Magistritöö - Spontaneous Landscape Design in the Context of Block Housing District by Karmen Kase

Spontaneous Landscape Design in the Context of Block Housing District Karmen Kase

Supervisor: Kaie Kuldkepp, MSc Master Thesis in Urban Studies Estonian Academy of Arts

Tallinn 2016

Author’s declaration: I declare that: 1) This Master’s thesis is the result of my personal work, it has never been submitted (for defending) by anybody else; 2) All materials (works) and major opinions of other authors used during preparation of the Master’s thesis and any data originating from other sources have been duly and correctly referred in the Master’s thesis; 3) I authorise the Estonian Academy of Arts to publish my Master’s thesis in the repository, where it will become available to the public via internet. Proceeding from the above I explain that: - Personal copyrights related to the preparation of this Master’s thesis and creation of any works included and/or described in the Master’s thesis belong to me as the author of the Master’s thesis and material rights related to the Master’s thesis will be handled pursuant to the procedure established in the Estonian Academy of Arts; - As a Master’s thesis published in the repository will be available to unlimited number of persons, I presume that any person revising my Master’s thesis will follow the law, any other legal acts and good practice in good faith, honestly, with due care and respect towards the rights of other persons. Copying, plagiarising and any other use of this Master’s thesis and any works included and/or described in the Master’s thesis that can be considered violation of copyrights will be prohibited.

„ .... ” ......................................... 2016 ................................................................. name and signature of the author of the Master’s thesis

The thesis meets the requirements set to a Master’s thesis: „ .... ” ......................................... 2016

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Acknowledgements I would like to thank my thesis supervisor Kaie Kuldkepp for the continuous support while writing my masters thesis, for her motivation, enthusiasm, patience, and encouraging guidance. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to Estonian Academy of Arts, in particular Department of Architecture and Chair of Urban Studies for supporting this work.

Finally, I am grateful for the support and continuous encouragement from my family and friends throughout my years of study and through the process of writing this thesis. 5

Abstract The thesis is about potential uses of spontaneous landscape design in Tallinn’s block housing district context. Because of the limited funding for landscaping practices, most of the money goes for mowing the huge grass areas in block house districts. The landscape design has always been in motion, changing and adapting to the needs of the society, and perhaps in relation to that, there might be a necessity to make some changes in the landscaping practice, which is considering the possibilities and needs of the city. Spontaneous landscape design could be one additional landscaping method or even strategy in order to create diverse, dynamical and changing landscapes that have more natural appearance, seasonal and long term change, which would contribute to creating additional landscape characters, ecological diversity and in the end, could require low budget in relation to less need for maintenance. It could be an alternative landscaping strategy in Tallinn which at first needs to be experimented and studied on narrower fields (Tallinna Keskkonnaamet, 2013), thus, the analysis and design concept on a narrower field are given to illustrate the potential use of the spontaneous landscape design. At first, the design plays an essential role, in order to manage this change and achieve the local’s appreciation towards this kind of approach. The focus is on Lasnamäe block housing district in Tallinn.

Key words: spontaneous landscape design, aesthetics, diversity, change, block house district, Lasnamäe 6

Case study

Table of Content 1. Abstract

13. Block housing district Lasnamäe

2. Introduction

13.1 Lasnamäe as pasture, limestone, airfield and turf landscape

3. Starting point/ Hypothesis

13.2 General plan of Lasnamäe

4. Methods

13.3 Landscaping plans in Lasnamäe

13.4 Landscapes of social order

13.5 Characteristics of Lasnamäe today

Spontaneous Landscape Design 5. The importance of urban vegetation

14. Zoom in Site Analysis

5.1 Ecological service

14.1 Characteristics of the built environment

5.2 Direct and indirect use values

14.2 What to learn from natural landscapes?

6. Landscape design and societal system

7. What is spontaneous landscape design?

Concept

8. Emergence of spontaneous landscape design

15. Design concept

9. Principles of spontaneous landscape design

15.1 Landscape characteristics found in Lasnamäe

9.1 Natural motives vs ornamental motives

15.2 Construction and maintenance methods

9.2 Landscapes of change

15.3 Example of landscaping strategy based on spontaneous landscape

9.3 Spontaneous vegetation as a concept

32 36

16. Discussion

10.1 Landscapes as static images

17. Conclusion

10.2 Aesthetic perception as key element for change

18. Kokkuvõte

10.3 Dynamic system of aesthetics

19. References:

20. Appendix A

100

Appendix B

102

Appendix C

104

10. Aesthetic perception

11. Conclusion of the theory

12. Landscaping practice in Tallinn

Introduction The purpose of the thesis is to explore the potentiality of the spontaneous landscape design as an alternative landscaping practice in Tallinn. The key question is how to use the potentiality and adapt the characteristics of spontaneous landscapes to somewhat homogeneous areas and make the monocultural grass areas more dynamical, diverse, changing in time, add additional landscape characters which provide multiple uses for the locals, which could be more beneficial for the municipality, locals as well as the wildlife. Since garden and landscape design has always reflected the society and societal system, then it it has always been in motion and changing throughout the history. For example, French regular gardens represented royal dominance, formal gardens compelled to formal behavior etc. The ecology (and native species) based landscaping practice was introduced at the end of the 19th century from Germany and the concept spread around the world among the botanic gardeners and ecologists during the following century (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). After the World War II, the concept of this landscape design became slightly unpopular, thus during the post-war period and in the late 20th century it was argued that moving towards the nature-like landscaping practice might result from lack of resources to maintain the landscapes (Kühn, 2006). Since the 1980s, the focus on landscape design and relevance of landscapes in the urban planning emerged and became more important with the landscape urbanism movement. In many cities, the landscape design has drifted away from the traditional landscape design of mowed grass and geometric shapes towards more new alternatives; spontaneous landscaping being one of those (Niine, 1965; Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004; Sullivan, Boults, 2010). The shift from traditional landscape design towards ecological approach has already become a widely used strategy in many cities, in which it includes the site-specific plants and spontaneous vegetation to lower the need for regular maintenance (Kühn, 2006). In theory, the terminology of this landscaping method varies, however, the common practice is that it should be based on ecological diversity and natural aesthetics, support the wildlife, should be self-sustainable and thus, allow natural succession, processes and change to occur, and in relation to that require low maintenance costs (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). The aim with the spontaneous landscape design is therefore based on ecology, natural aesthetics and change, 10

and in addition, to provide the citizens different direct and indirect (use) values, like mental, physical and social services (Cheisura, 2003; Euroopa Komisjon, 2011; Müller et al. 2013). The main focus is on the landscapes of the block housing district in the capital city of Estonia, in Tallinn. Due to the limited resources for the landscaping, the landscape priorities are set by the municipality in a way that the main focus is on the public landscapes of high importance (such as Kadriorg park, Bastion parks, etc.) (Tallinna Keskkonnaamet, 2013), however this kind of hierarchy has set fewer resources for public landscapes of block housing districts. Although the block house districts in Lasnamäe, Mustamäe and Väike-Õismäe have higher number of residents (Tallinn, 2015), the funding of the landscaping practices in the districts is low. The main landscaping works are mowing the grass in the residential areas, thus, these areas are often lacking variety in landscape characteristics, natural aesthetics, ecological diversity, seasonal change, are not supporting the wildlife and are, thus, somewhat homogenous. These landscapes are not beneficial for the wildlife, it uses up a lot of resources and as these landscapes have low natural appearance, then it is not supporting the social, psychological, mental and physical services that are necessary for the citizens (Cheisura, 2003; Euroopa Komisjon, 2011; Müller et al. 2013). According to the Environmental Board, there is a necessity for ‘good quality’ recreation and resting places that are aesthetical, provide diversity and would raise the living quality for the residents (Tallinna Keskkonnaamet, 2013) and, thus, the focus should be perhaps also on the residential areas. In relation to the aspect that the landscape design has always reflected the societal system, and in relation to the financial issues, the latest landscaping trends in the world are based on ecological approach. Regarding to that, as the landscaping practice in Tallinn is facing similar financial issues as the other cities have, then the shift towards more ecological, spontaneous landscaping seems one possible alternative. The proposal is to experiment and adapt the site-specific plant community and use spontaneous landscape design in one of those block house districts in Tallinn, to increase ecological diversity, natural processes, seasonal change and by doing it, bring more natural aesthetic and various use possibilities to these areas. It could become the alternative strategy in the city. With this thesis, a proposal for possible landscaping method and a design concept is given, accordingly to the case study. 11

Starting point The residential areas in block house districts are somewhat homogenous, as they are lacking natural aesthetics, ecological diversity, seasonal change, and thus perhaps recreation value, at the same time requiring high costs for regular maintenance.

Hypothesis The spontaneous landscape design as an alternative landscaping practice to offer natural aesthetics, ecological diversity, seasonal change and additional spatial variety to the surroundings of block houses.

Illustration 1. Front lawn in front of the block house in LasnamĂ¤e (in December) (Kase, 2015)

Methods Current thesis is focusing on the possible use of spontaneous landscape design in Tallinn’s block housing district. The key question is how to use the potentiality and adapt the characteristics of spontaneous landscapes to somewhat homogeneous areas and make the mono-cultural grass areas more dynamical, diverse, changing in time, add additional landscape characters which provide multiple uses for the locals, and would be more beneficial for the municipality, locals as well as the wildlife. For this, the relevance of urban vegetation is explained and background information of spontaneous landscape design is reflected upon. The theoretical overview explains the role of design in creating aesthetically and functionally ecological urban landscapes. The theoretical part is linked to the case study, reflecting the need for adapting alternative methods in one of the block housing districts. Finally, specific case study site is chosen, which is followed by site specific design concept.

relevant questions: What values does the urban vegetation have? What is the connection between landscape design and societal system? What is spontaneous landscape design? How did the spontaneous landscape design as an alternative method emerge? What are the relevant principles of spontaneous landscape design? What is the key element for change? Why is the spontaneous landscape design relevant in Lasnamäe context? What are exactly the characteristics of spontaneous vegetation? How to use the potentiality and adapt the characteristics of spontaneous landscapes to somewhat homogeneous areas and make the grass areas more dynamical, diverse, changing in time and more beneficial for the municipality, wildlife as well as the locals? What would be the essence spontaneous landscape design in Lasnamäe? How and which methods can be used for practicing the spontaneous landscape design in Lasnamäe?

For the theoretical part, the literature overview was studied during the Master thesis reading seminar in the autumn of 2015. The theoretical part was developed and linked to the possible need for adapting this kind of landscape design in Tallinn. For analyzing the situation in Tallinn, the “Activity plan of Tallinn landscaping for 2013–2025” was studied, analyzed, processed. Additional information about the different typologies in Tallinn was gathered in Maa-amet map database and GIS database, by observations and field works, which gave a good impression on the distribution of the different typologies in the 8 districts. It helped to find a location to focus at. The information about the budget distribution was gathered from Tallinn Official Website (http://www.tallinn.ee/ est/eelarve), through interviews with Tallinn’s landscape architect Kristiina Kupper, and a short questionnaire to Lasnamäe local authorities, after which the information was processed and linked to the need for an alternative landscaping methods to practice. Site analysis for a case study in Lasnamäe was carried out by literature overview, mapping, photographing, observation and regular field trips in order to gather as much information as possible about the site and the use of space. Further on, the characteristics of spontaneous landscapes in Lasnamäe were studied in order to adapt the site-specific concept to the case study area. The question was how to and what to learn from these landscapes in order to succeed bringing more natural aesthetics, ecological diversity, seasonal change and thus, recreation value in the case study area. Finally, a site-specific design concept is proposed, according to the theory and site analysis.

Theory-->

Methods--> Tallinn--> Why Lasnamäe--> Site analysis--> Design concept

The importance of urban vegetation Ecological service Today, the role of the urban vegetation and natural components in city’s development strategies is not that great, as the focus is more on the man-made and built components of the urban environment, however, urban vegetation is of strategic importance and valuable for the quality of life in the urbanized society (Chiesura, 2003, Müller et al. 2013). The nature and urban vegetation are essential components of many invaluable ecosystem services provided for human (Cheisura, 2003; Euroopa Komisjon, 2011; Müller et al. 2013), as it provides food, habitat for wildlife, pollination, protection against floods (Poreçbska and Ostrowska 1999; Euroopa Komisjon, 2011), contributes to the quality of air and water, wind and noise filtering, microclimate stabilization, provide social and psychological services which provide crucial significance for the liveability of cities as well as the well-being of urban dwellers, additional possibility for social interactions (Chiesura, 2003), freedom of choices and actions (Müller et al. 2013). It is argued that the spontaneous plants in urban areas provide important ecological services that, in relation to the predicted climate change impacts, are likely to become more significant in the future (Del Tredici, 2006). Most of the urban vegetation species that grow on without intense management are the community of early-successional species that tolerate disturbing and are pre-adapted to the conditions (Larson et al. 2004; Lundholm, 2006), thus, spontaneous urban vegetation can effectively achieve many of the ecological goals with fewer investments and have a greater change of long-term success (Del Tredici, 2010). Thus, the vegetation in the urban environment has positive impact on the environment that the municipality and citizens can benefit from. For example, as the air purification by trees can lead to reduced costs of pollution reduction; the aesthetics and recreational values of urban landscapes increases the property values, and the attractiveness of the city might be promoted as a tourist destination (Chiesura, 2003).

Direct and indirect use values In cities, people often seek benefits from spending time in the natural environment as it is the simple pleasure derived from viewing pleasing scenery and having direct or indirect contact with nature and many of the pleasing elements that attract people depend on natural conditions such as found in nature (Cordell, Bergstrom, Bowker, 2005). The direct and indirect use values of natural landscapes have different scale of benefits, however, the influence upon the health is most common in these fields. Direct use values derive from direct contact with nature, for example by those who use the area (Cordell, Bergstrom, Bowker, 2005), it can be connected with the recreational purposes, active sport or moving, interventions in space etc. The influence upon the people who actively use urban nature or parks is rather positive. The influence of urban parks among park visitors has been studied and a significant relation between use of the parks and perceived state of health was found (Chiesura, 2003; Godbey et al., 1992), as those who used local parks frequently were reporting more good health than those who did not (Godbey et al., 1992). The distinction between parks and natural environment (wilderness) is how people use the space. The untamed vegetation provides a spatial quality, as the ‘wild’ character is an invitation for many activities to take place (Unt, 2013). For example, the dense shrubbery is an active recreation for adults. During the Walking the City course, we found one of the active recreation places in the middle of Lasnamäe’s abandoned natural landscape which had already the natural succession. The citizen was using the after-growth of the young willow trees to use it for creating resting areas for himself as well as for the others who come to use the area. In addition to that, the shrubbery and natural landscapes are often used by the children as playground areas. Children can also use the bushes as a structure for climbing and hiding or building materials. The age and density of the plants are also important, as some activities cannot take place in the public parks where the large shrubs are avoided or lacking, which is why the areas of spontaneous vegetation indicate the unlimited use possibilities and encourage to use and explore the area (Unt, 2013). 17

Indirect use values are related to those benefits that indirectly contribute to the well-being of the citizens through the protection of natural systems (Cordell, Bergstrom, Bowker, 2005). The natural environments have a positive influence on psychological and mental health (Hartig, et al, 1991, Conway, 2000), as well as to the physical health (Ulrich, 1984), for example: as the hospital patients who could look out on the natural landscapes recovered more quickly than those whose views were restricted to buildings (Hartig, et al, 1991, Conway, 2000). In addition to that, natural landscapes are forming the environment that provides innocent, pure and pleasing images and feelings, its aesthetics can be long-lasting and provide stability or escape for people who live in an urban environment (Cordell, Bergstrom, Bowker, 2005). Thus, the natural environment can provide the possibility to escape from the noise and crowds produced in the developed areas (Cordell, Bergstrom, Bowker, 2005). It is the opposite of many of the stressful physical attributes of urbanized society, as confirmed by the researches on the use of urban parks and forests which verify beliefs about stress-reduction (Ulrich, 1981; Chiesura, 2003). Besides aesthetic, psychological and health benefits, natural environment in cities can influence the social benefits as well, as nature can encourage the use of outdoor spaces and increases possibilities for the social interaction (Coley et al., 1997). Chiesura (2003) sees the natural environment as a domain of active experience, which is providing challenge, privacy, intimacy, as well as aesthetical and historical continuity. The additional value of the urban vegetation is related to the education, as it could be used for observing living and non-living things in undisturbed lands (Cordell, Berg-strom, Bowker, 2005). In relation to the theoretical part, the relevance of the urban vegetation even near or around the residential areas is crucial, as it is providing the citizens more natural environment in urbanized society, different possibilities and use values that the people can benefit from.

