A, h166B Harappa Seal; Vats 1940, II: Pl. XCI.255.

8); eagle

Two seals from Gonur 1 in the Murghab delta; dark brown stone (Sarianidi 1981 b: 232-233, Fig. 7, engraved on one

face. Seal impression. Louvre Museum; Luristan; light yellow stone; one side shows four eagles; the eagles hold snakes in their beaks; at the center is a human figure with outstretched limbs; obverse of the seal shows an animal, perhaps a lion striding across the field, with a smaller animal of the same type depicted above it; comparable to the seal found in Harappa, Vats 1940, II: Pl. XCI.255. BM 22962; Wiseman, opcit, 1962, Pl. 22d; Above: Bull-men crouch beside triple-plant on mountain. Vultures on their backs. Hero and bull-man: In field: snake, scorpion. Below: Bulls 476

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bow below eagle: Stag and goat. In field: bird. Wiseman, Cylinder Seals, 21. Lazulite. Nippur vessel with combatant snake and eagle motif. Istanbul Museum. The design is raised above the base; the vessel of chlorite was found in a mixed Ur III context at Nippur in southern Mesopotamia. An indication of the presence of the motif in Mesopotamia and in southwestern Iran, Failaka islands in the Gulf and SSVC. pajhar. = the Indian tawny , the Indian black eagle, the Indian crested hawk; eagle, buru pajhar., the hill-eagle, aquila imperialis; hako sat.i pajhar. = a fish-eating eagle (also called dak pajhar.); huru pajhar. = the imperial eagle (Santali.lex.) panji-il = a certain feather in each wing of a vulture (Mundari.lex.) ugalu or urmahlullu = mythical weather-bird, 'eagle'. pictograph of a lion ligatured with eagle's feet]. Could connote cassiterite, 'tin-stone' alloy used to harden the to make it a battle-axe? Vikalpa: sen:gel gidi = the male of the Indian king-vulture, calvus (Santali.lex.)

[See the this bronze axe

ologyps

sen:gel = fire; sen:gel kut.ra = a spark of fire, a burning bit of wood; sen:gel ku_n.d. = a heavy fire (Mundari) gitil bali = grains of magnetic iron resembling sand (Santali) sen:gel gidi rebus: sen:gel gitil = (furnace) fire for meteoric iron fragments. san:gil = to look up, raise or throw back the head (Santali); san:gil (Ho.) (Santali.lex.) id.a_ (in R.gveda) il.a_, ila = refreshing draught, refreshment, animation, recreation, comfort, vital spirit, RV; AV; AitBr.; offering, libation (especially a holy libation, offered between the Pra-ya_ga and Anu-ya_ga, and consisting of four preparations of milk, poured into a vessel containing water, and then partially drunk by the priest and sacrificers; personified in the cow, the symbol of feeding and nourishment), S’Br. 1.8.1.1; AitBr. (metaphorically) stream or flow of praise and worship (personified as the godess of sacred speech and action, invoked together with Aditi and other deities, but especially in the A_pri_ hymns together with Sarasvati_ and Mahi_ or Bha_rati_), RV; AV; VS; the earth, food, Sa_yan.a; a cow; the godess Id.a_ or Il.a_ (daughter of Manu or of man thinking on and worshipping the gods; she is the wife of Budha and mother of Puru_-ravas; in another aspect she is called Maitra_varun.i_ as daughter of Mitra-Varun.a, two gods who were objects of the highest and most spiritual devotion); name of Durga_; speech, BhP.; heaven; earth, MBh.; id.a_ya_s-pade (il.a_ya_spade), ind. At the place of Il.a_, i.e. of worship and libation, earth, RV; AV; id.a_vas = refreshing, granting fresh vital spirits; possessed of refreshment, refreshed; possessed of sacrificial food (Sa_yan.a), RV; containing the word id.a_, Ta_n.d.yaBr. (Skt.lex.) ili synonym of bod.e = beer brewed with any grains generally cultivated in Chota Nagpur; beer brewed from grains is divided into ar.e-ili, which is simply poured off from the dregs; eipaili, which is squeezed out from the dregs after addition of water; ili = to brew into beer, to brew beer; ili-n rflx. V., to indulge in drinking beer; ili-o to receive beer to drink ili-bat.i = a rice beer shop; ili-got. = a gathering for drinking beer, all sitting; ili477

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arki_ collective noun for all spirituous drinks; ili-mand.i – a banquet (Mundari.lex.) hi_luka = a kind of rum or spirit distilled from molasses (Skt.lex.) i_d.a = a date tree; i_d.ara-va_ru, i_d.iga-va_d.u (CITD), Telugu: a toddy-man or arrack-drawer (IEG). i_d.igeva_d.u = man of the toddy-drawer caste; i_d.iga = the toddy-drawer caste (Te.lex.) Cylinder seal. Akkadian. Enki, water-god with streams of water with fish ; symbols of mountain and eagle; Person standing with bow and arrow with a lion looking up to him. . pajhar. = to sprout from a root; pagra = a cutting of sugar-cane used for planting (Santali .lex.)

Signs 90,91,223,224,227,235.262,270,273,274,282,283,291,331,347-352,355-357, 371,372, 388390,395,405 [With ligatures of Sign 162 or Sign 169]

Signs 162 to 168 [Orthography: sprout]. As a countable object, the sign represents the rebus of (number of) [brick] kilns, the number (count) being indicated by short linear strokes. A variant lexeme of Sign 167 (because of five petals shown) could be: tagara, tabaernae montana, a flowering, fragrant shrub; rebus: takaram = tin (Ta.lex.) panjaramu = the body; skeleton (Te.lex.) panjara = skeleton, ribs (MBh.)(CDIAL 7685). panjar = a rib, the part of the body in which the ribs are; ibil panjar = the fifth rib; panjri = a rib, ribs; gad.i panjri = the cross bars uniting the shafts (hudar.) of a cart (Santali.lex.) cf. paks.a = wing, feather, fin, shoulder, side (RV)(CDIAL 7627) panjarao (Skt. panjari_, rib; Sad. panjraek) = a poke in the ribs with a stick (Mundari.lex.) pa_njarum = a frame; a skeleton; pa_kha = a side (G.lex.) pajhrao, pajhr.ao = to become lean, to lose flesh (Santali.lex.) pa_msal.i_, pa_msal.um, pa_sum = a rib; pa_s'ali_ = a rib (G.)

Vikalpa: *bard.a which gets ‘refined’ (hyper-sanskritized) into Sam.skr.tam as vardhaka. [semantic: cutting , dividing , cutting off , shearing; a carpenter (Ra_ma_yan.a); cf. homonym: vr.dh = exhilarate (esp. the gods , with praise or sacrifice) RV.; cf. bharad.o, 'devotee of S'iva (Gujarati); vr.dhat- elevate , raise to power , cause to prosper or thrive AV. S'Br. MBh. ; to exalt , magnify , glorify (esp. the gods) (Skt.)]. A superb example of the evolution of a few Sanskrit words from the substratum Meluhhan or indic, since the words find their echoes in almost all languages of Bha_rata. bal.ad = an ox; a bullock; a bull (G.lex.) baredi_ = herdsman (H.); baldi_ = oxherd (P.); baldiya_ cattle-dealer (Ku.)(CDIAL 9177). balivarda = ox, bull (TBr.); baleda_, baled = herd of bullocks (L.); baledo (S.); bald, baldh, balhd = ox; baled, baleda_ = herd of oxen (P.); bahld, bale_d = ox (P.); balad, bald = ox (Ku.); barad (N.); balad(h) (A.); balad (B.); bal.ada (Or.); barad(h) (Bi.); barad (Mth.); barad (Bhoj.);. bardhu (Aw.); balad, barad(h), bardha_ (whence baladna_ to bull a cow (H.); bal.ad (G.)(CDIAL 9176). Cf. Naha_li_ baddi_ = ox ; pa_d.o_ = bull (Sikalga_ri_, mixed Gypsy language.)(CDIAL 9176). pa_r-al = bull (Ta.)(DEDR 4020). bare itat = a bullock given at marriage by bridegroom to bride’s brothers (Santali.lex.) baro barabbar = opposite, face to face; baro, 478

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baron. = provisions, food rations, supplies (P.lex.) barotwa_la_ = a partner (K.)(P.lex.) Terracotta cake with incised motif. Horned divinity on one side of the cake and a tied animal on the other side. Kalibangan. Period I c. 2800-2600 BCE. [After Lal, 1979, pl. XII; cf. Fig. 2.26 in: JM Kenoyer, 1998] A characteristic feature of the epigraphs is the use of glyphs. Since many glyphs most often occupy an entire side of an inscribed object and dominate the field on which epigraphs also occur, the glyphs are interpreted as constituting substantive messages. Kalibangan100A [The first sign could be ‘fish’ glyph.] The orthography incised on the potsherd led KB Lal to surmise that the writing was from right to left. The sequence of three signs occurs on over 24 epigraphs; the message is comparable to the

epigraphs:

m1294

plate inscription (line 2):

m0502At h853Ct

2291 or,

m0512At

m0502Bt

Lothal035

m0512Bt

3345or miniature tablet:

7101 or part of copper

2906 or copper tablet (line 1)

h853At

h853Bt

5277

pasu_r.u, pasr.u = the condition of a man or boy with uncovered private parts; pasu_r.u-n = of the loin cloth, to slip or be pulled aside; of the parts, to be rendered or become visible (Mundari.lex.) [Note the orthography of the seated person with horns and bangles on his arms surrounded by a boar, a buffalo, a jumping tiger and an elephant]. panjaramu = a cage for the birds (Te.) pa_njarum = a cage (G.) panja_yi_, panju = a sort of torch (Te.lex.) panju, ponju = a torch (Ka.Te.); pantam (Ta.Ma.); panja_yi (H.); panjuvid.iva, panjupid.iva = a torch-bearer (Ka.lex.) panje, panjho = the hand opened out; a claw, a paw; the five on a dice in play; pasli_ the hollow of the hand (G.) pan~jali = with outstretched hands, as token of reverence (Skt. pra_n~jali)(Pali.lex.) pan~ja_ = the paw, the palm; the image of a hand worshipped and taken in procession during the Mohurrum festival (Te.lex.) paslo the cavity formed by putting two hands together (G.) Goldsmith's tool: saw

Sign 48

479

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(114) Sign 48 (168)

Copper tablets (13)

h172B Field Symbol 36 (10)

If the orthography of Sign 48 is intended to connote the ‘ribs’ on the backbone, the word is: panjara ‘ribs’; rebus: pasra ‘smithy’. Sign 48: barad.o = spine, the backbone, back (G.) Rebus: bharatiyo = a caster of metals, a brazier; bharatar, bharatal, bharatal. = moulded; an article made in a mould (G.) barduga = a man of acquirements, a proficient man (Ka.)

Glyph: t.hat.ra = m. emaciated (Santali) Rebus: t.hat.era = a brazier, a caste who manufacture and sell brass ware; t.hat.ori = a worker in brass, a goldsmith (Santali) kuduru = lizard (Te.); Rebus: kuduru = portable gold furnace (Te.) karod. = spine (G.lex.) kro_d.amu = bosom or breast (Te.); krod.a = breast (Skt.) karot.h = side of the body (G.lex.) karad.a saw (Apabhram.s'a) (DEDR 1265). karad.o = a goldsmith’s tool (G.lex.) khara_di_ = a turner; khara_da = a turner’s lathe (G.lex.) kara_d.i_ = a goldsmith’s tool; kara_d.o = a carpenter’s tool used in hewing down large pieces of wood (Used in the Surat district); kara_i_ = a sawyer; one whose business it is to saw timber; a crow bar (Used in Kathiawa_d.)(G.lex.) karan.d.amu = a sword (Te.lex.) karata = saw (Or.); karapatta (Pali); karapattra (Skt.); kart.u (S.); kalvattar (L.); karvattar, karvat large iron blade for cutting a man in two (L.); karot.li small saw (WPah.); karau~ti, kara_ti saw (N.); karat (A.); kara_5 (B.); kara_ta goldsmith's saw (Or.); karavata saw (OAw.); karaut, karauta_, kara~_t (H.); karauti_ small saw (H.); karavata saw (OMarw.); karvat, karvati_ (G.M.); karavata (Si.); kara_ti_ sawyer (B.); karati_ sawyer (Or.); kara~_ti_ sawyer (H.); karvatiyo sawyer (G.); karatiba_ to saw (M.); karavan saw (Si.)(CDIAL 2795). kalahoya, kaladhauta = gold; silver (Pkt.lex.) kala_da = a goldsmith (G.lex.) karud.u = a lump, mass, clot (Te.lex.)

h696At

h696Bt

4677

m1000a

1487 One-horned bull.

m0301 2258 That just two signs constitute the inscription is indicative of the substantive nature of the ‘skeleton’ glyph in relation to the kan.d., ‘altar, furnace’. The pair of signs (Sign 48 and Sign 342) is a frequently-occurring pair with over 100 occurrences among the epigraphs. Sign 48 is the centre-piece on a raised copper tablet: Harappa. Raised script. H94-2198. [After Fig. 4.14 in JM Kenoyer, 1998]. Eight 480

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inscribed copper tablets were found at Harappa and all were made with raised script, a technique quite different from the one used at Mohenjo-daro for flat copper tablets with many duplicates. The duplicates occur on steatite and faience tablets at Harappa; these may have represented a commodity or a value. [cf. JM Kenoyer, 1998, p. 74]. Person kneeling under a tree with branches, facing a tiger. [Chanhudaro Excavations, Pl. LI, 18]

6118

h177A h177B 4316 Pict-115: From R.— a person standing under an ornamental arch; a kneeling adorant; a ram with long curving horns. The leftmost glyph on Epigraph 6118 is a thorny tree (or alternatively, branches of tree) 7.02 Harappa.Cast tablet, copper alloy. The glyph (Sign 48) depicting the backbone of a kneeling person occurs on side A of a copper plate (m0511).

m0511At

m0511Bt

2905

The epigraphs (including Sign 48) on a faience tablet are comparable to a portion of text on the copper tablet. Slide 247 Faience tablet.(H2001-5082/2920-02) made from two colors of faience was found eroding from the Trench 54 South workshop area. Identical tablets made from two colors of faience were recovered in Area J, at the south end of Mound AB, in the excavations of Vats during the 1930s. Sign 48 also occurs on incised potsherds. Kalibangan100A. Kalibangan100

Seated skeletal person seen from the sign variants that the artist is focusing characteristics: the person is seated, the backbone is person wears a hair-do. The kneeling posture is clearly 45 which shows a kneeling adorant, but Sign 48 is ligature of a rimless pot

(Sign 48) It will be on three emphasized, the comparable to Sign evolved without the

Sign 45

Evolution of Sign 48 can be explained from the orthography of a seal from Kalibangan (048) which clearly demonstrates that the artist is trying to emphasise the semantics of a backbone of a kneeling person, perhaps also making an offering. 481

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Kalibangan048 “The seated person is facing right (in the original seal), leaning forward. He has a large head and a massive jaw jutting forward. The complete ribcage is shown in clear detail with almost all the ribs in position, curving naturalistically on either side of the backbone. The deity appears to be holding a ladle (?) in his right hand. His knees are drawn up and he seems to be squatting on his haunches. The details are clearly visible in the highly enlarged photograph of the seal published in Pl. 275: Omananda Saraswati 1975. Ancient Seals of Haryana (in Hindi). Rohtak.” (I. Mahadevan, 'Murukan' in the Indus Script, The Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies, March 1999). A three sign sequence including this ‘seated skeletal person’ is the most frequently occurring three-sign sequence among the inscribed objects. The occurrence is mostly on miniature tablets of Harappa

h503

4129

m0330A

0330B Perforated through the narrow edge of

a two-sided seal 1475 Many incised miniature tablets of Harappa contain this sign within a sequence as shown on one side: h959Ait (incised tablet). Many duplicate texts contain this sign sequence. [glyphs: backbone, rim of pot, comb] h233A

h233B

4387

h312Ac

h312B

5426

h959Ait

h959Bit 5263

4405

h179A

h934Ait

h179B

h934Bit

307

h741Bt

h742At [The last two signs of Text 5263 occur on 184 epigraphs]

[At least 46 inscribed objects with epigraphs contain the sequence of three signs – line 1 (Statistics from Mahadevan corpus)

4387]

[Dh. Des. karod.iya_ from Skt. karot.ika_ the skull; cf. Hem. Des. kod.iyam fr. Skt. kos.t.ha the inner part] kod.iyum an earthen cup holding oil and a wick for a light (G.) Seller of earthenware, earthen goblets, smoking pipes etc. = kara_d.iyo, kara_l.iyo (G.) kot.ho an earthen vessel in which indigo is stored (G.) khora a kind of large brass bowl; the vessel which receives the juice of sugar-cane when being pressed (Santali) karadamu = present to a superior (Te.lex.) karet.um = an annual offering and present to a godess or to an evil spirit (G.lex.) karavr.tti (Skt.)

m0478At

m0478Bt

482

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m0479At m0479Bt 3224 Repetitive also occurs as texts: 2815, 3230.The text is repeated on three double-sided moulded tablets in bas-relief. The first sign of the text is a glyph depicting a kneeling person, in front of a leafless tree, making an offering, holding a rimless pot in his hands. m0480At m0480Bt Tablet in bas-relief. Side a: Tree Side b: Pict-111: From R.: A woman with outstretched arms flanked by two men holding uprooted trees in their hands; a person seated on a tree with a tiger below with its head turned backwards; a tall jar with a lid. Is the pictorial of a tall jar the Sign 342 Sign 45

with a lid?

seems to be a kneeling adorant offering a pot (Sign 328

)

Signs 45/46 seem to

ligature the pictorial of a kneeling-adorant with sign 328 Depicting a kneeling adorant in glyphs and signs On a twisted, moulded tablet (m0481), there are pictorial motifs on four sides. On side A, there is an epigraph containing six-signs; the last sign of this epigraph (text 2846) includes Sign 45 – kneeling person holding a rimless pot. m0481At m0481Ct on a low platform under a tree.

m0481Bt m0481Et

2846 Pict-41: Serpent, partly reclining

Person kneeling under a tree facing a tiger. [Chanhudaro Excavations, Pl. LI, 18]

pigtail of a pipal horned curling

6118

m1186Acolour 2430 Composition: horned person with a standing between the branches tree; a low pedestal with offerings (? or human head?); a person kneeling in adoration; a ram with short tail and horns; a row of seven robed figures, with twigs on their pigtails.

Is it a skull that is placed on the pedestal in front of the kneeling person? If so, Glyph: khapri the skull (Santali) Rebus: khapar = tin, a metal once used largely to make ornaments, but now out of use (Santali) Metath. kharva? 2357. Vikalpa Glyph: kaphariau to quarrel, dispute (Santali) mwehra_ = image of a village deity (WPah.) mehara = (EI 33) a village headman (IEG). Text 4316 h177Ah177BPict-115: From R.—a person standing under an ornamental arch; a kneeling adorant; a ram with long curving 483

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horns. h178Ah178B 4318 Pict-84: Person wearing a diadem or tall headdress (with twig?) standing within an arch or two pillars? h179Ah179B standing within at the bottom

4307 Pict-83: Person wearing a diadem or tall head-dress an ornamented arch; there are two stars on either side, of the arch. Glyphs

serpents rear up on

of two kneeling adorants are shown on side B of a tablet (m0453), flanking a person seated on a low platform; two either side, close to the two kneeling adorant glyphs.

med. iron (Ho.); me~rhe~t ‘iron’ (Santali) man.t.i kneeling on one knee as an archer (Ta.); man.tuka to be seated on the heels (Ma.); man.d.i what is bent, the knee (Ka.); knee (Tu.); kneeling on one knee (Te.); men.d.a_, mind.a knee (Go.); med.a, men.d.a id. (Kond.a); mend.a id. (Pe.KuiKuwi); mand.u_ki part of elephant’s hind leg; met. knee-joint (M.)(DEDR 4677). man.d.i = kneeling position (Te.lex.) mandil, mandir = temple (Santali) karad.a_pa_t.i_ = a wooden board in the form of a slate, on which little boys learn elementary figures and the letter of the alphabet (G.lex.) karud.u = a rough day book, account (Te.lex.); kharad.o = a rough copy, a register of fields in a village; a subscription list (G.lex.) kara.d.amu = a wave (Te.lex.) kharad.akum = a streamlet (G.lex.); ks.ar = to drop (Skt.) karot.i = human skull (G.Skt.) ka_rad.o = a field; a plot of ground; a bed of rice (G.); keda_ra (Skt.)(G.lex.) kara_d.o = a high and steep bank; kara_d. = a precipice (G.lex.) karat.i, karat.ikai a kind of drum (said to sound like a bear)(Ta.); karad.i, karad.e an oblong drum beaten on both sides, a sort of double drum (Ka.); karat.a a kind of drum (Skt.)(DEDR 1264). karat.i, karut.i, kerut.i fencing, school or gymnasium where wrestling and fencing are taught (Ta.); garad.i, garud.i fencing school (Ka.); garad.i, garod.i (Tu.); garid.i, garid.i_ id., fencing (Te.)(DEDR 1262). karat.i, 'elephant' (Te.) khara_di_ = turner (G.) karad.o, kara_d.i_ a goldsmith’s tool (G.lex.) karan.d.amu = a bee-hive (Te.) karad.a = crown khared.o = a currycomb (G.lex.) karad.a = a sting (G.lex.) karad.o = a toe ring (G.lex.) kad.iyo [Hem. Des. kad.a i o = Skt. sthapati a mason] a bricklayer; a mason; kad.iyan.a, kad.iyen.a a woman of the bricklayer caste; a wife of a bricklayer (G.) 484

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kad.i_ a chain; a hook; a link (G.); kad.um a bracelet, a ring (G.) khad.a_i_ a heifer (used in the Sorat.h Pra_nt)(G.)

Depitcting a kat.a_r, dagger in inscriptions of the civilization Egyptian axes of bronze (After Fig. 89 in: Richard F. Burton, 1884, The Book of the Sword, New York, Dover Publications, Inc., p. 89). "The Akhu or waraxe was, as we might expect, known to ancient Egypt in early days, and became an object de luxe. A gold hatchet and several of bronze were found buried as amulets in the coffin of Queen Askhept, the ancestress of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Sign

193 and variants.

Again, a bronze weapon occurred with a mummied queen of the Seventeenth Dynasty (BC 1750). Useful in war, the implement, probably when in the stone period, rose to be a symbol of the Deity: hence, doubtless, the hachet votives of the later Bronze Age without edge to serve for work or weapons, and intended only for religious use….From Egypt the axe passed into the heart of Africa. Here it still serves, before and after use, as a medium of exchange; and this circulation from tribe to tribe explains the various forms that have overspread the Dark Continent. “ (pp. 89-90). Kit.a_r or kat.a_ri (After Fig. 149 89 in: Richard F. Burton, 1884, The Book of the Sword, New York, Dover Publications, Inc., p. 140). The shape of this ‘Hindu kit.a_r’ is analogous to a sign and its variants found in inscriptions of the civilization. kat.t.a_ri trident of S'iva (Tan-ippa_. ii,160,399) (Ta.lex.) kat.a_ri, kat.ha_ri a sort of dagger (Ka.); kat.a_ra, kat.a_ri, kat.ha_ri (Te.); kat.t.a_ri (Ta.); kat.t.a_ra, kat.t.a_ri (Ma.); kat.a_r (H.M.)(Ka.lex.) kat.t.a_ri cross-hilted dagger (Kalaicaic. 83)(Ta.lex.) kati.r- (katrc-; < katy-tayr, katy-tarc-) to cut (Ko.); kan:keyt, kan:ki.t sickle [kan. koty dagger-shaped knife burned with the corpse (To.)(DEDR 1166); kan.handle]; katti knife, cutting instrument, razor, sword, sickle (Ta.); knife (Ma.Kod..Tu.); knife, razor, sword (Ka.); katy billhook, knife (Ko.); kati.r to cut (Ko.); kan. koty dagger-shaped knife burned with the corpse (To. cf. kan.a arrow); katte knife (Tu.); katti cock's spur (Go.); ka_ti knife attached to the cock's spur (Go.)(DEDR 1204). ka_tar, ka_tri scissors (Kon.lex.) kat.t.a_ri_, kat.t.a_raya knife (Pkt.); katara dagger (Ash.); katere (Pr.); kta (Kt.); kat.a_ (Wg.); kat.e_r (Dm.); kat.e_ri_ small dagger (Dm.); kata_ri knife (Tir. <Ind. or Psht.); ka_t.are spear (Pas'.); kat.a_ro large knife (Gaw.); mus.-kat.a_ri_ dagger (Gaw.); kat.a_r (Kal.); kuter knife, dagger (Kho.); ka_t.er knife (Bshk. kat.a_re_i (Sv.); kat.o_ro dagger (Phal.); kat.a_ro long knife (Sh.); kat.a_ro knife (S.); kat.a_r dagger (P.N.Or.Mth.H.G.); kat.a_ra_ large dagger (P.); kat.a_ri_ small dagger (P.); dagger (Ku.A.Bhoj.H.G.); knife (OMarw.); khukri (Or.); kat.a_ri, ka_t.a_r dagger (B.); ka_t.a_ri billhook (B.); ka_ta_ri shears (B.); goldsmith's scissors (Or.); knife (N.); kat.a_ra chopper, billhook (Or.)(CDIAL 2860). karta knife (Skt.) [cf. Avestan. kareta, kareti knife]; ka_ti shell-cutter's saw 485

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(B.); ka_ta_n large sacrificial knife (B.); kata_ small billhook (Or.); ka_ti_ knife (Or.); ka_t brazier's cutters (Bi.Mth.); ka_t shears for shearing sheep, cock's spur (H.); ka_ta_ knife for cutting bamboos (H.)[katta_ small curved sword (H.); katti_ knife (H.); kat.t.i_ small sword (H.) < EP.]; ka_tu~ knife (G.); ka_ti_ knife, saw (G.); ka_ti_ cleaver (M.[?< ka_rti (CDIAL 3069).][To distinguish from katt spin < kartati, MIA forms extend with kat.t. replacing kr.ntati : kartavo to be cut off (NiDoc.); kartati cuts (Skt.); kattai, kat.t.ai cuts (Pkt.); kat. (Pas'. > kat. Parachi. Iranian]; kat.un, kat.n.o_ cuts (K.); kat.an.u (S.); kat.t.n.a_ (P.); ka_t.n.o (Ku.); ka_t.nu (N.); ka_t.iba (A.); ka_t.a_ (B.); ka_t.iba_ (Or.); ka_t.ab to reap (Bi.); ka_t.ab to cut (Mth.Aw.); ka_t.na_ (H.); ka_t.vu~ (G.); ka_t.n.e~ to cut (M.)(CDIAL 2854). Possible parallels in proto-elamite hieroglyhs Gudea of Lagash inscriptions: 'the Meluhhans came up (or down) from their country to supply wood and other raw materials for the construction of the main temple of Gudea's capital.' In the inscription of Cylinder A, Gudea of Lagash describes his involvement with craftsmen: "the ruler sat with the silversmiths building Erinnu with precious stones, he sat with the jewelers building with copper and tin Ninturkalamma (goddess) directed before him the craftsmen and metal casters (Jacobsen 1987: 408). Neo-Assyrian ruler Sennacherib also shows his interest in metalworking: in one inscription he claims innovation in casting colossal metal statues (cf. Dalley 1988: 103-5); in another inscription, a reference is made to the alloy used for casting ornamental metal friezes for gates (cf. Walker 1988: 116). Gudea Cylinder A as Given by C.J. Gadd in his ' A Sumerian- Reading Book". The following lines are taken from Text XIII pp. 97. 1. e -nin-gir-su-ka (The temple of ningirsu) du-de (to build) 2. ........... nim ( the Elamite) nim-ta (from Elam) mu-na-tum (brought to him) 3. INANNA.ERIN -e (the Susian ) INANNA.ERIN-ta (from susa) mu-na-tum (brought to him) 4. ma-gan me-luh-ha (Magan and Meluhha) kur-bi-ta (from their mountains ) gu-gis (a store of wood) 5. mu-na-ab-gal (provided for him) e-nin-gir-su-ka (and the temple of Ningirsu) 6. du-de (to build) gu-de-a (for Gudea) uru-ni-gir-su-(KI)-su ( to his city of Girsu) 7. gu-mu-na-si-si (they brought it together) God Enki boasts of the moored Dilmun boats and magilum-boat of Melahha: ". . . . I would watch over its green cedars (?). The l[ands] of Magan and Dilmun Looked up at me, En[ki], Moored (?) The Dilmun-boat to the ground (?), Loaded the Magan-boat sky high; The magilum-boat of Meluhha Transports gold and silver, Brings them to Nippur for Enlil, the [king] of all the lands." "Enki and the world order" From The Sumerians, by Samuel Noah Kramer

http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati/decode/braziers.htm 486

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http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati/tradition/mleccha01.htm http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati/decode/meluhhan.jpg In the current state of our knowledge, we may conclude that the Indus population prolongs for the essential that which was established already from the -VIIIth millennium BCEin Baluchistan. There is no essential rupture from the beginnings of Mehrgarh to the fall of the Indus civilization towards -1800. This civilization is the apogee of a group of cultures that had progressively developed and enlarged their territory since the beginning of the neolithic. This has not prevented multiple contacts with the west, first through Iran, later by sea, and these contacts have brought modes, techniques, religious ideas, and, assuredly also, men. [Bernard Sergent, 1997, La Genese de l’inde, Payot (Origins of the Indus Civilization’, p 149, trans. By Sunthar V.] Dholavira (Kotda) on Kadir island, Kutch, Gujarat22; 10 signs inscription found near the western chamber of the northern gate of the citadel high mound (Bisht, 1991: 81, Pl. IX); each sign is 37 cm. high and 25 to 27 cm. wide and made of pieces of white crystalline rock Dholavira signboard uniquely displays 10 glyphs, four of which are spoked-wheels. Cylinder Seal with Caprids and Trees, unpierced,

Heulandite, Susa, Proto-Elamite Pd., h: 3.4 cm From the Proto Elamite Period, 3100 BCE - 2700 BCE (Aruz, Joan, Prudence O. Harper, and Francoise Tallon, eds. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1992, pg 74.) http://istsocrates.berkeley.edu:8080/~ane/index.php?course=nes15&do=browse&type=period&per*i odid=3 9 Two goats eating from a tree on a mountaintop in proto-Elamite seals from Susa (after Amiet 1972: 978 and Legrain, 1921: 316. This motif is found on a Harapan tablet.. The leaf on a mountain motif is found on a seal from Kalibangan. Jamdat Nasr cylinder seals 1, 2, 3 (Note the dotted circles on the seal; pa_slo ‘die’; rebus: pasara ‘smithy’)

Sign 232 seems to be a liagure of sign 230 and sign 326 Sign 230 (54)

Mountain topped by a leaf gets stylized as an important motif. Proelamite glyptics. Leaf motif. 1-c, After Legrain,L., 1921, Empreintes de cachets elamites, Mem. Mission Arch. De Perse 16, Paris: 62-654; d. After Amiet, P., 1961, La glyptique mesopotamienne archaique, Paris: 497; Mundigak IV.3; 3. After Casal, J.M., 1961, Fouilles de Mundigak I-II. Mem. Delegation Arch. Franaise en Afthanistan 17, Paris: fig. 102: 485; f. Early Harappan. Kalibangan. After Sankalia, 1974: 346, fig. 88d, A. H-L; cf. Fig. 23.45 Asko Parpola, 1996, fig. 23.45. Two goats eating from a tree on a mountain top in proto-Elamite seals from Susa [After Amiet, P., 1972, Glyptique susienne I-II, Mem. Delegation Arch. En Iran 43, Paris: 978 and Legrain, L., 1921, Emprientes de cachets elamites, Mem. Mission Arch. De Perse 16, Paris: 316]. 487

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The finds of seal impressions clearly demonstrate the use of epigraphs on seals for trade. Elsewhere, it has been argued on the Sarasvati web that the inscriptions on Sarasvati Sindhu seals and tablets denoted lists of minerals, metals and furnaces. Dholavira Sign-board The find-spot in. Dholavira (Kotda) on Kadir island, Kutch, Gujarat, of a 'sign-board' inlaid with signs; each sign is 37 cm. high and 25 to 27 cm. wide and made of pieces of white crystalline rock; the inscription with the set of 10 signs was found near the western chamber of the northern gate of the citadel high mound (Bisht, R.S., 1991, Dholavira: a new horizon of the Indus civilization. Puratattva, Bulletin of Indian Archaeological Society, 20: 81; Bisht, 1991: 81, Pl. IX; now also Parpola 1994: 113). The signs were apparently inlaid in a wooden plank ca. 3 m. long; maybe, the plank was mounted on the facade of the gate to command the view of the entire cityscape. Some archaeologists believe that the gate was an entry into the upper town. Evidence of trading links between communities in the Sarasvati-Sindhu Valleys and Mesopotamia exists from as early as about 2600 B.C. lead us to surmise that the sign-board should also have been visible to the traders sailing on boats into the port-town of Dholavira on the Gulf of Kutch which should also have been a water-way circa 5500 years ago linking with the Makran Coast (south of Karachi) and the Persian Gulf. Ten signs on the sign board

Ten signs presented on a monolithic sign-board of Dholavira (Kotda): The 'spoked circle' sign seems to be the divider of the three-part message, advertising the processing facilities of a smelter/metal-smith's workshop.

