II. BASICS OF PATTERN

One unique characteristic of pattern is symmetry. There are four types of symmetry operation including translation, reflection, rotation and glide reflection. (1) Translation symmetry is defined as “the movement of a figure a described distance in a described direction”. The distance and angle between the figures remain constant and the figures neither rotate nor reflect. Simply put, it is a simple repetition of a figure along a line creating an identical motif.1 11 (2) Reflection symmetry mirrors one half of a figure and reflects to create the other half.2 12 (3) Rotational symmetry is created around a central point rather than a line or across a plane . Different degrees of rotation will result in different orders of variation and outcomes.3 13 (4) Glide reflection symmetry, as the name suggests, involves two operations, gliding and reflecting in no particular order.4 14 When creating a motif, different operations could be combined to yield diverse motifs, for example, by synthesising the concept of spacing and rotation. With different orientation, spacing and symmetry operations as described, they may constitute to a completely different set of patterns. Linear symmetry and planar symmetry are types of pattern created by manipulating and duplicating symmetry operations in a one dimensional and two-dimensional way. Linear symmetry describes operations made along a line.5 15 In contrast, planar symmetry refers to a symmetrical figure made in two- dimensions or across a plane. 6 16 It is made by putting a motif inside a cell and repeating along the x axis and y axis across the plane.

11 Paul Jackson, How to Make Repeat Patterns: A Guide for Designers, Architect and Artist (London: Laurence King, 2018), 22. 12 Ibid., 26. 13 Ibid., 30. 14 Ibid., 34. 15 Ibid., 39. 16 Ibid., 39.

Cell size, cell shape and direction of translation could be some of the variables in building different styles of patterns. Tiling completes and directs the entire pattern. It is similar to cells where a tile is a simple polygonal element and serves as structural skeleton. Tiling are not limited to quadrilaterals. Examples include quadrilateral tiling, triangular tiling, 60- 120 degree tiling, semi- regular tiling. etc.1 17 Depending on the transformation, each property is a crucial indicator of the motion, direction, translation of the pattern. Understanding the fundamentals of pattern can help developing a language for designers to encode messages while making meaningful patterns. This theoretical exploration of how to make repeated patterns may give you an idea of how pattern is formed, however, there are no absolute rules that designers must be bound by. Patterns can evolve through time and space, and be altered into different types, arrangements and styles. These visual structures have infinite variables and possibilities that can be expanded and scaled into any dimensions and apply to any object surfaces.

While patterns are evident everywhere in nature, the use of patterns among humans start out as simple repeated motifs that reflect the creator’s tradition and beliefs, which were decorated on their bodies, objects and surroundings. These decorative patterns breakthrough the limitations of pure decoration and transmute redundancy into fullness and ambiguity into mystery.1 18 Patterns have greater value than the rest of us anticipated.

In nature, camouflage is a vivid example to demonstrate the function of pattern. Camouflage is usually about blending in. Camouflage in pattern imitates a random range of elements such as species habitat and is often employed as a method to disguise from enemy in military context.2 19 Yet, ship camouflage is a form of military deception in which a ship is painted in one or more colours in order to obscure or confuse an enemy’s visual observation. In early 20th century, British warships were occasionally painted in razzle-dazzle, a type of brightly coloured pattern that was meant to make a target visually confusing rather than hide them as concealment.3 20 Besides, featuring wild colours, razzle dazzle consisted of contrasting lines and shapes going in various directions. This made it difficult for an enemy to figure out important details such as the type of vessel, the size of it, how fast it was going and in what direction.4 21 Each warship had a unique pattern and colour scheme, for example, a red, grey and black version, or a zebra version. Instead of attempting to hide a ship, the goal was to conceal the ship’s course through flashy misdirection similar to deimatic display.

18 Gombrich, The Sense, 116. 19 Ibid., 6. 20 “Most Unbelievable Camouflage In The World,” Origins Explained,16 Oct 2019, 11:04, 21 Cottington, Pollyanna Poulter, Jane Ace, Patternity, 108.

Pattern itself could also be represented as signs and semaphores.1 22 Speed and sports are one of the representations of black and white chequers, for example Grandprix racing flag. The NASCAR offers two common explanations. Firstly, horse racing back in the days often ended with everyone companionably tucking into a meal, with food being placed on a black and white chequered table- cloth. Thus, waving this cloth symbolises the time to have a feast and break.2 23 Secondly, in the context of the visibility argument, the chequered racing flag punched through the dusty haze, clearly contrasting with the finish line.3 24 Hence, the black and white chequers become a finishing sign for the majority of racing events. The above examples demonstrate the utility of certain patterns and implies their purpose beyond decoration. Thus, pattern is not a mere decorative ornament, but an artifact with a given purpose for communications to deliver meanings or help us navigate and survive.