Illustration 2. Direct use value. Recreational area in LasnamĂ¤e built as a hobby by a citizen (Kase, 2015)

Illustration 3. Direct use value. Recreational area in LasnamĂ¤e built as a hobby by a citizen (Kase, 2015)

Landscape design and societal system

Italian formal landscape design spread around and influenced also the French garden design (Sullivan, Boults, 2010). In France, after it became the leading European power in 1648, and established an absolute monarchy, the France gardens expressed the power of the monarch (Niine, 1965). Nature was not considered beautiful until human order was imposed upon them, thus, the plants were clipped, trimmed to gain a geometric form, parterres and straight paths were constructed. The formal gardens compelled formal behavior and were, therefore, constantly under surveillance, watched by the King Louis XIV(Sullivan, Boults, 2010).

The landscape and garden design has transformed throughout the past and it differs between cultures, however, it has nearly always reflected the societal system. The garden designs were showing the social order of the society and mainly served the interests of the ruling class in the past (Niine, 1965). For example in the Middle Ages, when the people sought security from the walled castles, served the needs of the church and feudal lords, the society focused inward (Niine, 1965), thus, the gardens were also primarily utilitarian, as people grew vegetables, herbs, food and medicine (Sullivan, Boults, 2010). Only in the late Middle Ages when the trade resumed and the landscape grew less frightening for the people, they started to build also pleasure gardens, which became with allegorical symbolism both sacred and profane (Sullivan, Boults, 2010). The 15th century for Europeans was the time to celebrate the rediscovery of nature, which reflected in geometry. With the emergence of monarchies in Europe, nature became constructed and as the garden design was used by the royal class, it expressed the social order and royal power. In the 15th century, Italian landscape design was ordered through the human hand and the use of freer geometries and allegorical iconographies flattered the patron and owner of the garden (Sullivan, Boults, 2010).

Illustration 6. The Versailles Park had imperceptible scale and geometric form and thus, it fulfilled the purpose to show the power of the King (Sullivan, Boults, 2010).

Illustration 4. Medieval garden (Sullivan, Boults, 2010).

At the end of 16th century, space became ambiguous, illusionistic and distorted (Sullivan, Boults, 2010). Baroque styles were characterized by a restlessness and exaggeration of detail, thus, the rational design with circles and squares was replaced by the introduction of spiral, oval, and diagonal geometries that kept the eye moving through space and the landscape became more theatrical (Sullivan, Boults, 2010).

Illustration 7. 18th century English garden design (Sullivan, Boults, 2010).

In the 17th century, Italian landscape design used symbolism that was showing the metaphor for the relationship between heaven and earth, where the villa was being the threshold between paradise and the world (Sullivan, Boults, 2010). Illustration 5. Italian Renaissance villa, with strict geometries, architectural details, and water features (Sullivan, Boults).

In England, the great advances in science and technology defined the Enlightenment period in the 18th century. In relation to that, it changed the viewpoint of the people in the world. In the 18th century, the garden designers desired to rid the landscape of the order, which was related to the French absolutism because these forms were thought to be no longer relevant in England, after a constitutional monarchy and formalized parliamentary system was established (Sullivan, Boults, 2010). The English â&#x20AC;&#x153;landscapeâ&#x20AC;? gardeners reached to alternative aesthetic beliefs as they were denying the formal French gardens and thus, created a new lens through which nature is seen. The development of the English landscape garden occurred in phases, considering the changing tastes and aesthetic theories (Sullivan, Boults, 2010). However, the concept of the landscape design was changing to more natural looking, the garden and park designs were still used by the ruling class to distract attention away from the issues of the society and thus, the ruling class was separated into the idealistic nature (Niine, 1965). Also, with the development of the industrial cities, there was the need to improve the living conditions of the working class, which is why the national parks, sports grounds and resting areas were established in the cities (Niine, 1965). As the natural element was forcing in the city, there was a need for specialists who would design the landscapes and as the garden design could not fulfill this large-scale assignment any longer, there was a need for new discipline (Niine, 1965). With the changes in the society, discoveries in the scientific and ecological field in Germany, the concept of the landscape design started to apart from the traditional high-cost landscape design towards more ecology based landscape design that focused on using and exhibiting native species according to the growing conditions (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). One of the terminology for this kind of practice is spontaneous landscape design. 21

What is spontaneous landscape design? ‘Spontaneous landscape design’ is a term used in landscape theory, which is introducing more natural aesthetics to the urban environment by using site-specific species in their concept and allowing these landscapes have natural succession, thus, develop spontaneously. The different terms used when talking about the spontaneous landscape design are for example natural-like, wilderness, spontaneous, sustainable landscaping practice; landscaping design as an evolutionary system, meadow-like, biodiverse, low impact landscape design, ecological landscape design etc. These concepts all have a common approach, focusing on using plants that are specific to certain location, vegetation that is resistant and durable in the urban environment and thus, require low cost maintenance (Olmsted, 1870; Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004; Kühn, 2006; Del Tredici, 2010). It is an alternative method to traditional landscape design of mowed grass, geometric shapes and high need for frequent maintenance, in which the landscapes are designed to be nature-like landscapes with higher ecological value, which use natural aesthetics and requires less maintenance in urban context (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004; Kühn, 2006). With this, the site-specific plant communities are used which are characteristic of the soil and growing conditions. The spontaneous character is the general process, natural succession and change in time, which allows competition and change in the plant composition to take place after the design is executed (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004), thus, the outcome is not a static ideal state of landscapes but rather landscape of relationships, processes and changes (Jackson, 1984).

As the garden and landscape design has always reflected the societal system and changes in the society (page 20-21), therefore, the emergence of spontaneous landscape design is also referring to the scientific discoveries, environmental, ecological, cultural and economic changes and changes in the aesthetic perception (Niine, 1965, Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004, Sullivan, Boults, 2010). The relevance of the urban vegetation has raised, and the shift towards the new methods is also derived from the discoveries of what values and benefits the urban vegetation is having on the citizens and the environment (Cheisura, 2003; Euroopa Komisjon, 2011; Müller et al. 2013). Despite that this spontaneous landscape design is not a very new method, it seems to be growing trend again (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004; Kühn, 2006). 23

Emergence of spontaneous landscape design The landscape design, where the ecology as the main basis was first initiated by the botanic gardeners and ecologists at the end of 19th century in Germany. By this landscape design, the native species and geographical composition were used, as it was considered to be the best and most instructive way of exhibiting plants (for scientific and educational purposes) (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). The ecological, site-specific landscaping concept spread around the world among the botanic gardeners and ecologists during the following century (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). The ecological landscape design emerged when landscape designers discovered the practicality and beauty of using the plants already adapted to local conditions, instead of attempting to constantly impose alien plants with altering local conditions (Murn, 2010). Natural landscaping as a terminology has been used to describe a variety of landscaping approaches, from letting areas become ‘wilderness’ or to planting a selection of brilliant wildflowers (Diekelmann, Schuster, 2002). In Germany, the concept of natural garden design arose when there were attempts to escape what was perceived as outdated landscaping practice (Groning, Bulmahn, 2003). The natural garden design applied the most recent scientific findings of ecology and plant sociology, for example, Willy Lange (1913) applied biological aesthetic science to design. The emergence of the science of ecology for the naturalistic trends in landscape design depended on the natural association of plants and in Germany, it was promoting the ideas about assumed relationships between German people and nature while excluding the international foreign plants (Groning, Bulmahn, 2003). At the beginning of 20th century, when the radical nationalistic movement emerged in Germany, the design of nature garden preferred the native plants instead of foreign ones (Groning, Bulmahn, 2003). Willy Lange (1928) criticized cutting trees, shrubs and hedges, as he considered it as an anthropocentric dominance over nature and expression of the unnatural attitudes of other cultures. The German landscape architects also had an impact on the other countries as well, as it spread around to Netherlands and North-America (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004) by landscape architects Frederick Law Olmsted, Wilhelm Miller, Frank A. Waugh, Jens Jensen, May Watt and Ian McHarg (Johnson, Hill, 2002; Groning, Bulmahn, 2003). They were influenced by aesthetic, ecological and 24

cultural symbiosis (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). Friedrich Law Olmsted (1870) claimed that the need and enjoyment of rural beauty has clearly increased rather than diminished with the enlargement of cities and civilization. In his judgment, the French regular gardens and English gardens with their simple beauty and functionality were important, however, they did not belong within a park of a town (Olmsted, 1870). The landscape designers in U.S. started to prefer native plants in the early 20th century (Groning, Bulmahn, 2003). Jens Jensen (1923), Wilhelm Miller (1915) and Frank A. Waugh (1917) believed that the landscape design in America should have exclusive use of native plants and promoted the prairie-style landscape design (Groning, Bulmahn, 2003). The ecological and native species based landscape design became slightly unpopular after the World War II, thus, during the post-war period and in the late 20th century the ecology based landscape design was rather linked to the finance aspect. Thus, argued that moving towards the nature-like landscaping practice might result from lack of resources to maintain the landscapes (Kühn, 2006). Since the 1980s, the focus on landscape design and relevance of landscapes in the urban planning emerged and became more important with the landscape urbanism movement. McHarg introduced ecological understanding to the landscaping practice as he believed that ecology had the potential to free the landscape architects from the static images and ornamental motives by turning away from arbitrary and capricious designs (McHarg, 1969). In many cities, the landscape design has drifted away from the traditional landscape design of mowed grass and geometric shapes towards more natural landscaping (Niine, 1965; Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004; Sullivan, Boults, 2010). The shift from traditional landscape design towards ecological approach has already become a widely used strategy in many cities, in which it includes the site-specific plants and spontaneous vegetation to lower the need for regular maintenance (Kühn, 2006). Therefore, the concept of the landscape design changed from the native species and ecology-based concept towards more economy, biodiversity and sustainability-based concept in the post-war era (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). The concept of landscape architecture in Estonia, when it was part of the Soviet Union, changed due to the economic and social reasons. In a socialistic society, the land was nationalized and thus, of public use, and in relation to that, the 25

landscape architecture started to focus on the public landscapes instead of individual ones. Because the landscape architects started to work in larger scale, then the design concept had to change according to the needs and possibilities of the society. The landscape design had to become more practical and consider the aesthetics, functionality, economy and the time dimension. As the traditional landscapes of geometric design require regular care, then it is related to the higher expenditure, and it was not considered to be economical (Niine, 1965). However, the focus was still on constructing landscapes of regular maintenance, as the unmaintained landscapes were considered to be a disgrace and represented disorder (Jammoja, 1976) (page 50). In general, the relevance of using landscapes in the urban planning based on design, social and natural processes has increased by the emergence of landscape urbanism (Steiner, 2011). The landscape urbanism emerged along various movements and concepts in architecture and landscape architecture field. Since the 1980s, in the Central Europe, the green spaces lost their quality as the public authorities cut the maintenance costs due to insufficient money and technical knowledge, which lead to maintenance crisis (Kühn, 2006). The notion of using design and ecology in urban planning emerged since the mid-1990s, as the two ideas (landscape urbanism and landscape ecology) merged with the idea how to design and plan the cities in the 21st century (Steiner, 2011). Landscape urbanism within architecture and landscape architecture combines the design and ecology (Steiner, 2011). Charles Waldheim came up with the term ‘landscape urbanism’ in the 1980s and his ideas were influenced and inspired by James Corner and Ian McHarg, who were working with the future of landscape architecture (Steiner, 2011). Waldheim combined the two ideas, McHarg’s ecological advocacy and Corner’s urban vision (Steiner, 2011). Landscape urbanists went a step further from the theory of McHarg, being more interested in having people and nature occupy the same place and to construct new urban ecologies that tap into social, cultural and environmental dynamics influencing one another (Steiner, 2011). According to this theory, the designer organizes the urban form through landscape urbanism, cultural and natural processes (Steiner, 2011). In relation to this, the landscape design could be more coherent, continuous and give benefits both to the citizens and the wildlife in the city, which could be adapted and developed in the block housing districts in Tallinn as well. At the beginning of 21st century, there was the realization 26

that funding of the public landscape maintenance will never reach the levels of the 19th century due to the ongoing decline of it (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). As a result of that and also with the emergence of new social and environmental movements, the new planting styles were initiated to help re-invigorate public landscapes (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). Due to the limited monetary resources of local governments, the maintenance concepts for public landscapes changed in many cities (Schmidt, 2005), and in the future it is thought that the traditional high-cost plantings can only enrich urban environment in a fewer, smaller areas (Kühn, 2006). For example in Tallinn, the high-cost landscaping could be practiced in the historical Basiton parks, Kadriorg park, however, the other residential areas could perhaps develop their own landscaping practice, which would bring out its characteristics and fit well to the soil and growing conditions. Thus, the re-discovering or the new wave of the nature-like landscaping practice among landscape architects and city planners results from aspects such as lack of resources to maintain the landscapes (Kühn, 2006) and new ideas of using landscapes in the urban planning by design, social and natural processes (Steiner, 2011). The shift from traditional lawn landscapes towards spontaneous, meadow-like vegetation which is more biodiverse and requires less maintenance has already become an alternative strategy, in which the spontaneous vegetation has been included in the urban environment in many cities (Kühn, 2006). As Tallinn is facing similar issues on the public landscapes due to the low budget, the landscaping practices could also change according to the needs and possibilities. When introducing the spontaneous landscape design in Tallinn, the site-specific plant communities in relation to natural processes have to be taken into the consideration, as well as the cultural layer. The experimenting could be, thus, take place in smaller areas, at first, in order to introduce the ecological diversity, seasonal change and natural aesthetics to the environment where people are not used to having it yet (Tallinna Keskkonnaamet, 2013; Kupper, 2016). When planning a change in the landscaping practice it has to be kept in mind that the change is part of learning and adapting the processes (Kühn, 2006). In relation to that, the citizens have to be informed about the intentions and the possible changes in the future. In addition to that, when informing the locals, then it could rise the environmental, ecological awareness and create an additional connection with the surrounding environment. 27

Nowadays, it is greatly significant that the landscapes are designed in a way that needs minimum maintenance and thus, keeping the costs low. In order to achieve it, it is rather necessary to emanate from the natural motives (Niine, 1965) by escaping the traditional horticulturally-based plantings. Horticultural in this concept means planting practice composed primarily of exotic species and cultivar, organized in culturally informed arrangements, rather than ecological landscaping practice (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). In the horticultural landscaping practice, the landscapes are relatively intensively managed to reduce competition between planted and spontaneously invading weeds. Thus, the more there is used ornamental/ decorative motives, the more the landscapes and gardens need maintenance, and thus, the more expensive is to keep them (Illustration 8). The undisturbed nature, on the other hand, is cheaper as it does not require as much care (Niine, 1965). When planning the transition from regularly maintained grass areas into the more natural environment, the spontaneous landscape design plays an essential role, in which the change in space and the appearance of the landscape would not seem as randomly abandoned, but rather achieved intentionally (Niine, 1965; KĂźhn, 2006). With this approach, the change might be perceived in a more positive way.

Principles of spontaneous landscape design As the terminology and understanding of the spontaneous vegetation concept varies, therefore, the approaches in the landscaping design practices also vary. It has been thought that the traditional landscape designs are not relevant in the urban environment anymore (Olmsted, 1870) and that the landscapes could be more open systems, dynamical, change in time and function as an evolutionary system (Prominski, 2005). The approaches on what these new landscaping methods could be, vary, however, the consensus is that the vegetation should be ecologically diverse, as self-sustainable as possible, express the seasonal change, support the wildlife and by doing so, have relatively low maintenance costs (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). These requirements are completely different from the traditional horticultural wisdom, in which the maintenance costs are generally proportional to planting complexity (Niine, 1965; Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004).

Natural motives vs ornamental motives The traditional landscape design in the past focused on the strict geometrical forms, which required regular maintenance in order to preserve that form. This kind of landscape design was oriented on ornamental motives and was far from natural aesthetics. The traditional parks according to Baljon (1992) had openness of a grassy, brilliant space with long sight lines, the tranquillity of simple spaces, the rhythms of the regularity and repetition of interconnected trees and hedges. These parks were also called as the landscape two by the American landscape researcher John Brinckerhoff Jackson (1984), which represent a landscape characterized by a very static, conservative social order (Jackson, 1984). Already in the 1960s, the formal landscape design that derived from ornamental motives was not relevant anymore in the landscape design. Back then the landscape design proceeded towards the more free-form landscape design and the landscape architects took advantage of the discoveries in biology and used these approaches in projects (Niine, 1965).