The glyph could be era, erka 'nave of wheel'; rebus: era, eraka 'copper'. The third sign from left could be a glyph of kamat.ha 'ficus leaf'; rebus: kamat.amu = a portable furnace for melting precious metals (Te.) The left-most part of the three-part message could connote: portable furnace for melting copper, tin (?) [The second sign from left could be khu~t.i 'pin or peg' (M.); rebus: kut.hi 'smelting furnace' (Santali)] The middle part of the three-part message could connote: copper, bronze (kanac 'corner'; rebus: kan~cu 'bronze' (Te.), mineral (dha_tu; rebus: d.a_t.o 'plug or cork'); kod. 'workshop'; kon.d.a 'fire-pit'. The righ-most part of the three-part message could connote: mineral (d.ato 'claw'; rebus: dha_tu 'mineral') copper furnace (bhar 'oven or kiln'; rebus: bar, barea 'two'); d.ato 'claw'. 488

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The sixth sign from left could be glyph d.a_t.o, da_t.o a plug, a cork, a stopple (G.); tenth sign from left could be a glyph of d.ato 'claw'; rebus of both glyphs could be: Substantive: dha_tu ‘mineral’ (Vedic); a mineral, metal (Santali); dha_ta id. (G.) dha_tu substance (RV); elemnt (MBh.); metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour)(Mn.); ashes of the dead (Skt.); dhatu relic (KharI.); dha_u metal, red chalk (Pkt.); dha_u ore (esp. copper)(N.); dha_u_, dha_v a partic. Soft red stone; dha_vad. A caste of iron-smelters; dha_vd.i_ composed of or relating to iron (M.)(CDIAL 6773). dhau dhau = blazing, flaming, brightly (Santali) dhatu = a mineral, metal (Santali) Glyph: strand: tridha_tu = threefold (RV); ayugdha_tu having an uneven number of strands (Ka_tyS’r.); dha_i_ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted (S.); dha_i~_ id. (L.) (CDIAL 6773). Glyph: attack: dha_d.i_ assault (Pkt.); dha_r. attack by robbers (H.); sudden assault (G.); dha_d. attack (M.); dha_d.i id. (Kon.)(CDIAL 6772). Ta_t.u = to strike against (Ka.); ta_d.u = to butt with horns (Ka.); ta_d.uni = to gore, butt; ta_d.u goring; ta_n.t.a_vuni to make collide (Tu.); ta_n.t.i to hit (Kor.)(DEDR 3156). Glyph: leaping: ta_n.t.u = leap across (Ta.); ta_n..t.uka to jump across (Ma.); ta_n.t.u to leap, cross; da_t.u, da_n.t.u to jump, cross (Ka.); da.t. to cross (Kod.); da_n.t.uni to cross (Tu.); da_~t.u to leap, jump, cross over; a leap, a jump, crossing or passing over (Te.); dat. to cross (Kol.); d.a_t. to hop, jump (Kond.a); trad.d.ing to skip, prance (Br.); ta_n.d.ava S’iva’s dance (Skt.)(DEDR 3158). [Glyph of a leaping tiger.] Glyph: leaf stak: d.i~_t.u, d.i~t.u~ leaf stalk (G.); d.a_t.ho fibres and stalk of tobacco leaf (S.); t.a_n.d.a_ dry stalk of ba_jra_ (L.); t.a~_d.a_ (P.); ta_ndro dry stalk or straw (Or.); da_n.t.hi hard stalk of a creeper, stalk-like bean (Or.); d.a_~t.h, d.an.t.ha_ stem, stalk (H.); tan.d.aka tree-trunk (Skt.)(CDIAL 5527). ta_~t.a = bark (Te.); ta_t.i = bark, skin (Ka.)(DEDR 3155). tan.t.u = stalk, stem (Ta.Ma.); tad., tan.d. = stem of plant, trunk of tree (Ko.); tod. = trunk of tree (To.); dan.t.u, dan.d.a stalk (Ka.); dan.t.u stalk of certain grains and vegetables; dan.d.u stalk, as of a plantain leaf (Tu.); dad.d.u short stubble left after reaping (Tu.); dan.t.u stalk of great millet (Te.); dend.e stalk(Kol.); d.an.diid. (Kui); d.and.a sugarcane (Kuwi)(DEDR 3056). D.ha_t. = a kind of coarse high grass (Santali) d.at.hi, d.at.i = the petioles and mid-ribs of a compound leaf after the leaflets have been plucked off, stalks of certain plants, as Indian corn, after the grain has been taken off (Santali) da_t = a pick, a mattock; dauli = a weeding knife, of iron or wood; datrom = a toothed sickle; sambhe datrom = a sickle with a ferrule or iron ring on the handle where the tang enters to keep it fro splitting; datre = a small sickle (Santali) [Note glyph of a person carrying a sickle in front of a woman with disheveled hair.] d.ato ‘claws or pincers (chelae) of crabs’; d.at.om, d.it.om to seize with the claws or pincers, as crabs, scorpions; d.at.kop = to pinch, nip (only of crabs) (Santali) dar.u = large, big; d.at.hu, d.at.kup, d.at.u = big headed, bullet headed (Santali) Glyph: Boar with huge tusk

489

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Alternative: dat.t.ha_ = large tooth, fang, tusk (Pali); dam.t.ha_ fang (Pkt.); da_t.hiru = tusked (S.); da_t.ha_ , da_t.ha large tooth, tusk (Pali); da_r.h = tusk, root of tooth, bite (of an animal) (L.)(CDIAL 6250). da_t = a tooth; d.at.a = a tooth, the teeth (Santali) da_tela = a large wild boar with huge tusks (Santali) The seventh sign from left is a long linear stroke: | This connotes kod.a 'one' and rebus could be: kod. 'workshop'; gon.d.a, kon.d.a = fire-pit (Kon.lex.) kod.a, kor.a = in arithmetic one; 4 kor.a or kod.a = 1 gan.d.a = 4 (Santali.lex.) A variant of Sign 256 – T -- also occurs on a Rehmandheri seal and is flanked by two scorpions; a frog (or, a woman with spread thighs also appears). Reduplication of ‘wheel’ glyph: bar got.an: two each, bhar ‘oven’, kod. place where artisans work. gad.i got.an: two wheels; gad.h fort, kod. smithy; or, kun.d. got.an: ‘furnace (kun.d.), smithy (kod.)’ Segments of the inscription on the Dholavira sign-board occur together with the Bra_hman.i bull pictograph indicating the essential link between the signboard obviously indicating the wares produced by the armourer and the list of weapons detailed on the Bra_hman.i bull seal (either as property items or as bills of lading for transporting the produced items for packaging and trade). Inscribed weapons

2925 Inscribed bronze implement (MIC Plate CXXVI-5) 2903 Incised copper tablet 2923 Inscribed bronze implement (MIC Plate CXXVI-2) 2924 Inscribed bronze implement (MIC Plate CXXVI-3) cf. also text 2119 on a seal inscribed with a zebu or bra_hamn.i bull: 2119 Seen from left to right, the two spoked wheels, a linear stroke, a ^ sign, a rhombus sign -- the set of five signs -- constitute the fifth to ninth signs (i.e. five signs) of the Dholavira sign-board, read from left to right. The signs of this Bra_hman.i bull seal and the Dholavira sign-board can be explained in the context of the armoury of the kut.ha_ru, a basic contextual key to the decipherment of many inscriptions deduced from the fact that the sequence of signs occurs also on weapons themselves, and the reasonable assumption that only a metal-worker had the competence to inscribe on metal. The inscriptions on the bronze-weapons as read by Parpola (1975: 184) and tabulated in Ute FrankeVogt, Inscribed bangles: an inquiry into their relevance, in: Frifelt, Karen and Per Sorensen (eds.), South Asian Archaeology, 1985, Curson Press. Inscribed blades have also been found at Ugarit. "The axeblades from Ugarit are found in the house of the 'High Priest', and dated 15th-14th centuries BCE.(Shaeffer 1939: 107ss, Figs. 10-103, Pl. XXII-XXIV; For the Ugaritic axes, cf. Pritchard 1954, 81, No. 261). Some of these also occur on inscribed stone bangles. Also found in a hoard they form part of offering gifts to the 'Grand Pretre' (Schaeffer 1956: 269). Inscribed weapons are further reported from Harappa Vats 1940: 384ss, Pl. CXX, 5,19), Chanhu Daro (Mackay 1943: 178, Pl. LXXIV, 1-1a,8) and 490

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Kalibangan (Mahadevan 1977:7). Decorated arrowheads are known from the Arabian Peninsula (Donaldson 1984: 257, Fig. 26), but cannot be dated before 1600 BCE (pers. comm. B. Vogt)." (Ute Franke-Vogt, opcit, 1985, p. 245). 2926 Inscribed bronze implement (MIC Plate CXXVII-1) 2928 Inscribed bronze implement (MIC Plate CXXXIII-1) Blade-axes in Mohenjo-daro, DK area, inscribed similar to a Zebu bull seal found in DK area. (After Parpola, A., Tasks, methods and results in the study of the Indus Script, in: JRAS, 1975, no.2, pp. 178-209).

Seven script signs recurring on two inscribed copper axes and on a seal and a seal impression, Mohenjodaro; obverse (a,c) and reverse (b.d) of two axe blades (2798=DK7856 and 2796=DK7535) in room 15, house I, block 12A,G section, DK area together with a copper hoard; e is a fragmentary seal (2119) from room 5, house I, block 26,G section, DK area; f is an impression of a seal (c. 4.5cm sq.) on a clay tag found in the drain 124, house X, block 8, HR-B area.Drawn after Mackay 1938: II, pl. 126:t and pl. 131:35-6; Photo archive of the ASI, Sind Vol. 17, p. 79: 400 (=a,b); Mackay 1938: II, pl. 126:2; pl. 131:31; Sind vol. 17, p. 80: 403-4 (=c,d); Mackay 1938: II, pl. 85: 119 (=e); CISI 2: 183, M-1384 (=f); cf. Parpola, 1994, p. 108. e and f: Mohenjodaro, HR Sealing; Seal impression (HR-B, Bl. 8, X, 124); depicts the impression of a huge square seal (about 4.5 cm. square) on a lens of fine tempered clay which is burnt at low temperature. Almost all the ten signs seem to be intact with indications of the ear of a 'one-horned bull' on the right portion of the seal impression. The text of the inscription is similar to the inscriptions found inscribed on bronze weapons (DK 7535, DK 7814) and on a seal with inscriptions 491

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above a zebu bull (DK 10551, Mackay 1938 No. 119). DK 7535 is a bronze-blade which is part of a copper-hoard discovered in DK-G, Bl. 12A, I, 15 at a depth of 24.4 ft. The zebu seal also comes from DKarea, but Bl. 26, I,5 and a depth of only 6.7 ft. below surface. Its ligature (inlaid) in a oval (first sign from r. on bottom line) on an inscribed weapon (Text 2923) and another ligature (first sign on top line of Text 2925) on an inscribed weapon indicates a possible association with a metal artefact.

2923

2925

That a line on text 2119 on a zebu seal (1) is identical with that on a seal impression of another zebu seal and (2) is also identical with the text on an inscribed bronze implement is instructive and leads to three hypotheses: 1. The list composed as a text line containing ‘signs’ is a catalogue of metals (weapons or commodities); hence, each sign is a rebus representation of a ‘metal (weapon or commodity)’. 2. The seal impression constituted a bill of lading for traded metal (armour and weapons or commodities). 3. The zebu [khu~t. (G.)] is a rebus representation of a metal-smith, an armourer, maker or manufacturer of weapons, kut.ha_ru (also interpreted in Skt. as ‘writer’, a person also capable of inscribing on metal implements).

hanhudaro38A

Kalibangan122A areas

Chanhujodaro39A1

Chanhudaro 39A2

Kalibangan 122A2

8301 Inscribed weapons in neighbouring

Tigers inscribed on an axe. Axe from Anoukhva, early first millenniu. Koban culture, North Caucasus. Similar axes have been found in Transcaucasia (western Georgia – ancient Colchis – ) and are part of a rich florescence of bronzework in this period. Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. [After Philp L. Kohl, Central Asia and the Caucasus in the Bronze Age, in: Jack M. Sasson (ed.), Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, p. 1057].

Weapons of copper have been discovered at Nippur, Fara, Tell Sifr: hammers, knives, daggers, hatchets, fetters, fish-hooks, spear-heads; some weapons have rivets for wooden handles; also found 492

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were: mirrors, net-weights, vases, dishes and cauldrons (cf. King, Sumer and Akkad, p. 26; and Hilprecht, Explorations, p. 156). ara = lion (Akkadian); ara = copper (Akkadian) Shaft-hole axe. Silver and electrum. Boar and lion adorn the axe. 5.9 X 12.5 cm. From the temple of godess Kiririsha at Tchoga-Zanbil (near Susa in southwestern Iraq), capital of king Untash-Napirisha, c. 1250 BCE. Cuneiform inscription in Middle Elamite language; trans. ‘Me, UntashNapirisha’. Musee du Louvre. AO (sb 3972). [After Naissance de l’ecriture : cuneiform et hieroglyphs, Paris,1982: 103, no. 60]. Axe-head, Hamadan (Ecbatana), Persia [British Museum, 1904, A Guide to Antiquities of Bronze Age, London, British Museum, Fig. 124] 'The Persian bronze industry was probably influenced in the first instance by Mesopotamia. Axe-heads with shaft-holes and ornamentd with lions in relief have been found in the country, and one from Ecbatana is in the collection (fig. 124); tanged spear-heads and other bronze objects were excavated from a mound at Asterabad; and from Khinaman in West Kerman come similar spear-heads, bronze cups, large pins, and a remarkable axejhead, in the ornamental projection of which we may trace the degradation of the lion-design of fig. 124. To judge from their types, and from the reported discovery in association with them of late Greek pottery, these objects must belong to a period when iron had long been in use further to the west. In the district of Lenkoran, on the south-west shore of the Caspian, now Russian territory, M. de Morgan discovered tombs of an early and a late Bronze period, characterized respectively by large cists containing daggers without metal handles, and by small cists in which were found daggers with cast hilts, and long sword-blades.' (ibid., pp. 128-129). Axe-adze. Ram Shamra (ancient Ugarit), Syria. Cuneiform inscription: h.rs.n rb khum ‘axe of the high priest’. 13th cent. BCE. Bronze. 23 X 5 cm. Musee du Louvre. AO 11 611. [After Naissance de l’ecriture : cuneiform et hieroglyphs, Paris,1982: 178, no. 117]. Inscriptions on metal objects Copper celts with various indentations. Ganeshwar (Rajasthan). 3rd millennium BCE, OCP Complex. [After Pl. 11.5 in RC Agrawala and Vijay Kumar, 1982] The early intimations of ‘writing’ are found on Ganeshwar flat celts. “The average weight of a Ganeshwar celt is approximately one to 1.5 kilograms. All these flat celts were prepared from molds by cire perdu technique. The butt portion of the celts have round indentations in groups of four, five, six, eight, nine, 12 and as many as 15 in different combinations of one, two, three, four and six dote. These combinations are repeated on many inscribed objects of SSVC with short strokes (instead of dots); the practice of incising on the butt ends of weapons also continues. The varied permutations and combinations of dots recall somewhat similar marks on the Chalcolithic celts from Navdatoli (Wheeler 1959: Pl. 25) and Kayatha (Ansari and Dhavalikar 1975: 150). At Kayatha these celts 493

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were assigned a date of 2000-1800 BCE by C14 determination…The indentations on these objects were made with pointed copper drills which have been found at Ganeshwar.” (RC Agrawala and Vijay Kumar, 1982, p. 128). Two double axes of Copper Hoard culture are found from Bhagrapir (Orissa); about 40 cm. Wide, 1 to 3 mm. Thick. Apparently, these could not have been used as axes. Five such double axes have been found from the Kangsavati valley in Bengal. Such types of metal objects have been used for land grants in historical periods. [DH Gordon, Prehistoric background of Indian culture, Bombay, Mandhuri Dhirajlal]. Silver and copper plate epigraphs There are seals of silver and copper. Copper plates are also used to record epigraphs.

m1199A 2520 Silver seal m0317 2016 Silver seal Mohenjo-daro. Copper seal. National Museum, New Delhi. [Source: Page 18, Fig. 8A in: Deo Prakash Sharma, 2000, Harappan seals, sealings and copper tablets, Delhi, National Museum]. m0475At

3247 Copper tablet

Inscriptions on bangles and metal-weapon-shaped tablets In the Bharatiya tradition a bangle is also worn by a warrior. It is the kan:kan.a, a badge of valour. Some objects are shaped like a double-axe (FS 133), some like a sickle ( ?or crescent FS 131), some like a fish (FS 68), some like a tortoise (FS 70), some like a leaf (FS 79).

4407 Pict-129: Inscribed object in the shape of a double-axe or double-shield? [17 out of 17 occur at Harappa]

There are tablets shaped like weapons: double-axe, sickle. h232A

relief

h232B tablet in bas

4368 Inscribed object in the shape of a double-axe.

h233A h233B Inscribed object in the shape of a crescent?

4387 Tablet in bas-relief. Sickle-shaped. Pict-131:

Double-axe Axe in epigraphy and in archaeology 494

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The double-axe is found at Harappa and in the copper hoards of Orissa. A.: Double-edged axe, deeply curved, Bhagarapir, Orissa; B. Double-edged axe, less curved, Bhagarapir, Orissa; C. Doubleedged axe from Harappa; D. Double-edged axe from Harappa. [After S.P. Gupta, 1963, The copper hoards: the problems of homogeneity, stages and development, origin, authorship and dating, Journal of the Bihar Research Society, Vol. 49, Patna, pp. 1-7]. Vase with relief double axe. Courtesy of the French School pictograph with the one shown Gold double axes. Arkalokhori. Cave. Archaeological Museum. Courtesy of Geraldine Cornelia Gesel, 1985, house cult in Minoan Crete, Forlag).

Mallia. MM II Sanctuary: Room 2 (Cat. 76). of Archaeology. Athens. (Compare the axe at Chanhudaro C23 at the top of the page). Herakleion. Alison Frantz (Fig. 83 in: Town, palace, and Goteborg, Paul Astroms

Bull, double-axe, sacral knot "The double axe, the most common occurred only in tombs in the the Protopalatial period pottery axe symbol was found in a town double axe itself has not appeared in extant stand of this date, however, double axe was put on display then. double axe grew larger in the

of the cult symbols, Prepalatial period. In marked with the double sanctuary, though the such a cult room. An indicates that the The stand and the Neopalatial period. Elaborate incised and reduplicated blades of gold, silver, and bronze have been found. The symbol became more popular as a pottery motif, sometimes in connection with the bull and the sacral knot. The connection of the double axe with the bull suggest that the double axe is the axe of sacrifice and that as such it became the symbol of the divinity to whom the bull was sacrificed...The sacral knot, an object rarely found but often depicted on pottery together with the double axe, first appeared in a tomb deposit ranging from Prepalatial to Protopalatial in date...The horns of consecration, which probably represents the horns of the bull, rarely appears in the same sanctuary as the double axe and the bull...The snake, like the bird, became more prominent in the Postpalatial period. Unlike the bird it was always an attribute on a godess or a cult object...The meaning of the double axe is uncertain, but it seems to have been connected particularly with the palace at Knossos, which was known in mythology as the labyrinth. This word is derived from ḷḷḷḷḷḷ, a 495

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Lydian word meaning double axe according to Plutarch." (Geraldine Cornelia Gesel, 1985, Town, palace, and house cult in Minoan Crete, Goteborg, Paul Astroms Forlag). Cretan bronze tools: a, double adze; b and c, double axes; d, single-bladed axe; 3, axe-adze; f, sickle; g, chisel.(After Fig.45 in: Sinclair Hood, 1971, The Minoans: Crete in the Bronze Age, Thames and Hudson) "The general all-purpose tool of the Bronze Age Cretans was an axe-adze with a shaft hole for mounting on a wooden handle. The same tool, but made of iron, is still used throughout Crete today; the axe blade for cutting trees and clearing undergrowth, the adze for hoeing and weeding. Another standard tool in Bronze Age Crete was the double-bladed axe. Single-bladed axes and double adzes were also employed. At first the shaft holes for these tools were circular, but later they were made oval. The oval shaft hole was an improvement, because the wooden handle could not twist round in it." (Sinclaid Hood, opcit., p. 84). Seal-inscriptions; the logograph of an axe is central to these four samples (Source: Scripta Minoa; After Fig. 65G, 26,31,159, p 33 and p 7a in Fig. 3: F. Melian Stawell, 1931, A Clue to the Cretan Scripts, London, G. Bell and Sons Ltd.) Shrine of the Double Axes Godess with attendants from the Shrine of the Double Axes at Knossos (After Fig.117 in: Sinclair Hood, 1971, The Minoans: Crete in the Bronze Age, Thames and Hudson) "...a small room with a bench at the back on which stood little clay images of a godess and a god and their attendants or worshippers, together with two pairs of horns of consecration with holes in the top for inserting cult objects: either bronze double axes, as Evans thought, or leafy twigs or branches...Set into the floor was a circular tripod altar...The godess from the Shrine of the Double Axes has arms raised in the customary manner, and is wearing a long skirt and many necklaces and bracelets. On each wrist she carries a seal stone. Marks on her hands may be meant for fishes. On her head is a dove...Animals associated with Cretan godesses apart from snakes and doves included goats, lions, and imaginary sphinxes and griffins which were merely lions, usually with wings, and with the heads of women or of birds." (Sinclair Hood, opcit., pp. 134-135). It is notable that the images of gods and godesses in the Hindu pantheon in historical periods are adorned with weapons on their multiple hands. A pair of fishes is depicted on the as.t.aman_galakaha_ra on Yaks.i sculptures of Sa_n~ci. The fishes associated with the godess of the Shrine of the Double Axes are also associated with a shorthorned bull on inscribed objects ku_t.amu = summit of a mountain (Te.lex.) kut.t.ta_ra = a mountain (Skt.lex.) kudharamu = a mountain, a hill (Te.lex.) kut.haur.i = a heap, a pile (of Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization. The fish is rebus for an axe: hako; the double-axe (hako) is depicted by two fishes, which further gets stylised as s’ri_vatsa glyph. hake = middle-sized axe for cutting wood (Mund.a); hake = axe (Ho.); go = axe (Bond.a.); vake (Kw); ak(h)ey (Mowasi); akh (Korku) (cf. Skeat and Blagdens' Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula. A-3: gak, 496

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he:g etc. 'adze'; hak to split (Bahnar); hak to tear (Stieng); jik to cut (Stieng) ['Bonda Etymologies' in: Sudhibhushan Bhattacharya, 1968, A Bonda Dictionary, Poona, Deccan College, p. xxxi]. ah-ku-tal = to become sharp, acute (Ta.); cf. L. acu_tus, 'sharp', lit. 'sharpened', pp. of acuere, 'to sharpen', which is to acus, 'needle' (Ta.lex.) It is surmised that two distinct ancient lexemes had been used by the artisans who inscribed the objects of the civilization to denote property items possessed by warriors or items of metal weapons and tools traded: hako could, using the rebus method, be orthographically pictured by 'fish' and atka by 'leaf'. It is also surmised that hako and atka connoted to distinct pieces of armour: hako, middle-sized axe to hew wood; and atka, breast-plate as part of coat of mail of a warrior. hakka_-hakka = calling on, challenging (Skt. lex.) [heko = to brag, to boast, to chatter; ha~k = to call to cattle when driving them (Santali.lex.); akaval = calling, addressing (Ta.)(DEDR 10).] hako = a fish (Santali.lex.) kut.t.a_ra = sexual intercourse (Skt.lex.) ku_t.amu = copulation (Te.lex.) kut.aru = cock (According to the commentator Mahi_dhara (VS 25.4.4), the word is synonymous with kukkut.a, cock. The word is found in the Yajurveda Sam.hita_ only (TS 5.5.17.1; Maitra_yan.i_ S. 1.1.6; 3.14.4.20; 4.1.6; VS 24.23.39; cf. Zimer, Altindischen Leben, 93; cf. Vedic Index, I, p. 160). kut.ru, gut.ru = cooing of a pigeon (Ka.Te.)(DEDR 1667). kut.ha_ru = a monkey (Skt.lex.) gun.d.an:gi = the white-faced black ape (Te.lex.) kut.ha = crooked, bent (Santali.lex.) kut.i = id. (Skt.lex.) kut.ha_ra = axe (Vedic.lex.) cutter 'knife' (Latin); kut.ha_rais. t.an:kais = with axes and spades; kut., kut.t. = to split (Vedic) (Surya Kanta, 1989, A grammatical dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic), Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, p.72). kut.ha_raka = an axe (Ra_ma_yan.a); a small axe (Bhartrr. 3.23); kut.ha_rika = a wood-cutter (Skt.lex.) kut.t.a_ka = cutting (Pa_n. 3.2.155). gun.d.ra = to cut into pieces, to make fine or small (Santali.lex.) kut.a_ri, ko_t.a_ri, ko_t.a_li axe (Ta.); ko_t.a_li, ko_t.a_l.i id. (Ma.); kod.ali (Ka.); kod.ari, kud.ari (Tu.); god.d.ali, god.d.eli, god.d.e_li, god.d.e_lu, god.ali (Te.); golli, goli_ (Kol.); ghol.i (Nk.); kod.li (Nk.); god.el (Go.); gor.el(i) (Kond.a); ku_r.el (large variety axe)(Pe.); kra_d.i (? for kr.a?li, gla'li large axe (Kuwi)(DEDR App. 32). kut.ha_ra, kut.ha_ri (Beng. Or. forms have l for r)(CDIAL 3244; cf. Burrow, BSOAS 35.541). kudda_ramu, kudda_lakamu, kudda_lamu = a sort of spade (Te.lex.) kut.ha_ra axe (R.); kut.ha_raka (VarBr.S); kut.ha_ri_ (Pali); kud.ha_ra, kuha_d.a (Pkt.); kuha_r.o (S.); kuha_r.a_ (L.P.); kulha_r.a_ (P.); kurha_r.i_ (WPah.); kulya_r.o, kulya_r. (Ku.); kur.a_l, kur.ul (B.); kur.a_la, kura_r.ha, kurha_r.i, kura_ri (Or.); kulha_ri large axe for squaring logs (Bi.); kulha_r.a_ axe (H.); kuha_r.o, kuva_r.i_ (G.); kurha_d. (M.); ken.eri (Si.); ket.eri, ket.e_riya long-handled axe (S.)(CDIAL 3244). kud.i = a large hoe, the Indian digging implement, the kudali; t.amni kud.i = a narrow bladed kudali; guji kud.i this pattern has the hoe in the middle of the handle; kat.a kud.i a pronged hoe; t.had.ia kud.i the 497

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pattern handled like a hoe; saheb kud.i, angreji kud.i the English pattern of kudali; kud.i sakam the blade of the kudali (Santali.lex.) [Note the pictorial of 'leaf'; it may be read as 'sakam' or leaf, i.e. the metal blade of a weapon].guji kud.i = a kod.ali or hoe worked by taking hold of both ends of the handle (Santali.lex.) kat.a kud.i = pronged hoe; kat.a kat.i = cutting; to slash, kill (Santali.lex.). kata = a pit saw; kat = a steel spur put on a fighting cock; kat.i = a screw, nail (Santali.lex.) kat.a = leg and foot from the knee downwards; sim kat.a = a fowl's foot; bhid.i kat.a = sheep's trotters; hor. kat.a = a man's foot (Santali.lex.) Dagger and axes found in an Ur grave Sumerian double-bladed axe, Ur [V. Gordon Childe, 1929, The Most Ancient East: the oriental prelude to European prehistory, London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co. Ltd., Fig. 72 b.] Double-bladed Sumerian axe, Ur. Copper tablet (Double-edged battle-axe): Mohenjodaro M 0592B

m0592At m0592Bt 3413 Pict-133: Double-axe (?) without shaft. [The Sign is comparable to the Sign which appears on the text of a Chanhudaro seal: Text 6422, Chanhudaro Seal 23].

Chanhudaro23 goat-antelope is a double-axe.

6402 Goat-antelope with a short tail. The object in front of the

'A third type of axe that now appears for the first time has two blades; it is in fact the oldest doubleaxe.' (Childe, opcit., p. 179).

h232A h232B tablet in bas relief 4368 Inscribed object in the shape of a double-axe. The double-axe on the copper tablet of Mohenjodaro is comparable to the Mesopotamian double-axe found at Ur. Inscriptions on bangles Reg. Number, area and inscription on bangles and bangle-fragments. “From the 38 inscriptions at disposal 17 consist of 1 sign, 11 of 2 signs, 4 of 3 signs, 2 of 4 signs and 1 of 5 signs…Two bangles, Nos. W-S 83-628 and 84-4, bear similar 2-line inscriptions, consisting of 3 and 1 sign respectively. These two pieces are also noteworthy with regard to their exceptional red ware and polish.”.[After Table 1 in Ute Franke-Vogt, Inscribed bangles: an inquiry into their relevance, South Asian Archaeology 1985].

h236A

h236B

4658 Incised miniature tablet.

498

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2929 Incised on pottery 2931 Graffiti on pottery The sign also gets ligatured to three linear strokes (an apparent indication of counted objects) in text 2931. Signboard on north-gate, Dholavira [Association with kot. fort is also apparent from the name of the Dholavira village: kot.d.a]

The ‘spoked-wheel glyph’ is the divider of the three-part message.

crab’ glyph in latter glyph the three dat.o); rebus: merchant.

The reduplicated ‘spoked-wheel glyph’ is associated with ‘claw of the first part of the three-part message of the sign-board. The is dat.o ‘claw of crab’; rebus: dha_tu ‘mineral’ (perhaps tin); hence, signs together may be read as: two wheel + claw (barea ara + baria ara (merchant copper) + dha_tu (tin), i.e., tin, copper

The components are: bar, barea ‘two’; rebus: baria ‘merchant’; alternative 1: kin ‘double’; gina ‘metal vessel’; alternative 2: dohra ‘double’; dohra metal-workers; doht.a ‘two houses’ (substantive: metal-work), gad.h fort. The circumgraph of four short strokes is: gan.d.a ‘four’; gan.d.a warrior . Thus, the glyph combinations connote: metalworkers house; and a warrior living in a fort: gad.h [dohn.i_ pot containing the funeral fire; a milkpan; a trough (G.); dohro, duho a couplet (G.)] d.oh a pit for water; a deep ond (G.); sandoh (Skt.) phut.ia = coppers, bronze coin; phut.ia banuktina = I have no coppers (Santali.Bodding); phu_t.a_ = broken (H.) phut.ia kaud.i, put.aia kaud.i = shells used as money, cowries; twenty make one pice. Commonly used as ornamentation on bullocks, buffalo calves and on drums; phut.ia kaud.i = ka_r.a_ kaud.i (Santali.Bodding) pe_d.ha = lump (Pkt.); pud.a, pud.aia = lump-shaped (Pkt.); pum.d.aia = id., globular (Pkt.); pu~r = spleen (Wg.); pun.d.ik = upper knob of an axe (Pr.)(CDIAL 8377) Is the lady pushing aside the two quarrelling persons carrying two uprooted stumps of trees on m0478B the same lady (with one left eye, da_kannu), d.a_kin.i, shown pushing aside two quarrelling tigers or jackals?

Inscription on pottery storage jar {After Pl. LXIII, 3 in: Mackay, EJH, Further Excavations in Mohenjodaro, Vol. II).