Decoration is seldom being scrutinised with the same kind of attention as we pay to a painting. Painting constantly demands attention in an implicit manner while decoration can hardly register people’s attention.1 25 Since the patterns imprinted on the wall and packaging do not often impart information and therefore rarely invite conscious scrutinization.2 26 Designers play a crucial role in reshaping the value of pattern and create function on patterns to push beyond the boundaries of decoration. The power lies in pattern- makers. They are responsible in probing and inviting the audience to view patterns in a different way. It is essential to strike an equilibrium between aesthetics and functionality. Leaning to either one may result in unfavourable design. The essence of design seeks to solve daily questions and makes life easier and better. A good design looks good, a great design solves problems. By manipulating repetitions, symmetry and rhythm, we can use pattern as a medium and stimuli to perceive higher dimensions and abstract concepts or analyse the connotation within a pattern’s structure.

GRAPHICAL PATTERN ARRANGEMENT

27 Arnheim, Art and, 16. 28 Cottington, Pollyanna Poulter, Jane Ace, Patternity, 33. 29 Arnheim, Art and, 157. 30 Gombrich, The Sense, 117. Pattern perception may be considered as a subjective matter, mostly relying on individual predilection and lies in the eyes of beholder. Nevertheless, it has been proven in the realm of neurology and psychology that different pattern designs and combinations yield different psychological effect known as psychological force.1 27 The mechanism underpinning pattern recognition stems from the pre- coded network of our brain and our instinctive ability to configure and “experience” patterns in a subconscious way.

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Having said that, I suggest designers can communicate through pattern by manipulating different properties of visual structure. There are several perceptual groups that might affect how we perceive patterns including the arrangement of various elements and the operations of symmetry (as discussed in part 2), simplicity of motifs, stability and balance, tiling and cell structure, to name a few. Precise organisation of visual characteristics is needed in order to communicate in an effective manner.3 29 This section attempts to establish both the aesthetics and functionality of design on a psychological basis.4 30

Sense of Order and Law of Geometry

Gombrich believed what arrests and shifts our attention and perception is the contrast between sense of order and disorder within a frame.1 31 The sense of order stems on the law of geometry which could be interpreted as spatial proportions.2 32 Geometric proportions provide a framework of how each element within a pattern should be organized and in relation to their bordering elements.3

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The underlying force that enable natural harmonies and regulate the order of patterns is mathematical ratios, for example, golden ratio. Thus, they are considered as “the proportions of beauty”.4 34 As Dabbour stated, “geometric proportions regulate primarily the order of patterns, while at the same time they mediate between the two poles of order and diversity as well as among different aesthetic levels”.5 35 It is essential for designers to use law of geometry as a self- guiding tool to set out the underlying structure of the pattern while searching for equilibrium between order and disorder to communicate clearly.

Pattern Perception and Gestalt Theory

To communicate through patterns, the following paragraphs encapsulate some of the major aspects when designing purposive pattern. The purpose of developing this idealised model is to avoid the audience being drowned in the state of frustration, doubt and confusion when our designed pattern is presented. These undesired effects are mostly the product of the limited span of human focused vision and attention. Gestalt theory provides an excellent foundation in describing how the human eye perceives visual elements. 6 36There is an observable bias in our perception for simple configuration. Humans have a natural tendency to extrapolate or interpolate the missing outlines between gaps.7 37 This process limits and determines what we can see in a given visual array and what we are compelled to elide during the encoding process.8 38 Hence, designers should take cognisance of these psychological limits when creating patterns. Giving acknowledgment to a framework of predetermined disposition not only exhibit features of aesthetic interest/preference, it also offers unrivalled insights into the operations of our sense of order in the perception of complex patterns.

31 Arnheim, Art and, 5. 32 Gombrich, The Sense, 2. 33 Arnheim, Art and, 99. 34 Loai M. Dabbour, “Geometric proportions: The underlying structure of design process for Islamic geometric patterns,” Frontiers of Architectural Research 1 (Aug 2012): 381, 35 Dabbour, “Geometric proportions”, 382. 36 Gombrich, The Sense, 2. 37 Ibid., 106. 38 Gombrich, The Sense, 95. 16