Natural motives/ alternative landscape design

Ornamental motives/ horticultural landscaping practice Illustration 9. Arcadian Landscape/Landscape Two. Snelli pond in Tallinn (Delfi, 2009)

Maintenance requirement Illustration 8. Relation between natural and ornamental motives and maintenance requirements (cost) (Niine, 1965)

Illustration 10. Arcadian Landscape/Landscape Two. Kadriorg park in Tallinn (Landscape notes, 2014)

The necessity to engage with the landscape design of low maintenance cost was considered by Friedrich Law Olmsted, as he claimed in 1870 that the important part of making an ideal park is to select the location, that can be approached without great cost, not only the cost of land or construction, but also the cost of inconvenience and cost of maintenance, which is much more serious matter (Olmsted, 1870).

throughout the year due to low ecological diversity and the regular maintenance works, thus, the visitor almost never experiences apparent spatial changes in different seasons. The spontaneous landscape design could be an alternative method for the common landscaping works practiced in the city so far. In order to achieve a greater ecological goal, visually diverse, changing landscapes, characteristic to the district, which requires less care and is more self-sustainable, then the spontaneous landscape design could become an alternative landscaping strategy.

J.B.Jackson (1984) thought about an alternative concept of landscape, which would also serve as a new basis for designing landscapes (Jackson, 1984), he figured that the new ideas are not fitting into the notion of landscape two, which was the static ideal state of landscapes (Jackson, 1984). As the landscape two was somewhat outdated and did not express the change, therefore, he came up with another term - landscape three for those landscapes which were not a static image any longer, but rather a temporally and spatially open systemâ&#x20AC;? (Jackson, 1984).

LasnamĂ¤e offers already one example of spontaneous landscaping practice - Pae park, which is oriented towards the uncertainty, change, and less maintenance. However, when considering the whole LasnamĂ¤e or even the city, it has small landscaping effect in relation to the residential areas in general and it is only characteristic in this one place. However, the positive aspect of it is, that the locals are appreciating it and, thus, it could be taken as a positive example and serve as a basis for achieving change in the landscaping practice in the residential areas as well.

Landscapes of change

The new approach highlights the previously neglected issues such as uncertainty, processes and relationships (Jackson, 1984). The landscape is constantly changing in an unpredictable way, steered by the relationships of the site, it is an evolving system, not a static one (Jackson, 1984). The landscape is not just an ideal image which requires intensive and detailed care, which is constantly thought by the planners, but it is a system which evolves in time (Jessel, 1995). For example, the most common landscaping element in the block housing districts is grass which needs regular care and is constantly being held in the ideal state, however, in relation to the evolving system, unpredictability and processes, the change is almost non-existent. Thus, the goal could not be towards preserving the natural order, but to understand the existing landscape as an ongoing process (Herrington, 2006). Prominski (2005) claimed that the landscape design could be like an evolutionary system, which is also based on the idea of unpredictable change and uncertainty. The positive aspect of this approach is that the landscapes will develop and change in time, thus, the person who visits the landscape will always experience different relationships in terms of aesthetic as well as ecology (Prominski, 2005). In relation to this, the residential areas in the block housing districts in Tallinn have almost the same appearance 30

Illustration 11. Landscape of change (Landscape three). Landschaftspark Duisburg-Nord (Spekking, 2007)

Illustration 12. Landscape of change (Landscape three). Pae park, Tallinn (Kase, 2015)

Spontaneous vegetation as a concept Spontaneous vegetation is defined as a cosmopolitan mix of species that grows and reproduces without human care, intent (Del Tredici, 2010) or without intentional horticultural input (Kühn, 2006). It is usually associated with an absence of care, decline, loss of value and neglect (Rink, 2009), however, it grows at no financial cost, is authentic and appropriate to the site conditions (Kühn, 2006), it provides the city with some social and ecological services which are often undervalued or misunderstood (Kühn, 2006; Del Tredici, 2010). Usually the term, ‘spontaneous’ means that it occurs by chance without conscious design, however, the spontaneous vegetation could be used as part of the site design, as the spontaneous vegetation is very durable and resistant in the urban environment (Kühn, 2006). The plants that are used in the landscape design could be site specific and those which could build stable plant communities under the given conditions of a site and represent natural succession so that they have sustainable growth and do not require intensive maintenance (Kühn, 2006). This approach could be adapted to the landscape design concept for the block housing districts in Tallinn. For example, Lasnamäe has wide areas of spontaneous vegetation which locates away from the residential areas. These characteristics could be examined and the some them could be exploited in the courtyards of the residential areas. The outcome could be a self-sustainable landscape that is very dynamic, transforms in time (Kühn, 2006) and could be beneficial for the locals and for the wildlife. As the spontaneous vegetation is rather a positive character in the city, then it could be used for bringing out the characteristics of the landscape. In the end, it could be the low-cost landscaping strategy for the local authorities and taxpayers (Zipperer et al. 1997). Norbert Kühn (2006) explained that when using the spontaneous vegetation in the landscape architectural purposes, the species that are used have to be extensively available and the fact that not all the species have attractive appearance has to be taken into the consideration. His approach to landscape design is to use a large piece of land and create luxurious flowering impact by using yellow, white or pink colors in order to achieve a striking landscape effect (Kühn, 2006). The design work is also necessary as the spontaneous vegetation might not have the same aesthetical value for the people as the traditional planting, which is why there is a

need to apply well-intended design work that creates sophisticated new types of plantings. For example, the strategy for managing landscape change could be initiated from large scale landscaping effect if using self-sustainable blooming flowers, characteristic of the site and soil conditions, and later on allowing additional spontaneous natural succession to occur, for creating variety of landscape characteristics to the area. The criticism towards this kind of landscaping practice is that it is still, at first design-oriented, which means in the first stages some input has to be made. However, if the site-specific plant community is seeded and is already growing there, then it would be more self-sustainable, dynamic, changing and transforming in time, and if the transformation from grassland to more natural landscape that has variety, aesthetic value, elements of change and greater landscaping effect, then it might be perceived rather positively as the change might be more easily accepted and it might also provide different benefits and spatial appearances for the visitors or locals (Kühn, 2006).

Illustration 13. Creating contrast. Presqu’ile Rollet Park (Atelier Jacqueline Osty, 2015)

Illustration 14. Contrast between spontaneous vegetation and it surroundings. Mont Evrin Park (Urbicus, 2014)

In Norbert Kühn’s theory, there are four different ways of dealing with spontaneous vegetation:

To use the spontaneous vegetation in the landscape design is an alternative way for the traditional landscaping practice to deal with the landscapes in the urban environment, as the spontaneous vegetation is part of nature and the natural dynamic; it connects people closer to nature than any ornamental vegetation and it can be maintained for a long time by less care and with low costs (Kühn, 2006). One way to highlight the potentiality of the spontaneous vegetation could be with some additional species that attract people (Kühn, 2006).

1. Maintaining the current state through appropriate methods (for example, maintaining a meadow by mowing); 2. Allowing natural succession to take place (no intervention: a new kind of wilderness will be created); 3. Creating changes in the natural succession through interventions (for example, creating an open grove-like effect by removing damaged branches and shrubs); 4. Improving the aesthetics of the landscape by changing the species composition.

after maintenance

natural succession of a meadow

Illustration 15. Maintaining a meadow by mowing (Kase, 2015)

natural succession, no intervention natural succession

Illustration 16. Allowing plant succession to proceed naturally (Kase, 2015)

natural succession

removing the underwood (light, promoting the growing conditions for larger trees)

Illustration 17. Effecting changes in succession through interventions (Kase, 2015)

adding some additional species, allowing natural succession monocultural grass

Illustration 18. Improving the aesthetic value by changing the species composition. (Kase, 2015)

Similar approach to the landscape design has Dunnett and Hitchmough (2004) with their anthropogenic landscape design, which involves the application of human agency to create nature-like communities of species that could never have ‘naturally’ occurred on the site, however, which in current conditions fit well together (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). Somehow, this kind of approach is still very human-centered, in which the species communities are put together by human, which might be also considered as human dominance. Although it differs from the horticultural planting, as it involves the assemblage of species that fit well to the particular environment and that are subjected to the combination of low-intensity management and natural selection (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). Thus, this approach also acknowledges the change in the plant composition in time and allows some species to disappear, which is why this approach differs from horticultural plant communities (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). However, such landscape design is more like a process that changes in time, it also requires occasional maintenance, which is why the balance between design and some financial resources has to be kept in mind as well (Del Tredici, 2006). Dieter Rink claims that when using spontaneous vegetation in urban restructuring then it should not be allowed to develop completely without control, but rather in with design and use concepts (Rink, 2009). Urban wilderness (spontaneous vegetation) in his mind should be implemented as a design medium, keeping in mind the aspects of nature conservation linking it with experiencing nature (Rink, 2009). Urban spontaneous vegetation is thus understood as a learning process for practicing new ways of perception (Rink, 2009). It has to be practiced; citizens have to get used to the new forms of urban nature as without change of the experience values the new concept cannot be put into practice (Rink, 2009). For example, when adapting the spontaneous landscape design in residential areas, the locals need to be informed or even involved, and the design needs to be experimented on smaller areas and the initial design has to be made in order to make the transformation more acceptable and appreciated. 35

Aesthetic perception Landscapes as static images Prominski (2005) claimed that the perspective of landscape was restricted for a long time as it was seen as a green remedy and a compensation for the pressures of modern life. The designed landscapes resembled Arcadian paintings and the goal of the landscapes was the creation of ideal, static images (Prominski, 2005). As these static landscapes existed over the many centuries the notion of the ideal landscapes settled deeply in our collective minds (Prominski, 2005). Olmsted (1870) claimed also that the art of a park practiced in past, was to influence the mind of men through their imagination and through the iron hurdles, and he thought that the outcome of this could never be good. The people living in the cities consider the regularly maintained landscapes the general indicator of neighborhood quality before they consider the benefits of wildlife and the functioning of a cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ecological networks (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). Many people consider the spontaneous vegetation as a negative aspect in the city, however, when the same plants also exist in the suburban or rural areas naturally, then people often appreciate it more (Rink, 2005). Therefore, in order to make the spontaneous, nature-like landscape in the city more appreciated, it might be necessary to use design at first to increase its aesthetical value (Gobster, Nassauer, Daniel, Fry, 2007).

Aesthetic perception as key element for change The aesthetic perceptions and preferences differ between individuals, groups and cultures with truths being relative rather than absolute (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). It is related to ideology as there is connection between aesthetic representation and social producion of space (Gandy, 2016). The landscaping practices have been an exaggeration of nature, a desire for colour and drama appears to be an important part of human psyche and it has been seen as a form of decadence, wanting more than nature can offer (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). Thus, people make judgments on the semi-natural vegetation around them on the basis of appearance and thus value some places more than the others (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). 36

Gobster, Nassauer, Daniel and Fry published an article about the perceptible realm, linking together the perception of aesthetics and ecological phenomena and their influence on the decision making which affect environmental processes. According to that theory, there is a certain scale in which people perceive landscapes and according to what the human make intentionally changes in the landscape (Gobster, Nassauer, Daniel, Fry, 2007). They stated that the perception of aesthetics is important to the changes in landscapes, as the aesthetically pleasing landscapes are more appreciated and protected than those which are perceived as undistinguished or â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;uglyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, regardless of their less directly perceived ecological importance (Gobster, Nassauer, Daniel, Fry, 2007). Thus, the aesthetic perception may lead human to change the landscape in ways that it might not be consistent with its ecological function (Gobster, Nassauer, Daniel, Fry, 2007). If there was not the psychological quirk, there would be no need for landscape design and the landscapes would all have the spontaneous vegetation growing from the soil (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). The expectations and perceptions of landscape change across the cultures and landscape types, however, the key way to guide the ecological goals to the society is through aesthetic experiences (Gobster, Nassauer, Daniel, Fry, 2007), as the values of the people are not fixed, they can be changed by the experience and learning (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). When planning change in landscaping practice and transformation of grasslands into ecologically diverse landscape, then the experience, learning and collaboration might be crucial. In ecological sense, it is necessary that the preferences and ecological goals are aligned, so that the landscapes are also ecologically healthy and what is ecologically healthy is also seen as aesthetical (Gobster, Nassauer, Daniel, Fry, 2007). For example, the most commonly used landscaping element in Tallinn is grass, which in the sense of ecology diversity, seasonality and change, is not providing natural aesthetics, and at the same time is requiring regular maintenance, which in turn, requires more financial resources. As the values of people are not fixed (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004), then design and aesthetics are the key elements for introducing additional natural aesthetics, ecological diversity and seasonal change to the area. 37

Dynamic system of aesthetics According to Burnham (1968), the landscape design should be based on the system of aesthetics that means a shift from objects to systems. It means that if an object almost always has the fixed shape and borders, then the system is allowed to change in time and space and its essence is determined by its mechanisms of control and external conditions (Burnham, 1968). It is thought that the aesthetics of the spontaneous landscaping practice could focus more on the relations between things, not on the things themselves, which means new aesthetics is moving from static image towards an open and dynamic system of aesthetics (Burnham, 1968; Prominski, 2005). For using the nature-like landscaping practice and spontaneous plants as the dynamic system of aesthetics, for ecological functions and as a landscape design strategy, it needs to be ‘improved’ or put on display (Kühn, 2006; Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004), which means, the design plays the essential role in the nature-like, ecology landscaping practice (Gobster, Nassauer, Daniel, Fry, 2007). By the intentional landscape change, the scenic values are increased while preserving ecologically important functions (Gobster, Nassauer, Daniel, Fry, 2007). Thus, by the design the new landscape scene that is meeting the expectations of the public is perceived more positively than those which are not designed and are lacking order for the viewer (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004).

It has been thought that the attraction of using native plants in the landscape design lies in the benefit of having nature’s beauty nearby or accessible and of reducing the need for high-cost maintenance (watering, fertilizing and mowing) (Diekelmann, Schuster, 2002). By this approach, the ‘spontaneity’ and the more natural appearance could be introduced to the residential neighbourhoods and thus, the people and nature could occupy the same areas. The vegetation forms a fragile system and by using them in the right conditions, it can be self-sustainable, and thus, remain perhaps indefinitely without management (Diekelmann, Schuster, 2002), thus using the location specific nature-like, spontaneous vegetation as the landscaping practice concept, it might be cheaper and more natural way to deal with urban landscapes. The dull grassland could transform into the aesthetically worthy landscape involving dramatic play of different species, as well as being essential habitat for other living beings (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). In contrast to Norbert Kühn theory, in which he claimed that the spontaneous vegetation can be highlighted by the design and use of other plants, Dunnett and Hitchmough (2004), however, claimed that reinforcing biodiversity and essentially not adding anything as either species or subpopulations that might not have existed on site, is uppermost. Thus, there are different ways and methos to deal with the spontaneous vegetation and exploiting it in the design.

The distinguished and aesthetically attractive landscapes are more likely to last in human-dominated landscapes, however, if the aim is also the ecological benefits then by the design, planning, policy and management, the landscapes could be transformed into aesthetically attractive as well as ecologically beneficial that could be also culturally sustainable (Gobster, Nassauer, Daniel, Fry, 2007). By using the spontaneous vegetation as the landscaping design concept, it also supports the ecological function of the landscapes. The wildland landscape patterns which are perceived as a natural landscape are often of high-ecological quality as they are more biodiverse, they require less maintenance and serve the aesthetics of the natural landscape (Gobster, Nassauer, Daniel, Fry, 2007). 38

Conclusion of the theory In conclusion, the relevance of the urban vegetation in the cities has been researched and it is studied that the urban vegetation has strategic importance in the city for the environment, the citizens and wildlife (Ulrich, 1981; Hartig, et al,1991; Godbey et al., 1992; Conway, 2000; Chiesura, 2003; Cordell, Bergstrom, Bowker, 2005; Del Tredici, 2010; Müller et al. 2013; Unt, 2013). Throughout the history, the landscape and garden design has been changing in relation to the society, reflecting upon the societal system (Niine, 1965; Sullivan, Boults, 2010). The ecology (and native species) based landscaping practice was introduced at the end of the 19th century from Germany. In relation to the radical nationalistic movement in Germany, the ecology based landscape design became slightly unpopular in the post-war era. Thus, in the late 20th century, the landscaping concept was linked more to the economy, biodiversity, sustainability, environmental topics. The theorists and landscape architects have different oppinions and theories about the approaches and methods which could be used as a landscaping practice, however, they all have common aim to introduce more ecological diversity, natural aesthetics and change, which in the end could require low resources for maintenance. Today, many European cities have already drifted towards more spontaneous landscaping practice, which is ecological, self-sustainable, provides habitat for wildlife and multiple use values for the citizens etc. (Niine, 1965; Jackson, 1984; Jessel, 1995; Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004; Kühn, 2006; Del Tredici, 2010). As Tallinn is facing similar funding issues as many other cities in Europe, thus perhaps, it is also relevant to experiment and adapt it in here as well. In order to combine the theoretical part with the case study, firstly the general information about Tallinn’s landscaping practice is given, which is followed by the brief background information and the analysis of the case study area in Lasnamäe’s block housing district.