499

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dhakna = an earthenware lid for a t.ukuc; dhakni, dhaknic = an earthenware lid for a kan.d.a; d.hakon = a cover, lid, to hush up (Santali.lex.) d.hakao = to cover, obscure (Santali.lex.) d.alu, ad.alulo to cover something (Boind.a) d.a_narai lid of pot (Bond.a.Hindi) d.aren-mund.i lid of pot; d.aren, ad.aren to cover up pot with lid (Bond.a); d.arai to cover (Bond.a.Hindi) d.a_gu, da_gu = to hide (Te.lex.) da_gu = to be hidden or concealed; da_gud.u = to hide oneself (Te.lex.) d.han:ka_vum = to be covered; to be closed; to be concealed; d.ha_nkakum, d.ha_n:kan.um, d.ha_n:kan.um, d.ha_n:kan.iyum = a lid; a cover; a covering; protection, protector; d.ha_nkan.i_ = a lid; a cover; a covering; an earthen vessel serving as a lid for another; d.ha_n:kavum [Hem. Des. d.han:kan.i_ = Skt. pidha_nika_, a lid, a cover from api-dha_na a cover fr. api all round + dha_ tto put Or, Hem. Des. d.hakka = Skt. Skt. cha_dayati it covers] to cover; to close with a top or lid; to overspread a thing with something else; to shut, close; to hide, to conceal (G.lex.) The lid on top of the narrow-necked jar [See

m0478B] is paralleled on the Dholavira sign board by

Sign , an inverted V; this sign occurs in the second of three sequences (read from left to right) started by the spoked-wheel glyph (rebus, put.hi, ‘copper ingot’). Does it connote d.a_kin.i, ‘sword’, a phonetic determinant of khan.d.a, ‘sword’ (kan.d.a, ‘pot’; kan.d. kanka, ‘gold altar, furnace’)?

man.d.iga = an earthen dish (Te.lex.) man.d.e = a large earthen vessel (Tu.lex.) man.di earthen pan, a covering dish (Kond.a); cooking pot (Pe.); brass bowl (Kui); basin, plate (Kuwi)(DEDR 4678). man.d.e = head (Kod.)(DEDR 4682).

Sign 256

Sign 261

Sign 266

Sign 266 is a ligature of Sign 256 and Sign 261. Sign 256 also occurs on the Dholavira Sign board together with Sign 261. Sign 256: pacar = a wedge driven ino a wooden pin, wedge etc. to tighten it (Santali.lex.) pacri = an enclosing wall, to enclose by a wall (Santali.lex.) pacr.ao = to thrown down, to overcome (Santali.lex.) pasra = a smithy, place where a black-smith works, to work as a blacksmith; kamar pasra = a smithy; pasrao lagao akata se ban:? Has the blacksmith begun to work? pasraedae = the blacksmith is at his work (Santali.lex.) The sign-board has ten signs of which as many as four depict a spoked wheel with six spokes. This sign occurs on inscribed weapons and is closely associated with the zebu bull pictorial motif [read as a rebus representation of kut.ha_ru, armourer, inscriber]. This sign of a spoked wheel also occurs in association with sign depicting an armed guard on a seal, Chanhudaro30

mat.od.um earth, clay, mud; a clod of earth; mat.od.i_ earth, clay, dust; mad.iyo, mad.a gravel (G.) mat.akki to bend as the arms or knees (Ta.); mat.akku knuckle (Ta.)(DEDR 4645). 500

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Glyph: sal ‘horns of a bull’; substantive: sal ‘smithy, workshop’ mod.um the face; mun.d.a the head; mon.d.um, mod.hum, mon: [Hem. Des. mod.e fr. Skt. mun.d.am the head] the mouth; the tongue; the face; the forepart; an entrance, a passage (G.) mun.d.a the head, the neck, the skull; mu_d.i_ the head (G.) mon.d. the tail of a serpent (Santali) men.d.ho [Dh. Des. mid.ia_o fr. Skt. men.d.h, men.d. a ram; Skt. medhya a goat, fr. medha a sacrifice] a ram, a sheep (G.) Glyph: bhed.a, boda ‘ram’; substantive: bhin.d.ia ‘a lump, applied especially to the mass of iron taken from the smelting furnace’ mehra_b = an arch; a vault; a building in the form of a segment of a circle (G.lex.) [cf. the arch surrounding a spoked wheel sign on texts on zebu seals]. mehro = a pa_lki_ bearer (G.lex.) med.hi = pillar, support (Pkt.lex.) me~r.he~t = iron (Santali.lex.) men.d.a_ = lump, clot (Or.)(CDIAL 10308). mer = a kind of large copper or brass pot (G.lex.) mer.ed., me~r.ed., me~r.e~d. iron; en:ga mer.ed. soft iron; sand.i mer.ed. hard iron; ispa_t mer.ed. steel; dul mer.ed. cast iron; bicamer.ed. iron extracted from stone ore (Mundari.lex.) min.t.e, mit.t.i = a kind of weapon, s’aramun.d.i (Ka.lex.) min.d.u, min.d.a = a man of high position or character; a hero; katte citraga_r-ana min.d.a = is an object that he never can draw well; min.d.a = somebody that is above or beyond another’s reach, beyond his faculties, or out of his power; han.a no_t.aga_r-ana min.d.a = is something he likely to make mistake about (Ka.lex.) me_n.t.a, me_n.t.u = adj. showy, boastful; me_n.t.a ga_re = a fop; a rake (Tu.lex.) min.t.iteruvari = the sun, a god, a deity (Te.lex.) Head servant mente = an affix signifying for, for the purpose of; also a conjunctive particle which constitutes the sentence it subordinates an adverbial clause of purpose or a noun clause; nahel menteye mak keda = he cut it (a piece of timber) for a plough; rupa menteko idikeda = they took it away thinking it silver (Santali.lex.) mente – affixed to certain roots to form adverbs implying sudden and single action; dhau mente jod gotena = it burned with a sudden blaze (Santali.lex.) cf. me~t = eye (Santali) [The dotted circle could be rebus: min.d.a, hero]. Me_t.t.i = excellenece, chief, head, land granted free of tax to the headman of a village (Te.); me_ti = greatness, a big man, a chief, head servant (Ka.); me_t.ari, me_t.i = chief, head, leader, lord (Te.)(DEDR 5091). me~d.ha_ = crook or curved end (of a horn, stick etc.)(M.); me~r.a_, me~d.a+ ram with curling horns (H.)(CDIAL 10120). Cf. me_n.d.ha = ram (Skt.)(CDIAL 10310). me_l.h goat (without etymology)(Brahui); mr..e_ka (unknown meaning)(Te.); me_~ka = goat (Te.)(DEDR 5087). me_d.i = glomerous fig tree, ficus racemosa (Ka.); ficus glomerata (Te.); me_r.i (Kol.)(DEDR 5090). mendi_ = eyelashes (Halbi); kandl mindig (pl.) eyelash (Kol.); mindi, mindi_ (Go.); kon.d.a-min.di eyelid, eyelash (Go.)(DEDR 4864). mitn.e~ = to close the eyes (M.)(CDIAL 10119). 501

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[Thus, when glyphs of an antelope or markhor with curving horns and a ficus leaf are shown, the rebus is: me_t.i = an eminent person, head servant; this may explain why a leaf glyph is ligatured with a special crowning on top of the grapheme; when a warrior is shown with a glyph depicting an eye-lash (as on an ivory plaque), the rebus is: me_t.i, me_t.ari an eminent person, hero, warrior. Note the ligature of leaf to the body, me_ndur = body; hence, the standing person sign may simply represent me_ndur, body].

m1653 ivory plaque

1905

men.du = abundance (Te.); me_nd. full (Go.); me_r. = full, whole, entire, complete (Go.); na_r. mend.u = the whole village (Go.)(DEDR 5060). me_n.i = body (Ta.); me_l = body (Ta.); me_ndur (Go.); me_ndol human body (Kond.a); me~_d, me_d body, womb, back (Kur.); meth = body (Malt.)(DEDR 5099). mi~r.u~ = rimless, not having a rim (Santali.lex.) me_l.amba = the black humble bee (Ka.); milind = a bee of the large black kind (Mar.); milinda = bee (Skt.)(DEDR 5098). [Note the black ant glyphs]. min.d.u = animal passion, sensual longing, lustiness; min.d.i = a lusty female; a woman of nubile age (Ka.lex.) me_n.t.ige = coupling, union (Tu.lex.) [Note coupling, copulating imageries] me_n.te = a couple (Tu.lex.) mel.ai = couple (Kon.lex.) [Note pairing of signs; more importantly, note the pairing of animals: two scorpions (kamar, smithy), two antelopes (tagar, tin), two tigers (kol, smithy or forge), two short-horned bulls (d.an:gar, smith), two faces of one-horned bulls ligatured [vahur., worker (of a furnace/workshop, kod.)]. This pairing may be a rebus representation of an honorific, a titling by assigned function: me_t.i = an eminent person – a clause of purpose as in Santali; cf. nahel menteye mak keda = he cut it (a piece of timber) for a plough]. Scorpion Tepe Yahya. Scorpion, palm-tree (?), fish and two stars – each image is carved on each side of the foursided bead steatite stamp seal. The bead is perforated. (After LambergKarlovsky and Tosi 1973: fig. 121)

Sign 51

and Sign 327

Scorpion and rogalidha on early Cretan seals (After Fig.3 in: Sinclair Hood, 1971, The Minoans: Crete in the Bronze Age, Thames and Hudson) kuma_li_ a particular insect (Ku.); kumbhaka_ri_ wasp (Skt.); kuma_l-kot.i, kamalkot.i a kind of wasp (N.); kuma_rni = the 502

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mason wasp (A.); kumha_ri_ wasp-like insect which makes a clay nest (H.); ku~bha_r, ku~bha_ri_, ku~bheri_ = vespa solitaria (M.)(CDIAL 3312). kummarpurugu = a kind off insect resembling the gryllus; the beetle called by the English a carpenter or mole cricket (Te.lex.) kummarincu (caus. of kummarillu) to pour out of a vessel, bag, basket or the like, to empty, to discharge; to scatter (as perfume); kummarilu = to fall, pour or flow out, gush out, issue forth from a vessel (Te.lex.) [Note the water pouring out of the kumbha or kalas’a in the Mohenjodaro pectoral showing a one-horned bull]. kum.va_ra, kum.vera = the aloe plant (G.); kuma_ri_ (Skt.)(G.lex.) ghi ku~a~r. = cactus species (Santali.lex.) kuma_ri a plant (Pkt.); kuma_ri_ capparis trifoliata (Skt.); ku~a_r-bu_t.i_ = aloe perfoliata (S.)(CDIAL 3304). kr-ummu, kummu = to butt or gore with the horns; a butt with the head or horns (Te.lex.) kummula_t.a = a rough-and-tumble fight, squabble, quarrel; kummula_d.u = to fight, quarrel, wrangle (Te.lex.) kr-ummu, kummu = to pierce (with a lance-head or rapier point)(Te.lex) kummu = v.t. to butt, gore, pierce, as animal with the head or horns, or a man with the elbow, fist etc.; to mix or beat mud chunam or any other thing with a pestle or the feet, to tread; n. a butt, goring; smouldering ashes (Te.lex.) kummusuddi = a talk or communication by means of signs of symbolical language (Te.lex.) This is mlecchita vikalpa! Cryptography.

2189.Image: bending: kumbu bending, bowing down: a bow, an obeisance (Ka.Ta.Ma.) (Ka.lex.) Image: salutation: kumbu bending, bowing down, obeisance; kumbid.u to bow down, do obeisance (Ka.); kump-it.u (it.uv-, it.t.-) to join hands in worship, make obeisance with the hands joined and raised, beg, entreat; n. worship (Ta.); kump-it.uka, kumm-it.uka to bow down, prostrate oneself, worship (Ma.); kub.ir.- (it.-) to bow down, pray; kumit.e- salutation used by Kota to Badaga or Kurumba (Ko.); kub-id.(it.-) to salute (not used of religious salutation); ku.d.- (ku.d.0-) to bow, bend down (To.)(DEDR 1750). cf. ku_ppu (ku_ppi-) joining hands as in worship; to join hands as in worship (Ta.); ku_ppuka salute by joining both hands (Ma.)(DEDR 1894). 2136.Munda: kompat., kompa_t., kumpa_t. adj. with mund.a, a genuine munda, one of those generally called mundas simply, in contrast to mahali mund.a, ho_ ku~ar = family title of ks.atriyas, boy (Or.)(*CDIAL 3303). ku~ar. = the patronymic of the Hembrom sept of the Santals; ku~ar = prince, the title borne by the second son of a Bhuiya ra_ja_ or zamindar (Santali.lex.) kummari = a potter; kummra = the caste of potters; kummaravad.u = a potter; kummarasa_na, kummarasa_re = a potter’s wheel (Te.lex.) 2192.Potter: kumbhaka_ra potter (Ya_j.Pali); kumbhaka_ri_, kumbhaka_rika_ (Skt.); kumbhaka_raka (Pali); kum.bhaa_ra, kum.bha_ra (Pkt.); ku~bha_ru (S.); kumbha_r, kumbha_ri_, kubha_r, kubha_ri_ (L.); kumha_r, kumha_ri_, kamhea_r, kamha_r (P.); kuma_r, kumha_r (Ku.); kum(h)a_le (N.); kuma_r (A.B.); kumbha_ra, kuma_ra (Or.); kumha_r, kumhara_, ku~ha_r, koha_r (Bi.); kumha_r, kumhara_ (Mth.); ko~ha_r, ku~bha_r (Bhoj.); kumha_r (H.); ku~bha_r (G.M.); kumba_ru (Konkan.i); kumbala_ (Si.)(CDIAL 3310). kumpaka_ran- potter (Ta.); kumbhaka_ran id. (Ma.); kumo.r-n id. (To.); kumbhaka_ra (Ka.); kumbhaga_r-a (Ka.); kumba_r-a (Ka.); kumbar-a ((Ka.); kuba.re id., stupid fellow (Kod..); kumbaka_re potter (Tu.); 503

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kumba_re (Tu.); kumbare potter (Tu.); kumbhaka_ru~d.u (Te.); kumari (Te.); kummal (Pa.Go.); kumbarenju, f. kumbareri (Kui); ku_mbra, kumbra (Kuwi) (DBIA 109). Crucible: kuvai crucible, melting-pot, pon-n-ur-ukkum-kukai < guha_? [iruntai-k-kuvai yotteana (Tan.ikai-p-pu.Tiruna_t.t.u-p-pu.63)](Ta.lex.) ko_ve crucible, mould (Tu.); crucible (Ka.); kuva crucible (Ma.); kuvai, kukai crucible (Ta.)(DEDR 1816). Potter: kuvara, ko_va potter (Ka.); kusave id (Tu.) ; kuyam (kucam- first member of compound) potter caste (Ta.); kuyavanpotter (Ta.Ma.); kucavan- potter (Ta.); kus'avan (Ma.); kuyatti fem. potter (Ta.Ma.); ko.v Kota man (Ko.); kwi.f Kota man (To.)(DEDR 1762). ko_la_la potter (Dardic); kula_la-cakka potter's wheel (Pali); kra_l potter (K.); kula_l.a (Or.); kara_l.iyo seller of earthenware (G.); karol.iyo potter (G.)(CDIAL 3341). ko_ potter (Ta.); kuvara, ko_va potter (Ka.); ko.v Kota man (Ko.); ko.ka.l Kota village (Ko.); kwi.f Kota man (To.); kwi.ko.l Kota village (To.); kuyam potter caste (Ta.); kuyavan potter (Ma.)(DEDR 1762). kuyam, (kucam- first member of compound) potter caste; kuyavan-, kucavan- potter; fem. kuyatti, kucatti; ko_ potter (Ta.); kuyavan, kus'avan potter (Ma.); fem. kuyatti, kuyavi, kus'avi (Ma.); ko.v Kota man (Ko.); ko.ty Kota woman (Ko.); ko. mog Kota child (Ko.); ko. ka.l Kota village (Ko.); kwi.f Kota man (To.); kwi.ty Kota woman (To.); kwi.ko.l Kota village (To.); ko_va, kuvara potter (Ka.); kusave id. (Tu.)(DEDR 1762). ko.ty Kota woman (Ko.); ko_ potter (Ta.)(DEDR 1762). ko_ve_l. potters (irun:ko_ve_t.kal.u cempu ceyarum : Man.i. 28,34)(Ta.)(Ta.lex.) ve_t.ko_ potter; ve_t.ko_pan- potter; ve_t.ko_van- potter (ve_t.ko_ cir-a_ ar te_rkka_l vaitta pacumat. kuru_ uttiral. : Pur-ana_. 32)(Ta.lex.) ve_l. one belonging to the Ve_l.ir class (Pur-ana_. 24); Ca_l.ukya king; petty ruler, chief; title given by ancient Tamil kings to Ve_l.a_l.as (Tol. Po. 30); (cempiyan- tamir..ave_l. ennun. kulappeyarum : S.I.I. iii,221); illustrious or great man; hero; ve_l.vi (Ta.Ma.); be_luve sacrifice (Ka.); (mun-muyan- r-aritin-in- mut.itta ve_l.vi : Akana_. 220)(Ta.lex.) ve_l(u)pu god or godess, deity, divinity, a celestial, demi-god, immortal (Te.)(DEDR 5544). ko_van- herdsman, king (ko_va n-iraimi_t.t.an-n- (Ci_vaka. 455); ko_valar herdsmen, men of the sylvan tract (kruntan. kan.n.i-k- ko_valar (Ain:kuru. 439); ko_varttanar, ko_vintar herdsmen (Ta.)(Ta.lex.). Prince; boy: kuma_ra boy (RV.); prince (Ragh.); young boy (Pali); boy, prince (Pkt.); kuma_raka little boy (RV.); young boy (Pali); kuma_la prince (As'.); koma_r youth (only in razakoma_r)(K.); ku~a_ro bachelor (S.); ku~va_ra, kua_ra bachelor (L.); ku~va_r bride (L.); kava_r, ka~va_ra, kava_ra, kua_ra, kama_ra bachelor (P.); ka~var prince (P.); kaur boy, prince (P.); ku~ar prince (Ku.); ku~wa_r, kuma_r unmarried, a caste of Chettris (N.); ku~wa_ro, kuma_ro boy, young bachelor (N.); ku~wa_r, kumar, kamar prince (N.); ko~war prince (A.); ko~ya_r prince (B.); kua~_ra bachelor; kua~_ra_ unmarried (of males)(Or.); kua~ra boy, family title of Ks.atriyas (Or.); ku~wa_r unmarried boy (Bhoj.); ku~ara prince (OAw.); ku~a_r unmarried (OAw.); ku~wa_r unmarried youth, prince; ku~war prince; ku~wa_ra_, kwa_ra_ bachelor (H.); kavara prince (OMarw.); ku~var, ku~ver boy, prince (G.); ku~va_r.d.u~ funeral ceremonies four days after death of an infant (G.); ku~var boy under five years old, prince (M.); komarun obl. pl. boys (OSi.); kumaruva_ child, prince (Si.)(CDIAL 3303). kumaran- young man, youth (Kampara_. Mitilaik. 157); son; Skanda, as son of S'iva (Kantapu. Kat.avul.. 16); kumari perpetual youthhood (Cilap. 10,123); kuma_ramat.ai-p-pal.l.i a sub-caste of mat.ai-p-pal.l.i who got their name from their ancestors having been cooks of princes; kuma_ran- Skanda, as son of S'iva (Kantapu. Kuma_ra. 16)(Ta.lex.) 2191.Potter: ko_va a Kur-umba; a potter; kur-umbar; ba_mbar endum ko_var endum kumbar-ar; ba_mbar ene ko_var ene kur-ubar; ba_mbar ene ko_var kumbar-ar (S'abdaman.idarpan.a; Kabbigara Ke_ypid.i; loc. cit. Ka.lex.) kus'ava a potter (Ma.); ko_vara cakram potter's wheel (Ka.); ko_vida skilled, experienced, learned, wise (Ka.Skt.); kor-ava a man of a now settled tribe, who speaks Kannad.a, makes baskets, mats etc., is a musician;

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kur-ava a wandering tribe of basket-makers, snake-catchers and gypsies (Ta.Ma.); kor-avaji a female of the kor-avas, who commonly is a fortune-teller (Ka.Te.); kur-avaci, kur-atti (Ta.); kor-avajikathe a story about Arjuna disguised as a kor-avaji (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) kur-uba, kur-aba, kur-umba a man of the shepherd caste, a shepherd (who worships maila_la lin:ga and the masan.i; ja_ba_la, aja_ji_va; ba_mba; golla (Ka.); kurupe, kuruma (Te.); kur-umpan- (Ta.); kur-umba (Ma.); kur-uba a stubborn, foolish man (Ka.); kur-umba (Ma.); kur-uba-heggad.e a chief among shepherds (Ka.); kur-uba a potter; kur-ubagitti a kur-uba woman; kur-ubitti, kur-ubati, kur-umbiti id. (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) kuvara a potter; ba_mba (a kur-uba or kur-umba; a potter; fr. ba_n, ba_na = a pile of earthen vessels), kummar-a (Ka.lex.) ko_valan- hero of the epic Cilappatika_ram (Ta.lex.) The spoked-wheel glyph also occurs on blade-axes and on a Zebu bull seal. The occurrence on metal weapons points to links with smithy. The zebu bull (which is normally perceived as a signature glyph of Sarasvati civilization, which roams the streets of many cities and towns in Gujarat even today), is adar d.angra; rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Kannada); d.angra ‘smith’ (Hindi). The nave of the spoked wheel is eraka; rebus erka = ekke (Tbh. of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper (metal); crystal (Ka.lex.) cf. eruvai = copper (Ta.lex.) eraka, er-aka = any metal infusion (Ka.Tu.) eruvai ‘copper’ (Ta.); ere dark red (Ka.)(DEDR 446). Homonymous glyphs/lexemes: eraka = raised arm (of the person ligatured to a bull’s behind). Pairing is explained rebus: barea ‘two’; rebus: bar.ea ‘merchant’. m0296 Two heads of one-horned bulls with neck-rings, joined end to end (to a standard device with two rings coming out of the top part?), under a stylized tree with nine leaves. Zebu and nine leaves. In front of the standard device and the stylized tree of leaves, are the black buck antelopes. Black paint on red ware of Kulli style. Mehi. Second-half of 3 rd millennium BCE. [After G.L. Possehl, 1986, Kulli: an exploration of an ancient civilization in South Asia, Centers of Civilization, I, Durham, NC: 46, fig. 18 (Mehi II.4.5), based on Stein 1931: pl. 30. lo ‘iron’ (Assamese, Bengali); loa ‘iron’ (Gypsy) Glyph: lo = nine (Santali); no = nine (B.) onpatu = nine (Ta.) Fish and associated glyphs hako = axe (Santali) hak to split (Bahnar); hak to tear; jik to cut (Stieng); gc? axe (Bonda) cf. paku (pakuv-, pakk-) to be split, divided (Ta.) (DEDR 3808). hako fish (Santali) ke~r.e~ ko~r.e~ an aboriginal tribe who work in brass and bell-metal (Santali.lex.)

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ker.e sen:gel fire in a pit, as the Koles burn charcoal (Santali) ken.t.ai, freshwater fish, barbus (Ta.); ken.t.a a carp, cyprinus; gen.d.e-mi_n a sort of fish (Ka.); gan.d.e, gen.d.e a fish; gen.d.i, gen.d.iya, gen.d.e the carp, cyprinus fimbriatus (Te.; kin.d.o_ a species of fish; kindo_ injo~ carp fish (Kur.)(DEDR 1947). kan.d.a_yi = gar fish (fish) (Ta.)

V059 V069

V070

V060 V067 V072

V068

V073

V074

V076 V078

(55) 36 (17)

V081

(44)

Sign 59 (381)

Copper tablets (14)

h172B Field Symbol

Sign 59 : bed.a hako = a fish (Santali) Rebus: bed.a = hearth; hako = axe (Santali) In the corpus of epigraphs, fish Signs frequency is 1241 and there are 14 objects shaped like fish, all of which were found at Harappa.

This is a frequent pairing (about 60 occurrences) of ‘fish’ Signs.

The ‘fish’ Sign also gets duplicated in pairs.

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h940Ait h942Ait

h350B

h940Bit h942Bit

h350C

h850At

4453 4490

[Incised

tablet]

h350A

4576

h850Bt

h850Ct

h885Ait

4642

h885Bit

4530

Fish.

h884Abit 4437 The ‘fish’ glyphs are also ligatured with a circumgraph of four short strokes: The circumgraph of four short strokes is: gan.d.a ‘four’ gan.d.a ‘valiant male or hero’ Final Sign clusters after ‘fish’ Sign types and ‘man’ Signs. Framed ‘man’ and other Signs framed in a column are found only after ‘jar’ Sign or its zero variant. [After Parpola, 1994, fig. 6.6] On the use of circumgraphs associated with the 'fish' Sign, Parpola notes (1994, pp.69-70): "…the four strokes around the ‘fish’ Sign may in fact be understood to be read after it, and that their meaning is close to the Sign ‘arrow’ that is often found in this position." The following sequences are shown as evidence.

5477

1554

4604

5477 Twenty Signs occur with the circumgraph of four short strokes; many of these 20 Signs occur as final motifs of the text, functioning similar to the ‘jar’ Sign which terminates many texts. The circumgraph may, therefore, be the terminating ‘word’ of the text, functioning similar to the 'arrow' Sign. The 'arrow' Sign terminates 184 inscriptions (out of a total of 227 inscriptions in which the 'arrow' occurs).

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(44)

(24)

(18)

(20)

Sign 65 (216)

Copper tablets (16)

Sign 65 is a ligatured glyph: bed.a hako = a fish. Rebus: bed.a = hearth (G.) ligatured with a ‘lid’ glyph. d.aren-mund.i lid of pot; d.aren, ad.aren to cover up pot with lid (Bond.a); d.arai to cover (Bond.a.Hindi) Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.), i.e. hearth for native metal.

Pairing Sign

Liquid measure: ran:ku; rebus: ran:ku = tin (Santali)

Pairing Sign silver (Ta.)

savat.u, savut.u, saut.u, so_t.u = ladle, spoon (Ka.) Rebus: caval.ai = lead,

(28)

(26)

(32) (21) Sign 67 (279) Copper tablets (8) Sign 67: a~s ‘scales of fish’; rebus: ayas ‘metal’ (RV) bed.a hako = a fish; rebus: bed.a = hearth. Thus, a~s bed.a = metal hearth.

(10) Sign 70 (73) Copper tablets (5) A spot or mark is ligatured to ‘fish’ glyph: dag = to mark, stain, brand, cauterize; a blemish, a spot, stigma, mark (Santali) Rebus: dagad.a, dagad.o = a large stone; a large lump of earth (G.) bed.a hako = a fish; rebus: bed.a = hearth. Thus, Sign 70 denotes a hearth for stone or lump of earth. (21) Sign 72 (188) Copper tablets (20) Glyph is a slanting stroke ligatured to ‘fish’ glyph: d.ha_l.iyum = adj. sloping, incliding; d.ha_l. = a slope; the inclination of a plane (G.) Rebus: : d.ha_l.ako = a large metal ingot; d.ha_l.aki_ = a metal heated and poured into a mould; a solid piece of metal; an ingot (G.) bed.a hako = a fish; rebus: bed.a = hearth. Thus, Sign 72 denotes a hearth for metal ingot.

Sign 61 Sign 197

is ligatured with ‘fish Sign’ and enclosed within a circumgraph.

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The three ligaturing components of Sign 61 may be read as: gan.d.a ‘four’; bed.a ‘fish’; kod.a ‘sluice’. The rebus substantives are: kan.d.a ‘furnace’; bed.a ‘hearth’; kod. ‘artisan’s workshop’ [Alternative: d.a_l. = water-course (G.); d.ha_l.o = large metal ingot; a~s = scales of fish (Santali); rebus: aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.)] The circumgraphed 'fish'Sign (Sign 60), i.e. the 'fish' enclosed within four circumgraphs or four short-strokes can be read as two words: X plus bed.a ‘hearth'. What is X or what is the 'meaning' 'reading' of the 'circumgraph'?

= In an incisive, contextual analysis of the corpus of inscriptions containing the 'fish' Sign, Asko Parpola demonstrates that the Sign sequences (Sign 211 and Sign 59) are functionally similar to the ligatured Sign (fish enclosed in four circumgraphs: Sign 60) (cf. Asko Parpola, Asko Parpola, 1994, Deciphering the Indus Script, Cambridge Univ. Press, Fig. 6.6, p.94) eraka 'upraised arm' (Ta.); rebus: eraka = copper (Ka.) kod.a, kor.a = in arithmetic one; 4 kor.a or kod.a = 1 gan.d.a = 4 (Santali.lex.) Synonyms for kod. ‘artisan’s workshop’: s’al (arrow); s’al (workshop). The word for a 'set of four' is: gan.d.a (Santali); bar gan.d.a poesa = two annas; pon gan.d.a aphor menaka, there are 16 bunches of rice seedlings; gan.d.a gun.d.a to be broken into pieces or fragments; fragments; gan.d.a gut.i to dive, to make up an account; the system of 'gan.d.a gut.i' is to put down a pebble, or any other small object, as the name of each person entitled to share is mentioned. Then a share is placed alongside of each pebble, or whatever else laid down. (Santali.lex.)

Sign 60Thus, the circumgraphed ‘fish’ Sign 60 can be read as: bed.a gan.d.a (rebus: bed.a ‘hearth’, kan.d. ‘furnace’), i.e. hearth and furnace. Cf. kan.t.am ‘arrow’ (Ta.) Banawali 23A A tall person with an upraised arm in front of a one-horned bull and a markhor with upturned faces (apparently listening to the person); two Signs occur: ‘fish’ and ‘arrow’ graphemes. The sealing is on terracotta. The ten steatite seals and one sealing have only come from the lower town, not the citadel…these seals were generally recovered from houses which on the basis of their contents…have been tentatively attributed to a trader or jeweler (Bisht, R.S., 1982, Excavations at Banawali: 1974-77, in: Gregory L. Possehl, Harappan Civilization, Delhi, p.118). Glyph: gan.d.a ‘male person, hero’ (Ka.)