Landscaping practice in Tallinn The general aims, visions and development plans for landscaping practices in Tallinn are explained in the official document “Activity plan of Tallinn landscaping for 2013– 2025”. In there it is claimed that the landscaping practices are concentrating on increasing the quality of the urban environment by taking care of the recreational areas in the city, as the health and well-being of the citizens are considered to depend on it (Tallinna Keskkonnaamet, 2013). The main topics that the municipality was concerned with in the development and action plans until 2015 were the maintenance and cleaning works of the urban parks, forests and other green areas; tree inventory; reconstruction of the old alleys or adding new ones; increasing the amount of the flowerbeds and replacing the old inventory; fixing the recreation areas and their facilities in the parks (Kadriorg park, Kalamaja cemetery park, Lillepi and Tondiloo); constructing new recreation areas (Paljassaare, Raku-Männiku); creating the beach promenade in Rocca Al Mare etc. (Tallinna Keskkonnaamet, 2013). Regarding to this document, the priorities seem to be mainly on the urban parks, public recreation areas, the alleys and flowerbeds. These are thought to be the general priorities as they are considered to be beneficial to both, the city and citizens due to functionality, aesthetics and the ability to raise the property values and prolong the sales period, increase the quality of the city, promote the business activities etc. (Tallinna Keskkonnaamet, 2013). In other aspects, Tallinn has a low budget for landscaping practices in general (appendix A), and because of the priorities, the budget distribution is uneven between different districts (Tallinna Keskkonnaamet, 2013). It is causing the uneven focus and possibilities in landscaping practices in the city. As a result, the aesthetics and recreation value of residential areas are left slightly unattended. It means that due to the low budget, the landscaping practice is focusing less on the quality, variety of spaces and spatial characteristics in the residential areas (like the block housing districts), and more on control, spatial order and frequent maintenance. As the block housing areas are often somewhat homogeneous, lack of spatial variety and change, therefore, the focus is one of the block housing districts in Tallinn.

Block housing district Lasnamäe Throughout the history, the landscape design has reflected the situation in the societal system and sometimes even social order, and as a result, the landscape practice has always been in motion, changing and adapting to the needs of the society (Niine, 1965). Perhaps for this reason, the landscaping strategy in Lasnamäe could change and adapt to the needs of today’s society. Site location in Tallinn is chosen to be in Lasnamäe district due to several reasons: In relation to the massive construction works of block houses, Lasnamäe has the highest number of population in Tallinn, as in 2014 there were 118 211 people (Tallinna statistikaatlas, 2015). Thus, the larger amount of people lives today in a district where the funding for the landscaping is not coherent to its number of people (Table 1-2, page 45). In relation to the low budget of Tallinn (Appendix A) the priorities in the block housing districts are set in a way that the main focus is on mowing the grass and cleaning works of the public landscapes. For example, the landscaping works that were done in the block house districts during the Soviet time that are next to the streets, public parks and courtyards (Niine,1965) are today mainly maintained (Buchmann, 2016; appendix B). The regular maintenance of the grass areas is leaving the residential areas ecologically and spatially less diverse, less altering and changing in time and somewhat homogeneous. The landscapes near the residential areas are mainly kept in order, as a static image by regular maintenance and are not allowed to have a spontaneous appearance. The notion of order and control might result from the Soviet time landscaping conception, as these unmaintained landscapes were considered to be shame, embarrassment, representing disorder during Soviet times (Jammoja, 1976). However, perhaps this kind of landscaping practice and strategy might not be relevant in today’s Tallinn any longer. The studies and observations about the influence and relevance of diverse landscapes and urban vegetation shows the higher need for these spaces for the people as well as for the wildlife in the cities (Hartig, et al, 1991, Godbey et al., 1992; Poreçbska and Ostrowska, 1999; Conway, 2000; Cheisura, 2003; Cordell, Bergstrom, Bowker, 2005; Euroopa Komisjon, 2011; Müller et al. 2013; Unt, 2013). The landscape typologies in Lasnamäe are interesting. On the one hand, Lasnamäe has huge grass areas in between the block houses, which are maintained regularly each 42

year, are low in species, have no spatial diversity and lack different landscape characteristics (pages 52-53; 64-68). However, on the other hand, Lasnamäe also has a lot of spare land which contains spontaneous vegetation, which has diverse landscape characteristics, and thus, various use values, ecological diversity and spatial changes within seasons as well as in longer period (pages 54-55; 65-69). These places are often beneficial for the wildlife (habitat), citizens (direct, indirect use values), and municipality (requires fewer resources).

Illustration 19. In between the block houses in Lasnamäe (in December) (Kase, 2015)

Illustration 20. In between the block houses in Lasnamäe (in December) (Kase, 2015)

Although, some places in Lasnamäe already have a lot of site-specific plant communities and variety of landscapes, however, mainly these landscapes locate away from the residential areas/courtyards. These spontaneous landscapes hold many values which could be examined and exploited in the landscaping strategy, for creating coherent landscape characteristics, which could be used for strengthening the district’s identity and characteristics. It could be done by adapting the site-specific plant communities, and the characteristics of the natural environment (found in Lasnamäe) to the block housing residential areas, for creating more ecologically and spatially diverse, changing landscapes with additional possibilities for use values. For example, characteristical features in Nõmme are the pines, in City Center are the historical parks, in Kristiine are the private gardens etc. perhaps Lasnamäe characteristics could be the species and habitat type which is specific to limestone plateau and its soil. In relation to low budget for landscaping works, the focus is today mainly on regular mowing. Thus, most of the budget (ca 200 000 €) is placed into regular maintenance of monocultural and slightly homogeneous grass areas each year. In terms of ecological diversity, natural appearance, budget use and landscape characteristics, it might not be very efficient use of resources. As the landscape design has always changed according to the needs of the society, then perhaps the landscaping strategy in Lasnamäe could consider the low budget as one possible cause for moving towards more ecological, spontaneous landscape design. In addition to the well-being of the wildlife, citizens, characteristics of the district, this kind of landscaping practice might be beneficial in terms of economy. The landscape design and practice that is using more natural motives instead of ornamental ones is considered to be more economical, as the maintenance costs are cheaper when keeping the community of the wildlife self-sustainable (Niine, 1965). It could be of low cost and thus, could be beneficial for the municipality as well (Tallinna Keskkonnaamet, 2013). At first, the background information, general overview and characteristics of Lasnamäe is given, which is followed by specific zoom in area and site analysis. The purpose was to find landscapes of rather a homogenous appearance (due to low ecological diversity and the regular maintenance) in order to test the relevance of spontaneous landscape design theory and concept. 44

Table 1. The surface area by the maintenance levels in Lasnamäe are (in total): II level maintenance: 2,38 ha III level maintenance:170,15 ha IV level maintenance: 49,08 ha Reserve land: 492,48 ha Park-forests: 12,55 ha All together it is 726,65 ha.

According to “Activity plan of Tallinn landscaping for 2013–2025” and Lasnamäe’s local authorities, the maintenance requirements are set by the municipality, according to which it is allocated into 4 maintenance-intensity levels. This means that the grass is cut as often as the requirements demand (Table 3.) (Riigi Teataja, 2012). For example, in 2012, according to a newspaper article, there were around 100 000 m2 of grass areas in Lasnamäe which were maintained several times in the summer (Tallinn, 2012), however, it already increased from 100 000 m2 to 138 800 m2 by 2015.

Table 2. The maintenance works according to the budget, in 2016: II level maintenance: 2,38 ha III level maintenance: 94,46 ha IV level maintenance: 42 ha Reserve land: 0 ha Park-forest: 0 ha All together it is 138,8 ha (Buchmann, 2016)

According to Lasnamäe’s local authorities, most of the budget (204 160 €) in 2016 is going for maintaining the grass areas and cleaning works (Buchmann, 2016). It means, if the maintenance levels are set in a way that in 2016 there are around 94 450 m2 grass areas which cannot be higher than 15 cm (III level), it needs mowing at least 3-4 times in a summer, depending on the weather and growing speed. It means, most of the resources (80% is around 160 000 euros) is placed into the regular maintenance of monocultural and slightly homogeneous grass areas each year. Illustration 21. Lasnamäe in Tallinn (Kase, 2015)

Table 3. Maintenance levels: I level maintenance: grass is 7 cm II level maintenance: grass is 10 cm III level maintenance: grass is 15 cm IV level maintenance: twice a year (Riigi Teataja, 2012)

Lasnamäe as pasture, limestone, airfield and turf landscape Lasnamäe had a great importance already in the Middle Ages, as the area was used for pasture, field works and excavating the limestones. The limestones were used for building the City wall, churches, dwellings, pavements in Tallinn. The area was called Kivimägi (hill of stones) according to the use and production of limestones already in 1372 (Nerman, 1998).

Military airfield

After the Great Northern War, Lasnamäe area became in a poor shape due to the war activities, hunger and plague, which is why the building and excavation activities stopped. The military basis that was constructed on a large area of Lasnamäe at the end of 18th century was abandoned already in the 19th century due to the poor construction quality (Nerman, 1998). The period of abandonment was quite short, as at the end of 19th century and at the beginning of 20th century, limestone production expanded. The two extra stone processing facilities were constructed in addition to the 4 existing ones (Nerman, 2008).

Illustration 22. Lasnamäe in 1939 (Maa-amet, 2015)

In addition to that, at the beginning of 20th century, Lasnamäe’s airfield was established, which was also the first airfield in Tallinn. It located between today’s Narva, Vana-Kuuli and Liikuri roads and some parts of the airfield are still existing (Juske, 2014). Tondi bog that locates in the middle of Lasnamäe was in the 20th century used for excavating the turf in order to solve the heating issues in the city (Nerman, R. 1998). Although there were airfields, limestone and turf excavations in the territory, the area had mainly rural landscape. As the landscape of Lasnamäe has always had very thin soil layer, then it was mainly used for pasturing. For that reason, there were many ancillary buildings, stables and barns in the area, as the people were keeping cows, horses, lambs, chickens, ducks and turkeys (Nerman, R. 1998). During the WWII, Lasnamäe’s territory was destroyed and was turned into a training ground for the tanks and military (Nerman, R. 1998).

Illustration 23. Pasture landscape in Lasnamäe at the beginning of 20th century (Robert Nerman, 2008)

Illustration 24. Airfield in Lasnamäe in 1943 (Robert Nerman, 2006)

General plan of Lasnamäe Lasnamäe became planned and constructed in the 1970s, and it was the third and the biggest block house district that was planned in Tallinn. The authors of the general plan were architects M.Port, M.Meelak, I.Raud, O.Žemtšugov, H.Sepp, V.Herkel. The district was planned to house 160 000 people, which was in relation to the immigration waves from the East in the 1970s and 1980s. The construction works of the radical block house districts were related to the economic reasons, as the industrialization promised greater productivity. Lasnamäe block house district was planned and built on the stiff limestone plateau of thin soil layer (Kalm, 2001). According to the free-plan, the houses were not situated next to the street anymore but accordingly to the insolation. The new block house district was said to be situated in the freely in the natural landscapes, creating larger public landscapes in between. The architects already in the 1960s said, when Mustamäe was being constructed, that the prefabricated block houses are economical, but are creating a highly monotonous environment (Meelak, 1976). The same goes to Lasnamäe, however, the situation of Lasnamäe was not as good as of Mustamäe, as the plan was never fully realized.

Illustration 25. General plan of Lasnamäe By M.Port, M.Meelak, I.Raud, O.Žemtšugov (Dokelin et al, 1973, vectorized by Kase, 2016)

Landscaping plans in Lasnamäe The concentration of the block houses, services, commercial centers, living and transport allowed to create larger scale public parks in theory (Meelak, 1976). The public parks were supposed to start from West-Lasnamäe (limestone quarry), go through the micro-districts and join with the natural landscapes of Pirita riverside. The linear park was supposed to be for recreation and walking. The smaller public green belt was planned at the edge of Lasnamäe, looking towards the Old Town, sea, Pirita-Kose-Kloostrimetsa and Merivälja districts (Dokelin et al, 1973). In the creation of the public parks, the advice of the landscape specialists was heard and optimal landscape design was planned to the limestone surface. The designed landscapes were also thought to be necessary against the wind (Meelak, 1976), however, the plan was not realized. The main pedestrian roads and recreation areas were planned to be individual and unique by using small scale landscape architectural elements like terraces, grass areas, retaining walls, decorative sculptures, playgrounds, benches, light and advertising (Jammoja, 1976). The landscapes were planned to be more opened, visible for everyone from every point of view. The smaller trees, shrubs were thought to be invisible and ineffective, and thus, only the single trees and shrubs of one species were planned. Everything had to be flawless when it came also to the landscaping as each mistake or flaw were thought to ruin the recreational value and create bad impression (Jammoja, 1976).

Illustration 26. Lasnamäe in 1983 (Rahvusarhiiv Fotis, 2016)

Landscapes of social order In Soviet times, the landscapes in the city represented the social order and need for control, as they were regularly maintained and all those areas, that were not maintained were considered to be an embarrassment, shame and representing disorder. In 1976, in building and architecture magazine (Ehitus ja arhitektuur) was claimed that the city landscapes, parks give appropriate and good impression only when each plot and even each plant was maintained with good care (Jammoja, 1976), which was especially expressing the need for control and order in the society. The relation between landscapes and order were also explained by a metaphor of a suit. According to this metaphor, a park is like a good suit, one could be happy only when every part of the suit was sewn up to each buttonhole. In relation to that, the unmaintained landscapes were thought to be littering and thus, inappropriate in the urban environment (Jammoja, 1976). Lasnamäe is perceived negatively by the citizens, as it was the last radical block house district that was built before the collapse of the Soviet Union, but also due to the poor living conditions (Kalm, 2001). There are several issues concerned with the landscapes of Lasnamäe, related to the growing conditions, unfinished construction works and lack of resources. In Lasnamäe the soil layer is too thin, setting limitations to the landscaping design and practice (Meelak, 1976). Also, when the construction works started, the role of landscaping was secondary, as it was supposed to be constructed in the end. However, due to the poor landscape conditions and collapse of the Soviet Union, the landscape design was never fully applied to the district (Kalm, 2001; Sild, 2014). Another aspect is, that Lasnamäe itself is quite windy and the buildings have been placed so that they would create open courtyards in between, however, this is creating very harrowing views (Kalm, 2001) and is, therefore, creating an unpleasant environment for living and recreation. Due to the incomplete landscaping practice on alvars during Soviet times, the natural landscapes today are not providing pleasant, heterogeneous, aesthetical environment (Kalm, 2001; Dokelin et al, 1973).

Illustration 27. Construction works of Lasnamäe in 1980s (Rahvusarhiiv Fotis, 2016)

Illustration 28. Block house district lacking of landscape design in 1986s (Rahvusarhiiv Fotis, 2016)

Characteristics of Lasnamäe today There are roughly two main landscape characters in the district. The courtyards in Lasnamäe’s block house district are looking very similar and thus, one might say are rather homogenous. These are mainly formed by manicured grass areas that are maintained regularly, however, they have low natural diversity which is not supporting the wildlife, low seasonal change and lacks of different landscape characters and variety of spaces (public, semi-public, private), thus, perhaps it is also with low recreation value.

Illustration 30. Block house district in Lasnamäe (in January) (Kase, 2016)

During the case study and observations, it was notable that the residents are not using the courtyards for resting or outdoor activities, but they rather go to the areas of spontaneous landscapes, which have more various spaces which provide different activities and have a natural appearance. The grasslands are too open, unused and are not using the full potentiality in the living environment for the locals (Uustal, Kuldna, Peterson, 2010). The seasonal change in these areas is also quite low, as the monocultural grassland is basically looking the same from spring until autumn (See page 68). The biggest change is in winter when these areas are covered with snow.

Illustration 31. Block house district in Lasnamäe (in January) (Kase, 2016)

The aim is to use spontaneous landscape design to adapt natural appearance, which is site specific and by doing that, transform the somewhat homogeneous grass landscapes to more ecologically diverse, changing at every time of the year, provide natural aesthetics, strengthen the characteristics of the landscape and add additional values.