509

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Sign 68 ken.t.ai ‘carp’, gan.d.e ‘fish’; rebus: ke~r.e~ bell-metal, brass. gan.d.a ‘four’; kan.d. ‘furnace’ The frequently occurring pairs of 'fish' ligatures are as follows (frequencies are shown in parenthesis):

Signs 72, 67 (6) Signs 59, 65 (5)

Signs 72, 67, 65 (2)

Signs 67, 65 (4)

Signs 70, 67 (3)

Sign 67; Alternative 1: four scales, a count of four, gan.d.a; rebus: kan.d. ‘furnace’, thus a count of four ‘a~s’ metal (ayas) furnaces; alternative 2: ko_la_ ‘flying fish, exocaetus; garfish, belone (Ta.); ko_la_-mi_n, ko_li needle-fish (Ma.)(DEDR 2241); rebus: kol = metal; working in iron (Ta.); kole.l –smithy’ (Ko.)(DEDR 2133). Sign 72 with a sloping ligature can be explained: d.ha_l.iyum = adj. sloping, inclining; d.ha_l. = a slope; the inclination of a plane; d.hal.avum = to incline, to lean over (G.); rebus: d.ha_lako = a large metal ingot (G.) a~s = scales of fish (Santali); rebus: aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.) Thus, Sign 72 can be read as: d.ha_l. ayas = large metal ingot. The ligature of a short linear stroke on Sign 70 may be a grapheme (synonymous with Sign 72) and may also connote: d.ha_l = a shield, a buckler; the grand flag of an army directing its march and encampments; the standard or banner of a chieftain; a flag flying on a fort (G.); rebus: d.ha_l.ako = large metal ingot (G.) ams’a = a portion; the numerator of a fraction; an attribute; a degree in circular or angular measurement (G.); rebus: a~s = scales of fish (Santali) [ams’a is a technical term used in the R.gveda to describe an attribute of soma; in this context, ams’u may be a description of the metallic protrusions of soma, electrum mineral ore. Cf. ams’u = the ray, the sun (G.)] These sequences demonstrate that the five types of 'fish' ligatures, i.e. Signs 59, 65, 67, 70, 72 are distinctly differentiated substantives. Within the circumgraph, there are five 'fish' related Signs and ligatures, i.e. the types of 'fish' ligatures enclosed within the circumgraph (of four short strokes): ^ affixed on top of ‘fish’ glyph ad.aren, d.aren to cover up pot with lid; d.aren-mund.i lid of pot (Bond.a); d.arai to cover (Bond.a.Hindi) tal.l.e wooden handle, as of an axe (Ka.Tu.)(DEDR 3137). d.alu, ad.alulo to cover something (Boind.a) d.a_narai lid of pot (Bond.a.Hindi)

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Alternative: man.d.iga = an earthen dish (Te.lex.) man.d.e = a large earthen vessel (Tu.lex.) man.di earthen pan, a covering dish (Kond.a); cooking pot (Pe.); brass bowl (Kui); basin, plate (Kuwi)(DEDR 4678). man.d.e = head (Kod.)(DEDR 4682). man.d.a_ = warehouse, workshop (Kon.lex.) aduru native metal (Ka.); ajirda karba very hard iron (Tu.); ayil iron (Par..amo. 8)(Ta.); ayir, ayiram any ore (Ma.)(DEDR 192). ayas metal, iron (RV.); ayo_ (Pali); aya iron (Pali.Pkt.); ya id. (Si.)(CDIAL 590). yahun.u iron filings (Si.)(CDIAL 589). yakad.a iron (Si.); ayaska_n.d.a a quantity of iron, excellent iron (Pa_n..gan..) atar = fine sand (Ta.); adaru = a sparkle (Te.); ayir = iron dust (Ma.) ayil javelin, lance (Jn-a_. 33)(Ta.); ayil surgical knife, lancet (Ja_n-a_. 30); ayilavan- Skanda as bearing a javelin (Tiruppu. 312)(Ta.lex.) ayil sharpness (Na_lat.i. 386)(Ta.) ayil javelin, lance (Ma.); ayiri surgical knife, lancet (Ma.)(DEDR 193). bed.a hako ‘fish’ (Santali) bed.a ‘either of the sides of a hearth’ (G.) bhin.d.a a lump, applied especially to the mass of iron taken from the smelting furnace (Santali) a~s = scales of fish (Santali); rebus: aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.) Sign 65 The ligatured ‘fish’ Sign can be interpreted as: adaru bed.a ‘hearth for (smelting) native metal’. Alternative: a~s + dagni = scales of fish + an iron with which an owner brands his mark upon his cattle (Santali); rebus: d.hakni, d.haknic, d.hakon = an earthenware lid for a kan.d.a (Santali) + ayas ‘metal’. Code for ligatured ‘fish’ Signs Based on this concordance table, the possible interpretation of the ligatured 'fish' Signs may be derived: The circumgraph is orthographed with four short strokes. Four is a landing-point in ancient numeration in Bharat. Sign 67 ken.t.ai carp (Ta.); gan.d.e = a fish (Te.lex.) The glyphs of ligatured fin: cet.t.ai fin (Ta.); cat.t.upa wing (Te.)(DEDR 2764) Rebus, substantive: ke~r.e~ bell-metal, brass. kolli = a kind of fish (Ma.); koleji (Tu.)(DEDR 2139). Fish: gullo (Tu.), golla-dondu (Te.), ko_la_n = needle-fish (Ma.) ko_la (Ta.) xola_ tail (Kur.); qoli (Malt.)(DEDR 2135) kol ‘smithy’; kulme = furnace (Ka.); kolimi = furnace (Te.) Hence, Sign 70 = kol + bed.a ‘smithy and hearth’

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Sign 65 adaru bed.a ‘hearth for (smelting) native metal’ Sign 70 A short stroke within the body of the fish) affixed to the basic 'fish' pictograph. sal stake, spike, splinter, thorn, difficulty (H.); sal.i_ small thin stick; sal.iyo bar, rod, pricker (G.); s'ol. reed (Kho.)(CDIAL 12343). salleha, selleha = splinter (Ka.lex.) Rebus: sal ‘workshop’ (Santali); s’a_la id. (Skt.) Hence, sal + bed.a (spike + fish); rebus: sal ‘workshop’; bed.a ‘hearth’ Sign 72 [Transverse line ligatured on fish or circumgraphed fish.The word gan.d. has a meaning, 'across', 'transversely' gan.d. gan.d ar.eme ‘throw embankments across at several places’; gan.d.ra, gan.d.rao full of nicks or notches, to be nicked or notched; gan.d.ra gun.d.ra to cut or break into pieces (Santali.lex.) gan.d.ralu, gan.d.arulu pl. pieces, fragments, chips (Te.lex.) (Santali.lex.) This attribute, ‘transverse’ may be denoted by the transverse ligature used on the body of the 'fish' rebus: kan.d. ‘altar, furnace’] If so, bed.a kan.d. ‘furnace and hearth’ Alternative: kolli a fish (Ma.); koleji (Tu.) (DEDR 2139). badhor. ‘a species of fish with many bones’ (Santali) badhor, badhor.ia = crooked, cross grained, knotty (Santali.lex.) badhoria ‘expert in working in wood’(Santali) gan.d.ra = tree trunk (Kuwi); kan.d.a = bough (Pali) Sign 66 Sign 71 Sign 73 These circumgraphed Signs with ‘fish’ motifs can also be interpreted in the context of kan.d. ‘altar, furnace’ (rebus: four short strokes) For e.g., Sign 71: kol + bed.a ‘smithy and hearth’ + kan.d. ‘altar, furnace’

Some inscribed objects containing the Sign 59 or ligatures including Sign 59 Some objects with only the ligatured 'fish' Sign -- as in m-1084, m-1118, k-034, k-037, m-999 -- together with an 'antelope' pictorial motif, indicate that the 'fish' Sign should be read as a 'substantive' and not asSigned an alphabetical or syllabic value. Seal impressions containing the 'fish' Sign also confirm that this Sign may represent a possession, a property item or a 'commodity' traded. It may be related to processing or is a 'metal' object since it occurs on objects such as: copper plate/copper rod/copper celt. A fish appears together with a combined field symbol of the head of a unicorn attached to a short-horned bull motif. That a ‘fish’ glyph may connote a substantive is indicated by some inscribed objects shaped like a fish or an axe or a sickle.

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h236A

h236B

4658 Incised miniature tablet. Object

h329A

shaped like fish axe or sickle. Inscribed object in the shape of a fish.

h329B

5496 Pict-68:

The fish glyph alone is adequate to complete the inscription on some objects: m0410 Pict-64: Lizard (gharial?) snatching, with its snout, the fin of a fish

har607 Steatite tablet, incised [1993-1995 excavations] 85 Standing person with horns and bovine features (hoofed legs and/or tail).

h288A

4560

h288B

5463

h329A

h329B

h330A

h350A

h350B

4576

h364B

h364C

4635

h366C

h977Ait

h973Bit

4411

h977Bit

h976Ait

h849At

h850At h851At

h364E h366E

h976Bit

h850Bt h851Bt

h350C

h977Cit

h849Bt

4590

h973Ait

h976Cit

h849Ct

h850Ct

h330B

5496 Pict-68: Inscribed object in the

shape of a fish.

h364A

Pict-

4588

4645

4642

h851Ct

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Slide 208 Two steatite tablets. Two inscribed and baked steatite tablets from the Trench 54 area. One has the shape of a fish (H2000-4452/2174-191), while the other has a fish Sign inscription (H2000-4477/2227-11). [Harappa, 2000 excavations].

Kalibangan037

8042

Kalibangan034 8052

The following examples show the dominant use of the fish glyph together with another Sign and/or a ligature:

c014a

Chanhudaro21a

m1118 3157

m0185

2047

2585 m1086a

m0186

m0729

m0978 3070

6209

h009

4009

Kalibangan032a

Kalibangan033

2161

2226

1177

m0999

m0227

m0969

2239

2452

m1084

8025

m0208

m0973a

1316 Bison

m0978 m0225 2199 Inscribed lead celt or ingot fragment from the Trench 54 area (Slide 209 H2000-4481/2174-321). The object was apparently chiseled to reduce its size. Lead may have been used as an alloy with copper, for making pigments, or as medicine. The epigraph may include a square with nine divisions: lokhan.d.a – lo ‘nine’, khan.d.a ‘divisions’; rebus: loh ‘metal’ khan.d.a ‘ingot’.

Tell Suleimeh (level IV), Iraq; IM 87798; (al-Gailani Werr, 1983, p. 49 No. 7). A fish over a short-horned bull and a

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bird over a one-horned bull; cylinder seal impression, (Akkadian to early Old Babylonian). Gypsum. 2.6 cm. Long 1.6 cm. Dia. [Drawing by Larnia Al-Gailani Werr. Cf. Dominique Collon 1987, First impressions: cylinder seals in the ancient Near East, London: 143, no. 609] Parallels of ‘fish’ glyphs in Mesopotamia Water-god Enki, streams of water flow from his shoulders; two stars beside his head distinguish the naked anthropomorphic man. Fish is seen beside the stream. 18th cent. BCE Syrian cylinder seal

impression. Pierpont Morgan Library, New York City; cf. Porada 1971. cf. Parpola, 1994, Fig. 10.8, p. 184.

Asko

Masked as Enki, halffish and half-priest; from a relief of Assurnasirpal II (883-859 BC) from Calah. Gypsum. Height ca. 2.5 m. After Jeremias 1929: 353, fig. 183; cf. Asko Parpola, 1984, Deciphering the Indus Script, Cambridge Univ. Press, Fig. 10.19, p. 190).'Mesopotamian water-god Enki -distinguished by the fish emblem -- is the principal 'god of creation (d nu-dim-mud = s'a nab -ni-ti)...The Sumerian word apkallu (or abgal) meaning ‘wise man, expert’, and used as the title of a priest, exorcist or diviner, is an epithet of Enki. It refers to mythological sages, too, especially the seven antediluvian sages: the cuneiform texts speak of ‘an oral tradition of the [seven] ancient sages from before the flood’, and ‘the seven sages of the apsu, the sacred pura_dufish, who like their lord, Ea, have been endowed with sublime wisdom.’ The servants of Enki are represented in the art as half-fish, half-man' (ibid., p. 190). Since this relief is dated to between 883 to 859 BCE, it is likely that the fish myth was transferred from Bha_rata [S’Br. 1.8.1 which refers to Manu as the survivor of a flood, saved by a great fish (matsya, jhas.a)].

In Bharatiya tradition, 'fish' Sign is emphatically associated with copper metallurgy, as attested by the pictorial incised on 'anthropomorph' of the Gangetic Copper Hoard (early 2nd millennium BC).

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It will be demonstrated that the Sign also occurs in and can be explained in 'metallurgical' contexts on early inscriptions of the civilization, dating from ca. 3500 BC. Anthropomorph (copper) with ‘fish’ Sign A remarkable legacy of the civilization occurs in the use of 'fish' Sign on a copper anthropomorph found in a copper hoard. This is an apparent link of the 'fish' broadly with the profession of 'metal-work'. The ‘fish’ Sign is apparently related to the copper object which seems to depict a ‘fighting ram’ symbolized by its in-curving horns. The ‘fish’ Sign may relate to a copper furnace. The underlying imagery defined by the style of the copper casting is the pair of curving horns of a fighting ram ligatured into the outspread legs (of a warrior). Anthropomorph with ‘fish’ Sign incised on the chest and with curved arms like the horns of a ram. Sheorajpur (Kanpur Dist., UP, India). State Museum, Lucknow (O.37) Typical find of Gangetic Copper Hoards. 47.7 X 39 X 2.1 cm. C. 4 kg. Early 2nd millennium BCE. bed.a either of the sides of a hearth; cf. be two (G.) takar = sheep, ram, goat, male of certain other animals (ya_l.i, elephant, shark)(Ta.); takaran = huge, powerful as a man, bear etc. (Ma.); tagar, t.agaru, t.agara, t.egaru = ram (Ka.); tagaru, t.agaru id. (Tu.); tagaramu, tagaru id. (Te.); tagar id. (M.)(DEDR 3000). t.hakkaru, t.hakkarud.u = a deity; an idol; an honorific title same as t.ha_ku_ru, t.ha_ku_ru = a father; a religious preceptor (Te.lex.) ken.t.ai ‘fish’ (Ta.); rebus: ke~r.e~ ‘brass/bell- metal’ [ke~r.e~ ko~r.e~ workers in brass and bell-metal (Santali)] The shape of the anthropomorph is like the head of a ram with curved horns. [mel.h ‘goat’ (Br.); melukka ‘copper’ (Pali)] Alternative: kor-r-a = black murrel (Te.), kur_icci = a fish many sharp bones (Ma.) kur-avai = murrel (Ta.) kor-r-a = ram (Ma.) [kura = bull calf (Go.)] Substantive: koru a bar of metal (Tu.) Bronze head of ibex. Iranian. C. 600-500 BCE. Ht. 14 in. Metropolitan Museum of Art Copper Hoard culture artifacts: a. antennae hilted sword; 2. anthropomorph; 3. harpoon. [After Fig. 6.1 in DP Agrawal, 2000]. Caches of finds in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh yielded tools of various types: rings, flat and shouldered

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celts, trunnion axes, anthropomorphs, swords, double-edged axes, harpoons, socketed axes. Piggott identified these hoards with Harappan refugees. Heine Geldern (1936: 87-88) theorized that the trunnion axe came from Transcaucasia via Persia in c. 1200-1000 BCE. Originating from the Danubian region, the axe-adze also reached India via Iran in c. 12001000 BCE and the antennae swords were influenced by the Koban examples dateable to c. 1200-1000 BCE. BB Lal showed that the trunnion axes, the Fort Monroe sword, the socketed axe and axe-adze never occurred in the doab but were confined ot the northwestern part of the subcontinent. As a corollary, he showed that the harpoon, the bracelet and the anthropomorph were never found west of the doab. He also noted that the antennae swords of the doab were cast as a single piece, unlike the Koban specimens. Socketed axes and adzes reported from Chanhu-daro, Mohenjodaro and even from Mundigak Period III, are found in much earlier contexts than c. 1200-1000 BCE claimed by Heine Geldern. It is, therefore, clear that the relationships and migrations suggested by Heine Geldern are not tenable. [BB Lal, 1951, Further copper hoards from the Ganga valley and a review of the problems, Ancient India 7: 20-39; DP Agrawal, 1982, The Archaeology of India, London, Curzon Press.]. “The most distinctive and enigmatic type is the anthropomorphic figure…I have examined several specimens from different museums and found three main features in the anthropomorph: externally sharpened and incurved forearms; plain hind limbs; and a thickened head. It was perhaps used as a missile to kill birds as the sharp arms could cut the bird, the thick head could stun it and the incurved arms could entangle and bring it down. The head was the thickest part and the extremities had thinner cross-sections. An experimental model, when thrown, went in a whirling fashion and seemed to make a trajectory which made one suspect a boomerang-like effect…at Bisauli harpoons and anthropomorphs occur together; at Bithur antennae swords and harpoons are associated; antennae swords and anthropomorphs were found together at Fatehgarh...Lal (1972) associates the Copper Hoards with the Mundari-speaking Australoid tribes of the primeval Uttar Pradesh but YD Sharma identifies them with the Late Harappans. Sankalia sees West Asiatic influence even in the Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP), especially in the handled and spouted pottery of Saipai. I have suggested a Central Himalayan affiliation (Agrawal 1999). Thus identification of the authorship, at present, is purely a game of guess-work. There are two Significant finds of Copper Hoards from Kumaun, one from Bankot and the other from Haldwani…at Bankot, a hoard of 8 anthropomorphic copper objects was discovered…” [DP Agrawal, 2000, pp.105-7]. “Discovery of the anthropomorphs in Kumaon and Nepal leaves no room for doubt…there is a community of the coppersmiths called Tamtas. They are traditional coppersmiths.” [MP Joshi, 1995-96, The anthropomorphs in the Copper Hoard culture of the Ganga valley: Puratattva 26: 23-31]. [Note. damr.a ‘steer, heifer’; damr.i, dambr.i, damt.i ‘one-eighth of a pice (copper)’; tambra ‘copper’]. Anthropomorph, ca. 1500 B.C. India, Uttar Pradesh Copper; 8 1/4 x 11 9/16 in. (21 x 29.3 cm) “In India, find spots for ancient copper objects are located primarily in the basin of the Ganges River in modern-day Uttar Pradesh. The hoards, which contained celts, harpoons, rings, and figural sculptures loosely identified as anthropomorphs, date to a period of Indian history about which little is known. Although it is now generally assumed that these copper objects were made by indigenous people living in the area, the function and meaning of the objects remain unclear. Made from molds and then embellished with hammering,

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anthropomorphs are characterized by semicircular heads resting directly upon the shoulders, volutelike arms held akimbo, and pointed open legs.”• ca. 1900– 1300 B.C. The "Late Harappan" period is characterized by the breakdown of the previously integrated culture of the Indus Valley region into small, localized groups. This period coincides with the development and spread of the IndoGangetic tradition, from circa 1900 to 800 B.C.” http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/02/ssa/ht02ssa.htm Yaks.a, Pitalkhora. Detai of bead necklace of anthropomorphic shape. The hukan faced bead has its legs curved. It is dated to c. 1st cent. BCE. National Museum, New Delhi. [Deshpande,, MN, 1959, The rock cut cave of Pitalkhora in Deccan, Ancient India, No. 15, New Delhi, pp. 66-93]. Madhuri Sharma and DP Sharma, 1998, Newly discovered anthropomorphic figures from Nurpur, UP, in: Vibha Tripathi, ed., Archaeometallurgy in India, Delhi, Sharada Publishing House, pp. 286-291]. Tamtas also called tamotas (equivalent of Thathera-s of the plains) belonged to the general ja_ti of Dom (Nevill 1904: 105). In the Punjab, chhatera is an engraver as distinct from a thathera who makes ornamental vessels (Kipling 1886: 6); the brass founder was called the bhartya. [Chakrabarti and Lahiri, 1996, p. 156]. In Tamil, they were kamma_l.ar and in Telugu, kam.sala (Holder 1894-95: 81).

A fish Sign, preceded by seven short numeral strokes, also appears on a gold pendant: Golden pendant with inscription from jewelry hoard at Mohenjo-daro. Drawing of inscription that encircles the gold ornament. Needle-like pendant with cylindrical body. Two other examples, one with a different series of incised Signs were found together. The pendant is made from a hollow cylinder with soldered ends and perforated point. Museum No. MM 1374.50.271; Marshall 1931: 521, pl. CLI, B3. [After Fig. 4.17a, b in: JM Kenoyer, 1998, p. 196]. kanac konoc, kana kona, kana kuni ‘the corners, in the corners’ (Santali) Line 1: read from right: kanac (corner); rebus: kan~cu (bronze) or kana (kan- ‘copper’); two short linear strokes (kin ‘two’); rebus: gina ‘metal vessel’. Two short linear strokes is a dominant glyph which is depicted as a superscript to the

‘diamond’ glyph and also to the ‘nave of spoked wheel’ glyph. The man:gal.asu_tra worn by many married women in Bharat carry glyphs on the pendants, not unlike the glyphs on the Sarasvati epigraphs. The gold pendant discovered at

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Mohenjodaro could be such a man:gal.asu_tra (ta_li) conveying stri_dhana or possessions of the bride as she came into the bride’s household. Thus, it can be surmised that the Sign which precedes the “ glyph may be either a metal or related to the processes of fire-work by metallurgists: ‘diamond’ glyph connotes ‘bronze’ metal; the ‘nave of spoked wheel’ glyph connotes ‘copper’ metal. That this Sign (spoked-wheel) occurs with two-short strokes (barea, two) and ligatured with an arch on zebu seals and on inscribed weapon provides a concordance on the general tenor of the message conveyed by the Dholavira Sign-board: the workshop of a turner, kut.ha_ru, armourer, turner who can carve into metal. {If the circle with spokes and a nave is era(ka) [copper metal], the two linear strokes may connote kin = two; rebus: gina = metal vessel [Alternative: barea (two) = rebus homonym, bar.ea = blacksmith, i.e. copper-smith.]} adar = splinter (Santali); rebus: adaru = native metal (Ka.)

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Index "language", 452 , 479 abstract symbols, 201, 202 Agate, 488 agriculture, 2, 429, 430, 552 Akkadian, 27, 61, 82, 87, 93, 94, 97, 127, 133, 138, 145, 162, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 177, 188, 212, 233, 246, 249, 250, 257, 258, 273, 287, 299, 327, 357, 368, 431, 435, 442, 443, 444, 448, 451, 453, 454, 455, 484, 485, 488, 499, 500, 508, 524, 546 Allahdino, 336 antelope, 14, 22, 23, 58, 66, 67, 82, 83, 85, 88, 103, 106, 121, 132, 135, 141, 143, 146, 169, 174, 182, 183, 184, 187, 193, 194, 197, 199, 200, 208, 224, 227, 239, 251, 254, 264, 268, 269, 278, 285, 295, 301, 302, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 313, 314, 317, 318, 319, 320, 335, 343, 349, 384, 386, 394, 398, 402, 407, 422, 423, 430, 431, 432, 434, 441, 442, 444, 448, 449, 454, 455, 463, 472, 473, 474, 476, 478, 479, 480, 505, 529, 533, 544 Anu, 95, 97, 162, 445, 507 Arabia, 106, 246, 446, 451, 503 Arabian Gulf, 106, 246, 247, 451, 453, 503 Aravalli, 53, 454 arch, 5, 39, 61, 95, 209, 275, 276, 277, 279, 316, 360, 445, 459, 481, 511, 514, 532, 551 archer, 8, 9, 28, 100, 164, 219, 274, 418, 432, 483, 484, 485, 486, 515 architecture, 311 armies, 38 arrow, 7, 18, 31, 38, 70, 72, 77, 81, 95, 162, 174, 197, 208, 235, 236, 258, 259, 274, 303, 370, 379, 380, 382, 398, 405, 409, 419, 425, 438, 440, 441, 445, 461, 501, 508, 516, 539, 541 arrowhead, 211, 235, 258, 353, 413 arsenic, 93, 209, 279, 386, 457, 458 Atharva Veda, 180 Avestan, 124, 142, 151, 181, 516

axe, 6, 9, 18, 28, 46, 54, 55, 59, 64, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 84, 93, 94, 97, 98, 100, 125, 126, 130, 161, 163, 174, 184, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 206, 207, 211, 222, 224, 225, 241, 245, 246, 286, 292, 296, 299, 313, 317, 321, 323, 337, 344, 345, 347, 349, 353, 374, 383, 402, 406, 414, 415, 419, 425, 427, 431, 439, 458, 482, 490, 491, 496, 498, 500, 501, 506, 507, 516, 521, 522, 523, 524, 525, 526, 527, 528, 529, 530, 536, 537, 538, 542, 544, 549 Bactria, 81, 245, 247, 248, 293, 306, 318, 479, 503 Badakhshan, 457 Bahrain, 60, 211, 448, 451, 453, 457 Balakot, 319 Baluchistan, 14, 43, 52, 53, 143, 162, 288, 294, 394, 445, 458, 488, 505, 517 Banawali, 62, 117, 294, 375, 376, 405, 541 barbed spear, 284 barber, 135, 142, 147, 150, 204, 257, 285, 450 barley, 58, 76, 97, 167, 168, 388 bath, 91, 202, 347 bead, 111, 127, 130, 254, 278, 298, 299, 326, 334, 337, 358, 425, 502, 534, 550 beads, 30, 60, 70, 97, 111, 113, 115, 121, 135, 173, 193, 239, 278, 304, 306, 333, 334, 336, 337, 338, 341, 358, 377, 433, 479, 502 bed, 6, 9, 54, 55, 58, 61, 64, 69, 98, 121, 142, 184, 192, 206, 210, 239, 271, 282, 287, 289, 321, 342, 353, 356, 362, 363, 373, 374, 378, 380, 383, 399, 408, 409, 413, 426, 431, 437, 461, 488, 491, 515, 538, 539, 540, 541, 543, 544, 548 belt, 4, 22, 134, 251, 268, 302, 303, 316, 320, 417, 454 Bha_rata, 20, 37, 41, 44, 93, 201, 330, 346, 364, 367, 419, 456, 497, 509, 547 bha_s.a_, 456, 499 Bhairava, 416 Bharata, 3, 179, 180, 309, 310, 433 Bitumen, 452

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blade, 28, 33, 35, 43, 72, 161, 190, 192, 211, 235, 246, 257, 261, 264, 266, 283, 290, 303, 304, 345, 360, 380, 383, 395, 420, 425, 441, 500, 511, 521, 523, 527, 529, 536, 552 BMAC, 162, 489, 500, 505 boar, 28, 58, 67, 83, 84, 99, 108, 111, 125, 147, 179, 181, 183, 224, 227, 264, 331, 336, 362, 409, 420, 448, 485, 489, 510, 521 boat, 10, 15, 36, 55, 57, 60, 64, 148, 203, 216, 242, 250, 263, 287, 288, 301, 391, 406, 483, 485, 492, 497, 517, 552 bone, 106, 118, 131, 157, 158, 202, 246, 278, 299, 351, 358, 467, 468, 470, 492, 493, 502 bow, 8, 9, 18, 90, 95, 138, 153, 158, 162, 163, 177, 219, 251, 258, 286, 315, 337, 338, 391, 416, 418, 419, 425, 445, 482, 485, 486, 493, 501, 507, 508, 534 brahman, 157 Brahmi, 80, 359, 445, 498 Brahui, 533 brass, 7, 15, 24, 28, 29, 30, 42, 48, 90, 92, 109, 142, 146, 150, 179, 180, 204, 217, 237, 242, 245, 253, 269, 272, 280, 293, 294, 300, 301, 303, 304, 307, 309, 310, 311, 313, 322, 323, 331, 347, 349, 356, 357, 360, 370, 371, 379, 383, 384, 386, 387, 393, 408, 414, 415, 420, 421, 425, 428, 434, 485, 489, 491, 492, 501, 504, 510, 513, 531, 532, 537, 541, 542, 543, 548, 550 brazier, 15, 24, 101, 110, 114, 122, 139, 178, 182, 195, 239, 249, 252, 269, 285, 289, 310, 311, 322, 339, 341, 351, 352, 371, 410, 422, 429, 432, 433, 495, 505, 510, 516 brick, 11, 31, 55, 59, 64, 70, 72, 91, 122, 153, 203, 230, 259, 261, 270, 276, 283, 303, 360, 363, 395, 437, 446, 451, 505, 508 bronze, 29, 30, 40, 41, 47, 52, 54, 64, 72, 81, 86, 92, 95, 138, 142, 144, 150, 151, 152, 163, 166, 177, 179, 180, 190, 202, 217, 247, 260, 264, 272, 294, 303, 304, 305, 307, 310, 314, 327, 330, 331, 352,

353, 356, 357, 358, 361, 362, 366, 367, 368, 377, 383, 386, 387, 388, 401, 404, 422, 423, 425, 435, 438, 443, 444, 454, 457, 458, 468, 472, 474, 477, 481, 485, 487, 489, 504, 507, 516, 519, 521, 522, 523, 524, 527, 530, 551 Buddha, 14, 44, 52, 53, 186, 390 buffalo, 5, 19, 20, 21, 28, 83, 84, 111, 131, 149, 158, 197, 224, 226, 229, 239, 240, 241, 264, 265, 272, 273, 274, 275, 281, 284, 291, 297, 313, 315, 329, 335, 364, 373, 385, 404, 419, 420, 421, 430, 431, 441, 447, 450, 477, 505, 510, 530, 552 buildings, 97 bull, 4, 5, 19, 27, 28, 31, 35, 38, 47, 53, 54, 55, 57, 59, 60, 61, 67, 69, 70, 71, 84, 95, 97, 98, 99, 103, 105, 107, 111, 113, 115, 118, 121, 122, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 148, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 163, 164, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 182, 184, 187, 188, 190, 191, 193, 194, 196, 197, 198, 199, 202, 207, 209, 211, 217, 218, 223, 224, 225, 233, 234, 240, 244, 245, 250, 251, 252, 258, 261, 264, 265, 267, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 278, 280, 284, 293, 297, 299, 303, 306, 315, 317, 318, 320, 322, 330, 335, 336, 339, 340, 343, 360, 361, 362, 365, 370, 373, 375, 377, 379, 381, 383, 384, 389, 392, 393, 395, 403, 404, 405, 406, 408, 409, 410, 413, 418, 420, 424, 426, 428, 431, 433, 435, 438, 439, 441, 444, 445, 446, 447, 455, 459, 463, 477, 478, 479, 481, 487, 496, 497, 498, 500, 502, 505, 507, 509, 511, 521, 522, 523, 527, 528, 532, 534, 536, 541, 544, 546, 548 bun, 101, 132, 169, 194, 245, 246, 253, 284, 386, 389, 400, 402, 403, 501 burial, 127, 202 camel, 221, 309, 317 caravan, 31, 40, 43, 76, 254, 331, 424, 447, 453 carnelian, 193, 287, 306, 410, 413, 442, 457, 479 carp, 97, 147, 409, 537, 541, 543

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carpenter, 8, 9, 20, 42, 46, 57, 66, 69, 72, 84, 97, 98, 99, 124, 125, 129, 131, 136, 142, 147, 150, 152, 179, 195, 204, 207, 208, 211, 219, 220, 221, 222, 227, 245, 249, 285, 289, 293, 299, 317, 327, 336, 360, 361, 374, 382, 383, 406, 418, 419, 427, 444, 455, 486, 490, 508, 510, 534 cart, 6, 35, 146, 147, 159, 221, 222, 253, 281, 287, 288, 289, 295, 323, 367, 374, 390, 409, 426, 499, 508 cattle, 17, 37, 38, 54, 55, 57, 59, 61, 71, 76, 84, 131, 136, 138, 142, 149, 150, 153, 158, 173, 175, 177, 191, 193, 196, 223, 224, 238, 261, 263, 278, 286, 292, 297, 305, 319, 321, 324, 325, 331, 343, 347, 360, 377, 385, 392, 401, 408, 426, 490, 497, 498, 509, 528, 543 cemetery, 40, 193 Central Asia, 40, 52, 76, 81, 98, 172, 186, 234, 246, 247, 448, 449, 458, 500, 524 ceramic, 19, 202, 265, 359, 445 Chalcolithic, 30, 47, 75, 76, 98, 445, 525 Chanhudaro, 66, 68, 189, 193, 194, 199, 218, 306, 318, 337, 406, 449, 479, 481, 494, 511, 514, 523, 526, 529 chert, 247, 251, 346, 451 chipped, 100 chisel, 46, 84, 125, 190, 197, 207, 208, 211, 238, 241, 245, 292, 307, 321, 322, 326, 337, 358, 410, 413, 527 cistern, 58 citadel, 423, 518, 519, 541 cities, 21, 52, 164, 226, 359, 448, 457, 536 city, 19, 27, 76, 92, 117, 160, 164, 165, 167, 172, 180, 202, 206, 238, 246, 257, 265, 295, 358, 367, 369, 403, 421, 438, 451, 454, 456, 458, 499, 517 clay, 5, 11, 27, 31, 73, 76, 87, 97, 98, 121, 123, 129, 144, 151, 169, 187, 190, 223, 237, 293, 298, 302, 312, 323, 327, 336, 338, 365, 369, 372, 375, 403, 418, 435, 464, 496, 522, 527, 532, 534 cloak, 181, 326 cloth, 27, 34, 94, 98, 110, 111, 119, 129, 161, 181, 186, 223, 290, 300, 302, 311, 316, 323, 326, 365, 368, 378, 418, 440, 452, 464, 509

clothing, 168, 410, 412 cobra, 13, 232, 267, 434 cocoanut, 44 coins, 30, 50, 51, 53, 82, 103, 132, 133, 164, 165, 167, 169, 213, 287, 310, 339, 428, 430, 433, 445 conflict, 38, 146, 273, 293, 299, 341, 430 cooking pot, 48, 90, 142, 150, 280, 311, 531, 542 copper, 1, 2, 7, 17, 18, 24, 29, 30, 31, 32, 35, 36, 42, 43, 47, 50, 53, 59, 61, 62, 64, 70, 72, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 98, 100, 103, 105, 109, 110, 113, 121, 123, 124, 125, 127, 132, 133, 135, 137, 138, 139, 142, 144, 146, 150, 151, 152, 154, 155, 157, 158, 166, 167, 169, 170, 172, 173, 174, 176, 179, 180, 184, 186, 188, 189, 193, 194, 196, 201, 202, 203, 206, 209, 210, 216, 217, 218, 222, 223, 226, 227, 235, 236, 237, 242, 245, 246, 247, 251, 252, 254, 258, 260, 261, 262, 266, 269, 270, 272, 276, 279, 280, 281, 286, 288, 290, 291, 294, 295, 296, 298, 299, 301, 303, 305, 307, 309, 310, 312, 313, 314, 316, 317, 319, 320, 323, 327, 329, 331, 332, 335, 337, 338, 343, 346, 350, 351, 353, 355, 356, 357, 358, 360, 365, 366, 367, 368, 370, 371, 373, 374, 375, 377, 379, 380, 381, 382, 384, 386, 387, 388, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 399, 400, 401, 402, 404, 409, 410, 415, 417, 422, 423, 426, 428, 431, 432, 433, 434, 435, 438, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447, 451, 452, 454, 455, 456, 457, 458, 463, 472, 473, 474, 475, 476, 477, 480, 481, 483, 485, 486, 487, 488, 489, 490, 491, 498, 499, 500, 501, 504, 509, 511, 512, 517, 519, 520, 521, 522, 524, 525, 526, 529, 530, 531, 532, 536, 540, 544, 546, 547, 548, 549, 550, 551 cotton, 123, 126, 186, 244, 452, 502 crocodile, 78, 372, 375, 377, 391, 396, 422, 435, 493, 497 crown, 10, 79, 96, 132, 157, 158, 226, 229, 300, 385, 412, 420, 515 crucible, 30, 92, 129, 157, 206, 223, 295, 418, 535

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cubical, 451 cuneiform, 5, 27, 87, 95, 357, 367, 424, 428, 438, 445, 451, 458, 472, 524, 547 cylinder seal, 17, 27, 32, 36, 40, 46, 53, 61, 66, 74, 82, 86, 87, 131, 133, 137, 145, 164, 176, 185, 211, 229, 244, 245, 247, 250, 252, 273, 291, 299, 312, 320, 369, 398, 399, 424, 425, 443, 448, 450, 454, 455, 478, 484, 485, 496, 499, 518, 546, 547 dagger, 32, 36, 37, 39, 45, 46, 84, 97, 161, 251, 252, 264, 358, 379, 395, 410, 413, 458, 481, 515, 516 deciphering, 203, 363 deer, 28, 58, 121, 139, 147, 148, 149, 196, 224, 240, 301, 308, 313, 314, 320, 335, 386, 422, 434, 476, 481, 483, 490, 493 deity, 19, 44, 65, 111, 138, 154, 172, 177, 186, 247, 260, 265, 275, 284, 332, 358, 364, 381, 385, 389, 403, 489, 498, 503, 512, 514, 532, 535, 548 Dholavira, 4, 5, 99, 117, 141, 188, 239, 295, 296, 342, 351, 358, 361, 400, 401, 423, 440, 480, 493, 495, 499, 518, 519, 521, 530, 531, 551 dice, 174, 240, 252, 260, 421, 423, 510 digger, 99, 259, 278, 307, 361, 376, 391, 497 Dilmun, 27, 106, 137, 176, 306, 442, 448, 449, 451, 452, 453, 478, 480, 517 dog, 21, 36, 95, 97, 262, 327, 347, 349, 361, 435, 445, 482 donkey, 453 dotted circle, 24, 57, 64, 68, 70, 83, 106, 107, 108, 111, 114, 115, 117, 118, 119, 127, 128, 139, 141, 246, 247, 252, 269, 270, 278, 306, 320, 321, 334, 336, 337, 341, 342, 455, 461, 480, 491, 498, 502, 503, 505, 518, 533 Dr.s.advati, 442 Dravidian, 328, 433, 458, 472 drill, 92, 110, 115, 122, 130, 139, 173, 188, 207, 227, 251, 254, 327, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 421, 428, 495 drilling, 130, 254, 336, 337, 338 drummer, 31, 240, 497 duck, 85, 91, 92, 203, 204, 205, 206, 212, 422, 431

Durga, 17, 162, 262, 508 Early Harappan, 75, 76, 491, 518 Egypt, 5, 52, 168, 202, 251, 293, 338, 367, 443, 454, 516 Elam, 27, 94, 138, 168, 177, 367, 368, 453, 517 elephant, 12, 17, 19, 28, 29, 38, 48, 58, 59, 62, 83, 85, 101, 108, 121, 170, 172, 183, 187, 194, 197, 198, 199, 224, 225, 227, 231, 235, 239, 257, 259, 262, 265, 275, 280, 284, 302, 305, 313, 320, 328, 329, 330, 334, 335, 336, 365, 389, 396, 420, 422, 431, 434, 435, 437, 482, 483, 496, 498, 505, 510, 515, 548, 552 embroidery, 110, 303, 326 endless-knot, 29, 32, 33, 35, 36, 46 engraver, 146, 550 etched, 306, 479 faience, 117, 123, 127, 128, 129, 184, 186, 209, 211, 213, 335, 359, 364, 365, 421, 425, 511, 512 Fairservis, 357 farm, 13, 69, 232 figurine, 19, 98, 265, 314, 425 fillet, 127, 246, 450 fish, 6, 9, 11, 26, 28, 30, 39, 54, 55, 56, 60, 61, 63, 64, 67, 68, 70, 73, 79, 85, 89, 94, 97, 111, 123, 124, 125, 126, 147, 152, 155, 156, 162, 171, 179, 180, 184, 188, 191, 192, 197, 205, 206, 211, 212, 216, 224, 229, 233, 235, 237, 250, 259, 266, 274, 279, 282, 283, 284, 285, 287, 288, 289, 291, 293, 299, 308, 309, 329, 330, 332, 342, 347, 349, 353, 362, 374, 377, 396, 407, 409, 414, 415, 424, 425, 431, 438, 460, 464, 471, 488, 490, 491, 493, 494, 495, 496, 498, 506, 507, 508, 509, 524, 525, 528, 534, 537, 538, 539, 540, 541, 542, 543, 544, 545, 546, 547, 548, 550 Ganga, 549 gateway, 202, 296, 358 gazelle, 316 gharial, 225, 251, 284, 287, 288, 329, 492, 494, 495, 496, 545 glass, 14, 60, 111, 252, 278, 303, 304, 333, 334, 390, 440, 502 glazed faience, 425

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goat, 10, 17, 53, 58, 59, 66, 67, 83, 84, 94, 97, 98, 108, 135, 163, 174, 193, 197, 222, 227, 229, 244, 251, 262, 264, 284, 285, 291, 301, 305, 312, 313, 314, 318, 319, 320, 327, 343, 349, 427, 434, 441, 448, 449, 455, 478, 481, 490, 498, 503, 507, 529, 532, 533, 548 godess, 14, 40, 44, 94, 96, 97, 162, 167, 172, 179, 190, 191, 286, 390, 507, 513, 524, 527, 528, 535 gold, 6, 7, 8, 9, 14, 15, 20, 24, 25, 28, 44, 52, 59, 69, 82, 89, 108, 111, 127, 132, 138, 139, 146, 154, 157, 164, 165, 166, 168, 169, 177, 179, 180, 183, 190, 193, 194, 202, 204, 210, 217, 218, 219, 222, 223, 235, 238, 242, 249, 252, 261, 264, 265, 266, 267, 269, 281, 283, 287, 289, 294, 303, 304, 316, 320, 323, 326, 327, 332, 337, 341, 343, 347, 350, 354, 356, 358, 360, 362, 366, 369, 371, 372, 374, 375, 376, 379, 380, 381, 385, 387, 390, 391, 392, 401, 406, 413, 417, 420, 421, 422, 428, 430, 431, 432, 433, 438, 442, 452, 453, 454, 455, 456, 457, 475, 486, 498, 505, 510, 511, 516, 517, 526, 531, 550, 551 goldsmith, 6, 8, 13, 14, 15, 20, 22, 62, 69, 90, 95, 111, 129, 135, 154, 194, 204, 223, 226, 228, 232, 239, 242, 249, 267, 282, 285, 286, 288, 289, 295, 310, 311, 322, 332, 350, 355, 362, 371, 381, 385, 390, 412, 418, 434, 480, 481, 492, 499, 510, 515, 516 graffiti, 358, 373, 375 granary, 56, 91, 157, 203, 204 grapheme, 155, 184, 202, 210, 234, 346, 461, 477, 533, 542 Gujarat, 57, 76, 107, 119, 241, 254, 294, 337, 338, 423, 445, 452, 457, 519, 536 Gujarati, 64, 135, 148, 179, 251, 254, 431, 442, 446, 503, 509 Gulf of Khambat, 135, 201, 288, 342, 346 gypsum, 81, 202 hammer, 38, 40, 41, 54, 69, 204, 206, 208, 215, 221, 290, 321, 337, 349, 371, 383, 386, 388

Harappa, 2, 5, 8, 13, 18, 19, 65, 76, 88, 98, 100, 101, 113, 114, 115, 117, 119, 127, 129, 133, 134, 163, 173, 189, 201, 202, 209, 248, 264, 265, 275, 335, 342, 346, 358, 363, 364, 366, 367, 370, 379, 385, 400, 403, 416, 440, 448, 457, 458, 464, 471, 481, 483, 486, 489, 500, 503, 506, 511, 512, 522, 525, 526, 538, 546 hare, 11, 18, 73, 98, 111, 230, 254, 255, 256, 266, 316, 396, 426, 480, 482 headdress, 12, 13, 19, 81, 96, 111, 139, 222, 231, 232, 265, 275, 277, 284, 389, 393, 403, 423 hearth, 9, 11, 54, 61, 64, 110, 121, 135, 142, 161, 174, 178, 183, 184, 192, 206, 210, 217, 237, 287, 289, 310, 341, 348, 353, 362, 378, 393, 409, 413, 414, 431, 488, 490, 491, 538, 539, 540, 541, 543, 544, 548 Hindu, 53, 73, 84, 98, 135, 143, 147, 150, 154, 190, 224, 250, 256, 272, 297, 298, 320, 332, 344, 378, 381, 382, 417, 428, 458, 478, 492, 516, 527 hoard, 358, 367, 490, 491, 522, 548, 549, 550 horned, 4, 10, 11, 12, 16, 18, 21, 22, 35, 38, 47, 60, 61, 70, 71, 79, 81, 95, 97, 98, 99, 103, 104, 105, 111, 115, 118, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 138, 145, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 164, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 177, 178, 182, 183, 184, 186, 187, 188, 189, 191, 193, 196, 197, 202, 207, 208, 211, 217, 221, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 229, 230, 231, 238, 243, 250, 251, 252, 259, 261, 263, 264, 268, 270, 273, 274, 275, 284, 291, 297, 302, 306, 309, 316, 318, 319, 320, 322, 329, 331, 335, 336, 339, 340, 343, 353, 364, 365, 373, 375, 384, 385, 388, 389, 391, 393, 395, 403, 405, 406, 409, 420, 424, 426, 431, 432, 433, 439, 441, 444, 446, 447, 455, 463, 478, 479, 487, 491, 495, 497, 502, 511, 514, 523, 528, 533, 534, 537, 541, 544, 546 horse, 6, 37, 42, 56, 95, 97, 119, 144, 151, 159, 236, 237, 300, 320, 416, 437, 439, 445

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hunter, 386 Ibex, 171 incised, 31, 93, 94, 98, 117, 118, 152, 161, 166, 186, 189, 201, 202, 247, 314, 363, 364, 365, 369, 373, 375, 402, 443, 447, 449, 472, 473, 481, 490, 501, 506, 509, 512, 526, 545, 547, 548, 550 Indo-Aryan, 178, 328, 433 Indo-Iranian, 75 ingot, 29, 54, 64, 72, 108, 132, 169, 181, 194, 209, 212, 215, 224, 226, 234, 235, 247, 253, 271, 281, 308, 312, 313, 321, 334, 356, 357, 363, 400, 401, 406, 421, 472, 473, 474, 475, 476, 501, 502, 503, 504, 505, 531, 540, 542, 546 inlaid, 32, 34, 144, 151, 199, 202, 323, 371, 423, 434, 519, 523 inscription, 19, 27, 46, 61, 65, 66, 74, 81, 86, 87, 94, 95, 103, 104, 115, 136, 154, 166, 176, 184, 203, 209, 217, 218, 247, 265, 275, 343, 347, 364, 368, 370, 381, 392, 395, 402, 403, 413, 423, 424, 428, 438, 440, 445, 451, 453, 457, 458, 459, 462, 472, 473, 474, 481, 483, 485, 486, 490, 509, 511, 517, 518, 519, 521, 523, 524, 529, 545, 550 ivory, 24, 25, 106, 117, 118, 119, 127, 202, 238, 247, 252, 264, 269, 274, 288, 334, 341, 342, 358, 387, 422, 434, 452, 463, 502, 503, 533 jackal, 218, 239, 251, 290, 295, 300, 368, 396, 403, 482 janapada, 430 Jarrige, 14, 143, 172, 288, 394 jasper, 337 Jat.ki_, 25, 205, 269, 334 jewelry, 34, 111, 358, 550 Jhukar, 194, 218, 318, 449 Kalibangan, 66, 93, 117, 118, 172, 308, 373, 375, 398, 399, 436, 481, 509, 512, 518, 522, 523 Kalyanaraman, 429, 430, 446, 505 Kannad.a, 536 Kashmir, 4, 20, 179, 419 Kashmiri, 107, 135, 393 Kavi, 345

Kenoyer, 5, 19, 21, 53, 59, 65, 93, 111, 117, 123, 127, 133, 201, 202, 209, 226, 248, 265, 314, 334, 338, 340, 342, 346, 357, 358, 359, 367, 389, 416, 425, 500, 502, 503, 509, 511, 550 Khetri, 53 kiln, 9, 11, 12, 20, 54, 55, 59, 60, 64, 70, 122, 129, 179, 183, 184, 204, 208, 222, 228, 230, 231, 237, 259, 270, 276, 278, 280, 310, 348, 352, 370, 384, 390, 399, 414, 434, 503, 505, 520 Kish, 43, 97, 123, 366, 439, 451 kneeling, 13, 39, 48, 89, 138, 177, 182, 186, 198, 234, 246, 277, 282, 284, 286, 296, 334, 361, 364, 389, 493, 500, 501, 511, 512, 513, 514, 515 Kon kan.i, 12, 231, 256, 344 Kot Diji, 20, 21, 65, 75, 76, 226, 419 Kutch, 76, 201, 346, 423, 518, 519 Lal, 93, 94, 145, 186, 294, 306, 374, 376, 479, 509, 549 language, 1, 2, 3, 4, 27, 42, 66, 72, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 96, 99, 102, 167, 177, 181, 257, 259, 315, 323, 324, 328, 329, 357, 359, 360, 371, 382, 384, 392, 400, 428, 430, 433, 442, 443, 444, 446, 447, 448, 451, 452, 453, 454, 456, 460, 472, 486, 499, 509, 524, 534 languages, 1, 2, 3, 27, 79, 83, 85, 105, 153, 167, 178, 184, 220, 319, 328, 330, 335, 357, 384, 429, 430, 433, 444, 446, 454, 472, 475, 497, 500, 509 lapidary, 71, 136, 145, 175, 336, 346 lapis lazuli, 112, 138, 177, 201, 346, 442, 453, 454, 457, 458 lattice, 46 lead, 13, 27, 30, 33, 46, 64, 93, 145, 165, 179, 180, 188, 227, 232, 233, 234, 244, 245, 254, 258, 259, 261, 266, 267, 270, 293, 309, 310, 323, 421, 423, 431, 434, 438, 454, 476, 488, 498, 501, 502, 519, 539, 546 lizard, 28, 39, 89, 152, 183, 224, 225, 251, 281, 284, 287, 288, 289, 300, 356, 372, 375, 405, 422, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 495, 496, 499, 505, 510

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Lothal, 29, 30, 132, 169, 288, 304, 335, 336, 337, 365, 457, 464, 480, 483, 486 Mackay, 19, 43, 113, 119, 170, 186, 194, 218, 253, 265, 294, 299, 306, 314, 318, 364, 366, 406, 433, 449, 479, 494, 522, 523, 531 Magan, 27, 137, 176, 442, 448, 451, 452, 453, 457, 517 Maha_bha_rata, 328, 499 Mahadevan, 3, 80, 86, 103, 105, 114, 117, 140, 159, 194, 204, 236, 306, 320, 329, 336, 339, 355, 363, 367, 394, 460, 461, 473, 479, 512, 513, 522 Makran, 201, 346, 448, 519 Markhor, 81 Marshall, 32, 43, 50, 105, 110, 119, 123, 127, 294, 339, 360, 364, 379, 425, 440, 550 Meadow, 19, 117, 248, 264, 342, 367, 503 Mehrgarh, 172, 424, 445, 517 Meluhha, 27, 47, 248, 287, 383, 402, 442, 443, 446, 448, 451, 452, 453, 454, 456, 457, 480, 517 Meluhhan, 320, 447, 448, 455, 509 merchants, 40, 60, 73, 167, 168, 204, 221, 222, 254, 287, 289, 300, 359, 366, 382, 443, 445, 447, 448, 449, 452, 456 Mesopotamia, 2, 5, 19, 27, 39, 60, 74, 75, 81, 94, 95, 134, 145, 146, 160, 165, 166, 167, 202, 211, 212, 233, 244, 246, 265, 287, 337, 357, 366, 368, 424, 438, 445, 448, 449, 451, 452, 454, 458, 485, 500, 507, 519, 524, 547 metal, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 32, 35, 39, 41, 54, 55, 58, 59, 62, 64, 66, 70, 71, 72, 79, 85, 86, 87, 90, 92, 97, 98, 99, 108, 109, 110, 115, 121, 124, 125, 126, 129, 134, 135, 136, 142, 144, 148, 150, 151, 154, 164, 165, 166, 167, 169, 175, 178, 179, 180, 181, 184, 188, 191, 192, 196, 201, 204, 206, 208, 209, 210, 212, 215, 216, 217, 219, 220, 221, 222, 224, 225, 226, 227, 230, 233, 234, 235, 237, 241, 243, 244, 245, 250, 251, 252, 253, 255, 258, 260, 261, 262, 264, 265, 266, 267, 269, 270, 271, 274, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280,

281, 282, 283, 287, 288, 289, 290, 292, 293, 295, 296, 297, 299, 301, 303, 304, 307, 308, 309, 312, 317, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 330, 331, 332, 336, 337, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353, 355, 356, 357, 360, 361, 362, 365, 366, 367, 368, 370, 371, 372, 375, 378, 379, 381, 382, 384, 386, 387, 388, 390, 391, 393, 394, 395, 397, 398, 399, 400, 401, 406, 408, 409, 414, 415, 417, 418, 419, 421, 422, 423, 425, 428, 431, 433, 434, 435, 441, 444, 446, 454, 455, 457, 458, 459, 463, 474, 476, 477, 480, 481, 486, 487, 490, 491, 492, 494, 498, 499, 501, 503, 504, 514, 517, 519, 520, 521, 523, 524, 525, 528, 529, 530, 536, 537, 539, 540, 541, 542, 543, 544, 546, 548, 551, 552 metallurgy, 30, 82, 86, 180, 247, 402, 457, 458, 547 metals, 8, 29, 35, 59, 63, 64, 83, 86, 90, 91, 92, 93, 110, 121, 125, 126, 129, 154, 165, 166, 167, 178, 179, 180, 182, 203, 206, 217, 223, 226, 235, 239, 252, 281, 283, 285, 287, 290, 295, 309, 310, 322, 323, 324, 327, 328, 336, 345, 346, 350, 352, 360, 361, 362, 366, 381, 383, 384, 395, 399, 410, 413, 418, 422, 429, 430, 431, 432, 433, 434, 435, 444, 462, 475, 480, 488, 498, 501, 505, 506, 510, 519, 523 mining, 53, 457 Mleccha, 1, 64, 65, 66, 301, 328, 383, 384, 429, 433, 442, 446, 451, 452, 453, 456 Mlecchita, 1, 327, 383, 384, 429, 430, 433, 445 Mohenjodaro, 2, 19, 43, 106, 110, 113, 114, 118, 119, 133, 134, 138, 170, 171, 172, 177, 186, 193, 204, 220, 265, 287, 294, 299, 314, 359, 360, 364, 365, 379, 398, 405, 416, 425, 440, 452, 472, 474, 483, 522, 529, 531, 534, 549, 551 molded, 129, 202, 284, 288, 359, 388, 403, 425 monkey, 28, 59, 183, 191, 225, 245, 270, 333, 405, 424, 425, 426, 427, 428, 449, 528

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mortar, 142, 143, 150, 205, 261 mould, 12, 31, 57, 123, 178, 181, 231, 267, 272, 310, 327, 332, 349, 352, 353, 384, 401, 435, 450, 474, 476, 501, 503, 510, 535, 540 mud-brick, 451 Mundari, 10, 16, 26, 59, 64, 71, 72, 78, 84, 91, 92, 122, 131, 142, 143, 145, 146, 150, 162, 183, 192, 202, 204, 205, 206, 207, 212, 215, 221, 222, 226, 233, 243, 251, 252, 254, 261, 266, 270, 273, 274, 290, 291, 300, 311, 313, 327, 347, 362, 378, 382, 383, 391, 431, 473, 477, 486, 487, 503, 505, 506, 507, 508, 509, 532, 549 Nausharo, 14, 53, 59, 143, 201, 220, 288, 394 necklace, 40, 111, 121, 135, 146, 173, 178, 239, 278, 334, 366, 387, 502, 550 Neolithic, 20, 75, 172, 201, 342, 419 Nilgai, 196 one-horned, 4, 22, 35, 60, 61, 70, 95, 99, 103, 105, 115, 118, 122, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 138, 141, 145, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 164, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 177, 182, 184, 185, 188, 197, 207, 208, 211, 224, 250, 251, 264, 268, 270, 274, 284, 297, 302, 306, 318, 320, 335, 336, 339, 340, 343, 365, 373, 375, 384, 395, 405, 406, 409, 426, 431, 432, 439, 444, 446, 447, 463, 478, 479, 502, 523, 533, 534, 537, 541, 546 onyx, 2 ore, 4, 6, 7, 9, 13, 14, 28, 30, 53, 54, 55, 60, 61, 64, 70, 78, 91, 92, 109, 123, 135, 142, 146, 150, 174, 179, 196, 202, 209, 212, 214, 224, 232, 233, 234, 240, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 267, 270, 271, 276, 293, 297, 301, 304, 314, 320, 331, 343, 347, 349, 350, 352, 353, 357, 362, 374, 379, 384, 394, 399, 401, 404, 408, 425, 428, 434, 458, 459, 472, 474, 477, 487, 491, 520, 532, 542 organization, 19, 98, 133, 265, 367, 451 Oriya, 99 ornaments, 69, 76, 127, 201, 294, 341, 346, 491, 514

Oxus, 27 Pakistan, 2, 14, 19, 20, 75, 86, 105, 106, 110, 111, 113, 118, 134, 143, 159, 201, 209, 219, 265, 288, 346, 359, 385, 394, 419, 424, 451, 457, 497 Parpola, 3, 7, 18, 20, 21, 40, 74, 75, 77, 80, 86, 87, 100, 102, 103, 105, 110, 112, 113, 134, 159, 186, 194, 215, 247, 264, 267, 271, 287, 293, 299, 325, 326, 358, 363, 364, 366, 367, 368, 370, 410, 413, 419, 423, 428, 438, 451, 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, 473, 483, 484, 486, 491, 500, 518, 519, 521, 522, 523, 539, 540, 547 peacock, 13, 93, 158, 161, 232, 287, 372 pectoral, 134, 178, 534 pendant, 89, 178, 323, 358, 360, 366, 550, 551 perforated, 21, 43, 92, 111, 267, 318, 334, 336, 360, 490, 502, 534, 550 Persian Gulf, 4, 27, 80, 137, 176, 247, 271, 287, 304, 451, 454, 457, 480, 519 pictographic, 1, 96, 369, 460, 461 pipal, 10, 13, 39, 48, 79, 108, 197, 226, 229, 232, 385, 389, 403, 420, 514 plant, 11, 12, 13, 16, 17, 56, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 70, 82, 136, 157, 158, 163, 184, 187, 208, 209, 210, 216, 231, 232, 237, 243, 244, 245, 248, 251, 255, 260, 262, 275, 278, 301, 345, 389, 393, 396, 397, 398, 403, 420, 461, 500, 501, 507, 520, 534 plants, 28, 65, 75, 108, 144, 157, 201, 333, 397, 520 platform, 10, 12, 76, 98, 125, 129, 198, 209, 213, 214, 222, 229, 231, 233, 237, 238, 240, 245, 259, 275, 281, 284, 287, 292, 296, 302, 316, 321, 385, 426, 437, 439, 441, 478, 514 Pleiades, 14, 97, 390, 412 Possehl, 32, 61, 75, 76, 142, 172, 194, 211, 253, 365, 379, 415, 438, 440, 537, 541 pottery, 14, 20, 21, 52, 53, 65, 76, 98, 119, 123, 143, 162, 189, 201, 202, 204, 267, 358, 394, 419, 450, 451, 458, 505, 524, 526, 530, 531, 549 praying, 3, 138, 177 Priest, 110, 433, 434, 522

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punch-marked, 30, 50, 82, 103, 213, 339, 430, 433, 445 Punjab, 180, 310, 497, 550 Punjabi, 66, 450 Puru, 162, 508 R.gveda, 123, 161, 180, 203, 266, 344, 360, 391, 507, 542 Ra_ma_yan.a, 191, 508, 528 Rajasthan, 29, 30, 294, 457, 497, 524 Rakhigarhi, 4, 492 ram, 17, 38, 48, 85, 97, 121, 143, 179, 180, 184, 187, 197, 198, 199, 208, 235, 241, 244, 262, 275, 277, 280, 285, 301, 313, 314, 329, 335, 368, 385, 386, 389, 407, 434, 442, 472, 474, 476, 490, 491, 497, 498, 505, 511, 514, 532, 533, 536, 548 ratha, 37, 147, 203, 386 Ravi, 2, 65, 201, 248, 346, 503 raw material, 201, 260, 346, 366, 517 rebus, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 18, 19, 20, 21, 25, 27, 29, 31, 32, 35, 36, 38, 40, 54, 57, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 70, 75, 77, 78, 85, 93, 102, 104, 107, 115, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 129, 131, 133, 135, 136, 138, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 149, 151, 152, 153, 154, 157, 162, 169, 173, 174, 178, 182, 184, 185, 186, 188, 191, 194, 195, 196, 204, 205, 208, 209, 210, 212, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 224, 225, 226, 227, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 239, 240, 241, 245, 249, 250, 251, 254, 258, 259, 261, 265, 267, 270, 271, 272, 273, 277, 278, 279, 282, 283, 287, 289, 290, 291, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 301, 302, 303, 305, 307, 313, 316, 317, 320, 322, 326, 328, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 343, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357, 360, 361, 362, 370, 371, 372, 374, 375, 376, 377, 379, 380, 381, 383, 384, 388, 390, 391, 392, 394, 396, 397, 398, 399, 400, 401, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 411, 413, 414, 415, 419, 420, 422, 423, 425, 428, 429, 430, 431, 432, 433, 434, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 455, 459, 460, 472, 473, 474, 475, 476, 477, 481, 485, 488, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 498, 499, 501,

502, 504, 505, 506, 507, 508, 510, 518, 519, 520, 521, 523, 528, 530, 531, 532, 533, 534, 536, 539, 540, 541, 542, 543, 544, 546, 548, 551 reservoir, 99, 361, 401 rhinoceros, 67, 85, 99, 105, 147, 170, 181, 196, 217, 224, 225, 229, 239, 275, 284, 289, 291, 328, 329, 362, 421, 458, 496, 505 rice, 16, 17, 44, 54, 56, 57, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 70, 73, 99, 122, 136, 144, 156, 162, 179, 192, 204, 216, 243, 270, 272, 301, 308, 309, 321, 332, 345, 348, 374, 382, 391, 393, 396, 397, 401, 414, 439, 461, 505, 508, 515, 541 Rojdi, 16, 32, 36, 243 Ropar, 4 Sanskrit, 44, 59, 186, 191, 203, 234, 313, 344, 350, 357, 359, 386, 387, 393, 429, 430, 431, 446, 451, 452, 456, 504, 509, 528 Santali, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 31, 35, 36, 37, 39, 41, 42, 48, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 78, 79, 82, 84, 85, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 98, 99, 100, 101, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 118, 119, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 156, 158, 161, 162, 169, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 189, 191, 192, 194, 197, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 215, 217, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 250, 252, 254, 255, 256, 257, 259, 260, 261, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 274, 275, 276, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 311, 312, 313, 314, 316, 317, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 327, 331,

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332, 333, 334, 341, 343, 344, 346, 347, 348, 349, 352, 353, 355, 360, 361, 362, 365, 367, 370, 371, 372, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 382, 383, 384, 385, 387, 388, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 399, 400, 401, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423, 425, 426, 427, 428, 430, 431, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438, 439, 440, 441, 442, 444, 446, 447, 449, 450, 459, 474, 476, 477, 478, 479, 480, 481, 482, 483, 486, 487, 488, 489, 490, 491, 492, 493, 495, 497, 499, 501, 502, 503, 505, 506, 507, 508, 509, 510, 513, 514, 515, 519, 520, 521, 528, 529, 530, 531, 532, 533, 534, 535, 537, 538, 539, 540, 541, 542, 543, 544, 548, 550, 551, 552 Sarasvati, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 14, 27, 29, 31, 39, 65, 76, 79, 82, 86, 103, 105, 117, 119, 123, 132, 133, 134, 162, 169, 172, 182, 185, 186, 187, 191, 201, 223, 250, 285, 287, 294, 330, 339, 346, 359, 363, 365, 366, 368, 369, 383, 384, 390, 397, 400, 403, 424, 425, 429, 430, 431, 433, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 450, 452, 454, 459, 472, 473, 478, 485, 498, 499, 503, 507, 519, 528, 536, 551 saw, 57, 94, 95, 125, 126, 136, 138, 175, 177, 192, 259, 299, 337, 416, 427, 495, 510, 516, 529 sealing, 27, 87, 137, 176, 302, 449, 541 seated figure, 271, 275 serpent, 13, 38, 48, 95, 121, 145, 187, 197, 198, 232, 234, 238, 244, 267, 280, 281, 293, 313, 329, 389, 434, 435, 445, 460, 532 serpentine, 293 Shaffer, 454, 457 Shahr-i-Sokhta, 458 sheep, 17, 58, 72, 76, 84, 123, 160, 169, 192, 224, 244, 262, 285, 297, 301, 307, 314, 349, 369, 383, 391, 407, 427, 434, 490, 498, 516, 529, 532, 548 shell, 22, 27, 60, 112, 113, 115, 123, 126, 130, 134, 152, 153, 157, 171, 201, 202, 207, 211, 258, 268, 280, 318, 324, 325,

337, 338, 346, 353, 358, 364, 416, 424, 428, 516 ship, 24, 31, 55, 57, 59, 60, 64, 136, 159, 166, 175, 287, 379, 380, 401, 402, 406, 424, 442, 443, 447, 481 shipping, 424 Shortughai, 306, 479 Sickle, 68, 526 Signboard, 295, 296, 423, 530 Silver, 30, 133, 155, 165, 166, 169, 233, 363, 524, 525 Sindh, 27, 162, 191, 330, 365, 369, 384, 391, 424, 485, 505, 519, 528 Sindhi, 458 snake, 13, 28, 35, 45, 93, 95, 97, 121, 131, 145, 147, 158, 163, 174, 186, 190, 206, 229, 232, 233, 244, 245, 251, 252, 267, 291, 301, 304, 329, 404, 431, 434, 445, 449, 482, 488, 507, 527, 536 soma, 20, 28, 41, 42, 111, 183, 210, 265, 266, 267, 289, 299, 316, 391, 420, 422, 430, 431, 455, 542 spear, 7, 11, 18, 19, 32, 36, 38, 40, 43, 46, 66, 70, 197, 198, 211, 223, 235, 236, 237, 258, 259, 264, 265, 266, 267, 274, 284, 288, 298, 304, 309, 324, 398, 400, 404, 405, 441, 493, 516, 524 spearing, 18, 19, 263, 264, 265, 284, 404, 441 spotted, 121, 210, 227, 344, 476 squirrel, 410, 412, 413 standing person, 16, 39, 84, 139, 145, 209, 243, 263, 273, 276, 277, 279, 306, 320, 322, 388, 393, 405, 419, 425, 479, 533 steatite, 21, 43, 100, 106, 110, 113, 119, 127, 129, 145, 186, 193, 201, 202, 215, 253, 267, 293, 304, 306, 333, 334, 346, 403, 448, 449, 479, 480, 490, 496, 502, 511, 534, 541, 545 stoneware, 358 stoneware bangle, 358 stool, 11, 13, 56, 98, 124, 125, 209, 220, 229, 230, 233, 237, 239, 240, 275, 291, 299, 389, 391, 403 storage jar, 53, 59, 76, 359, 531 storehouse, 62, 204, 208 stupa, 79, 184, 185, 445