Illustration 32. Block house district in Lasnamäe (in April) (Kase, 2016)

Illustration 29. Somewhat homogeneous residential areas (Maa-amet Corine land cover data, 2016 combined with individual observation and site analysis done by Kase, 2016)

Illustration 33. Block house district in Lasnamäe (in April) (Kase, 2016)

Since Lasnamäe’s block house district was never fully constructed, it has a lot of empty (spare) reserv land (Table 3, page 45), which is not maintained by Lasnamäe’s local authorities, as the limited budget is rather used for regular grass cutting (Buchmann, 2016). Is is neither under constructions, however, it provides possibilities for different activities for the locals in the district (Tallinna Keskkonnaamet, 2013). The larger areas of spontaneous vegetation are locating away from the block houses, in the Tondiraba bog, near abandoned buildings and facilities, near the streets and borders of the district. These areas have a lot of variety in landscape, soil conditions, provide more privacy and different use value to the people. In addition to that, the area is of high recreation value as they are constantly being used. Even in the mid-January, when the weather conditions were rough and there was -11 degrees outdoors, the people still spent time in the natural environment rather than in the courtyards (based on individual observations). Another aspect is that the seasonal change is also greater in these landscapes as there are a lot of different species, each blooming and providing diverse appearance at the different time of the year (Page 69).

Illustration 35. Spontaneous landscapes in Lasnamäe (Kase, 2016)

Illustration 36. Spontaneous landscapes in Lasnamäe (Kase, 2016)

The question is how to bring more natural aesthetics, ecological and spatial diversity, natural processes, seasonal change and variety of landscape characteristics to the residential areas in block house districts by using spontaneous landscape design. For this, it is necessary to learn from the landscapes of spontaneous vegetation, that are characteristic to Lasnamäe.

Illustration 37. Spontaneous landscapes in Lasnamäe (Kase, 2016)

Illustration 34. Spontaneous vegetation away from block houses (Maa-amet Corine land cover data, 2016 combined with individual observation and site analysis by Kase, 2016)

Illustration 38. Spontaneous landscapes in Lasnamäe (Kase, 2016)

Zoom in Site Analysis Due to the poor soil and growing conditions, the common landscaping practice is more complicated in Lasnamäe (Meelak, 1976; Kalm, 2001). According to the theory, nature and people could occupy the same place (Steiner, 2011), thus, the landscaping practice could also support the wildlife as well as the natural landscape for recreational purposes for the locals. The characteristic features of the district could be examined, analyzed and exploited in the landscape design, therefore, the identity of the district could be characterized by the site-specific plant communities. The landscaping practice in Lasnamäe could be, thus, perhaps more coherent, include continuous natural landscape that is allowed to develop and change in time.

Kuristiku subdistrict Lasnamäe

The zoom in area for site analysis and the design concept is chosen to be in Kuristiku sub-district which is located on the North-East side of Lasnamäe, by the edge of the limestone cliff. In general, it has the population of 11,109 (Tallinna statistikaatlas, 2015), which is quite an average number for a sub-district in Lasnamäe. It was the 7th micro-district that was established with the general plan during the Soviet time block district construction works (Illustration on page 48).

Illustration 40. Site location in East-Lasnamäe (Maa-amet, 2015)

oad

re eme

Lää

st.

Total surface area 58 436 m2

i ro

kiv

sta Mu

The experimental approach is considered necessary just to understand the process and the possibilities of spontaneous landscape design to introduce site-specific plant communities, additional natural succession, -change and -processes, which in terms of ‘change and natural succession’ would be spontaneous and introduce additional landscape characteristics (public, semi-public, private) to the place in time.

Kuristiku subdistrict

Narva r

The area was chosen as there is a large contrast between the natural landscapes and firmly manicured grasslands that are surrounding the block houses. As the aim is to use the potentiality and adapt the characteristics of spontaneous landscapes to somewhat homogeneous areas, reduce the contrast between natural landscapes and residential areas by making the grass areas more dynamical, diverse, changing in time (achieve coherent landscape), but also add variety of landscape characteristics, then this area seemed to have great potentiality, as 70% of the area is formed by grass and thus, the change could be more apparent and visual.

Illustration 39. Site location in Tallinn (Maa-amet, 2015)

Illustration 41. Zoom in to the design area (Maa-amet, 2015)

Characteristics of the built environment Streets and parking

Landscaping

a a ro

rv Na

Lä Narva road

re s

me äne

i ro

kiv

sta

The case study area that is chosen is surrounded by Narva, Kihnu, Läänemere and Mustakivi roads. The main entrances to the area by car is from the intersection of Narva and Kihnu streets or from Läänemere street. The access by foot is easier, as the access is provided from every side. The parking is mainly solved inside the plots, in front of the buildings. The surface area of the streets all together with the parking is around 9000 m2, which is only 15% of the whole area.

Streets: 9 056m2

Parking

Grass area: 41 417m2

Higher vegetation (trees and shrubs)

Buildings and shadows

The area is formed by six 9-storey and four 5-storey buildings with smaller courtyards. The lower buildings are locating inside of the site area and on the North-West side. The shadows and direct sunlight in the area are important, as the areas that have enough daytime sunlight in summer have also greater possibilities for landscaping.

Possibilities

Shadows in June

Total building area: 7 512m2

The places where the midday shadow is dropping is used mainly for parking, which is good, as it is cooling down the built landscape naturally. As the shadows of the built structures is moving throughout the day, the shadows are shorter during morning and daytime and longer in the evenings.

Morning

The morning sunlight is coming from the Southeast side (Maa-amet, 2016), which is why the shadows of the buildings are falling towards NorthWest and North. Although the sun is moving during the day time, the characteristics of the site is that the arrangement of the buildings is done in a way that it provides enough necessary sunlight into the area, which could be beneficial for the design proposal.

Very characteristic of this site is that 41 417m2 of the area is covered with grass, which is over 70% of the whole surface area. There are some single trees and groups of shrubs planted in the area, but it is not consistent and not providing enough diversity in the area. The Northern and Southern sides of the area are slightly more diverse as they have higher vegetation. In general, mainly fast-growing birch (Betula bendula) and lime trees (Tilia cordata) and some slow growing spruces (Picea abies) are used. The positive aspect is that in front of the middle buildings, some self-initiated landscaping works are also done.

Regarding to this, it is also providing an opportunity to experiment with the spontaneous landscape design in the areas where the sunlight is reaching at the daytime. According to that, the possible areas to experiment are the Eastern courtyards, Southern and Western grasslands and the Northern part of the area. As the fronts of the buildings have already some self-initiated landscaping works by the locals, the focus could be on the larger grass areas.

Midday

9-floors

5-floors

Evening <5 floors

Shadows falling upon the front lawns and parking lots Illustrations 42-45. Data from Maa-amet, 2016, personal observations and site analysis

As Estonia is one of the Nordic countries, the amount of sun in a year is quite low, which is why the need for enjoying the sun and vegetation during the warmer period is great. The natural environment is essential as it is influencing the psychology (and health in general) positively and is providing different possibilities and use values for the citizens (Chiesura, 2003, Müller et al. 2013, Tallinna Keskkonnaamet, 2013). In this case, the grass areas in between the block houses are somewhat homogeneous, not currently beneficial for the wildlife, does not have a natural appearance and thus, natural aesthetics, ecological diversity, lacks greater landscape diversity (variety of public, semi-public and private spaces) and seasonal change (as it is regularly cut), however, as there is a lot of space, they hold a great potentiality.

Characteristics of the built environment

B’

A’ B A

Illustration 46. Bird’s eye view to site area (Kase, 2016)

A’

Illustration 47. A-A’ section through the site area. West (Kase, 2016)

B’

Illustration 48. B-B’ section through the site area. East (Kase, 2016)

Type of profile A- humic layer (soil) D- substrate (limestone)

Limestone soils. Latin: Rendzic leptosols; Estonian: Kh- Paepealsed mullad Soils are containing calcium carbonate, are with high humus and nutrient content,very stony, and thus, very sensitive to drought (Astover, 2005).

Walking and sitting are demanding a lot from the physical environment, but the most important factor is the reason to stay (Gehl, 2011). For example, the way the people like to cross a large space is along the edge, instead of a broad surface or walking down the middle of space. The same goes with the sitting areas and places to spend time. If the staying opportunities are few or bad, simply not comfortable, then people just walk on by (Gehl, 2011). It also applies to this area- as the scenery is not variable and also the somewhat homogeneous, open grass areas are not a pleasant environment to stay in. There are some single species used, however, when comparing it with the rest of the area and the size of the buildings, then they are sort of disappearing and not providing comprehensive landscaping effect. In addition to that, as the surroundings and courtyards have basically only grass, then it is not providing any privacy, natural aesthetics, pleasant scenery nor comfortable environment to stay in. Precisely, as the land is very opened, then everyone can easily look out of the area and into the area and as a result, the area is not being used for resting. It could be said that a number of different species, landscaping elements and habitat type characters (grass, shrubs and trees) are not in balance in the courtyards. The width of the grassland between the intersection of Narva and Mustakivi roads is approximately 71 meters. When passing through the area there is not much variety, change of scenery, and the place is looking the same most of the time. The distances in between the buildings are also quite wide (20-50 meters), however, it could be seen as an advantage- the space holds a great potential. 61

What to learn from natural landscapes? Natural landscapes of LasnamĂ¤e

The guiding questions are, what exactly is distinguishing the block house courtyards from the natural landscapes found next to the site in LasnamĂ¤e? What are exactly the characteristics of spontaneous vegetation in LasnamĂ¤e? How to use the potentiality and adapt these characteristics and bring them into the somewhat homogeneous block house areas to introduce some additional natural aesthetics, ecological diversity, seasonal change, additional recreation value and strengthen the characteristics of the district?

Block house courtyard

Illustration 52. Have variety -Change in relief (Kase, 2016)

Illustration 49. Somewhat homogeneous courtyards (Kase, 2016)

Illustration 53. Diversely used (Kase, 2016)

Illustration 50. Monofunctional courtyards (Kase, 2016)

Illustration 51. Low natural aesthetics (ecological diversity and seasonal change) (Kase, 2016)

Illustration 54. Natural aesthetics & seasonal change (Kase, 2016)

Variety in residential areas

Variety in spontaneous landscapes

The residential courtyards and surrounding areas are mostly with flat relief and are lacking variety in the landscape. The most variable aspects in the area are in the heights and the facades of the buildings, as the main colors of the building differ from gray to brown and the colors of the balconies vary from yellow to blue.

The landscapes of spontaneous vegetation have a lot more variety in the appearance. The variety occurs in the scenery and spatial differences, which are influenced by the change in relief, species communities, height of the different species and seasonal change. The relief is changing from flat to hilly landscapes, which is giving multiple characteristics and growing conditions to the area.

Illustration 55. Flat relief in the case study area. View from Mustakivi street in LasnamĂ¤e (Kase, 2016)

Illustration 58. Changing relief in Tondiraba. Landscapes with bigger hills (Kase, 2016)

Illustration 56. Flat relief in case study area. View from LĂ¤Ă¤nemere street (Kase, 2016)

Illustration 59. Changing relief in Tondiraba. Landscapes with middle humps (Kase, 2016)

Illustration 57. Flat relief in case study area. View in between the buildings (Kase, 2016)

Illustration 60. Changing relief, from flat to hilly in Tondiraba (Kase, 2016)

Use value in residential areas

Use value in natural landscapes

The use value in the residential areas is rather plain, as space is mainly used for parking or to pass by. As the area is very opened, the access is not limited and thus, it gives plenty of possibilities both, for the locals as well as the visitors. Some of the grass areas in between the buildings that are not used could be transformed into the landscapes of natural aesthetics, which are more ecologically diverse (beneficial for the wildlife) and reflect more seasonal change in the area (psychological, mental health benefits for the locals) (Chiesura, 2003; Godbey et al., 1992) and in relation to that, the additional recreation value might be added to these areas.

The natural landscapes are used by the locals for recreation, playing, sport, relaxing, walking a dog etc. Mostly these areas have a variety of private, semi-private, public spaces which encourage multiple activities to take place. There are signs of self-initiated resting places, built by the locals, which reflects the interest and need for these spaces. The materials that are used for building the outdoor furniture are the cheapest, local materials that can be found nearby. As the natural landscapes encourage to use and explore the space (Unt, 2013), and as courtyards often lack these various natural landscape characteristics, perhaps that is why the courtyards are often underused.

Illustration 61. The open landscapes between the block houses are used for passing by (Kase, 2016)

Illustration 64. Landscapes of spontaneous vegetation are used for recreation and walking dogs (Kase, 2016)

Illustration 62. Courtyards used mainly for parking (Kase, 2016)

Illustration 65. Some cheap materials are used for building benches and creating resting areas (Kase, 2016)

Illustration 63. The space between the block houses are often underused (Kase, 2016)

Illustration 66. Natural environments are used more often for recreation activities and resting (Kase, 2016)

Nature and seasonal change in residential areas

Nature and seasonal change in natural landscapes

The courtyards are mostly manicured grasslands, looking the same most of the time. The low spatial variety and lack of change might create an environment which might be thought to be harrowing (Kalm, 2001). As the natural landscapes provide different benefits, activities and possibilities what the well-maintained landscapes might not provide (for wildlife as well as for human) (Unt, 2013), perhaps the unused grass areas near the residential blocks could be developed into more natural landscapes, where nature and people could occupy the same areas. Thus, the additional connectivity between the residents and nature/wildlife could be created, which might have a positive influence on the people’s psychological, mental and physical health (Hartig, et al, 1991, Conway, 2000).

The seasonal change in the natural landscapes is great. Each species have a different appearance (texture, contrasts, volumes, colors) to show throughout a year. For example, different herbs are blooming at the different time, the bushes are giving some alternation between different seasons, as the branches of some species are also changing colors etc. In addition, the higher vegetation is providing privacy and closed views. All this is achieved as there are great ecological diversity and natural aesthetics that is providing multiple views and spatial changes that can be seen throughout a year (seasonality), as well as over a longer period (natural succession).The landscapes of spontaneous vegetation in the urbanized society are the links between the citizens and nature, as it might be more easily accessible and reachable.

Illustration 67. December 2015 in Lasnamäe (Kase, 2015)

Illustration 70. December 2015 in Lasnamäe (Kase, 2015)

Illustration 68. January 2016 in Lasnamäe (Kase, 2016)

Illustration 71. January 2016 in Lasnamäe (Kase, 2016)

Illustration 69. April 2016 in Lasnamäe (Kase, 2016)

Illustration 72. August 2015 in Lasnamäe (Kase, 2015)

Design concept Due to the regular maintenance works in the block housing district, the richness of the site-specific plant communities has lessened (the natural proliferation has stopped). The aim is to adapt the characteristics of spontaneous landscapes to somewhat homogeneous areas and make the monocultural grass areas more dynamical, diverse, changing in time and use it as coherent landscaping strategy for adding different landscape characteristics in the block housing areas in Lasnamäe. Lasnamäe’s natural landscapes show an example of natural succession and spontaneous vegetation that is pre-adapted to the growing conditions. Thus, these characteristics could be used as a toolbox for achieving favorable spatial variety. The proposal is to use spontaneous landscape design as an alternative landscaping strategy in Lasnamäe, which is based on process and change. The examples given in this thesis, are site specific, however, the general strategical method/toolbox could be exploited in other areas in Lasnamäe. It uses the characteristics of site and soil specific plant communities which is allowed to have changes in the plant composition, develop spontaneously in some areas and have thus natural succession. It has to be kept in mind that this landscaping strategy is oriented towards change in time and thus, time-consuming. By this strategy, the process and development of the site creates different, favorable spaces which provide multiple use values, buffer zones, noise and wind filtering as well as privacy. When using spontaneous landscape design, it should be understood as a learning process, practicing new ways of perception. According to Dunnett and Hitchmough (2004) the values of the people are not fixed and they can be changed by the experience and learning, and as the aesthetic appearance is the key element for change and appreciation (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004; Gobster, Nassauer, Daniel, Fry, 2007), thus, the design and initial landscaping works are relevant at first (Rink, 2009).

Landscape characteristics found in Lasnamäe Public + Semi-public + Semi-private + Private By relief

By vegetation

Public (open) space with wide views Landscape and vegetation does not vary, is mostly flat and low in species

Semi-public (open) space. Some additional variety exists, changes in the species composition occur, expresses the seasonality and seasonal change. Space is more open when standing and semi-open when sitting, thus, it provides spatial variety, security and provides additional recreation possibilities with direct sunlight.