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Sumerian, 27, 32, 72, 77, 81, 87, 97, 131, 133, 145, 193, 229, 251, 291, 305, 319, 357, 366, 367, 368, 369, 381, 439, 442, 446, 451, 452, 453, 455, 459, 460, 472, 496, 517, 529, 547 Susa, 9, 20, 71, 96, 119, 123, 145, 169, 172, 220, 226, 264, 274, 293, 367, 368, 418, 451, 453, 455, 459, 518, 524 Sutlej, 2, 442 svastika_, 29, 30, 32, 39, 40, 41, 43, 45, 48, 50, 51, 52, 53, 355, 462 Swat, 46, 47 symbols, 28, 31, 32, 51, 65, 74, 75, 77, 80, 95, 98, 102, 103, 162, 187, 189, 195, 201, 202, 288, 329, 330, 357, 359, 445, 446, 447, 460, 461, 473, 508, 526 tablets, 5, 12, 18, 19, 25, 27, 29, 47, 76, 81, 86, 88, 89, 96, 114, 117, 127, 134, 155, 164, 170, 172, 186, 187, 188, 202, 213, 231, 235, 241, 254, 264, 265, 270, 275, 277, 281, 283, 302, 311, 316, 321, 358, 360, 363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 369, 385, 388, 395, 400, 403, 415, 451, 459, 462, 464, 465, 466, 467, 468, 469, 470, 473, 474, 483, 486, 487, 493, 505, 510, 511, 512, 513, 519, 525, 526, 538, 539, 540, 545 Tamil, 16, 17, 59, 64, 84, 85, 135, 138, 164, 175, 203, 204, 243, 248, 262, 379, 386, 402, 416, 417, 430, 431, 447, 461, 500, 506, 535, 550 Taxila, 30, 32, 40, 50, 51, 489 Telugu, 45, 56, 99, 134, 135, 148, 162, 175, 240, 243, 323, 361, 385, 393, 421, 427, 431, 432, 447, 454, 499, 503, 504, 505, 508, 550 temple, 15, 40, 48, 53, 59, 62, 65, 96, 106, 130, 136, 138, 144, 148, 149, 151, 157, 158, 175, 177, 185, 196, 209, 234, 237, 242, 250, 264, 275, 298, 306, 324, 364, 366, 397, 445, 480, 489, 504, 515, 517, 524 Tepe Yahya, 4, 21, 46, 161, 234, 267, 302, 318, 367, 451, 458, 490, 506, 534 terracotta, 18, 19, 31, 123, 129, 186, 202, 209, 229, 264, 265, 286, 294, 339, 358, 359, 364, 377, 491, 541

terracotta tablet, 19, 31, 123, 129, 202, 209, 265, 339 throne, 95, 171, 186, 229, 389, 403, 445, 491 tiger, 5, 9, 11, 12, 14, 18, 19, 22, 23, 28, 29, 31, 38, 40, 47, 58, 66, 83, 85, 88, 98, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 143, 144, 151, 161, 162, 170, 181, 187, 193, 197, 198, 199, 208, 209, 217, 218, 221, 224, 225, 230, 231, 238, 239, 240, 258, 264, 265, 268, 269, 275, 278, 280, 283, 284, 286, 290, 295, 296, 299, 300, 309, 313, 314, 317, 318, 320, 322, 328, 329, 331, 335, 355, 362, 368, 384, 389, 394, 398, 399, 402, 408, 412, 422, 423, 425, 427, 430, 431, 432, 434, 435, 442, 444, 446, 482, 488, 497, 498, 501, 505, 506, 510, 511, 513, 514, 520 Tigris, 27, 79, 97, 271, 438, 485 tin, 17, 18, 20, 29, 30, 31, 82, 83, 85, 92, 93, 115, 163, 168, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 188, 217, 219, 226, 227, 228, 233, 234, 235, 243, 244, 248, 249, 253, 254, 260, 261, 262, 266, 272, 281, 295, 304, 305, 308, 309, 310, 323, 327, 331, 346, 349, 350, 353, 356, 357, 374, 386, 387, 401, 404, 407, 415, 421, 422, 424, 425, 428, 430, 434, 438, 442, 443, 444, 446, 447, 448, 450, 452, 453, 454, 456, 457, 458, 459, 472, 473, 474, 475, 476, 477, 481, 485, 488, 489, 498, 499, 500, 501, 502, 504, 507, 508, 514, 517, 519, 530, 533, 539 tin bronze, 401, 457, 458 toilet, 50, 80, 294 tokens, 169, 202, 359, 364, 367, 368, 369 tools, 25, 26, 27, 76, 84, 87, 93, 97, 115, 142, 147, 150, 154, 179, 188, 190, 191, 201, 221, 222, 270, 289, 298, 328, 336, 337, 338, 346, 358, 366, 381, 400, 418, 421, 429, 433, 438, 527, 528, 549 tortoise, 4, 8, 22, 79, 95, 106, 219, 268, 445, 452, 482, 486, 525 traders, 47, 78, 167, 168, 226, 254, 366, 441, 443, 448, 451, 519 transport, 76, 166, 442

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tree, 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, 28, 38, 39, 47, 53, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 62, 66, 70, 85, 89, 97, 98, 108, 126, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 150, 151, 158, 160, 162, 174, 182, 183, 184, 186, 197, 198, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 215, 216, 219, 221, 225, 231, 243, 244, 245, 246, 248, 250, 258, 262, 264, 265, 271, 277, 278, 283, 284, 285, 293, 295, 296, 297, 302, 309, 324, 345, 357, 362, 364, 386, 389, 392, 393, 394, 395, 398, 399, 404, 407, 422, 424, 426, 431, 449, 487, 489, 492, 493, 500, 501, 502, 504, 508, 511, 513, 514, 518, 520, 533, 534, 537, 544, 552 trefoil, 28, 60, 112, 211, 326, 434, 498 Turkmenistan, 74, 76, 463 turquoise, 162, 505 unguent, 248, 262, 263, 500 Unicorn, 132, 156, 159 United Arab Emirates, 106, 246, 247, 451, 500, 502 Ur, 4, 7, 17, 27, 60, 97, 119, 137, 145, 165, 167, 168, 169, 171, 176, 193, 194, 211, 215, 218, 220, 233, 244, 251, 253, 271, 294, 316, 337, 366, 424, 428, 438, 439, 443, 451, 452, 478, 499, 500, 507, 529 Valdiya, 442 Vats, 105, 113, 118, 163, 202, 294, 363, 489, 506, 512, 522 vedic, 180, 472 vessels, 18, 43, 60, 87, 90, 124, 216, 226, 236, 238, 260, 261, 262, 271, 276, 281, 294, 314, 358, 366, 370, 372, 375, 379, 384, 458, 475, 536, 550 Vindhya, 38, 137, 176, 342 votive, 250, 364 war, 8, 13, 69, 97, 122, 133, 139, 169, 171, 179, 219, 232, 240, 340, 341, 383, 516, 536 water-buffalo, 272 weapons, 27, 29, 32, 36, 38, 43, 58, 70, 72, 80, 84, 86, 87, 93, 95, 108, 115, 125, 158, 172, 179, 188, 190, 191, 203, 241, 280, 294, 296, 298, 327, 330, 336, 345, 358, 366, 382, 400, 425, 429, 430, 433,

438, 445, 516, 521, 523, 524, 525, 526, 527, 528, 532, 536 weaving, 123, 311 weights, 2, 9, 76, 78, 138, 164, 165, 166, 177, 202, 247, 293, 301, 313, 346, 358, 434, 451, 524 wheat, 76, 96, 99, 144, 309 Wheeler, 31, 129, 364, 402, 447, 452, 457, 525 wild animals, 28, 131, 158, 223 workshop, 4, 5, 6, 11, 15, 22, 39, 48, 69, 82, 84, 91, 101, 105, 121, 132, 134, 135, 144, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 173, 184, 196, 204, 205, 206, 209, 210, 221, 223, 225, 227, 230, 237, 242, 267, 268, 275, 278, 283, 284, 285, 289, 295, 296, 299, 303, 310, 324, 325, 331, 332, 335, 348, 351, 352, 358, 366, 371, 381, 395, 399, 400, 405, 406, 409, 411, 414, 417, 419, 421, 422, 423, 431, 433, 447, 512, 519, 521, 532, 534, 540, 541, 542, 544, 551 worship, 38, 73, 111, 153, 162, 186, 382, 395, 507, 534 writing, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 27, 28, 29, 65, 68, 74, 75, 77, 79, 82, 86, 87, 94, 96, 102, 103, 104, 144, 151, 182, 185, 186, 187, 188, 201, 202, 205, 221, 250, 270, 290, 350, 357, 358, 361, 363, 367, 368, 369, 374, 376, 381, 383, 398, 415, 424, 427, 430, 433, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 460, 503, 509, 525 writing system, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 27, 28, 29, 65, 77, 79, 82, 86, 102, 103, 104, 185, 186, 187, 188, 201, 205, 250, 350, 357, 358, 359, 361, 363, 367, 368, 369, 415, 424, 430, 433, 442, 443, 444, 445, 460, 503 yajn~a, 111, 296, 333, 334, 437, 502 Yamuna, 442 yogic, 10, 20, 45, 226, 229, 275, 364, 385, 389, 403, 418, 432 Yudhis.t.hira, 328 Zebu, 133, 142, 275, 293, 381, 393, 522, 536, 537

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Other homonyms: d.hon.d. = a big wood pigeon (P.lex.)

dondhor.o, dondkor.o squatting, cowering, sitting close to the ground (Santali) d.on.d.o polled, as an ox or buffalo (G.) d.on.d.obot to salute by bowing down (Santali) d.ondor a cave, den; don.d.hor a hole, a hollow; d.od.hio hollow; d.od.hor a hole, a hollow; a cavity, hollow (Santali) d.on.t.ho, dhon.t.ho, dhon.t.o a knot (Santali) dod.o = an ear of corn (G.lex.) dhon.d.ra khalak a large leaf cup; d.hon:ga ‘a dugout, a boat made from a hollowed out tree, a wooden trough’ (Santali) don ‘a wooden trough’ (Santali) 2

1438.Implement for turning up clods: kusa_ hand implement for turning up clods (a pole with an iron blade or head)(M.); kusi_ a tool made of iron (Pkt.); kus'i_ small wooden pin used to mark in recitation (MaitrS.); small wooden pin made of metal (S'Br.); ploughshare (Skt.); kus'ika (Skt.); kus'a_ pin for marking in recitation (Pa_n..); kus'ika_ piece of wood used as a splint for a broken limb (Car.); kuhi_, kahi_ mattock (L.); kahi_ (P.); kusi_, kusiya_ ploughshare; kus, kussa_mattock (H.); kas', kos' iron instrument for digging; koslu~ bar of iron attached to a plough (G.); kos'iya_l.o wooden wedge holding ploughshare in wooden frame of plough (G.)(CDIAL 3367). kus'e a plank for covering anything; a piece of wood (Ka.lex.) cf. ku_ci, ku_cu (pl. ku_ckul) crowbar (Pa.); gusi id. (Ga.); ku_nj (pl. ku_sk) hoe, shouldered digging stick; ku_nj crowbar; ku_ysa_ id., ploughshare (Go.)(DEDR 1879). kor..u bar of metal, bullion (Ta.); koru (Tu.); cf. kus. (Skt.) kus. to plough, make furrows; to draw, drag, pull, drag away, tear; to draw towards oneself, attract; to plough, till; caus.: to draw out, tear up; to extract; to plough, till, cultivate; kus.aka attractive, drawing; ploughing; a ploughman, husbandman; kus.akam a ploughshare; kus.a_n.ah., -kr.s.ikah. a ploughman, husbandman; kr.s.i ploughing; agriculture, husbandry; kr.s.i-karman agriculture; kr.s.i-ji_vin living by husbandry; kr.s.i-kalam agricultural produce or profit; kr.s.i-se_va_ agriculture, husbandry; kr.s.i_vala one who lives by husbandry, a farmer; kr.s.t.a drawn, pulled, dragged, attracted etc.; ploughed; kr.s.t.a-upta sown on cultivated ground; kr.s.t.a-pacya, -pa_kya ripening in cultivated ground; cultivated; kr.s.i-phalam the product of a harvest; kr.s.t.i drawing, attracting; ploughing, cultivating the soil (Skt.lex.) kus'a ploughshare; kus'ika a ploughshare (Skt.lex.) kus. to tear, extract, pull or draw out (Skt.lex.) cf. guju to pull, contract, move convulsively (Ka.); gunju drag, to pull (Te.)(DEDR 1648). Crowbar, digging stick; ploughshare: gusi crowbar (Ga.); ku_ci, ku_cu (pl. ku_ckul) crowbar (Pa.); ku_nj (pl. ku_sk) hoe, shouldered digging stick; crowbar (Go.); ku_ysa_ crowbar, ploughshare (Go.)(DEDR 1879). a~_kus'i_ hooked stick (M.); akussa elephant goad (Si.)(CDIAL 111). 1451a.Ploughshare: kus'i ploughshare (Skt.); kus'ika_ piece of wood used as a splint for a broken limb (Car.); kusa_ hand implement for turning up clods (a pole with an iron blade or

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head)(M.)(CDIAL 3367). kos to plough (Kon.lex.) kuci pit for erecting a flagstaff (Ci_vaka. 143); flagstaff (Ta.lex.) 1438.Implement for turning up clods: kusa_ hand implement for turning up clods (a pole with an iron blade or head)(M.); kusi_ a tool made of iron (Pkt.); kus'i_ small wooden pin used to mark in recitation (MaitrS.); small wooden pin made of metal (S'Br.); ploughshare (Skt.); kus'ika (Skt.); kus'a_ pin for marking in recitation (Pa_n..); kus'ika_ piece of wood used as a splint for a broken limb (Car.); kuhi_, kahi_ mattock (L.); kahi_ (P.); kusi_, kusiya_ ploughshare; kus, kussa_mattock (H.); kas', kos' iron instrument for digging; koslu~ bar of iron attached to a plough (G.); kos'iya_l.o wooden wedge holding ploughshare in wooden frame of plough (G.)(CDIAL 3367). kus'e a plank for covering anything; a piece of wood (Ka.lex.) cf. ku_ci, ku_cu (pl. ku_ckul) crowbar (Pa.); gusi id. (Ga.); ku_nj (pl. ku_sk) hoe, shouldered digging stick; ku_nj crowbar; ku_ysa_ id., ploughshare (Go.)(DEDR 1879).kassa_ mattock; kassi_ small mattock; kussi_ (H.)(CDIAL 2906). 3

Substantive: swadhiti (RV.AV.) sathiya_ (H.) knife, dagger; sathia_, satthaka = knife (Pkt.Ka.) catti spear, trident, dart (Ta.) satthra_ (P.) weapon; s'astra = a weapon (G.); sastar = sword (P.) svastiyantra = a surgical instrument o a particular form (Skt.) svadhi-hetika = axe-armed, a soldier armed with axe; svadha_ = an axe, knife (TS.) sword (RV. 2.39.7) axe to cut wood (RV. 3.8.11) [The early forms of svastika_ could be, ‘svati-‘, rebus: svadhi, ‘axe’]. 4

mo~r.e~ = five (Santali. lex.)

Stump, stubble mud.d.ha_ = shoulder (H.); mu_d.ha_ lump, hump, shoulder (H.); mun.d.a_ lump (Or.)(CDIAL 10189). mo_t.abari = a pack bullock; mo_t.abariva_n.d.ru = pl. pack pedlars (Te.lex.) mor.a_ = wicker stool (B.Or.); mod.a_ (M.); mura_ (A.); mor.ha_ (H.); mor.ha_, mur.a_ (N.)(CDIAL 10352) [Note the stool or platform on which a seated person in yogic posture is shown]. mod.avum = to twist, to turn, to bend (G.lex.) mut.h = tree (Dm.); mut.ha (Gaw.); mut.h (Kal.Phal.); mut.hiya_, mut.ha_l, mut.hail bullock with stunted horns (Bi.); mud.ha_ stubble, stump (OA.); mura_ (A.); mun.d.ur stump (L.); mun.d.h, mud.d.h = stem; mun.d.hi_ stump of a plant (L.); mo_~t.huru = bare trunk of a tree (K.)(CDIAL 10187). mundu_ tree-trunk (Orm.); pl. mundu_ni stump or bole of tree, maize stubble (Sh.)(CDIAL 10196). mo_d.u = a stump; raised or high ground; mo_t.u = a stump; a human figure (made of wood) fixed in the path of a boar to entice it (Te.lex.) mun.d.ha, mun.d.hak = stump of tree, log (Santali.lex.) mo_t.u = the stump of a tree, stubbles (Ka.);

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mo_t.u, mo_d.u (Te.); murad.u (Ta.); stump of a tree; that of the arm or leg (Ma.); mu_r-ai = a stump (Ta.); mu_le cattle without horns or with horns turned (Ma.)(Ka.lex.) mut.t.u tool, instrument, sundry things; mut.ga.rn Kota economic associate with Badaga or with Kurumba (he gives tool etc.); Kota economic associate with Toda (less formal than kel. Relationship)(Ko.); mut. Things given by Kotas to Toads, including tools (To.); mut.t.u implement, tool, thing, utensils, furniture, things belonging to a house as beams (Ka.); instrument, tool (Te.)(DEDR 4937). tat.t.tumut.t.u furniture, goods and chattels, utensils, luggag (Ta.); kitchen utensils, household stuff (Ma.); tat.t.imut.t.u id. (Tu.)(DEDR 3041). mo_d.i = the mor or common business script of the Mara_thi (Ka.); mo_d.i_, mo_d.u (M.); a running hand (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) modi_ = a steward; a grain-dealer, a retail grocer; modi_kha_num = a granary; the commissariat department; the business of supplying corn and other provisions (G.lex.) modaliga = a chief, a headman (na_ga, mukhya)(Ka.lex.) mo_di_ = a purveyor, caterer, victualer, grocer (Te.lex.) mudi = a shopkeeper, a Hindu caste (Santali.lex.) mo_d.i = a turn, a caste, a style, a fashion (of speech, composition, action)(Ka.M.Te.Ma.) mo_ti = a corn handler; a petty grocer (Ka.); mo_di_ (M.H.); mo_ti_kha_ne = the commissariat department of an army (Ka.); mo_di_ (M.H.); a granary (Ka.lex.)

h182A h18/2B 4306Tablet in bas-relief h182a Pict-107: Drummer and a tiger. h182b Five svastika signs alternating rightand left-handed. mo~r.eko, mo~r.eko turuiko = certain Santal godlets so named (Santali.lex.) [Note the depiction of six (turui) persons with twigs on their heads and with pigtails]. mon.d. = the tail of a serpent; jambr.o mon.d. = the tail of the rock snake (Santali.lex.) [The glyph is ligatured to the composite animal in lieu of a tail]. mahri, mudi = a shopkeeper, a Hindu caste (Santali) maru hor.o = a brave man (Mundari.lex) mahra, mahara = a small insect found in water (Mundari) maru = adj. Of reptiles, small mammals, and fish (not crabs, for which ora is used)(Mundari) sen:gel marmar = a species of centipede, scolapendra versicolor; a poisonous centipede, verhy common; the sting is painful like that of a scorpion (Santali.Mundari.Ho.); kar.kommarmar = a scorpion (Mundari.lex.) marmar = marble (Mundari.H.) mahra, mahara = a hindu caste, the goalla or cow-keeping caste (Mundari) martul, martol = a sledge-hammer as used to break rocks or stones (Mundari.Santali); martul (fr. French marteau)(H.)(Mundari.lex.)

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Alternative: Substantive: me~rhe~t ‘iron’; me~rhe~t icena ‘the iron is rusty’; ispat me~rhe~t ‘steel’, dul me~rhe~t ‘cast iron’; me~rhe~t khan.d.a ‘iron implements’ (Santali) med. (Ho.)(Santali.lex.Bodding) mer.ed, mr.ed, mrd iron; enga mer.ed soft iron; sand.i mer.ed hard iron; ispa_t mer.ed steel; dul mer.ed cast iron; i mer.ed rusty iron, also the iron of which weights are cast; bicamer.ed iron extracted from stone ore; balimer.ed iron extracted from sand ore (Mu.lex.) mer.hao = to entwine itself, wind round, wrap around, roll up (Santali.lex.) [Note the endless knot motif]. 6

Alternative: kut.hi = an earthenware barrel-shaped receptacle for storing paddy (Santali.lex.Bodding) kut.hi = a receptacle in which rice is stored (Santali.lex.) kut.i = a vessel with openings used for fumigations (Ka.lex.) kun.d.i = a student's water-pot, made of hollow coconut etc.; kun.d.ike, gun.d.ige = a waterpot (Ka.lex.) kun.d.i_, kun.d.a_ = pot (Pkt.lex.) kun.d.a = bowl, waterpot (Ka_tyS’r.); basin of water (MBh.); kun.d.ika_ (Pa_n.); kut.am (Ta.); gun.d.i (Ka.); kunju = water jar (Pr.); kun.i = pot (Kt.); kun.d.o_k = wooden milk bowl (Kal.)(CDIAL 3264). kun.d.a = a spring (EI 23, IEG) gun.d.ige (Tbh. of kun.d.ike) = water vessel; gun.d.i = a large round earthen or metal vessel (Ka.); kun.d.i_ = a vessel of stone or earth (M.) (Ka.lex.) gun.d.iga = a large wide-mouthed vase or jar (Te.lex.) kut.am = waterpot, hub of a wheel (Ta.); kod.a = earthen pitcher or pot (Ka.); ku_t.a = waterpot (Skt.)(DEDR 1651; CDIAL 3227). kud.aka = a cup, a bowl, a small pan, any cup-like or concave thing (Te.lex.) kut.amu = a waterpot (Te.lex.) kod.a pot (Ka.) kut.hi, kut.i (Or. kut.t.hi) a mud walled store box for paddy, formerly sometimes found in the houses of Mundas (Mundari.lex.) kut.t.akam = cauldron, large vessel with narrow mouth (esp. for treasure)(Ma.); kut.t.uva = big copper pot for heating water (Kod.)(DEDR 1668). kut.am = waterpot (Ta.); kod.a = earthen pitcher or pot (Ka.); ku_t.a = waterpot (Skt.)(DEDR 1651; CDIAL 3227). ko_s.t.ha = pot (Kaus’.); granary, storeroom (MBh.); ko_s.t.haka = treasury (Skt.); ko_s.t.hika_ pan (Skt.)(CDIAL 3546). kut.hri_ chamber (B.); kot.hari ((Or.); kothla_ room, granary (H.); kot.hlo wooden box (G.)(CDIAL 3546). kotthali_ sack (Pali); kotthala = bag, grainstore (Pkt.); ku_thli_ satchel, wallet (B.); kuthal.i, kothal.i wallet, pouch (Or.); kothla_ bag, sack, stomach (H.); kothl.o large bag (G.); large sack, chamber of stomach (M.)(CDIAL 3511).

bhagal.a, bhagada_l.um, bhopa_l.um = a hole; a bore (G.lex.) [Note: glyph, dotted circle] bagarage, bagarige, bagerage = a hole dug for water in the dry bed of a river or steam, a spring (Ka.lex.) bagge = spot, mark (Te.lex.) bakhola = a cleft in a tree; a hollow in a tree; a hole (G.lex.) pagad.e = a mark on a die (Ka.); pagad.a_ (M.); pakat.ai (Ta.); pagad.e, pagid.e (Ma.); pagad.e = an ace on a die (Te.); a die (or cowry) for playing a kind of back-gammon; a piece used at play (Te.); [cf. Skt. vat.aka_); pagad.e = the play itself (Ka.); pagad.eya ka_yi = a piece used in playing pagad.e; pagad.eya letta = a die (or cowry) at pagad.e; pagad.eya sa_lu = the line of squares a player’s pieces have to cross to arrive at the center of a dice-cloth or board (Ka.lex.) bagat.u = to disjoin the thighs, to open the legs, to straddle (Ka.); vaku = to dive, separate (Ta.Ma.)(Ka.lex.)

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Alternative homonyms: sike spit (Santali) sikwar to give way, crack (of earthen pots)(Santali) kiccu fire (Ta.Ga.); kis (Kol.Go.); ciccu fire, flame (Te.); cicc fire (Kur.); cicci_ fire (Pkt.)(DEDR 1514). s’i_kh is the rod used to hold the gimlet or grinding rock (hard rock such as jasper or agate or carnelian) is made of copper. s’i_kh a pointed iron bar; a hollow pointed iron bar use to draw out grain etc. from a bag; s’ikha_ the crest; peacock (G.) s’i_kum (Skt. s’ikya) a sling for suspending things on (G.) s’in:gi_ horned, having horns; s’in:ga [Dh.Des. s’iggu] a horn, a trumpet; s’in:gad.i_ a small horn (G.) sikuar, sikwar a sling slung to each end of a pole in which things are carried (Santali) Substantive: sikol, sikri a chain; sikr.i makr.i marriage bonds; makr.i, makor.i an earring sikil to polish, to burnish, to make bright as iron on a grindstone; san sikil kedae he ground and polished (Santali) Glyph: hig- (hikt-) to lower head (Pe.); sika (siki-) to bend the head down (Kui); hikali to crouch; hikk- to hand the head (Kuwi)(DEDR 2493). 9

Upside down, birth

put.t.ha = upside down, having the face downward (P.lex.) put.t.u = birth, origin; progeny (Ka.) Depicting kamar sa_la_ (blacksmith’s workshop) or, ‘saloi kamar’ = a kind of blacksmith (perhaps, knife grinder) [sala = afterbirth, kamar] [Note the glyph of a woman with spread thighs and something (placenta? menses? dead foetus?) emanating from the womb]. sa_l afterbirth (N.); cause of pain (G.); dead foetus in womb (M.); hal = afterbirth (K.); s’alya = anything lodged in the body and causing pain (applied to dead foetus)(Sus’r.); salla = thorn in body (Pkt.)(CDIAL 12332). Substantive: sa_l = shed, workshop (Bengali) saloi kamar = a kind of blacksmith [Another kind is kolhe kamar = iron-smelter] sal = house, as in school house; shop, as in workshop; place, as in dancing place; kamar sal = a smithy; ban.d.i sal, paura sal = a liquor shop; ak sal a place where sugarcane is pressed; kut. sal = a carpenter’s or joiner’s workshop; dare butareko sal akada = they have set up a forge under a tree (Santali.lex.) s’a_l.a_ [Skt. s’a_la_] a place, a house; a school; an academy (G.lex.) sa_la_ [cf. Vedic s’a_la_; Lat. Cella cell; OHG halla, E. hall] a large (covered and enclosed) hall, large room, house; shed, stable etc.; aggis’a_la_ a hall with a fire; kumbhaka_ras’a_la_ potter’s hall; yan~n~as’a_la_ hall of sacrifice (Pali.lex.) s'a_lika a village of artisans; a weaver; a toll, tax (Skt.lex.) sa_la, sa_le a man who has a room or shop; s'a_li belonging to a house; endowed with, possessed of, possessing,

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having (Ka.lex.) A tax on shops: ca_li-pakuti a tax on shops (R.T.); ca_likai toll, customs, duty (Ta.lex.) sa_liga a man who has a room or shop; sa_liti a woman who belongs to a man that has a shop or room; sa_le, s'a_le, sa_li a hall, a room etc.; a school; a man who has a room or shop; sa_like business in a room or shop; s'a_lika belonging to a house; s'a_lika a village of artificers; s'a_like a small house, a room; s'a_li_na attached to the house or to one's own room; s'a_le a hall, a saloon (Ka.lex.) Feeding-house: ca_lai < s'a_la_ alms-house, feedinghouse (T.A.S. I,9); sacrificial hall (Kampara_. Tiruvava. 84)(Ta.lex.) ca_lam surrounding wall, fortress; ca_lampam < sa_lamba that which has a support (Ta_yu. Tikruvarul.vi. 3)(Ta.lex.) s'a_la_ shed, stable, house (AV.); s'a_lam adv. at home (S'Br.); s'a_lika_ house, shop (Skt.); sa_la_ shed, stable, large open-sided hall, house (Pali.Pkt.); sa_la house (Pkt.); sal cattleshed (Ash.); s'a_l (Wg.Dm.); sa_l cattleshed on summer pasture (Pas'.); shed, workshop (B.); hall, house, school (.); s'al cattleshed (Kho.); s'eli goat-pen (Kho.); hal hall, house (K.); sa_lh house with thatched roof (L.); xa_l, xa_li house, workshop, factory (A.); sa_l.a shed, stable (Or.); sa_r cowshed (Bi.); cowshed (H.); sa_l. workshop, school (M.); sal-a, hal-a hall, market-hall (Si.)(CDIAL 12414). ka_l family, relationship (Ta.); ka_li herd of cows (Ta.); cow, cattle (Ma.); ka_l pillar (Ma.); trikkal tripod of three sticks on which tent is hung (Br.)(DEDR 1479). Glyph: sal ‘wedge joining the parts of a solid cart wheel’ (Santali) cala_kku burin, engraver's tool; cala_kai needle-like tool of steel (cala_kai nur..ainta man.ittul.ai)(Man.i. 12,66); surgeon's probe; ramrod; spear, javelin; iron rod or stake; lath for roofing; cala_kai-p-pa_rai sharp pointed implement for digging; cala_kai-y-at.i to nail on laths, prepare laths; cala_kaiy-a_n.i lath-nail (Ta.lex.) Needle, probe, bodkin; arrow: xala_ pin (of bamboo, wood, or iron)(A.); sala_i_ pin (in spinning yarn)(L.); sal.a_i_ needle in shuttle, spindle (P.); needle, probe, bodkin (H.); coarse needle, short stick (Bi.); sara_i iron or wooden poker (Mth.); sal.a_, sal.ai_, sal.i_ pin, spike, skewer (M.)(CDIAL 12349). salay spike (K.); s'ala_ka_ arrow (Pali)(CDIAL 12349). Glyph: sal = the Indian gaur, gavaeus gaurus; sal sakwa = a horn made from a horn of the gaur (Santali) Substantive: cu_l.ai ‘kiln, furnace, funeral pile’ (Tamil) culha fireplace; sulgao, salgao to light a fire; sen:gel, sokol fire (Santali.lex.) Glyphs: cu_l.a ‘tiger’s mane, head-dress, bracelet’ [See the seal of a seated person wearing a buffalo’s horn and surrounded by animals] Some glyphs on Text 4304, rebus: Alternative 1: kut.t.a_r, kut.a_r = corn without grains (Go.); kut.t.a_ = chaff (Kur.)(DEDR 1665). kuta = jowari stubble (Go.); gut.t.u = stubble of paddy (Pe.)(DEDR 1676). *khut.t.a, *khun.t.a (CDIAL 3893, 3746). gundli = a cultivated millet, panicum miliare (Santali.lex.) Rebus: kut.ha_ru = armourer, writer (Skt.) Alternative 2: ko_li a stubble of jo_l.a (Ka.); ko_le = a stub or stump of corn (Te.)(DEDR 2242). kol, kolhe = an aboriginal tribe of iron smelters speaking a language akin to that of the Santals (Santali.lex.) kol 'metal' (Ta.)

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Pictorial motif on side b of tablet h180: a woman with legs spread out, accent on pubes: kut.hi; rebus: kut.hi = a furnace for smelting iron ore]. 10

kundi, kundiyamu = a sort of rim of stone placed upon a mortar to prevent spilling of rice (Te.lex.) kundau dhiri = a hewn stone; kundau murhut = a graven image (Santali.lex.) kur..a, kud.a, kur..u, gur..a, gur..u a piece of iron used for the ran.t.e (and kun.t.e), a ploughshare (Ka.) *khut. pin (N.); khu~t.i_ wooden pin (M.)(CDIAL 3893); khun.t.a peg (Pkt.); khu~_t.a_ stump, stake, post, peg (H.); khu~_t.i_ peg (H.); khu~t.a_, khu~t.i_ stake, peg (M.)(CDIAL 3893). Pin: khu~t.a_ pin, wedge, stake, wooden post (B.); khut.nu to stitch (N.); khut.a_ peg, post (Mth.); khu~t.a_ stake; khu~t.i_ wooden pin (M.)(CDIAL 3893). gu_n.t.a, gun.t.i, gun.t.e, gu_n.t.ige peg, pin, stake (Tu.); gun.t.a, gu_n.t.a, ku_t.a peg, plug (Ka.); gud.ida id., stumpy post (Ka.); gu.t.a peg, post (Kod..); gu_t.amu stake, post, peg (Tu.); gud.ide hinge, peg, pivot (Te.); kut.t.a pillar, post (Go.)(DBIA 104). 11 Other homonyms: d.hon.d. = a big wood pigeon (P.lex.) dondhor.o, dondkor.o squatting, cowering, sitting close to the ground (Santali) d.on.d.o polled, as an ox or buffalo (G.) d.on.d.obot to salute by bowing down (Santali) d.ondor a cave, den; don.d.hor a hole, a hollow; d.od.hio hollow; d.od.hor a hole, a hollow; a cavity, hollow (Santali) d.on.t.ho, dhon.t.ho, dhon.t.o a knot (Santali) dod.o = an ear of corn (G.lex.) dhon.d.ra khalak a large leaf cup; d.hon:ga ‘a dugout, a boat made from a hollowed out tree, a wooden trough’ (Santali) don ‘a wooden trough’ (Santali) 12

nakar..-tal to creep, crawl along (Kampara_. Atika_. 136)(Ta.)(Ta.lex.) na_ga, na_gara, na_gala a snake, especially the coluber or cobra capella (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) na_ga snake (S'Br.NiDoc.); n.a_ya (Pkt.); nay, na_, naya_ snake (Si.); na_ga-danta elephant tusk, ivory < snake-shaped tusk (Skt.); na_ga (Pali); n.a_ya (Pkt.); n (Gypsy); naa euphem. term for snake (Or.); na_ng (Bshk.); non. (Kt.Pr.); nhon. name of a god (Kal.)[<? Pers. nahang](CDIAL 7039). na_kam cobra (Man.i. 25,195); serpent (Kampara_. Kalan-ka_n.. 37)(Ta.)(Ta.lex.) s'is'una_ka young snake (R.); young elephant (Skt.); susva_l. crocodile (G.)(CDIAL 12477). 13

Alternative homonyms: tebr.a = three (Santali)

ta_mbum = copper (G.); ta_mra (Skt.); ta_mba_ na_n.um = copper coin; ta_mba_ va_d.ako = a porringer made of copper; ta_mba_ kun.d.i_ a copper trough in which water for bathing is kept; ta_mbad.i_ = a copper pot (G.)

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kum.ta spear (Pkt.); kundu spike of a top (S.); kundi_ spike at the bottom of a stick (S.); kundir.i_, kundiri_ spike of a spear or stick (S.); kutu lance (Si); konta standard (Pali); kom.ta spear (Pkt.); ko~t spear, dart (H.); kota spear, spire, standard (Si.)(CDIAL 3289). < Perh. Greek kontos spear. kauntika a spearman, lancer; kunta a lance (Skt.lex.) kuntam < kunta javelin for throwing; barbed dart (Ci_vaka. 1678); spear, lance (Pu. Ve. 4,7); pike, stake (Mullaip. 41)(Ta.lex.) kunta, konta = a lance, spear (Ka.lex.) kundena, kundi = a barbed dart (Te.lex.) kuntam = spear (Ta.lex.)kund- (kunt-) to punch with fist, pierce with spear (Pe.); kutkaha_ to strike one another with fists (Pe.); kut- to push with fist (Mand..); kund- (kunt-) to pierce, prod (Mand..); kuta (kuti-) to prick; n. act of pricking (Kui); kuttinai to stab, stitch; kut- (-it-) to prick (Kuwi); xutting to dig, probe (Br.)(DEDR 1719). khu~ca_na_ to prick (B.); khu~ci inserting new thatch in old (B.); khu~cvu~ to pierce (G.); khu~c indentation (G.)(CDIAL 3890). khor.an.u to drive into (S.)(CDIAL 3802). 15

kut.t.am depth, pond (Ta.); kut.t. a large pit (Kui); kun.d.a pit, round hole in ground for sacred fire (Skt.)(DEDR 1669). kun.d.a a reservoir of water surrounded with steps to go down to the bottom (G.) ku~n.d. a pit, a pitfall, a hot spring; norok ku~n.d. hell (Santali) kon.d., kon.d.a_, pit (Kon.); kun.d.a, kon.d.a = a hole in the ground, a pit (Ka.); kon.d.aban.d.i = a cart used at the kon.d.a feast; kon.d.ahabba = a feast in honour of Vi_rabhadra at which Lin:gavantas carry an idol of Vi_rabhadra and dance with it on live coals in a pit (Ka.); kun.d.a = a pit, especially of sacrificial fire; kon.d.a = a pit, hole; tu_takon.d.a = a fire-pit (Tu.); kon.d.upa_runi to run away with; kon.d.upo_pini = to take away, convey; kon.d.ubarpini = to bring; kon.d.opini, kon.opini id. (Tu.lex.) 16

tamba = copper; tambar.a = a copper coloured gem of inferior value; a copper vessel with a wide mouth; tambesar, tamesar = a variety of copper; tabitia = one who writes amulets (P.lex.) ta_mbum = copper; ta_mbad.i_ = a copper pot (G.lex.) ta_mbra, ta_mbara = copper (Ka.lex.) ta_mra copper; a coppery red colour, made of copper (VS 16.6 ta_mro arun.ah) (Vedic.lex.) tamba = copper; tamro = a precious stone (Santali.lex.) tambabica, copper-ore stones (Mundari.lex.) tamba red, copper (Pali); tamba adj. and n. (Pkt.); tambira copper, red coloured (Pkt.); tra_m copper (K.); tamba_ (Or.)(CDIAL 5779). tamaut.e, tamot.e = coppersmith (N.)(CDIAL 5781). tamher.a_ = brass-founder (Bi.); tamher.i_ round copper vessel (Bi.)(CDIAL 5781, 5782). ta_mbara_ coppersmith (Or.)(CDIAL 5780). ta_bulu a tinsel; the cut as of a precious stone; ta_bulu ka_ji an artistic bangle; ta_mba_n.o a metallic dish (Tu.lex.) ta_mbt.i coppersmith (Kon.lex.) cf. tampit.i, tampat.i < damri (H.) cash, a small coin = 1/12 anna (Ta.lex.) cf. damad.i, dammad.i a ka_su, the fourth part of a dud.d.u or paisa (Ka.); damad.i_ (M.H.)(Ka.lex.) tambige, cembige, tambagi, tambuge = kamat.ha, kalas’a, kut.a, cambu, a water-pot (Ka.); id. (Te.); cf. ta_mraka (Ka.lex.) ta_mraka = copper; ta_mrika = made of copper (Skt.); ta_mbra = ta_mbara Tbh. of ta_mra; ta_mrakut.t.aka = a brazier or coppersmith (Ka.lex.) tabuku = a tray, slaver, plate, platter (Te.lex.) ta_marasa = red lotus (MBh.); lotus (Pkt.); copper (Skt.)(CDIAL 5774). ta_mra copper (Kaus'.); ta_mraka copper (Ya_j.); ta_m copper (Bshk.); ta_mba copper (Phal.); ta_mba_ copper (Sh.); tra_m copper (K.Sh.); t.ra_mo copper (S.); tra_ma_, tara_ma~_ (L.); ta_mba_ (P.); t.l.a_m (WPah.); ta~_bo_ (WPah.); ta_mo pl. young bamboo shoots (N.); ta_m (A.); ta~_ba_, ta_ma_ (B.); tamba_ (Or.); ta_m, ta_ma_ (Mth.); ta_ma_ (Bhoj.); ta_m in compounds, ta~_ba_, ta_ma_ (H.); tra~_bu~, ta~_bu~ (G.); ta~_be~ (M.); ta_mbe copper (Konkan.i); tama, tam copper (Si.)(CDIAL 5779). ca_mba, cambo copper (WPah.)(CDIAL 5779). ta_ram a copper coin, 12

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pice of 13 fanam (Ma.); ta_ra a copper coin of 2 ka_su (Ka.); two pie (Tu.)(DEDR 3168). teb copper (To.); cambu, cembu, combu copper (Ka.); cembi copper (Kod..); cembu brass, copper (Tu.); cempu copper (Ma.); copper, gold (Ta.)(DEDR 2775). Copper, red: cempanbrown-coloured cow or bull (Ta.)(DEDR 2775). tambavan copper-coloured, dark red (Si.); ta_mravarn.a copper-coloured (TA'r.)(CDIAL 5790).ta_mrapat.t.a copper plate (for inscribing)(Ya_j.); ta_mra-pattra id. (Skt.); ta~_bot.i_ piece of copper of shape and size of a brick (M.); tamoti copper plate (Ku.)(CDIAL 5786-7). Coppersmith: ta_mbara_ coppersmith (Or.)(CDIAL 5780). tamaut.e, tamot.e coppersmith (N.); ta_mrakut.t.a coppersmith (R.)(CDIAL 5781). tamher.a_ brass-founder (Bi.)(CDIAL 5783). 17 In the Babylonian Talmud (+2nd century), asemon is a commonly used word referring to bullion (gold, silver or mixed). Leiden X papyrus (ca. +3rd century) says: "no.8. It will be asem, (i.e. electrum, an alloy of gold and silver) which will deceive even the artisans (a tincopper-gold-silver alloy); no.12. Falsification of gold (a zinc-copper-lead-gold alloy)..." (Needham, Joseph, 1971, Science and Civilization in China, Vol. 5, Part II, pp. 18-21). Asem denoted the natural alloy of silver and gold; it also meant any bright metal made with copper, tin, lead, zinc, arsenic and mercury. Twelve or thirteen different alloys were called asem. (ibid., p. 45). 'The existence of this alloy (assem) may have been the original cause for the suggestion of transmutation since by adding silver to it, one would get a metal nearly identical with the crude silver from the mine; and by adding gold, something indistinguishable from gold. [The paucity of the Egyptian language may perhaps have been responsible for a confusion. Gold was the 'yellow metal', and the alloy produced was also a 'yellow metal'.]' (Hopkins, A.J., 1967, Alchemy, pp. 103-4). 18

karmaka_ra = labourer (Pa_n.ini's As.t.a_dhya_yi: ka_rukarma = artisan's work (Arthas'a_stra : 2.14.17); karma_nta = a workshop or factory (Arthas'a_stra : 2.12.18, 23 and 27, 2.17.17, 2.19.1, 2.23.10). kamaru to be singed, burnt or scorched (by the sun, by fire)(Ka.); kamaru, kamuru, kamalu (Te.); kamarike, kamarige = the state of being singed etc.; kamaru, kanaru, kamara, kamut.u, kavut.u, kavuru, gavulu = id. (Ka.) (Ka.lex.) kamar = a blacksmith; rana kamar, the ordinary blacksmith in the country (rana is their caste or tribal name); saloi kamar, a kind of blacksmith. Kamar kami mit bar hor.ko cet akata = a few Santals have learnt blacksmith work (Santali. Bodding). Kambru = a blacksmith; ale t.hen bar or.ak kambru menakkoa = two families of blacksmiths live with us; kambru t.hene sen akana = he has gone to the blacksmith (Santali.Bodding). karuman-, karumakan- blacksmith (Ta.lex.) kammam = kammiyar tor..il (i.e. work of kammiyar or kamma_l.ar: kan-n-a_r, kollar, cir-par, taccar, tat.t.a_r); kammiyanu_l = cir-panu_l, i.e. book of sculpture (Ta.lex.) kammara = the blacksmith or ironsmith caste; kammaramu = the blacksmith’s work, working in iron, smithery; kammarava_d.u, kammari, kammari_d.u = a blacksmith, ironsmith (Te.lex.) kammar-a, kammaga_r-a = blacksmith (Ka.lex.); kamma_l.a = an artisan, an artificer; a blacksmith, a goldsmith (Ka.Ta.Ma.); a goldsmith (Ka.lex.) kammara = the blacksmith or ironsmith caste; kammaramu = the blacksmith’s work, working in iron, smithery; kammarava_d.u, kammari, kammari_d.u = a blacksmith, ironsmith (Te.lex.) kamba_r-a = blacksmith; kamba_r-ike, kamma_r-ike = a blacksmith’s business (Ka.lex.) kama_r (Or. kamha_r, toil) syn. of bar.ae, blacksmith. This term seems to be applied especially to the blacksmiths of Gangpur, who, though of Mund.ari race like the lohars of Biru, Barway and other Oraon parts, are considered outcasts by the latter because they use tanned hides for their bellows. (Mundari.lex.) kambru = a blacksmith. Ale t.hen bar or.ak

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kambru menakkoa = two families of blacksmiths live with us; kambru t.hene sen akana = he has gone to the blacksmith (Santali.lex.Bodding) kambru guru = the reputed original teacher of the ojhas, a mythical teacher of charms and incantations, as also of medicine. Acc. To one form of the Santal traditions the person who taught the women witchcraft was Kambru; acc. To another, it was Maran buru. It is not possible to decide whether there has been an old sage of this name; or whether it should be understood as a person from Kamrup; the Santal traditions may be understood both ways (Santali.lex.Bodding). kamar = a blacksmith, a semi-hinduized caste; kolhe kamar, a Kolhe blacksmith and iron-smelter; lohar kamar, a caste of blacksmiths that live more in conformity with Hindu caste rules (do not eat meat, do not drink beer; rare in the Santal country); rana kamar, the ordinary blacksmiths in the country (rana is their caste or tribal name); saloi kamar, a kind of blacksmith. Kamar kami mit bar hor.ko cet akata = a few Santals have learnt blacksmith work. The rule among the Santals is that a village (or several villages) keep a blacksmith who does all repairs to agricultural implements free of charge, but receives twenty seers of paddy and one winnowing-fan full of Indian corn cobs and two sheaves of pady for each plough; to make a ploughshare he is paid for the iron; to put teeth on a sickle he gets two seers of paddy, and he is also paid half a seer of rice from each house at the Sohrae. He is paid for whatever else he makes new; kara era, the wife of a blacksmith (Desi kamar; H. karmka_r; B. ka_ma_r); kamari = the work of a blacksmith, pay for such work (Santali.lex.) karma_rud.u a blacksmith, an artisan (Te.lex.) kamarsa_ri_ smithy (Mth.); kamarsak_yar (Bi.)(CDIAL 2899). 2104.Workshop: kamhala workshop (Si.); kammala smithy (Si.); kammasa_la_ (Pkt.); karmas'a_la_ workshop (MBh.)(CDIAL 2896). cf. karuman-, karumakan- blacksmith (Ta.lex.) Blacksmith; labourer: kamarsa_ri_ smithy (Mth.); kamarsa_yar id. (Bi.)(CDIAL 2899). karuman- blacksmith (Ta.); karu-makan- id. (Kampara_. Pampa_. 37)(Ta.lex.) karma_ra blacksmith (RV.); kamma_ra worker in metal (Pali); kamma_ra, kamma_raya blacksmith (Pkt.); kama_r (A.); ka_ma_r (B.); kama_ra blacksmith, caste of non-Aryans, caste of fishermen (Or.); kama_r blacksmith (Mth.); kam.bura_ (Si.)(CDIAL 2898). karmakr.t performing work, skilful in work (AV.); one who has done any work (Pa_n..); workman (Skt.); kam.bul.a doing menial work (Si.)(CDIAL 2891). karmaka_ra doing work without wages (Ka_s'.); karmaka_raka one who does any work (Pa_n..); kammaka_ra hired labourer, workman (Pali); kammaga_ra servant (Pkt.); kamma_riya_ female servant or slave (Pkt.); ka_mar slave (Sv.); kama_ra_ servant (L.); kama_ro slave (Ku.N.)(CDIAL 2888). karmakara workman, hired labourer (MBh.); kammakara (Pali); kammayara servant (Pkt.); kamera_ hired labourer (H.); kam.buranava_ to serve as a menial or slave (Si.)(CDIAL 2887). karmaka_ra_payati causes to work as a servant (Skt.); kama_ra_in.u to cause to work (S.)(CDIAL 2889). ka_rma active, laborious (Pa_n..); kamma connected with work (Pkt.); ka_mu, ka_mo slave (K.); ka_mma~_, ka_ma_ farm servant (P.); ka_ma_, ka_mo servant (WPah.)(CDIAL 3074). ka_rmika engaged in action, name of a partic. Buddhist sect (Ya_j.); Public officer: ka_mi_ public officer (S.); servant (WPah.)(CDIAL 3076). Work: karman act, work (RV.); kamma (Pali); kramam., kramane, kam.ma (As'.); kama (NiDoc.Si.); kamman, kamma, kamma_ (Pkt.); kam work, esp. smith's work (Gypsy); ga_m (Shum.Gaw.Bshk.); kam (Wot..K.); krum (Kal.); korum (obl. kormo)(Kho.); kam work, thing, booty (Gypsy); ka_m (Mai.Tor.Ku.); id. (N.A.B.Mth.Bhoj. H.Marw.G.M.); keram (Sv.); krom (Sh.D..); kom (Sh.); komu (K.); kamu (S.); kamm (L.P.WPah.); ka_ma (Or.Konkan.i); ka_mu (Aw.); ka_mu~ an office, administration (G.); krem, kam, klem (Ash.); s.lam (Ash.Wg.); kram (Dm.Tir.Phal.); la_m, s.am, kur.u_m, ga_m, plo_m (Pas'.)(CDIAL 2892). Fatigue: s'rama labour (RV.); fatigue

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(S'Br.AV.); sama fatigue (Pali); samam. energy (As'.); sama fatigue, effort (Pkt.); seu~ worry (WPah.); mehe-ya, me_-ya work, service (Si.)(CDIAL 12683). sammati is weary (Pali); s'ramyati is tired (RV.); sammai (Pkt.); s'amu_na to become tired (D..); s.omoiki, s.omo_nu (Sh.)(CDIAL 12693). santa tired (Pali); s'ranta wearied (RV.); sam.ta (Pkt.); s'a_ndn.u to tire (WPah.)(CDIAL 12692). Labourer: ka_mat.h, ka_mi_t. busy, diligent (M.); karmis.t.ha very active (Skt.)(CDIAL 2901). kama_t.hi_, kamet.hi_ beating (P.)(CDIAL 2890). ka_ma_t.t.i labourer, one who works with a hoe, digger of earth (Ta.Ma.); ka_ma_t.i (Te.Ka.); ka_ma_t.e (Tu.); ka_ma_t.hi (M.)(Ta.lex.) kamaveti causes to work, works (NiDoc.); kamma_ve_i earns, works (Pkt.); kama~_wun to work, earn, smelt (metal)(K.); kama_in.u to work, earn, slaughter (S.); kama_van. to work, earn (L.); kama_un.a_ (P.); kuma_n.a_ (WPah.); kamu_n.o to work, cultivate (Ku.); kama_unu (N.); ka_ma_na to earn, shave (B.)[cf. kammai does barber's work (Pkt.); kramoi_ki to use, employ, spend (Sh.)(CDIAL 2894)]; kama_iba to work, earn (Or.); kama_eb to serve, weed (a field)(Mth.); kama_vai earns (OAw.); kama_na_ (H.); kama_vvu~ to help to earn (G.); kama_vu~ to earn (G.); kama_vin.e~ (M.)(CDIAL 2897). kramo_nu hardworking; labourer, farmer (Sh.); kamun.a artisan (Si.)(CDIAL 2893). kra_mi_n low-caste labourer such as a D.om (Sh.); karmi_n.a competent (S'Br.); kami_n. labourer (man or woman)(WPah.); ka_min.a_ labourer (MB.)(CDIAL 2902). kammika overseer (Pali) kammi, kammia industrious; evildoer (Pkt.); ki_yema blacksmith (Pr.); ki_ma slave (Pr.); kami_ labourer (S.); kammi_ village labourer, menial (L.P.); ka_mi blacksmith (N.); ka_mi_ day labourer (Or.); industrious (H.M.); ka_mia_ servant who works in repayment of interes on money borrowed by his master (Or.); kamiya~_ agricultural labourer who works on advances (Bi.); ka_miya_ labourer (H.); kami artificer (OSi.); kamiya_ worker (Si.); ka_min.i female labourer (Or.); kamyulu farm labourer who lives in (K.); kamilo ant (N.); kamila_ useful (A.)(CDIAL 2900). ka_ma_t.i_ a caste of Hindus who are generally labourers and palanquin bearers (G.); komat.i_ (M.)(G.lex.) ka_ma_t.a = labour or work (for wages)(Ka.); ka_ma_t.i, ka_ma_t.a = a day-labourer (Ka.M.Te.Ma.Ta.); a house-servant (M.) 19

bod.e = an inferior kind of han.d.i (liquor); bodoc mela, bod.oc sod.oc = the liquor obtained by squeezing the malted grain, and being refuse is of an inferior quality; bod.oc han.d.i = liquor obtained by pouring water on the malted grain and squeezing it (Santali.lex.)

Homonym: ka~t.a = a hook; kat.a = a pit saw (Santali.lex.) kat.a kat.i = cutting, to slash, kill; kat.ao = to cut (Santali.lex.); kat.aha = fierce, ravening; applied also to any cutting instrument used to kill an animal with; den, kat.aha odoktape, bring out your cutting instrument (to kill the goat with)(Santali.lex.) khat., khat. marte = with one blow, or with one cut; khat. menteye get topakkeda, he cut it right through with one blow; khar, khar marte = sharp[; to whish as when cutting with any sharp instrument (Santali.lex.) khad.u_ra = swing (AV 11.9.6) (Vedic.lex.) 22

Alternative homonyms:

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marada = a man, a male; a hero, a brave or warlike man; marada_i_, marada_nagi_ = manliness, bravery, virility; marada_ni_ = manly, bold; maradi_ = boldness, manliness, valour; marade-a_dmi_ = a gentleman; a respectable man (G.lex.) maran: = great, large, big, to become great; first born, principal, head, chief; ad.i maran: sadom = a very big horse (Santali) marud.iyo = one who makes and sells wristlets, and puts wristlets on the wrists of women (G.lex.) marad.a = twisting; a twist; a turn; marad.avum = to twist, to turn; marad.a_vum = to bend; marod.a = a twist, a turn; writhing, a bend; marod.avum = to writhe, to twist, to contort; to bend (G.lex.) marud.i_ = a hut, a cottage (G.lex.) man.d.a_ = warehouse, workshop (Kon.lex.) man.d.a = a branch; a twig (Te.lex.) hil.l.i, hil.l.e = a branch, a shoot, a rootlet; hil.l.iyod.e = shoots to break forth (Ka.lex.) vi_l.ya (Tbh. of vi_t.a) the betel-leaf pepper, piper betel (Ka.lex.) cilla small branch of a tree; illi twig (Ma.); cil.l.e bifurcation (Ka.); cella, jella branch, bough (Pa.); cil branch of a tree, tine of antlers, tributary of river (Ko.)(DEDR 2587). il.a_ a curved instrument for cutting grass (M.) hila_ shoulder, hand (Pkt.lex.) hillola = a wave, surge; hilati = to sport amorously, dally, wanton, express amorous inclination (Dha_tup. 28.69) (Skt.lex.) hillola = a particular form of sexual union; hi_la, hi_laka = semen virile (Skt.lex.) hel = membrum virile; hel mel hona_ = to mingle, to be mixed (P.lex.) hil.alu, hin.i = a bullock’s or bull’s hump (Ka.lex.) hi_la_ = [Arabic hilah] occupation, work, employment; hi_la_ wasi_la_ employment and protection, one by whose aid employment is obtained (P.lex.) illa = watchman, servant (Pkt.lex.) 23

Alternative homonyms: bed.a hako = a fish (Santali) Rebus: bed.a ‘hearth’ (G.) hako ‘axe’ (Santali) 24

Alternative: kut.hi = an earthenware barrel-shaped receptacle for storing paddy (Santali.lex.Bodding) kut.hi = a receptacle in which rice is stored (Santali.lex.) kut.i = a vessel

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with openings used for fumigations (Ka.lex.) kun.d.i = a student's water-pot, made of hollow coconut etc.; kun.d.ike, gun.d.ige = a waterpot (Ka.lex.) kun.d.i_, kun.d.a_ = pot (Pkt.lex.) kun.d.a = bowl, waterpot (Ka_tyS’r.); basin of water (MBh.); kun.d.ika_ (Pa_n.); kut.am (Ta.); gun.d.i (Ka.); kunju = water jar (Pr.); kun.i = pot (Kt.); kun.d.o_k = wooden milk bowl (Kal.)(CDIAL 3264). kun.d.a = a spring (EI 23, IEG) gun.d.ige (Tbh. of kun.d.ike) = water vessel; gun.d.i = a large round earthen or metal vessel (Ka.); kun.d.i_ = a vessel of stone or earth (M.) (Ka.lex.) gun.d.iga = a large wide-mouthed vase or jar (Te.lex.) kut.am = waterpot, hub of a wheel (Ta.); kod.a = earthen pitcher or pot (Ka.); ku_t.a = waterpot (Skt.)(DEDR 1651; CDIAL 3227). kud.aka = a cup, a bowl, a small pan, any cup-like or concave thing (Te.lex.) kut.amu = a waterpot (Te.lex.) kod.a pot (Ka.) kut.hi, kut.i (Or. kut.t.hi) a mud walled store box for paddy, formerly sometimes found in the houses of Mundas (Mundari.lex.) kut.t.akam = cauldron, large vessel with narrow mouth (esp. for treasure)(Ma.); kut.t.uva = big copper pot for heating water (Kod.)(DEDR 1668). kut.am = waterpot (Ta.); kod.a = earthen pitcher or pot (Ka.); ku_t.a = waterpot (Skt.)(DEDR 1651; CDIAL 3227). ko_s.t.ha = pot (Kaus’.); granary, storeroom (MBh.); ko_s.t.haka = treasury (Skt.); ko_s.t.hika_ pan (Skt.)(CDIAL 3546). kut.hri_ chamber (B.); kot.hari ((Or.); kothla_ room, granary (H.); kot.hlo wooden box (G.)(CDIAL 3546). kotthali_ sack (Pali); kotthala = bag, grainstore (Pkt.); ku_thli_ satchel, wallet (B.); kuthal.i, kothal.i wallet, pouch (Or.); kothla_ bag, sack, stomach (H.); kothl.o large bag (G.); large sack, chamber of stomach (M.)(CDIAL 3511). 25

kra_d.i (? for kr.a?li, gla'li large axe (Kuwi); kut.ha_ra, kut.ha_ri (Beng. Or. forms have l for r)(CDIAL 3244; cf. Burrow, BSOAS 35.541).kut.a_ri, ko_t.a_ri, ko_t.a_li axe (Ta.); ko_t.a_li, ko_t.a_l.i id. (Ma.); kod.ali (Ka.); kod.ari, kud.ari (Tu.); god.d.ali, god.d.eli, god.d.e_li, god.d.e_lu, god.ali (Te.); golli, goli_ (Kol.); ghol.i (Nk.); kod.li (Nk.); god.el (Go.); gor.el(i) (Kond.a); ku_r.el (large variety axe)(Pe.)(DEDR App. 32). kr.a_d.i, kra_nd.i tiger, leopard, hyena (Kui); khar.yal, kariya_l panther (Go.); karad.a tiger (Pkt.); khar.eyak panther (Nk.); ked.iak tiger (Kol.); kr.ani tiger; kla_'ni leopard, tiger (Kuwi); kr.a'ni (pl. -na) tiger (Kuwi)(DEDR 1132). ko_-n.a_y < ko_l. + na_y Indian wolf; male jackal (Ta.lex.) kat.a_s'ia_ fierce like a wild cat (Or.); kha_t.a_s civet- or pole-cat (B.); civet cat (H.); kat.a_s, kat.a_r id. (H.); kat.a_s'a wild cat, civet (Or.); khat.t.a_s'a civet-cat (Skt.)(CDIAL 3780). ka_t.an tom-cat, male tiger, wild hog (Ma.); kat.uvan- tom-cat, male monkey (Ta.); kar.vn tom-cat (Ko.); kan.t.a male cat (Ka.); gad.o, gad.a-berge a wildcat (Malt.)(DEDR 1140). Image: male cat; male animal: gan.d.u male of the lower animals (Te.); kan.t.an the male esp. of cat (Ta.); gan.t.e, kan.t.e male cat (Tu.); kan.d.e male (of dogs and other animals, mostly wild; not of cats) (Kod..)(DEDR 1173); kuttiri civet cat (Tu.); kotti male or female cat (Ka.); kwat-y cat (To.); kor-r-an tomcat, boar, ram (Ta.)(DEDR 2170). kid-en contraction of kina:n a tiger, panther (Santali.lex.) 26

bari_ = blacksmith, artisan (Ash.)(C(CDIAL 9464). bar.ae = bad.ae (Santali.lex.) bar.ae = a blacksmith. “Although their physique, their language and their customs generally point to a Kolarian origin, they constitute a separate caste, which the Mundas consider as inferior to themselves, and the Baraes accept their position with good grace, the more so as no contempt is shown to them. …In every Munda village of some size there is at least one family of Baraes…The ordinary village smith is versed in the arts of iron-smelting, welding and tempering, and in his smithy, which is generally under one of the fine old large trees

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that form the stereotyped feature of the Mundari village, are forged from start to finish, all the weapons and the instruments and implements the Mundas require. There are of course individuals who succeed better than others in the making of arrows and various kinds of hunting-axes and these attract customers from other villages… they dig the kut.i (smelting furnace), they prepare and lay the bamboo tubes through which the air is driven from the bellows to the bottom of the furnace, they re-arrange the furnace after the lump of molten metal has been removed from it, and then the smith starts transforming it into ploughshares, hoes, yoking hooks and rings, arrow-heads, hunting axes of various shapes and sizes, wood axes, knives, his own implements, ladles, neat little pincers to extract thorns from hands and feet, needles for sewing mats and even razors. Formerly, he was also forging swords…susun-kanda (dancing-sword)…If it appears too bold to attribute the invention of iron smelting and working to some of the aboriginal inhabitants of this, in many respects so richly blessed part of India (Chota Nagpur), it is certain that no land in the world is better qualified to push man to this invention. The excavations made recently (in 1915) by Mr. Sarat Chandra Roy, the author of the Mundas and their Country have shown conclusively, that it was inhabited by man in the stone age, the copper age and the early iron age. Baraes are also found in the villages of Jashpur, Barwai, Biru, Nowagarh, Kolebira and Bano from which the Mundas have been either driven out by the Hindus or crowded out by the Uraons. There they have adopted the Sadani dialect but retained their own social and religious customs. In the districts named above they are called lohar or loha_ra, but in Gangpur they go under the name of Kamar. These Kamars are animists like the Lohars, but they use tanned hides for their single bellows, which they work by bulling, like the blacksmiths in Europe. The Lohars say that is is on account of this that they do not intermarry or eat with them any more. Baraes, Kamars and Lohars must not be confounded with the Aryan blacksmiths also called Lohars. These latter differ not only in race from the first but also in their methods of working. The Aryan blacksmith does not smelt iron, and uses only the single-nozzled hand bellows. He is met with only in such Chota Nagpur villages, where colonies of Hindu or Mohammedan landlords, merchants, money-lenders and native policement require his services, especially to get their bullocks and horses shod…The account the Baraes, Lohars and Kamars generally give of themselves is as follows: they say that they descend from Asura and Asurain, i.e., Asur and his wife, and that they were originally of one and the same caste with the Mundas. In this the Mundas agree with them… If the iron smelters and workers of the legend really belonged to the Munda race then their trade and art must in the beginning have given them a prominent position, such as is held in some ancient races by smiths…Like the Mundas they formerly burnt their dead, the bones of those dying out of their original village were carried back to it in a small earthen vessel into which some pice were placed, and this was then dashed to pieces against a rock in a river…Like the Mundas they practise ancestor worship in practically the same forms. Like them they worship Sin:bon:ga, whom the Lohars call Bhagwan… They also worship Baranda Buru whom the Sadani-speaking lohars call Bar Pahari…bar.ae-ili = the rice beer which has been brewed by the whole village, one pot per house, in honour of the Barae, and is drunk with him, at the end of the year; bar.ae-kud.lam = a country-made hoe, bar.ae-mer.ed = country-smelted iron; in contrast to cala_ni mer.ed, imported iron; bar.ae-muruk = the energy of a blacksmith.” (Mundari.lex., Encyclopaedia Mundarica, Vol. II, pp. 410-419).