Semi-private (closed) space. Provides closed views on the one side, semiopen views on the other. Space becomes more closed/private when sitting and semi-closed when standing. Thus, space provides different possibilities for recreation, resting, escaping from the built environment. After the maintenance of the meadow, the more opened space would be created, which gives opportunities for different open space activities to occur.

Private (closed) space. High-level vegetation and relief are creating closed views. Space is more private, intimate, encourages to use the space in different ways and for various purposes (private activities, recreation, resting etc.). The variation, diversity in relief, vegetation heights are creating a buffer zone, could be exploited for creating privacy, escaping possibilities from the urbanized environment and built structures.

Seasonality + time Seasonal change is the variety of colours within the seasons, the growing period in the spring, the blooming period in the summer, grass-like appearance after the maintenance (in early autumn, after blooming period), and snowy landscape in winter.

If some areas are left unmaintained for several years, then additional natural succession takes place- pioneer species (Table 4, page 76) start to grow, some various landscape characteristics start to appear in time. Illustration 73. Landscape characteristics of natural landscapes found in Lasnamäe (Kase, 2016)

How to use/adapt the characteristics The strategy could be to use it as ‘toolbox’ for creating desirable spatial characters (buffer zones, habitat for the wildlife, seasonal and long-term change, closed views, opened space, privacy, possibilities for various recreation places, temporally and spatially open system, natural processes etc), by allowing some places to develop strategically spontaneously.

For creating public, open spaces Narrower areas with lower vegetation for safety (next to roads) Good visibility, sunlight Possibility to use outdoor space for: walking, football, frisbee, lawn games (outdoor games) and other activities. The meadow typology is providing the pollination and habitat for wildlife (birds, insects, honeybees, bumble-bees, butterflies, caterpillars etc.).

For creating buffer zone; protection against noise from the streets, roads Creates comfortable, protected and semi-private space for resting Views are opened to one side and closed on the other; shaded Private character encourages to use the space for resting, exploring, using for different activities. Shrubs and trees provide the wildlife with additional habitat (for birds and small animals).

For creating closed views, private space Views are closed on both sides, thus creates protected, intimate space. Allows and encourages to use the space for private activities. Shrubs and trees provide the wildlife with additional habitat (for birds and small animals).

Seasonal change occurs throughout a year- different plants bloom at a different time; a variety of textures, colors, heights etc. Landscape characteristics change in time- natural succession takes place in areas where the maintenance works are not done. The landscape has relationships, natural processes, it is temporally and spatially open system. Visitor experiences different relationships, landscape characters in terms of ecology as well as aesthetics. 73

Based on theory and its practical uses in other countries like Germany and the United States of America (Miller, 1915; Waugh, 1917; Jensen, 1923; Groning, Bulmahn, 2003), the more ecological, site-specific landscaping practices which use native species could be used when adapting and using spontaneous landscape design in Lasnamäe. According to landscape urbanist’s theory, the people and nature could occupy the same place and it could be done by constructing new urban ecologies that tap into social, cultural, environmental dynamics, influencing one another (Steiner, 2011). In the examples of Germany and the USA, the landscape design and practice drifted towards more natural motives that required less care and as it used only native species, then it strengthened the characteristical features of the site (Miller, 1915; Waugh, 1917; Jensen, 1923; Groning, Bulmahn, 2003). Thus, first of all, to achieve the situation where the nature and people occupy the same areas could be by changing the species composition (Kühn, 2006), the characteristic features of natural landscapes could be adapted, thus, there would not be rapid contrast between natural landscapes and highly manicured grasslands, but rather coherent landscaping strategy. When the plant communities specific to the site, soil and growing condition are used, then the identity and characteristics of the landscape and site could be strengthened, apart from the man-made built structures. The natural aesthetics could be introduced to the area with the dramatic use of site-specific species by using spontaneous landscape design (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004). By this approach, the scenic values are increased at first while ecologi-cally important functions are preserved (Gobster, Nassauer, Daniel, Fry, 2007). If the self-sustainable landscapes and additional natural succession is achieved, which would require minimum maintenance, then more economical use of the resources might be achieved (Zipperer et al. 1997). Lasnamäe block housing district has characteristic soils of Northern-Estonia, thus, the main soils are calcareous (containing calcium carbonate) that are with high humus and nutrient content, however, as they are very stony, they are then very sensitive to drought (Astover, 2005). These landscapes are limestone-rich meadows, alvars, which are rich in species (TÜ geoloogiamuuseum, 2003).Typical species that are growing in alvars are different herbs (appendix C) and some pioneer species (page 76) that tolerate both, wet and also very dry growing conditions (Eesti Entsüklopeedia, 2002). The alvar species that could be used are able to build stable communities, highlight and diversify the residential area with blooming site-specific plants. At first, the meadow seeds could be planted for the whole area, for managing change. 74

Illustration 75. Areas where the people and nature could exist together Nature + people

Illustration 76. Coherent landscaping strategy Characteristic to growing conditions Adapting characteristics

Illustration 77. Stage 1. Alvar meadow Species composition change in time Ecological diversity, however, small variety of spaces

Illustration 78. Stage 2. Determining the meadow and natural succession areas Alvars-meadow Open spaces, open views

Illustration 79. Stage 3. Pioner species, natural succession areas, ‘Spontaneity’- Long term change Landscape changes in time Private spaces, closed views Buffer zone created next to roads (for noise and wind filtering)

Illustration 80. Stage 4. Spatial diversity: Private, semi-private, public spaces Variety of views Diversity in landscape characteristics gives additional possibilities and various use values

The alvars have very thin soil cover, very flat relief and require direct sunlight. Thus, this typology could be used for creating open views and landscapes with open space, which are bordered with areas of natural succession. In relation to Norbert Kühn’s theory (2006), the current state of a landscape could be maintained through appropriate measures. For example, maintaining a meadow by mowing, thus, the seasonal change is in relation to the natural aesthetics (variety of species, flowering, proliferation) and maintenance method, because then the visitor will always experience different relationships in terms of aesthetics as well as ecology. It gives already the natural appearance and variety, contrasts in textures and colors as well as the elements of change throughout the year, that can be found also in nature. The seasonal change would be providing changes throughout the year, so it would be visually apparent (Prominski, 2005). The ‘spontaneous’ landscape of change would be related to the fact that the landscape would be ecological, dynamical, changing in time, allowed to have natural succession, plant competition (Jackson, 1984; Diekelmann, Schuster, 2002; Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004; Prominski, 2005; Del Tredici, 2006; Herrington, 2006; Kühn, 2006; Del Tredici, 2010; Steiner, 2011) and thus, the appearance would develop and change in longer period of time as well (Prominski, 2005). There are two possibilities, allowing succession to proceed naturally (no intervention takes place: a new kind of wilderness will be created); and/or effecting changes in succession through interventions (removing some branches in a mature stand) (Kühn, 2006). Thus, it creates a landscape that no longer has an ideal state, but it is rather a temporally and spatially open system (Jackson, 1984). By using the spontaneous landscape design and allowing additional natural succession to take place in some places strategically, then pioneer species start to proliferate (Table 4, page 76, 78 and Appendix C) and more variety of private, semi-private and public spaces could be created in the area. People often need variety of spaces for different activities, feeling of security, privacy. Landscapes that have with only wide-open views/spaces and lack of variety are often not as comfortable environment to stay in, thus variety of spatial characteristics might give additional recreation value for the locals, providing possibilities for different kind of uses and activities. When using both, meadow typology + natural succession of pioneer species, then spatial variety could be achieved in time, and due to the dramatic use of site-specific species, then the change in the landscape typology could be perceived as intentionally created and might be positively received (Burnham, 1968; Prominski, 2005). 75

nance works in Lasnamäe today (pages 44-45) (Riigi teataja, 2012, Buchmann, 2016). It means there is not that big difference in the first year. In following years, these meadow landscapes would need maintenance works only once a year, after the blooming period (Table 4 , Graph1). The fertilization is not needed, as it would be encouraging the proliferation of weeds (Uustal, Kuldna, Peterson, 2010).

Construction and maintenance methods At first, the meadow plant communities could be introduced to the area by seeding meadow-grass seeds (plant community with meadow blooming flowers). The easiest way would be to seed the plants to uncovered soil. In this way, there would be no competition between the existing plants and seeded plants and the landscaping effect would be achieved more quickly (Uustal, Kuldna, Peterson, 2010). The advantage of this method is that it is providing fast landscaping effect. The colourful landscapes are giving some diversity to the living environment and could have a positive influence on the identity of a district. The most favorable is the seed mix that is containing native plants. If the seed mix of annuals and perennials is used, then the colourfulness is richer and the playfulness of the plants can be enjoyed already in the first year (Uustal, Kuldna, Peterson, 2010).

For creating various landscape characteristics in the residential areas, the additional spontaneous natural succession could be allowed to occur strategically in some places, which allows fast growing pioneer species (Table 4; Appendix C) to proliferate and grow. Because of the natural succession, the intervention is minimum (once in 5 years for cutting damaged branches, if necessary). If the natural succession is allowed to occur, it would represent the spontaneous character and could create more private and semi-private spaces within the area, which could be seen also in the natural landscapes in Lasnamäe.

The areas where the alvars, meadow landscapes are created need at first slightly more care than in the next upcoming years. During the first year of seeding, mowing is necessary when the height of the plants is 10-15 cm (3-4 times in a summer), thus, the same amount of maintenance as the general grass mainte-

Species

0-5 Anthyllis vulneraria, Galium verum, Helianthemum nummularium, Molinia caerulea, Carex flacca, Sesleria caerulea, Sedum album, Galium boreale L, Trifolium montanum, Rosa rugosa, Campanula rotundifolia L, Trifolium pratense, Sedum acre

5-10 Anthyllis vulneraria, Galium verum, Helianthemum nummularium, Molinia caerulea, Carex flacca, Sesleria caerulea, Sedum album, Galium boreale L, Trifolium montanum, Rosa rugosa, Campanula rotundifolia L, Trifolium pratense, Sedum acre

Anthyllis vulneraria, Galium verum, Helianthemum nummularium, Molinia caerulea, Carex flacca, Sesleria caerulea, Sedum album, Galium boreale L, Trifolium montanum, Rosa rugosa, Campanula rotundifolia L, Trifolium pratense, Sedum acre

Pioner species:

Betula pendula Populus tremula L Salix caprea L.

Putting into practice

10-20

The change in the landscaping practice could be established by the creation of landscape management plan, compiled by the Tallinn Environmental Board. It could be a coherent landscaping strategy which sets the main aim, construction and maintenance methods in phases for the district and determines the meadow and the natural succession areas. The task for the district local authorities could be the funding (procurement) of the maintenance works based on the landscape typology and collaboration with the locals (informing them of the change in the landscaping practice).

Betula pendula Populus tremula L Salix caprea L.

Acer negundo L. Alnus glutinosa L. Alnus incana L.

Maintenance

Soil preparation Seeding the meadow seed mix (2-5 g/m2 (Loodusaed, 2015). Cutting meadow once a year, after blooming period (Appendix C) Area where the natural succession is allowed to take place (pioner species start to proliferate)

Cutting meadow once a year, after blooming period (meadow plants seed their seeds)

Cutting meadow once a year, after blooming period

Allowing natural succession to take place (Page 74, 78; Appendix C)

Allowing natural succession to take place; pioner species start to proliferate (Page 74, 78; Appendix C)

Cutting damaged branches, if necessary

Table 4. Proliferation of species and maintenance (in 20-years) (Information: Eesti Entsüklopeedia, 2002; Marandi, Pedaste, Sarapuu, 2005; Sibul, 2010, Bio.edu.ee. 2016. Table by Kase, 2016).

Cost (€)

Additional incoming pioner species

Typology and estimated maintenance cost (In 20 years)

180 000 160180000 000 140160000 000 120140000 000 120000 100 000 100000 80 000 60 80000 000 40 60000 000 40000 20 000 20000 0

3 200 000 (€)

Grass

920 000 (€)

Cost (€)

Years

In relation to less need for maintenance, based on the needs of the typology, the yearly expenses might be lower than the maintenance costs for current landscaping practice in Lasnamäe (Graph1).

180 000 (€)

Meadow

Years

Grass

Meadow grass

meadow

0 (€)

Natural succession

No intervention 12

Years

Natural succession, intervention (cutting natural succession, intervention damaged branches)

1 100 000 (€)

Natural succession, no intervention

Graph 1. Typology and estimated maintenance cost (in 20 years) (Graph by Kase, 2016)

*Calculations are presumable, for the entire district (based on information gathered from Riigi Teataja (2012), an article from Tallinn.ee (2012), Activity 80% of 200 000 (€) is approx. 160 000 (€) plan of Tallinn landscaping for 2013–2025 and Lasnamäe’s local authorities Thus 3-4 times maintenance is approx. 160 000 (€) (Buchmann, 2016). The calculations are presumable, as it depends on the Once in a summer maintenance is approx. 40 000 (€) health of the shrubs/trees and could vary by years due to procurement.

Example of landscaping strategy based on spontaneous landscape design concept After spontaneous landscape design- meadow (stage 1)

Open views, good for safety Pollination and habitat for wildlife (birds, insects- honeybees, bumble-bees, butterflies, caterpillars)

Open space

Semi-open

Open space

After maintenance the space Open views Semi-open views when sitting, open Meadow plant communities could could be used for outdoor views when standing be used for educational purposes, activities-lawn games etc. observing living and non-living things

No privacy, little buffer Ecological diversity and seasonal change Pollination and habitat for wildlife

Meadow + natural succession (stage 2)

Semi-open

Next to roadsSafety

Closed views, private space

Small buffer zone next to roads, little noise filtering Natural succession Habitat for wildlife

Semi-private space

Private space

Closed views, private space

Mostly open space

Semi-closed views Path Open views, bordered by Semi-closed views Natural succession Resting area when standing, closed semi-high vegetation views when sitting Habitat for wildlife Space changes Advantages for some Natural succession in time outdoor activities (walking, Habitat for wildlife football, badminton etc.)

Buffer zones

Semi-private space

Variety of spaces; closed and open views Habitat for wildlife, pollination

Mostly open space

Privacy on one side, other side opened Wildlife+pollination

Ecological diversity, nature + people Seasonal and long term changes (Pages

Meadow + natural succession (stage 3)

Semi-open

Closed views, private space

Private space

Private space Closed views, private space

Mostly open space Next to roadsSafety

Buffer zone next to roads, noise filtering Natural succession Habitat for wildlife

Path Resting area Privacy encourages different activities

Closed views Buffer zone, providing privacy Natural succession Habitat for wildlife

Closed views Open views, bordered by Natural succession higher vegetation Advantages for some out- Habitat for wildlife door activities (walking, football, frisbee etc.)

Buffer zone

Private space

Natural succession Variety of spaces, Wildlife+pollination closed and opened views Wildlife+pollination

<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< TIME

Open space

Semi-open space when sitting

Mostly open space

Ecological diversity, nature + people Seasonal and long term changes

At first, the change from monocultural grassland to ecologically diverse meadow could be achieved, thus the first change is in the landscape typology. The change is relevant, as it represents the natural aesthetics and according to theory managing change in the urban environment is usually linked to the aesthetic perception (Dunnett, Hitchmough, 2004; Gobster, Nassauer, Daniel, Fry, 2007). Thus the values and preconception of the people can be changed by aesthetics. The lower vegetation is creating public and more open spaces, while the blooming plants give additional character to the area. In addition to the physical attributes, the diversity in the plant communities gives various benefits for the wildlife (habitat + pollination). After the maintenance space would have grass-like landscape, which provides different use values for the locals.

For creating more spatial diversity by adding semi-private space, then some areas could be left without maintenance, by which the natural succession can occur and allow the pioneer species to proliferate (Page 76, Appendix C). The semi-private space is providing the private and intimate space on one side, but at the same time provides open and semi-open views/space from the other. Thus, one side would provide shade, protection and safety, and on the other it opens up views and possibilities for getting direct sunlight. In addition to the physical attributes, more habitat could be created by the natural succession (for birds and small animals).

For creating private space with closed views, then some additional areas could be left without maintenance, by which the natural succession can occur in larger areas (Page 74, 80-81). It could be used for filtering noise and giving some supplementary variety in space for multiple private, intimate outdoor activities. Thus, some buffer zones could be created near the roads and in the courtyards. The shrubs, trees and meadow give various benefits and habitat for the wildlife as well as seasonal change in the residential areas for the locals. The seasonal change occurs on the meadow typology as well as in the annual flowering, proliferation and leafing of trees and shrubs (Illustrations on pages 82-85).

Illustration 81. Sections of spatial change in time (Kase, 2016)

Nature + people

Medium, high vegetation & closed views (natural succession areas). Elements of long term change

Low vegetation & open views (Meadow). Seasonal change

A Variety of spaces created by low + medium + high vegetation

Buffer zone next to roads (created by vegetation)

Pedestrian ways Fast + slow Existing

Illustration 82. Agglomeration of layers. Viewpoints of A and B (illustr. pages 82-85) (Kase, 2016)

Planned

Existing built structure Roads + buildings 80

Viewpoint A

Viewpoint B

The grassland that has open views is today mostly used for passing by, as there are no benches nor other possibilities to rest and stay. Activities: Necessary daily activities, walking home/work, passing by

Grass typology Monocultural Regularly cut Closing views only from one angle

Public space, wide open views

Open space

Throughout the seasons the use of the landscape changes in relation to the weather. For example, during winter the area is only used daily necessary activities. Activities: Necessary daily activities, walking a dog, walking During the cold winter, the land is covered with snow Semi-transparent views

Semi-private space when sitting, open views Public space, open views

Open space

Open views, no noise filtering

During the spring and summer the outdoors is used for additional purposes (recreation, walking, socializing, sitting, enjoying nice weather etc.). Activities:Necessary daily activities, walking a dog, walking, sitting etc.

Brown-green grass-like groundcover dominates the landscape in the early spring and in the late autumn

Semi-transparent views Open space

Open space in autumn (after maintenance) and spring (before sprout)

With the change in the typology, the spatial character changes, the area could be identified by site-specific blooming plants and the additional resting possibilities could be introduced by benches. Activities: Necessary daily activities, walking a dog, additional activities like sitting, resting, picking flowers, socializing etc.

Meadow blooms Closing views only from one angle

Pollination and habitat for wildlife (birds, insects, honeybees,82 bumble-bees, butterflies, caterpillars)

Public space, near roads

Semi-private space, open views

Pollination and habitat for wildlife (birds, insects, honeybees, bumble-bees, butterflies, caterpillars)

Semi-private space when sitting, open views Public space when standing

Viewpoint A

Viewpoint B

Branches of willow change colour (yellow-brown)

Spatial changes and different landscape characteristics provide different use value for the locals. During the autumn and winter the space is mostly used to necessary activities (walking a dog, walking home-work) due to the weather conditions. Activities: Necessary daily activities, walking a dog, walking

Branches of willow change colour (reddish-brown)

Semi-private space (bare shrubbery/bushes) Closed views, semi-noise filtering

Semi-transparent views

During the cold winter, the land is covered with snow

Open space

Semi-open inside, semi transparent views to outside Semi-private space (bare shrubbery/bushes is semi transparent)

Branches change colour (red, light brown) Habitat for wildlife birds, small animals

Willows bloom

Semi-transparent views

Semi-private space (bare shrubbery/bushes) Closed views, semi-noise filtering

Open space

7 Habitat for wildlife birds, small animals Pollination for honeybees

Habitat for wildlife birds, small animals Brown-green grasslike groundcover dominates the landscape in the early spring and in the late autumn

Habitat for wildlife birds, small animals

Semi-open inside, semi transparent views to outside Semi-private space (bare shrubbery/bushes is semi transparent)

During spring, summer and early autumn the natural succession takes place, new branches, leafs and sprouts grow

Trees and shrubs have leaves

Habitat for wildlife birds, small animals Pollination for honeybees Habitat for wildlife birds, small animals Pollination for honeybees

Semi-private space, closed views Private space created by natural succession, noise filtering Pollination and habitat for wildlife (birds, insects, honeybees, bumble-bees, butterflies, caterpillars)

Meadow blooms Public space, near roads

When the weather gets warmer then additional uses occur. However, the private spatial character might also encourage more private and slightly negative activities to take place (drinking, smorking etc.). Activities: Necessary daily activities, walking a dog, walking, additional activities like sitting, resting, listening to birds, drinking beer, smoking etc.

Pollination and habitat for wildlife (birds, insects, honeybees, bumble-bees, butterflies, caterpillars)

Semi-open inside, closed views to outside Private space created by vegetation

With the change in the typology, the spatial character changes, the area could be identified by site-specific blooming plants and the additional pioneer species, thus the landscape becomes more diverse, changing in time, and encouraging multiple activities. Activities: Necessary daily activities, walking a dog, additional activities like sitting, resting, picking flowers, listening to birds, jogging, drinking beer, smoking etc.

Discussion The change in the landscaping practice in the urban context is relevant as the aim of the landscape design changes in time, in relation to the values of the people as well as the trends in the society. For example, the concepts of static and ideal landscapes of regular maintenance and high cost, that were inherent to the landscaping practice in the past centuries is not relevant in today’s urban environment. The landscaping practice should adapt to the possibilities of today’s society, thus, consider the economical, social and ecological aspects, as well as the change of the cultural and landscape values. By analyzing and observing the landscaping practice and principles in Lasnamäe’s block housing district, then it can be concluded that the most common landscaping practice near the residential areas today is mowing the lawn, which is causing the public landscapes of the district to be rather homogeneous. The yearly expenses are high, as most of the landscaping budget is spent on regular maintenance. As a result, the public landscapes near the residential areas have less variety, seasonal change, ecological and spatial diversity and natural appearance and thus, perhaps also lower recreation value. So far, the landscapes that have spontaneous plant communities that have emerged by natural succession, is considered rather negative as it has been related to the lack of resources, and thought to be ’underused’, ’undeveloped’,‘empty’,’wastelands’ (in Estonian: tühermaa), an area that is often not considered to be beneficial in the urban context. This kind of labeling is rather inherent to the society of social order, where the spontaneous and natural landscapes in an urban context are considered to be embarrassment and shame. Although this kind of typology has still often quite negative image and reputation, it is actually a connection between the citizens and nature as it gives many different physical, mental and psychological attributes and benefits for the people in the urbanized society. The question could be, what would be the trigger for using the spontaneous landscape design as an alternative practice in the city? Today, the aspect what people actually value in the landscapes might be influenced by the past societal order, thus, it might be related to cultural and generation differences. Landscape design has always reflected the societal system, culture and the values of the society, thus, the changes in the landscape design field represent the change in the value judgments. Therefore the change in landscaping practice needs to happen simultaneously with the change of landscape values. As the common landscaping practice in the Soviet Union was related to regular maintenance, thus, it settled deeply in our collective minds and is probably more inherent to the older generations. In relation to that, to change the landscaping practice to some86

thing that people are not used to or have been considered as embarrassment or shame might be difficult achieve at first. As schools, media, social networks and also urban planning strategies already promote the ecological, environmental-friendly and sustainable management, then it already affects the value judgments, culture and societal values. Another relevant point is to associate the environmental-friendly, sustainable urban management and the spontaneous vegetation which is growing in many parts of the city with ecology-based landscaping practice. If this relevant connection is made, then the more natural landscapes in the urban environment might be even more appreciated in future, and, thus, the frequently maintained high-cost landscapes could become excluded, replaced by the spontaneous landscape design. The diversity of the plant communities is creating landscapes of change. For example, the alvars start to grow and proliferate in the spring, bloom throughout the summer. When the meadow is maintained after the blooming period, the seeds drop on the ground which sprouts again the next year. In addition to that, the alvars contribute to nature by providing habitat, food and pollen for the birds, small animals and insects, which is diversifying the environment even more. When some areas are left unmaintained for several years, the pioneer species start to grow spontaneously and thus, the change is both, seasonal and long term. The changes appear during the leafing, blooming period, in the colors of the branches during different seasons, as well as spatial changes by the fast-growing species, which are creating diversity of private, semi-private and public spaces. In addition to the spatial characters, the trees, young trees and shrubs provide wildlife with habitat (birds and small animals), food and pollen for insects etc. These spatial changes throughout the seasons are happening annually, however, often some of the spatial changes might be unnoticed by the citizens, especially when the residential areas are surrounded by monocultural grass and lack of the natural attributes. However, speculating what the people might notice or value is difficult as spending time in the landscapes of spontaneous vegetation is often very individual matter- some people notice the natural landscapes around them, some lack this kind of interest. The spatial diversity is also providing the locals with different possibilities and use values. Since the location is in Lasnamäe’s residential area, therefore, the user groups are also the local people (single people, small families, old couples etc.). In relation to that, the use values are most probably related to the necessary daily activities and additional recreation activities, which varies according to the weather. Thus, the landscapes might be used for walking, walking a dog, rec87

reation, resting, socializing, enjoying weather etc. The typology with blooming flowers is also enabling to pick willow branches in spring, flowers in summer, listen to birds etc. The variety of the spaces provide possibilities for multiple activities, however, the private spaces could encourage more positive, romantic activities as well as activities that are perceived negatively, such as drinking, smoking, group gatherings and throwing trash etc. Although, the aim is to manage positive change in the space by using spontaneous landscape design, it might also cause different negative consequences that have to be kept in mind. The critique of the spontaneous landscape design could be, thus, related to the uses, as the variety of spaces could encourage different use values, some of which might be perceived negatively. Thus, when planning change in the landscaping practice, then different actors, possibilities and consequences have to be kept in mind, as well as the time expenditure (managing change in the landscape is time-consuming). The aim of the spontaneous landscape design is not to abandon the landscape randomly and leave it without the maintenance because there is simply no resources, but rather to initiate it with design in order to contribute to the ecological field, to provide multiple benefits and use values by creating variety of spaces and natural appearances in the homogeneous areas. The difference is, that the landscape is neither mimicing natural wilderness nor is it kept as an ideal static image, but rather a landscape of change, relations and processes is facilitated. The financial resources that are saved with this landscape practice could be used for constructing outdoor furniture, paths and street lights etc. The design part is especially important at first so that the change in the space is perceived as intentionally created. The spontaneous landscape design could be used as an alternative landscaping strategy, allowing spatial changes to occur in the landscape by natural succession. When putting it into practice, firstly the change in the typology might be necessary for making the change in the area more easily acceptable. Then, the areas of natural succession are determined, which is allowing the fast-growing pioneer species to proliferate and grow, by which the different landscape characteristics could be created in time. Later on, it could be developed into coherent landscaping strategy for the district by Tallinn Environmental Board, which sets the main aim, construction and maintenance methods in phases and determines the meadow and the natural succession areas for the district. Then, the district local authorities could fund the maintenance works based on the landscape typology and collaborate with the locals (by informing them of the change in the landscaping practice).The 88

concept and principles of the spontaneous landscape design suit well in Lasnamäe because of the difficult growing conditions, as it is allowing the site-specific plants to have natural succession, alternation in the plant composition, contribute to more natural landscaping practice, is more durable and requires minimum care. When putting it into practice in Lasnamäe, the possible cost and financial saving are presumable as the information about the precise cost of different maintenance works in Lasnamäe are limited, and the general maintenance costs today are set by procurement which could change from year to year. Today there is no landscape maintenance plan (in Estonian: maastikuhoolduskava) for the district which could set the basic maintenance methods and possible costs according to the specific landscape typology. Thus, the potential cost for spontaneous landscape design is derived from to the current maintenance cost. According to Lasnamäe’s local authorities, the 94 ha of grass areas are cut when it is max.15 cm, which means about 4 times a summer. According to Lasnamäe’s local authorities, most of the today’s budget is used for mowing the lawn (if budget is 204 160 €, then 80% of it is 160 000 €), this means one-time mowing could be approximately 40 000 €. When using the natural meadow typology which requires maintenance only once a summer, then the speculated cost could be 40 000 €, instead of 160 000 €. If some additional areas are allowed to develop spontaneously, the pioneer species start to grow and create spatial variety, then even fewer maintenance works might be needed. The real costs of spontaneous landscape design practice is questionable as the possible cost is derived from the limited information, gathered from Lasnamäe’s local authorities and, therefore, is rather presumable in Lasnamäe’s context and needs, thus perhaps more research. The fact is, that today’s landscaping practice in Tallinn is characteristic of the past century, and as the transformation in the culture and value judgements are slow in relation to the change of generations, therefore, the alteration in the landscaping practice is also time-consuming. The characteristic feature of today’s society is that the older generation might still value the landscaping practice that was inherent to the Soviet times. The shift of landscaping principles in Estonian cities is taking a lot of time, thus leaving a huge time gap in comparisson with the other European cities. In relation to the promotion of the environmentally and ecologically conscious urban management, the ecology based landscaping practice might become more popular in Estonian cities as well and it can be assumed that the spontaneous landscape design might become an alternative practice in Tallinn in the future.

Conclusion This thesis is about potential uses of spontaneous landscape design as an alternative landscaping practice in Lasnamäe block housing context. With this thesis, the background information about the landscape design, in general, is given, which links the changes in the landscape design concept with the changes in the society. The thesis illustrates that the spontaneous landscape design contributes to the urban environment by introducing more natural aesthetics, ecological diversity, seasonal change and additional spatial variety as it turns away from the static ideal images that are characteristic to the 19th and 20th century and introduces more unpredictability, processes and change. The relevance of experimenting the spontaneous landscape design in Lasnamäe is related to the fact that the landscaping practice today is characteristic to the past centuries and is not considering the needs of today’s society. Larger amount of people live in a district where the funding for the landscaping is not coherent to its number of people, the public landscapes near the block housing residential areas are mostly consisting of monocultural grasslands and are frequently maintained which is causing the residential areas look somewhat homogeneous, and lack the natural appearances, spatial variety and thus perhaps also recreation value. In relation to that, people often use the landscapes of spontaneous vegetation as a recreation areas to seek these attributes, and as a result the surroundings of the block houses are often left underused. This expresses the need for variety and recreation possibilities near the residential areas. Using ecology based spontaneous landscape design is not a very new method, however, ist holds a great potential to become an alternative practice in Lasnamäe. The methods are mostly related to specific areas, thus, the concept of this thesis is based on theory and site analysis, which adapts the spontaneous landscape design in the context of Lasnamäe’s block housing district. The potentiality of the spontaneous landscape design could be in the ecology based landscaping strategy, thus, the change of the landscape characters, seasonal and long-term change could be achieved by natural succession of the site-specific meadow and pioneer species, which are more durable and preadapted to the soil conditions.