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bar.hi, bar.hi_-mistri_, bar.u_i_, bar.u_i_-mistri_ (Sad.H. barha_i_) = a professional carpenter. This class of artisans is not found in purely Munda villages because every Munda knows carpentry enough for all his own purposes; trs. caus., to make somebody become a professional carpenter; intr., to call someone a carpenter; cina ka_m koko bar.hi_akoa? What kind of artisans are called carpenters; bar.hi-n rflx. v., to train oneself for, or to undertake, the work of a professional carpenter; bar.hi_-o, v., to become a professional carpenter; bar.hi_ kami = the work, the proession of carpenter, carpentry; bar.hi_-mistri_ a professional carpenter (Mundari.lex.) bad.ohi = a worker in wood, a village carpenter; bad.hor.ia = expert in working in wood; bad.hoe = a carpenter, worker in wood; bad.horia = adj. Who works in wood; (as a scolding to children who use a carpenter’s implements) mischievous (Santali.lex.) ba_r. blade of a khukri (N.); badhri_, badha_ru_ knife with a heavy blade for reaping with (Bi.); ba_r.h, ba_r. = edge of knife (H.); va_d.h (G.); ba_r.h = book-binders papercutter (Bi.); brdha_n.u_ = to sheer sheep (WPah.)(CDIAL 11371). vardha a cutting (Skt.); vad.hu a cut (S.)(CDIAL 11372). vardh- = to cut (Skt.); vardhaka carpenter (R.); bardog, bardox axe (Kho.); wadok (Kal.); wa_t. axe (Wg.); wa_t.ak (Pas'.)(CDIAL 11374). bad.gi, bad.gya_ carpenter (Kon.lex.) bad.hi, bar.hi mistri, bad.hoe, bad.ohi, kat. bad.hoe carpenter (Santali.lex.) bad.agi, bad.a_yi, bad.iga, bad.igi, bad.ige, bad.igya_, bad.d.agi (Tadbhava of vardhaki) a carpenter; bad.agitana carpentry (Ka.lex.) Image: stick: bar.ga, bar.iya stick (Kuwi); bur.ga stick, club; badga walking stick (Kuwi); bar.ga, bad.ga, bad.d.e, bad.d.i, bar.iya, war.iya_ stick (Go.); bar.iya stick (Pa.); vat.i small cane or stick; vat.ippu iron rod (Ta.); vat.i stick, staff, club or armed brahmans, shaft, stroke; vat.ikka to strike; vat.ippikka to have the measure struck (Ma.); bad.i, bad.e, bod.i, bod.e to beat, strike, thrash, bang, pound; n. beating, blow, castration, a short thick stick, cudgel; bad.ike beating; bad.ige stick, staff, cudgel, hammer, mallet; bad.isu to cause to beat; bad.ukatana beating, etc.; ba_y bad.i to prevent one from speaking, silence one (Ka.); bad.i (bad.ip-, bad.ic-) to hammer, pound; ba.y bad.i- to bawl out (Kod..); bad.ipuni, bad.iyuni to strike, beat, thrash; bad.u stick, cudgel (Tu.); bad.ita, bad.iya, bad.e thick stick, cudgel (Te.); bed.ta club; bad.ya walking stick (Kol.); bad.iga big walking stick; bad.ga stick (Kond.a); bad.ge stick, staff (Pe.); bad.ga stick (Mand..); bad.ga_ cudgel, stick; bad.vin.e~ to bruise, beat (M.)(DEDR 5224). bharia a carrying stick (Santali.lex.) vad.aga_ a stick, staff (M.); bad.iko_l a staff for striking, beating or pounding; bad.i-man.i an instrument for levelling a surface by beating; bad.iho_ri a gelded young bull (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) vardhaka =in cmpd. = cutting (Skt.); ci_vara-vad.d.haka = tailor; vad.d.haki = carpenter, building mason; vad.d.hai_ = carpenter (Pkt.); vad.d.haia = shoemaker (Pkt.); ba_d.ho_i_ = carpenter (WPah.); ba_d.hi (WPah.); bar.hai, bar.ahi (N.); ba_rai (A.); ba_r.ai, ba_r.ui (B.); bar.hai_, bar.ha_i, ba_r.hoi (Or.); bar.ahi_ (Bi.); bar.hai_ (Bhoj.); va_d.ha_ya_ (M.); vad.u-va_ (Si.); vardhaki carpenter (MBh.); vad.d.haki carpenter, building mason (Pali)(CDIAL 11375). vad.hin.i_ cutting (S.); vardhana cutting, slaughter (Mn.)(CDIAL 11377). vad.d.ha_pe_ti cuts (moustache)(Pali); badhem I cut, shear (Kal.); so_r-berde_k custom of cutting an infant's original hair (Kho.); bad.n.o_ to cut, (K.); vad.han.u (S.); vad.d.han. to cut, reap (L.); ba_d.hna_ to cut, shear (H.)(CDIAL 11381). va_d.ho carpenter (S.); va_d.d.hi_, ba_d.d.hi_ (P.)(CDIAL 11568). bed.i_r sledgehammer (Kho.); bad.il (Gaw.); bad.i_r (Bshk.); bad.hi_r axe (Phal.); sledgehammer (Phal.)(CDIAL 11385).

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Alternative homonyms: bar, barea ‘two’ (Santali); rebus: ba~r.ia~ = shopkeeper, pedlar (Santali) 28

kasera_ worker in pewter (P.Bi.H.); kasero maker of brass pots (N.); ka_m.syaka_ra worker i bell-metal or barss (Ya_jn~.com.); kam.saka_ra (BrahmavP.); kasa_r = maker of brass pots (N.); ka~ha_r worker in bell-metal (A.); ka_sa_ri = pewterer, brazier, coppersmith (B.); ka~sa_ri_ (Or.); kasa_ri_ maker of brass pots (H.); ka~sa_ro, kasa_ro coppersmith (G.); ka~_sa_r, ka_sa_r worker in white metal; ka_sa_rd.a_ contemptuous term for worker in white metal (M.); kasau~r.i_ cooking pot (N.); ka~_sa_l.u~ large bell-metal cymbals (Or.); ka~_su~ bell-metal (OG.); ka~_sa_l. large cymbal (M.); ka~sa~_d.i_, ka_sa~d.i_ metal vessel of a particular kind (M.) kam.sa metal cup (AV.); bell-metal (Skt.); bronze dish (Pali); kan~jho bell-metal (S.); ka~_h gong (A.); ka~sa_ big pot of bell-metal (Or.); ka_so bell-metal tray for food, food (OMarw.); ka~_sa_ cymbals (G.); kaso_t. metal pot (Wot.); kam.sia_ a kind of musical instrument (Pkt.); kenzu clay or copper pot (K.); ka~_hi bell-metal dish (A.); ka~_si_ bell-metal cymbal (G.); ka~_siyo open bell-metal pan (G.) kas-kut. = metal alloy (brass or bronze) (N.) kan~cu = bell-metal, bronze, a hard alloy consisting usually of about three to four parts of copper to one of tin (Te.lex.) kan.sa_ro (cf. ka_m.sum fr. Skt. ka_m.sya bellmetal + ka_ra worker) a copper-smith (G.lex.) ka~_se~ bell- metal (M.); bronze (Kon.); ka_m.sya made of bell-metal (Ka_TyS'r.); bell-metal (Yajn~.); cup of bell-metal (MBh.); ka_m.syaka bell-metal (Skt.); kam.sa (?) bronze (Pali); bell-metal, drinking vessel, cyk bal (Pkt.); ka_sa id. (Pkt.); ka~_ja_ adj. of metal; ka_sa_ jar (L.); ka~_so bronze, pewter, white metal; kas-kut. metal alloy (N.); ka_h bell-metal (A.); ka~_sa_ (B.Or.Bi. Bhoj.H.); ka~sa_ (Or.); ka_s (Bhoj.); ka_s (H.); ka~_su~ (G.); kasa (Si.) ka~_iha~_ bell-metal (O.); ka~_ssi_, ka~_si_ (P.); ka~_si_ (H.) 29

kasis iron sulphate (Santali) kaci = scissors (Sh.); kocu = betelnut scissors (K.); kaciya_ = sickle (N.); ka_si (A.); ka_ci (B.); kacia_ = big scythe (Or.); kaciya_ toothed sickle (Bi.); kicca_ = cutting (Pkt.) ka_yppu hard inferior iron (Ga.); ka_ypu inferior iron (Ma.)(DEDR 1465). ka_s to be lit (as fire), burn; kasis to light (lamp, fire)(Kond.a); kacay id. to light (lamp)(Pe.); hiccu kahinomi we kindle fire (Kuwi)(DEDR 1090). kacan-ai censer (Ci_vaka. 2140)(Ta.lex.) 30

kar-i to chew, eat by biting or nibbling (Ta.); kar-uvu (kar-uvi-) to nibble as a rat (Ta.); karur.. bridle, bit (Ta.); kar-ampuka to nibble, gnaw (Ma.); kajepuni to chew, husk with the teeth or beak (Tu.); kar-acu to bite, gnaw (Te.)(DEDR 1390). kaccuni to bite (Tu.); kacc id. (Kol.Pa.); to sting (Pa.Ga.)(DEDR 1097). Itch: kajji, gajji scab, itch (Ka.); kajju itch (Ka.); kajji itch (Kod..); gajji itch, scab (Tu.Te.); kasi itching, desire (Te.); khaj itch (Nk.); kajra id. (Pa.); kajra ringworm (Go.); gajji, gajju itch (Go.); kusee id. (Go.); gazi id. (Kond.a); kasa the itch (Kui); khasra_ id. (Kur.)(DEDR 1104). Itch, measles: khasa itch, scab (Skt.); khahi, khahi_ itch (S.); khas'a (Or.); khas itch, scab (G.); kas itch, skin disease (Si.); khasu itch (Pkt.); khahu, khahuwa_ adj. (A.); khasu (B.); khassar itching (L.); khasra_ smallpox (P.); scab, measles (H.)(CDIAL 3854). kharju itching, scratching, scab (Skt.); khajju_ (Pkt.); khajju (Pali); xanj (Gypsy); khazu_ (Sh.Dardic); kha_ji (S.Ku.); kha_j (P.WPah.H.M.); khaj (G.); khajuri_, khujl.i_ itch, prickly heat (G.); khajuli_, khujli_ mange (H.); khujuri, khujul.i itch (Or.); khajjati is itchy (Pali); xanj (Gypsy); khazoiki to itch (Sh.Dardic); kha_oja_ to scratch (B.)(CDIAL 3827). kacchu_ itch, scab, cutaneous disease (Sus'r.); kacchu (Pali); kacchu_, kacchu (Pkt.); ka_chu (Or.); kas (Si.)(CDIAL 2621). kacchur affected with itch (Ka_s' on Pa_n..); kacchula (Skt.);

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kacchuria envious (Pkt.); ka_chura_ suffering from itch (Or.); kacchula attacked by itch; kacchulla (Pkt.)(CDIAL 2620). 31

Alternative homonyms: er-r-a = an earthworm; era a bait, food (Te.lex.) [Note. The earthwork flanked by two antelopes on a Lothal Persian Gulf seal]. Rebus: ere ‘a dark-red or dark brown colour, copper’ (Ka.); eruvai copper (Ta.)(DEDR 817). mlekh = antelope; melukka = copper. What is depicted may be Meluhha copper. 32

Homonyms: t.ot.ha = neighbourhood, vicinity; non t.ot.hare do banukanan: = there is none in this neighbourhood (Santali) tot.t.i enclosure for selling timber, fire wood; small village (Tanippa_. 8,142,37)(Ta.lex.) ton.t.iyo_r the Cholas (Cilap. U_rka_n.. 107); the Cheras (Patirrup. 88)(Ta.lex.) tot.t.iyan person of a Telugu caste of cultivators, settled in the western portion of the Madura district, who assume the title of Na_ykkar (E.T.)(Ta.lex.) tun.d.u – fragment, piece (Ka.); tun.d.u piece, slice (Te.)(DEDR 3310). Insignia of kings: to_t.t.i an insignia of kings (Ta.lex.) Authority: to_t.t.i authority (Paripa_. 8,86)(Ta.lex.) to_t.t.i watch, guard (Patir-r-up. 25,5)(Ta.lex.) ton.t.u service (Ta.lex.) 33

to_t.t.i elephant hook or goad (Man.i. 27,47); sharp weapon planted in the ground to keep off enemies (Tol. Po. 65, Urai.)(Ta.lex.) to_da driver (RV.); to_daga one who hurts (Pkt.)(CDIA 5969). Image: elephant hook: do_n.t.i long pole with hook to pluck fruit (Tu.); do~_t.i long pole with hook for cutting off fruit from high trees (Te.); to_t.t.i elephant hook or goad, hook, clasp, sharp weapon planted in the ground to keep off enemies (Ta.); hook for driving an elephant, hook for plucking fruit (Ma.); to_t.t.uka to pluck fruit with a to_t.t.i (Ma.); do_t.i, lo_t.i pole with a hook for plucking fruit, gathering flowers (Ka.); to_t.al bamboo rake (Pa.); t.o~_r.na_ to hook in; t.o_r.o~_ a pole with an iron hook or branch curved down at one extremity; tu_r.si_ a variety of the native rake or t.o_r.o~_ (Kur.); t.o_r.o_ a long stick with an iron hook (Kur.)(DEDR 3547). tur-at.u a hook, (Ma.); tor-ad.u crook, hook, crooked instrument for taking down fruits from trees (Ka.)(DEDR 3366). turat.t.i, tur-at.u, tur-o_t.t.i iron crook, elephant goad, pole with iron hook to pluck fruits, entanglement (Ta.lex.); cor-at.u a rod for plucking coconuts (Ta.)(DEDR 3366). 34

buru = a mountain; buru kunami = full moon; maran: buru = Paresnath, the highest mountain in the Santal country; buru d.an.d.om = a spur or shoulder of a mountain (Santali.lex.) buruan:, bur.uan: = brimless, toothless, without edge (Santali.lex.) kambru buru, kamru buru, kambru bon:ga, kamru bon:ga = one of the lesser deities reverenced by Santals, the godlet of medicine (Santali.lex.) buru = a spirit, an objet of worship; maran: buru = the chief of the burus, or bon:gas; maran: buru or mount Pareshnath is often confounded with the Maran: buru of the Santal traditions and worship; buru = a religious festival and fair of the semi-hinduised bhui~yas; gan.d.e buru is held in

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December in village named Gan.d.e in Hazaribagh district; lalgar.h buru is held at Lalgar.h in Santal Parganas (Santali.lex.) 35

Homonyms: kha_siyum = a double bag to load a donkey with (G.) ka_sad (Arabic) a messenger, a carrier; a runner; ka_sadiyum = serving as a messenger, carrying a message (G.) kaccha, kaccho = a piece of cloth worn round the loins (Dh. Des. kaccha_ fr. Skt. kaks.a, kaks.a_, kaccha ‘the hem of a lower garment tucked up into a waistband’] (G.) kaso = to plait, a frill, a plait; kaskasao = to tighten, to pull tight, pull together; kaci, kacni = a piece of cloth worn round the loins as a skirt; kaci, kaca = a piece of cloth worn round the loins (Santali) kaccai = girth, girdle; kaccu = belt, girdle (Ta.); kacca = girdle, waist-belt, long cloth (Ma.); kacce = end of lower garment gathered up behind and tucked into waistband (Tu.)(DEDR App. 20; CDIAL 2592; Skt. kaks.ya_; cf. Pali. Pkt. kaccha_). Kan~cip (kan~cit) to fasten bullock to yoke (Pa.); kaccu to join (Ka.); gac- (-c-) to tie, bind (Pe.)(DEDR 1099). Kaccu = a kind of corset worn by Indian women in ancient times (Ta.); bodice to confine the breast (Ma.); Skt. kan~cuka (DEEDR 1098). kars.a = gold coin (Vedic) kasa = quality of gold or silver (as determined by rubbing it on a touch-stone); kas. To rub, to test (Skt.); kas = pith (Arabic); kas = remunerativeness (of a trade)(G.) kasan. = rubbing, testing; kasan.uvum = to mix by gradually rubbing the ingredients together, to mix by rubbing (G.) kasot.i_ (kasa ‘rubbing’ + vr.tti ‘a circle’) a touchstone, generally round in form; making a trial, ann experiment (G.) kasabi_ = an artist, an artisan; adj. skilful, clever (G.) kasab (Arabic) a business, a trade, a profession; conversancy in an art, proficiency; an artifice, a device (G.) kasa_ya, kasa_ba a butcher (Ka.); kasa_i_ (M.)(Ka.lex.) kaca_ppu slaughter of animals for food; butcher (Ta.); kassa_b (U.)(Ta.lex.) kasi_do (Persian kas’i_dan to draw) embroidery; a piece of brick or tile burnt in fire and turned hard (G.) kaja (kaji-) to be congealed, solidified by growing cold; ganja (ganji-) to solidify, coagulate, become solid (Kui); kajali = to be congealed, become curdled (Kuwi)(DEDR 1102). kas- = to be lit (as fire), burn (Kond.a); hiccu kahinomi = we kindle fire (Kuwi)(DEDR 1090). 36

Substantive: t.a_n:gi stone chisel (A.); t.en:goc = small axe (Santali) tega ‘a cutlass, scimitar’ (Santali) tah’nai ‘to engrave’ (Kuwi)(DEDR 3146). Substantive: ten: ‘to weave’; tetenic ‘a weaver’; kicricko tena ‘they weave cloth’ (Santali) t.he~ga_ = stick Glyph: ten:go, ten:gon = to stand, upright position (Santali) Glyph: ten:gra hako ‘ a species of fish’ (Santali) Glyph: t.en, tec ‘used with the numeral one (mit) to form the indefinite article a or an; a single animal or thing’; mitt.en ‘one individual’; mitt.en hor.e calak kana ‘a man is going’ (Santali) 37

bari_ = blacksmith, artisan (Ash.)(CDIAL 9464). bar.ae = bad.ae (Santali.lex.) bar.ae = a blacksmith. “Although their physique, their language and their customs generally point to a Kolarian origin, they constitute a separate caste, which the Mundas consider as inferior to themselves, and the Baraes accept their position with good grace, the more so as no

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contempt is shown to them. …In every Munda village of some size there is at least one family of Baraes…The ordinary village smith is versed in the arts of iron-smelting, welding and tempering, and in his smithy, which is generally under one of the fine old large trees that form the stereotyped feature of the Mundari village, are forged from start to finish, all the weapons and the instruments and implements the Mundas require. There are of course individuals who succeed better than others in the making of arrows and various kinds of hunting-axes and these attract customers from other villages… they dig the kut.i (smelting furnace), they prepare and lay the bamboo tubes through which the air is driven from the bellows to the bottom of the furnace, they re-arrange the furnace after the lump of molten metal has been removed from it, and then the smith starts transforming it into ploughshares, hoes, yoking hooks and rings, arrow-heads, hunting axes of various shapes and sizes, wood axes, knives, his own implements, ladles, neat little pincers to extract thorns from hands and feet, needles for sewing mats and even razors. Formerly, he was also forging swords…susun-kanda (dancing-sword)…If it appears too bold to attribute the invention of iron smelting and working to some of the aboriginal inhabitants of this, in many respects so richly blessed part of India (Chota Nagpur), it is certain that no land in the world is better qualified to push man to this invention. The excavations made recently (in 1915) by Mr. Sarat Chandra Roy, the author of the Mundas and their Country have shown conclusively, that it was inhabited by man in the stone age, the copper age and the early iron age. Baraes are also found in the villages of Jashpur, Barwai, Biru, Nowagarh, Kolebira and Bano from which the Mundas have been either driven out by the Hindus or crowded out by the Uraons. There they have adopted the Sadani dialect but retained their own social and religious customs. In the districts named above they are called lohar or loha_ra, but in Gangpur they go under the name of Kamar. These Kamars are animists like the Lohars, but they use tanned hides for their single bellows, which they work by bulling, like the blacksmiths in Europe. The Lohars say that is is on account of this that they do not intermarry or eat with them any more. Baraes, Kamars and Lohars must not be confounded with the Aryan blacksmiths also called Lohars. These latter differ not only in race from the first but also in their methods of working. The Aryan blacksmith does not smelt iron, and uses only the single-nozzled hand bellows. He is met with only in such Chota Nagpur villages, where colonies of Hindu or Mohammedan landlords, merchants, money-lenders and native policement require his services, especially to get their bullocks and horses shod…The account the Baraes, Lohars and Kamars generally give of themselves is as follows: they say that they descend from Asura and Asurain, i.e., Asur and his wife, and that they were originally of one and the same caste with the Mundas. In this the Mundas agree with them… If the iron smelters and workers of the legend really belonged to the Munda race then their trade and art must in the beginning have given them a prominent position, such as is held in some ancient races by smiths…Like the Mundas they formerly burnt their dead, the bones of those dying out of their original village were carried back to it in a small earthen vessel into which some pice were placed, and this was then dashed to pieces against a rock in a river…Like the Mundas they practise ancestor worship in practically the same forms. Like them they worship Sin:bon:ga, whom the Lohars call Bhagwan… They also worship Baranda Buru whom the Sadani-speaking lohars call Bar Pahari…bar.ae-ili = the rice beer which has been brewed by the whole village, one pot per house, in honour of the Barae, and is drunk with him, at the end of the year; bar.ae-kud.lam = a country-made hoe, bar.ae-mer.ed =

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country-smelted iron; in contrast to cala_ni mer.ed, imported iron; bar.ae-muruk = the energy of a blacksmith.” (Mundari.lex., Encyclopaedia Mundarica, Vol. II, pp. 410-419). bar.hi, bar.hi_-mistri_, bar.u_i_, bar.u_i_-mistri_ (Sad.H. barha_i_) = a professional carpenter. This class of artisans is not found in purely Munda villages because every Munda knows carpentry enough for all his own purposes; trs. caus., to make somebody become a professional carpenter; intr., to call someone a carpenter; cina ka_m koko bar.hi_akoa? What kind of artisans are called carpenters; bar.hi-n rflx. v., to train oneself for, or to undertake, the work of a professional carpenter; bar.hi_-o, v., to become a professional carpenter; bar.hi_ kami = the work, the proession of carpenter, carpentry; bar.hi_-mistri_ a professional carpenter (Mundari.lex.) bad.ohi = a worker in wood, a village carpenter; bad.hor.ia = expert in working in wood; bad.hoe = a carpenter, worker in wood; bad.horia = adj. Who works in wood; (as a scolding to children who use a carpenter’s implements) mischievous (Santali.lex.) ba_r. blade of a khukri (N.); badhri_, badha_ru_ knife with a heavy blade for reaping with (Bi.); ba_r.h, ba_r. = edge of knife (H.); va_d.h (G.); ba_r.h = book-binders papercutter (Bi.); brdha_n.u_ = to sheer sheep (WPah.)(CDIAL 11371). vardha a cutting (Skt.); vad.hu a cut (S.)(CDIAL 11372). vardh- = to cut (Skt.); vardhaka carpenter (R.); bardog, bardox axe (Kho.); wadok (Kal.); wa_t. axe (Wg.); wa_t.ak (Pas'.)(CDIAL 11374). bad.gi, bad.gya_ carpenter (Kon.lex.) bad.hi, bar.hi mistri, bad.hoe, bad.ohi, kat. bad.hoe carpenter (Santali.lex.) bad.agi, bad.a_yi, bad.iga, bad.igi, bad.ige, bad.igya_, bad.d.agi (Tadbhava of vardhaki) a carpenter; bad.agitana carpentry (Ka.lex.) Image: stick: bar.ga, bar.iya stick (Kuwi); bur.ga stick, club; badga walking stick (Kuwi); bar.ga, bad.ga, bad.d.e, bad.d.i, bar.iya, war.iya_ stick (Go.); bar.iya stick (Pa.); vat.i small cane or stick; vat.ippu iron rod (Ta.); vat.i stick, staff, club or armed brahmans, shaft, stroke; vat.ikka to strike; vat.ippikka to have the measure struck (Ma.); bad.i, bad.e, bod.i, bod.e to beat, strike, thrash, bang, pound; n. beating, blow, castration, a short thick stick, cudgel; bad.ike beating; bad.ige stick, staff, cudgel, hammer, mallet; bad.isu to cause to beat; bad.ukatana beating, etc.; ba_y bad.i to prevent one from speaking, silence one (Ka.); bad.i (bad.ip-, bad.ic-) to hammer, pound; ba.y bad.i- to bawl out (Kod..); bad.ipuni, bad.iyuni to strike, beat, thrash; bad.u stick, cudgel (Tu.); bad.ita, bad.iya, bad.e thick stick, cudgel (Te.); bed.ta club; bad.ya walking stick (Kol.); bad.iga big walking stick; bad.ga stick (Kond.a); bad.ge stick, staff (Pe.); bad.ga stick (Mand..); bad.ga_ cudgel, stick; bad.vin.e~ to bruise, beat (M.)(DEDR 5224). bharia a carrying stick (Santali.lex.) vad.aga_ a stick, staff (M.); bad.iko_l a staff for striking, beating or pounding; bad.i-man.i an instrument for levelling a surface by beating; bad.iho_ri a gelded young bull (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) vardhaka =in cmpd. = cutting (Skt.); ci_vara-vad.d.haka = tailor; vad.d.haki = carpenter, building mason; vad.d.hai_ = carpenter (Pkt.); vad.d.haia = shoemaker (Pkt.); ba_d.ho_i_ = carpenter (WPah.); ba_d.hi (WPah.); bar.hai, bar.ahi (N.); ba_rai (A.); ba_r.ai, ba_r.ui (B.); bar.hai_, bar.ha_i, ba_r.hoi (Or.); bar.ahi_ (Bi.); bar.hai_ (Bhoj.); va_d.ha_ya_ (M.); vad.u-va_ (Si.); vardhaki carpenter (MBh.); vad.d.haki carpenter, building mason (Pali)(CDIAL 11375). vad.hin.i_ cutting (S.); vardhana cutting, slaughter (Mn.)(CDIAL 11377). vad.d.ha_pe_ti cuts (moustache)(Pali); badhem I cut, shear (Kal.); so_r-berde_k custom of cutting an infant's original hair (Kho.); bad.n.o_ to cut, (K.); vad.han.u (S.); vad.d.han. to cut, reap (L.); ba_d.hna_ to cut, shear (H.)(CDIAL 11381). va_d.ho carpenter (S.); va_d.d.hi_, ba_d.d.hi_

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(P.)(CDIAL 11568). bed.i_r sledgehammer (Kho.); bad.il (Gaw.); bad.i_r (Bshk.); bad.hi_r axe (Phal.); sledgehammer (Phal.)(CDIAL 11385). 38

bara_ha, barha_, ba_riha_, ba_ria_ boar (Or.); ba_ra_h (H.); vara_ (Si.); vara_ha wild boar (Pali.Pkt.RV.); vara_hu (RV.); bara_ boar (A.B.); sow, pig (A.)(CDIAL 11325). Vara_hamu_la name of a place in Kashmir (Ra_jat.); warahmul = a town at west end of the valey of Kashmir (K.)(CDIAL 11326). varaha (Tadbhava of vara_ha), varaha_, vara_ a boar, a hog; a gold coin with a boar-stamp, a pagoda (Ka.); ora, oraha boar (Tadbhava of varaha)(Ka.)(Ka.lex.) varaha_, varaha_si, vara_ boar, hog (Te.); vara_kan- (Ta.); vara_ha (Ma.); varaha_-kat.t.u a brush made of hog's bristle (Ka.); vara_kat.t.e (Te.); vara_ha a boar, a hog; the third or boarincarnation of Vis.n.u; vara_ha-timmappa the Venkat.araman.a of Tirupati (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) vara_kam boar, swine (Tiruva_ca. 30); the boar-incarnation of Vis.n.u, one of taca_vata_ram; vara_kan- id.; pagoda, a gold coin = 3 1/2 rupees, as bearing the image of a boar; arhat; vara_kan-et.ai weight of a pagoda, a unit of weight = 5/16 rupee = 54 gms. (Ta.lex.) bir sukri the wild pig, sus indicus (Santali.lex.) a_ru hog (Skt.); airia_s. (Dm.)(CDIAL 1321). vara_ki va_ra_ki, a divine energy (Tiruppu. 179); vajra-vara_hi a godess worshipped by the Jains (Ta.lex.) Homonyms for bar.ea: bar.i-daru, bar.e-daru (Sad. bar.) ficus bengalensis, Linn. Urticaceae, the banyan, a tall, spreading rree with numerous aerial roots, which if not browsed by cattle, form new stems bar.e, variant of bar.i, the banyan tree; in songs it is bar.e, not bar.i which is used. (Mundari.lex.) baria~o, ba~r.ia~ = a shopkeeper, a peddler who sells salt, spices, tobacco; baria~u = rich, great, powerful, arrogant (Santali.lex.) van.ika (Skt. Van.ik) a trader, a merchant; a grocer; a grain-vendor (G.lex.) va_n.iyo (Dh.Des. va_n.iyaya_ fr. Skt. va_n.iya-ka_ traders) = a Bania, an individual of a particular caste in Gujarat, the members of which are generally traders, shop-keepers, or money-lenders; a trader, a merchant; a dealer in grain (G.lex.) van.aja_r = a caravan; a camp or company of traveling merchants; a number of bullocks laden with corn, salt and other merchandise; van.ajaro = a traveling merchant who carries for sale goods in a caravan (G.lex.) van.ij = trader (RV); trade (Gaut.); van.i = trader (Pkt.); van.ic, va~r.ic = to sell (Ash.); vra_le (Kt.)(CDIAL 12230) 39

karat.i; ‘elephant’; rebus, kharad.e ‘account’:

karad.u, kard.u, kharad.e = rough, as an account; kharad.e_m a rude sketch (M.); kha_tkarad.a_ a daily account, a day-book (Te.); kharad.e_mid. (M.); karad.a_ stout, as paper (M.); kharad.a_ (Te.); karad.e (Ka.)(Ka.lex.) karad.e = an oblong drum beaten on both sides (Ka.lex.) karad.imeyita_ye = a hairy man; kara_d.i = a class of Mahratta brahmins (Tu.lex.) 40

If it is a skull, it could connote, man.t.ai = skull (Ta.) man.d.a_ = warehouse, workshop (Kon.lex.)

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Alternative 2. Ring-stones around a pillar with coping stones in a building-structure as at

Dholavira? kunda = a pillar of bricks etc. (Ka.Te.Tu.)(Ka.lex.) [Note the tablets in bas-relief showing a stack of ring-stones around a pillar]. kunda = a post or pillar (Te.lex.) khun.t.i = pillar (Santali.lex.) kundi, kundiyamu = a sort of rim of stone placed upon a mortar to prevent spilling of rice (Te.lex.) kundau dhiri = a hewn stone; kundau murhut = a graven image (Santali.lex.) kundanamu = setting precious stones with fine gold (Te.lex.) kundau turner’s lathe. bela_ [Dh. Des. beli_ = Skt. stambha a pillar, a support; cf. Arabic va_li_ a guardian] a giver of happiness; a destroyer of distress; a helper; a patron; a friend (G.lex.) Dh. Des. beli_ = Skt. stambha a pillar, a support; cf. Arabic va_li_ a guardian] a helper; a patron; a friend (G.lex.) beldar = a semi-hinduized caste of earth-diggers, a navy (Santali.lex.) belda_r = a stone digger; a quarry-worker; a sapper, a miner; a labourer; a porter (G.lex.); bel = level; bel ot = level ground (Santali.lex.) bali = iron ore, iron stone sand; the Kol iron smelters wash the ore from the sand in the river bed (Santali.lex.) bali_varda = a bull (Skt.lex.) bel [Hem. Des. ba-i-li_ fr. Skt. bali_vard] a bull; a bullock; an ox (G.lex.) 42

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lathe (B.); ku~da_, ko~da_ to turn in a lathe (B.); ku~_nda lathe (Or.); ku~diba_, ku~_diba_ to turn (Or. > ku~_d lathe (Kur.); kund brassfounder's lathe (Bi.); kunna_ to shape on a lathe (H.); kuniya_ turner (H.); kunwa_ turner (H.)(CDIAL 3295). Wood-worker: cundaka_ra turner (Pali); cuna_ro maker of wooden vessels (Ku.); cuna_ro, cana_ro, cu~da_ro id. (N.)(CDIAL 4862). cunda wood or ivory work (Skt.); ivory worker (Pali); cundiba_ to do woodwork (Or.)(CDIAL 4861). kuni ruka a gouge (Santali.lex.) ks.no_tra whetstone (RV. ii.39.7)(Vedic.lex.) 44 asita = name of a black snake (AV iii.27.1; v.13.5.6; vi.56.2; Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_ v.5.10.1; Maitra_yan.i_Sam.hita_ iii.14.18; Va_jasneyi Sam.hita_xxiv.37). If ahi denotes a snake (Vedic), it may be homonymous with asi which denotes the sacrificial kife (RV i.162.20; x.79.6; 86.18; AV ix.3.9; x.1.20)); it also means a knife used in war (AVxi.9.1). Note ismade of a sheath (vavri--Ka_t.haka Sam.hita_xv.4 to which a belt (va_la--Maitra_yan.i_ Sam.hita_ii.6.5) was attached. An asi-dha_ra_ is a 'sheath' (Jaimini_ya Upanis.ad Bra_hman.a iii.139). But, va_l.=sword (Ta.); and va_l= tail (a ligature in Harappan pictographs, which may denote a sword or, perhaps, a sheath linked with another pictograph denoting a weapon)."Snake" is also a pictograph in Sarasvati epigraphs; in a pair, two snakes may denote a double-edged knife. 45

men~ca = fish roe (Or.) matsya fish (RV); maccha, macchi_ fish (Pali); me_c (Nin:g); mechli_ (Pah.); ma_chali_ (Omarw.); maci (Kt.)(CDIAL 9758). man~chari_ fisherman (L.)(CDIAL 9762). men~ca_ = lump (Or.) men.d.a_ = lump, clot (Or.) mede = a crude mass (Ka.) meduka = greasiness or dirt in the hair, clottedness (Te.) [Rebus: me_n.d.ha = ram (Skt.)(CDIAL 10310). Note the glyph of ‘fish’ ligatured on a copper anthropomorph which is orthographically a depiction of the curved horns of a ram.] maccu, maca-ppon-, maccam = piece of gold kept as a sample (Ta.); macca, maccu = little piece of gold or silver taken by the goldsmith from what was given to him and returned to the owner to be kept as a sample or test (Ka.); macca id. (Tu.); maccu = the touch of precious metals, specimen, standard, quality (Te.)(DEDR 4629). matsya = a mole on the body (M.); masa_ wart, mole (H.); maja, maje a natural speck, spot, mole (Tu.)(DEDR 4632)

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