Although, the aim is to introduce more spatial variety, ecological diversity and change to the surroundings of the block houses, however, the outcome is still unpredictable and needs to be experimented at first, in order to understand exactly the possible effects and results. 91

Kokkuvõte Käesolev magistritöö käsitleb spontaanse maastikukujundamise potentaalset võimalust kui alternatiivset haljastuspraktikat Lasnamäe paneelamajade kontekstis. Antud tööga on toodud taustainformatsioon maastikukujundamisest, ühendades muutused maastikukujunduses muutustega ühiskonnas. See panustab haljastuspraktikasse just seetõttu, et paneb mõtlema spontaanse ning kasvukoha põhise taimekoosluse kasutamisevõimalustest linnaruumis, loomaks mitmekesisemaid ruume ning maastikke. Spontaanse maastikukujunduse eksperimenteerimise vajadus on seotud sellega, et suurem osa inimesi elab linnaosas, mille rahastus haljasalade hooldusele ei ole vastavuses elanike arvuga linnaosas. See loob võimalused vaid haljasaladel regulaarseks muru niitmiseks, mistõttu põhjustab see monokultuurse tüpoloogia domineerivust elamurajoonides ning panustab ka seega ka mõnevõrra homogeensesse välimusse. See omakorda vähendab looduslikku keskkonda, ruumilist mitmekesisust ning puhkeväärtust elamurajoonides. Sellega seoses kasutavad kohalikud elurajoonidest eemal asuvaid looduslikemaid alasid, kus loodusliku uuenemise tõttu on tekkinud mitmekesised maastikud, mis pakuvad puhkeväärtust, heaolu, privaatsust, ning mis panustavad ka stressi vähendamisse. Kuna monokultuursed ning vähese ruumilise mitmekesisusega siseõued ei paku selliseid võimalusi kohalikele, siis jäävad need enamasti kasutamata. Käesoleva lõputööga on näidatud spontaanse maastikukujunduse panust linnaruumi kujundamisele, tutvustades looduslikku esteetikat, ökoloogilist mitmekesisust, hooajalisi ning pikema ajalisi muutuseid ning mitmekesiseid ruume läbi loodusliku uuenemise. Selline lähenemine lähtub ettearvamatusest, protsessidest ning muutustest ning kaugeneb seega haljastuse praktikast, mis on omane 19. ja 20.sajandile. Spontaanne maastikukujundus, mis keskendub ökoloogilisemal lähenemisel, ei ole eriti uus maastikukujundamise meetod, kuid selle potentsiaal saamaks alternatiivseks praktikaks linnas on kasvamas. Selle võimalikud meetodid, põhimõtted ning strateegiad varieeruvad ning on enamasti seotud asukoha füüsiliste näitajatega. Seega on antud töö spontaanse maastikukujundamise kontseptsioon teooria- ja asukohapõhine, seega seotud tugevalt Lasnamäe paepealsete kasukohatüüpidega paneelmajade ruumis. Spontaanse maastikukujundamise rakendamise võimalused Lasnamäe 92

kontekstis on tugevalt seotud ökoloogia ning konkreetse kasvukohaga, seega maastikukarakterite muutused, aastaajalised ning pikema ajalised muutused võivad olla saavutatud kasvukohapõhise tüpoloogia (paepealsed niidud ning kiirekasvulised pioneerliigid) loodusliku uuenemisega. Kuna Lasnamäe kasvukohti on peetud tihtipeale ebasobivaks haljastuse poole pealt, siis saaks rakendada käesolevas lõputöös välja toodud näidet spontaansest maastikukujundusest kui alternatiivset haljastuse strateegiat just Lasnamäe kontekstis, mis kasutaks asukoha põhiseid taimekoosluseid, mis on kohanenud antud kasvukoha tingimustele ning oleksid vastupidavamad. Kasutades asukohapõhiseid tüpoloogiaid haljastuspraktikana saavutatakse vastupidavamad, asukohale iseloomulikud maastikutüübid, mis võivad lõppkokkuvõttes tuua välja Lasnamäe karakterit, pakkuda mitmekesist kasutamisvõimalust kodanikele, olla elupaigaks elusloodusele ning tulla aastase kulude kokkuhoiu tõttu ka kasulikuks omavalitsusele. Käesoleva lõputöö eesmärgiks on tutvustada Lasnamäe linnaosa elamurajoonidesse ruumilist ning ökoloogilist mitmekesisust, kasutades asukoha spetsiifilisi taimekoosluseid, mis vajavad vähem hoolt ning seetõttu ka ehk väiksemaid hoolduskulusid, mistõttu võiks spontaanse maastikukujunduse kasutamine linnas olla kasulik nii elusloodusele, inimestele kui ka kohalikule omavalitsusele. Tänapäevane haljastuspraktika Tallinnas on aga omane veel eelmise sajandi kontrollitud maastikukujundusele, mis on orienteeritud regulaarsele hooldusele. Muutused inimeste ja ühiskonna väärtushinnangutes toimuvad aga aeglaselt. Iseloomulik on see, et hetkel ühiskonnas väärtustatud normid ning tavad on mõjutatud Nõukogude aegse haljastuspraktika tõttu, kus väärtustati hooldatud ja korrastatud alasid ning need, mis ei olnud hooldatud peeti häbiks ühiskonnas ning sellised väärtushinnangud on omased pigem vanemale generatsioonile. Ökoloogiapõhine spontaanne maastikukujundus võib saada aga potentsiaalselt tulevikus haljastuse praktikaks just ühiskonnas muutuvate väärtushinnangute tõttu. Tõsiasi on aga see, et spontaanse maastikukujunduse rakendamise väljund ning ühiskonna poolt vastuvõetavus on siiski veel etteaimamatu ning vajab edaspidiselt katsetamist esialgu väiksemal katsealal selleks, et saada täpsemalt aimu selle protsessist, võimalikest mõjudest ning tulemusest.

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http://www.esveld.nl/htmldiaen/a/aliaur.htm https://www.chewvalleytrees.co.uk/products/detail/alnus-incana -Anthyllis vulneraria. Harilik koldrohi (Illustration). http://www.bruehlmeier.info/1149a.htm - Astover, A. 2005. Eesti mullastik ja muldade kasutussobivus. http://www.eau.ee/~tamm/Mullateadus/Mulla%20lisa%20failid/Eesti-mullastik.pdf -Betula pendula. Arukask (Illustration). http://xit.su/zdorove/bereza-dlya-krasoty-i-zdorovya.html https://www.chewvalleytrees.co.uk/products/detail/betula-pendula Kase, K. 2016. Personal photos. Betula pendula - Bio.edu.ee. 2016. Data about blooming plants.Eesti taimed. http://bio.edu.ee/taimed/ -Campanula rotundifolia L. Ümaralehine kellukas. (Illustration). http://herba.folklore.ee/?menu=taime&botid=302 -Carex flacca. Vesitarn. (Illustration). http://jarvselja.ee/pood/korrelised/carex-flacca-vesihaljas-tarn/ - Delfi. 2009. Snelli pond. (Illustration). http://pilt.delfi.ee/picture/5333737/ -Euroopa Komisjon. 2011. ELi bioloogilise mitmekesisuse strateegia aastani 2020. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/pubs/pdf/factsheets/biodiversity_2020/2020%20Biodiversity%20 Factsheet_ET.pdf -Galium boreale L. Värvmadar. (Illustration). http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?enlarge=0000+0000+1010+1137 -Galium verum. Hobumadar (Illustration). http://www.naturespot.org.uk/species/ladys-bedstraw -Helianthemum nummularium. Harilik kuldkann. (Illustration). https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Helianthemum_nummularium_9.jpg -Juske, J. 2014. Lasnamäe unustatud sõjaväelennuvälja lugu. Blogspot. http://jaakjuske.blogspot.com.ee/2014/01/lasnamae-unustatud-sojavaelennuvalja.html?view=sidebar -Kupper, K. 2015. Kristiina Kupper: milleks Tallinnale loodusmaastik? Arvamus keskkonnaministeeriumi artiklisarjas. Editor Randlo, T. Postimees. http://arvamus.postimees.ee/3333199/kristiina-kupper-milleks-tallinnale-loodusmaastik

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http://bio.edu.ee/taimed/general/aruniit.htm -Molinia caerulea. Harilik sinihelmikas. (Illustration). http://www.naturepicture.info/photo.php?lang=en&id=393 - Nerman, R. 2006. Tondi raba kandis tiirutasid vanasti esimesed Eesti kaitseväe lennukid. Postimees. http://tallinncity.postimees.ee/1547511/tondi-raba-kandis-tiirutasid-vanasti-esimesed-eesti-kaitsevae-lennukid

Interviews, questionnaires: - Buchmann. D. 2016. Small questionnaire to Lasnamäe’s local authorities. Landscaping and maintenance in Lasnamäe. Appendix B. - Kupper, K. 2016.Personal interview with Tallinn’s landscape architect in January.

- Nerman, R. 2008. Lasnamäe paepinnal sündis Eesti jalgpall ja õitses seltsielu. Postimees http://www.postimees.ee/34519/lasnamae-paepinnal-sundis-eesti-jalgpall-ja-oitses-seltsielu -Osty, A.J. 2015. Creating contrast. Presqu’ile Rollet Park. (Illustration). http://www.landezine.com/index.php/2014/06/presquile-rollet-park-atelier-jacqueline-osty-associes/ -Papaver rhoeas L. Kukemagun. (Illustration). http://herba.folklore.ee/?menu=taime&botid=368 -Populus tremula L. Harilik haab (Illustration). http://vespabellicosus2008.narod.ru/populus_tremula.html http://www.actaplantarum.org/floraitaliae/viewtopic.php?t=5641 http://www.looduskalender.ee/node/23086 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Populus_tremula_fall_leaves_2.jpg -Salix caprea L. Raagremmelgas (Illustration). http://treesplanet.blogspot.com.ee/2015/04/salix-caprea-goat-willow-sallow.html http://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/sallow-blossom.html Kase.K. 2016. Personal photos.Salix - Sild, M. 2014. Modernistlikud linnaplaanid ja nende tähendus täna - paneelelamurajoonide planeerimine Nõukogude perioodil Lasnamäe ja Annelinna näitel. Tartu Ülikool. Tartu http://dspace.ut.ee/bitstream/handle/10062/42779/Sild_Marju.pdf -Sesleria caerulea. Harilik lubikas. (Illustration). https://www.aiasober.ee/tooted/p%C3%BCsililled/k%C3%B5rrelised-ja-s%C3%B5najalgtaimed/ leht/15 - Tallinn. 2012. “Lasnamäe niidab sel suvel muru ligi 100 000m2-l.” http://www.tallinn.ee/est/Uudis-Lasnamae-niidab-sel-suvel-muru-ligi-100-000-ruutmeetril - Tallinna statistikaatlas. 2015. Tallinn Statistical Atlas. Elanike arv linnaosades. http://statistika.tallinn.ee/citizmap.php?bookmark=d9565b9f7925289d7e78c1a17296ff37&view_ type=table -Tallinna linna 2015.aasta täpsustatud eelarve. Eelarvestrateegia. http://www.tallinn.ee/est/eelarve -Trifolium montanum. Mägiristik. (Illustration). http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/Gallery/pictures/newpictures/trimont.htm -Trifolium pratense. Aasristik. (Illustration). http://www.looduskalender.ee/en/node/4292 - TÜ geoloogiamuuseum. 2003. Paepealsed mullad ehk paepealsed rendsiinad. Eesti mullad. http://www-1.ut.ee/BGGM/eestimullad/ -Ubricus, 2014. Contrast between spontaneous vegetation and it surroundings. Mont Evrin Park (Illustration). http://www.landezine.com/index.php/2014/07/mont-evrin-park-by-urbicus/ 98

Appendix A Budget distribution and maintenance issues Today, the surface area of public parks in Tallinn is 320, 20 hectares (which is 0,6% of the whole surface area). In addition to the parks, there are other green areas of different typologies (forests, grasslands, wastelands, boulevards etc.), which makes the public greenery in total with the parks 3 531 hectares, of which the city is maintaining only 1821 hectares. The main problem of the urban public greenery (parks, forests, wastelands, grasslands etc.) when it comes to constructing, reconstructing or maintaining, is the underfinancing (Tallinna Keskkonnaamet, 2013). On average, only 34% of the green areas of Tallinn are covered by the necessary funding (Tallinna Keskkonnaamet, 2013).

Budget of Tallinn (2015) 470 480 571 € Budget for landscaping departments 1 874 247,02 € Budget division between 8 districts: Kristiine (5%) Nõmme (6%) Mustamäe (6%) Pirita (9%) Haabersti (9%) Lasnamäe (13%) Põhja-Tallinn (14%) City Centre (38%)

80 000 € 100 000 € 101 700 € 142 860 € 136 000 € 204 160 € 231 600 € 609 600 €

In fact, the surface area of the public greenery varies between different districts and the funding of the public greenery is not allocated equally (Tallinna linna täpsustatud eelarve, 2015). The underfunding of the maintenance costs comes out, when calculating the hectares to square meters and see the budget that is meant for the maintenance or reconstruction of the public landscapes. As the surface area of the public landscapes varies in districts, the maintenance costs per square meter also varies from 0,740,02 €/m2 (Illustration 2). The percentage 34 is directed towards the public greenery that is said to need the maintenance, however, the maintained public greenery forms only a small part of what the district actually owns. Thus, in total, the funding of public greenery is covered only by 15-41% (Tallinna Keskkonnaamet, 2013). The most under financed district is Lasnamäe in relation to the amount of public landscapes and its number of people (according to the statistics, over 27% of the whole population is living in Lasnamäe).

(Tallinna linna täpsustatud eelarve, 2015).

Pirita (629 ha)

9 % (0,02 €/m2)

Haabersti (768 ha) Kristiine (85,4 ha)

4.1% of population

Põhja-Tallinn (360 ha)

14 % (0,06 €/m2)

Lasnamäe (770,8 ha) City centre (167,2 ha)

13.6 % of population 9 % (0,01 €/m2) 10,1% of population

27.3% of population

5 % (0,09 €/m2)

Mustamäe (211,6 ha)

7.3% of population 38 % (0,36 €/m2) 6 % (0,04 €/m ) 2

13.3% of population

15.2% of population

Nõmme (801,4 ha)

6 % (0,01 €/m2) 9.1% of population Illustration 97. The surface area of public greenery (ha) (Keskkonnaamet, 2013; Maa-amet, 2015)

100

13 % (0,02 €/m2)

Budget % Population % Illustration 98. Tallinn budget for public greenery divided between 8 districts (%), budget per m2, percentage of Tallinn’s population in districts (Tallinna Keskkonnaamet, 2013; Tallinna statistikaatlas, 2015; Tallinna linna täpsustatud eelarve, 2015).

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Appendix B Hello Karmen, The plan for 2016 is to spend 204 160 euros for upkeep and regular maintenance works of the public space in Lasnamäe. The expenditure in 2016 is the same as in 2015. The maintenance works usually contain the upkeep of the public green areas, the paths in the parks, maintenance and cleaning works of the grass areas, once a year spring cleaning and leaf raking in autumn; constructing, maintenance and restoring of the grass areas, maintenance works of the hedges, trees, flowerbeds and loading, removal and storaging of the trash. There are 726,65 ha of landscapes all together that Lasnamäe’s local authorities need to upkeep and maintain. It consists of: II level maintenance: 2,38 ha (Jüriöö park); III level maintenance: 170,17 ha (grass can be max 15 cm) IV level maintenance: 49,08 ha (maintained twice a year); reserve land: 492,48 ha and parkforests 12,55 ha. According to the limited budget, the local authorities of Lasnamäe are able to maintain only 138,84 ha: II level maintenance: 2,38 ha (Jüriöö park- many shrubs, wide and well maintained grass- max 10 cm); III level maintenance: 94,46 ha (grass can be max 15 cm); IV level maintenance: 42 ha (maintained twice a year); reserve land: 0 ha and parkforests 0 ha.

The maintenance works of the trees is only minimal (only when needed). Mostly, the resources are spent on the regular maintaining of the grass areas and cleaning works. The planting of the trees is funded by the Tallin Environmental Board. The constructing of the new parks is funded by Tallinn Communal Department, however, the maintenance works are the responsibility of Lasnamäe’s local authorities. Other maintenance costs (42 500 euros) is spent on outdoor inventory, repairing works, installaton, inspection and upkeeping of the public space facilities (smaller objects, trashcans, sports fields, recreation facilities etc); removal of the illegal facilities, commercials, abandoned facilities, installing of the christmas decorations and street signs. I hope it was helpful for you. Sincerely, Diana Buchmann Specialist of public landscapes Lasnamäe Local Authorities Pallasti 54 11413 Tallinn

Due to the limited budget, the cleaning works are not organized on 321 ha, in 2016. The local authorities of Lasnamäe are able to conduct maintenance works only on 19,1% of the public landscapes in relation to the limited budget, thus 138,8 ha of the total 726,65 ha. Thus, it is difficult to talk about priorities, however, it can be said that the focus is: -To finish the first grass maintenance by 01.07.2016.!!! -Ensure the upkeep and maintenance works for hedges and flowerbeds in Lasnamäe (Kivila, Pae park, Arbu 13H, Vormis). -Maintenance and upkeep of the small park facilities. -Collaboration with the housing associations (raking the leafs in autum).

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Appendix C

Seasonal characteristics of alvar herbs

Illustrations 99-100.(Google.com search). Data from Bio.edu.ee

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Species and their characteristic features in autumn / spring / growth

Populus tremula L

The root system is strong and far-reaching, close to the ground, has well-developed lateral roots. Trees produce suckers, especially after logging. It is very young fast-growing, prefers fertile nutrient rich soils. The treeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s soft wood provides habitat for woodpeckers.

Betula pendula

White birch is a fast-growing (especially young trees), very light demanding, but indulgent in relation to the soil. The root system is well developed but shallow, growing close to the ground. Tree produces suckers when cutting roots and gives stump sprout at young age.

Salix caprea L.

Are the pioneer species, growing on abandoned fields, grasslands. Greates good plant community with Betula pendula and Populus tremula L. Fast growing species, indulgent in relation to the soil. Provides habitat and food for many insects, mammals, and birds. Important nectar source in early spring.

Acer negundo L.

Pioneer Species and highly resistant to both urban conditions and dryness. Fast-growing, particularly at young age, rapidly provides landscaping effect. Young plants very fast- growing, can grow up to 2 meters per year. Provides stump sprout.

Alnus glutinosa L.

Fast growing species, pioneer species, one of the first species to colonize abandoned fields, glade etc. The root system is well developed but shallow, growing close to the ground. Roots bear nodules with bacteria that assimilate atmospheric nitrogen. Bees use the pollen for food, the fruits are edible for number of birds.

Alnus incana L.

Fast growing species, pioneer species, grows on medium fertility, or fertile soils. The root system is well developed but shallow, growing close to the ground. Illustrations 101-124 (Google.com search, Sibul, 2010)

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